Terms Starting with "A"

2346 terms

A fiber

A fiber a myelinated nerve fiber (axon) of the somatosensory system. A fibers are subdivided by diameter, ranging from largest to smallest: A-alpha fibers are 13 to 20 μm in diameter and transmit information from proprioceptors of skeletal muscles, A-beta fibers are 6 to 12 μm and transmit information from mechanoreceptors of the skin, and A-delta fibers are 1 to 5 μm and transmit temperature and sharp pain information. See also B fiber; C fiber.

a posteriori

a posteriori denoting conclusions derived from observations or other manifest occurrences: reasoning from facts. Compare a priori. [Latin, “from the latter”]

a posteriori comparison

a posteriori comparison see post hoc comparison.

A prime

A prime (symbol: A′) a measure of the sensitivity for correctly detecting or remembering a stimulus in a task or test. This measure is based on the nonparametric theory of signal detection, which does not make stringent assumptions about the distribution of responses. See signal detection theory.

a priori

a priori denoting conclusions derived from premises or principles: deducing from prior assumptions. Compare a posteriori. [Latin, “prior to”]

a priori comparison

a priori comparison any examination in which two or more quantities are compared in accordance with plans established prior to conducting a research study. For example, even before data are collected, a researcher might hypothesize that two groups given personal instruction would show better mean performance on a task compared to those who receive only written instruction. Thus, he or she could decide in advance to compare the combined personal instruction groups to the written instruction groups. Also called a priori contrast; planned comparison (or contrast). Compare post hoc comparison.

a- (an-)

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A-alpha fiber

A-alpha fiber see A fiber.

A-B design

A-B design the simplest single-case design, comprising a pretreatment or baseline phase (Phase A) followed by a treatment phase (Phase B). Although it allows for evaluation of the treatment’s effect by comparing the dependent variable during the two phases, the design does not provide evidence of causality because it does not establish a repeated relationship between the introduction and removal of the treatment and a consequential change in the dependent variable (compare A-B-A design). See also pretest–posttest design.

A-B-A design

A-B-A design a type of single-case design having three phases: a baseline condition in which no treatment is present (Phase A), a treatment condition in which a manipulation is introduced (Phase B), and a return to the no-treatment condition (Phase A). The design allows for evaluation of the introduction of the treatment by comparing the dependent variable between the first two phases (A-B sequence) as well as evaluation of the removal of the treatment by comparing the dependent variable between the last two phases (B-A sequence). This greatly reduces the possibility of a coincidental treatment effect, which may occur in the simpler A-B design.

A-B-A-C-A design

A-B-A-C-A design a type of single-case design having five consecutive phases: a baseline condition in which no treatment is present (Phase A), a treatment condition in which a manipulation is introduced (Phase B), a return to the no-treatment condition (Phase A), a new treatment condition in which a different manipulation is introduced (Phase C), and a subsequent return to the no-treatment condition (Phase A). The A-B-A-C-A design helps to establish the effects on the dependent variable of alternating treatments by evaluating the relationship between the introduction and removal of one treatment and a subsequent introduction and removal of a second treatment.

A-beta fiber

A-beta fiber see A fiber.

A-delta fiber

A-delta fiber see A fiber.

A-not-B task

A-not-B task see object permanence.

A-S Scale

A-S Scale abbreviation for Anti-Semitism Scale.

A* search

A* search (pronounced “A star”) a type of best-first search in which “best” for any state is measured by the distance that state is from the start state plus the heuristic estimate of the quality of that state. The heuristic estimate must be less than or equal to the actual cost of going from that state to a goal state.

A1

A1 abbreviation for primary auditory cortex.

A2

A2 abbreviation for secondary auditory cortex.

AA

AA 1. abbreviation for achievement age. 2. abbreviation for Alcoholics Anonymous.

AAAP

AAAP abbreviation for American Association of Applied Psychology.

AAAPP

AAAPP abbreviation for American Association of Applied and Preventive Psychology.

AAAS

AAAS abbreviation for American Association for the Advancement of Science.

AAASP

AAASP abbreviation for Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. See Association for Applied Sport Psychology.

AACP

AACP abbreviation for American Association of Clinical Psychologists.

AACS

AACS abbreviation for American Academy of Clinical Sexologists, Inc.american-academy-of-clinical-sexologists-inc

AAHPERD

AAHPERD abbreviation for American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.

AAI

AAI abbreviation for Adult Attachment Interview.

AAIDD

AAIDD abbreviation for American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

AAMI

AAMI abbreviation for age-associated memory impairment.

AAMR

AAMR abbreviation for American Association of Mental Retardation. See American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

AAP

AAP abbreviation for Association for the Advancement of Psychology.

AASECT

AASECT abbreviation for American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors and Therapists.

AASP

AASP abbreviation for Association for Applied Sport Psychology.

AAVE

AAVE abbreviation for African American Vernacular English. See Black English.

ab-

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ABA

ABA abbreviation for applied behavior analysis.

abandonment

abandonment n. desertion or substantial leave-taking by a parent or primary caregiver of his or her custodial and other responsibilities to a dependent. Dependents are usually children but may also be adult individuals who are ill. —abandon vb.

abandonment reaction

abandonment reaction a feeling of emotional deprivation, loss of support, and loneliness experienced by children who have been deserted or neglected by a parent or primary caregiver. Abandonment reaction is also experienced by adults who have lost a loved one on whom they have depended.

abasia

abasia n. severe impairment or complete loss of the ability to walk due to problems in motor coordination. —abasic adj.

abatement

abatement n. a reduction or lessening in the severity of pain or other symptoms of illness or disorder.

ABC theory

ABC theory the conceptual framework underlying rational emotive behavior therapy, which suggests that Activating events (i.e., adversities) are mediated by irrational Beliefs in determining inappropriate emotional and behavioral Consequences. See also ABCDE technique. [devised by Albert Ellis]

ABCDE technique

ABCDE technique an extension of ABC theory to include the procedure used in rational emotive behavior therapy of Disputing irrational beliefs to achieve several types of Effects (e.g., self-enhancing beliefs, appropriate feelings, desirable behaviors). [devised by Albert Ellis]

ABCL

ABCL abbreviation for American Birth Control League. See Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

abdominal bloating

abdominal bloating see bloating.

abdominal migraine

abdominal migraine recurrent, severe episodes of abdominal pain that may be accompanied by nausea and vomiting. The episodes last from 1 to 72 hours and occur most frequently in children.

abducens nerve

abducens nerve the sixth cranial nerve, carrying motor fibers for control of the lateral rectus muscle of the eye, which rotates the eyeball outward. Also called abducent nerve.

abducens nucleus

abducens nucleus a collection of nerve cells in the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain, from which the abducens nerve originates.

abduction

abduction n. 1. movement of a limb away from the midline of the body. Any muscle that produces such movement is called an abductor. Compare adduction. 2. the act of taking a person away by force or deception. 3. the process of studying an event or phenomenon in order to generate possible explanatory hypotheses. The object is to determine which hypotheses should be tested, rather than which should be adopted as correct. —abduct vb.

Abecedarian Project

Abecedarian Project an early intervention demonstration project that began in the 1970s at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the goal of which was to enrich the lives of young children from low-income families. Four cohorts of children born between 1972 and 1977 were randomly selected as infants to a treatment group receiving a full-time educational intervention or to a control group receiving no intervention. Those in the intervention group were enrolled in a full-time child care center. The children began the program shortly after birth and attended until age 5. Follow-up studies were conducted with the children at ages 12, 15, and 21. The Abecedarian Project is one of the few early intervention enrichment programs to report improved cognitive test scores and other gains in participants into young adulthood relative to participants in the control condition. The mothers of children enrolled in the project also attained higher educational and employment status than the parents of children in the control group.

aberrant response

aberrant response an abnormal or atypical behavior, commonly targeted during a behavioral intervention.

aberration

aberration n. 1. any deviation, particularly a significant or undesirable one, from the normal or typical. See also mental aberration. 2. in vision, the failure of light rays to converge at the same point, due either to distortion by a lens (spherical aberration) or to the formation of colored fringes by a lens (chromatic aberration).

abience

abience n. a response or behavior that results in movement away from a stimulus, either by physical withdrawal from the stimulus or by an action designed to avoid the stimulus entirely. Compare adience. —abient adj.

Abilify

Abilify n. a trade name for aripiprazole.

ability

ability n. existing competence or skill to perform a specific physical or mental act. Although ability may be either innate or developed through experience, it is distinct from capacity to acquire competence (see aptitude).

ability grouping

ability grouping 1. the assignment of pupils to school classes on the basis of their learning ability. 2. the practice of dividing a class into sections based on student ability in one area, as in the assignment of elementary-school children to reading groups for fast or slow readers.

ability level

ability level an index of achievement or performance that reports the absolute or relative ability of the participant in relation to the trait or characteristic being assessed.

ability parameter

ability parameter (symbol: θ) in item response theory, a theoretical value that represents a person’s capability or probable performance on a task. It is assumed that test takers possess some degree of underlying ability, and that for each individual at each ability level there is a specific item characteristic curve defining the probability of responding correctly.

ability test

ability test 1. a norm-referenced standardized test designed to measure competence or capacity to perform a physical or mental act. 2. a test measuring achievement.

ability trait

ability trait a personality trait that involves an individual’s capacity to attain his or her goals. It is one of three classes of source traits in Cattell’s personality trait theory, the other two being dynamic traits and temperament traits.

ability–achievement discrepancy

ability–achievement discrepancy the difference between an individual’s known aptitude for a subject area or concept and his or her performance in that area or concept.

abiotic

abiotic adj. nonliving.

abiotrophy

abiotrophy n. loss of function or loss of resistance to a disease through degeneration or failure of body tissues, organs, or systems. Abiotrophy is used particularly to refer to premature degeneration caused by a genetic defect, as in Huntington’s disease. —abiotrophic adj.

ablation

ablation n. the removal or destruction of part of a biological tissue or structure by a surgical procedure (e.g., mechanical or laser excision) or a toxic substance (e.g., chondroitinase) , usually for treatment or to study its function. When the entire tissue or structure is excised, the process is called extirpation. See also biopsy.

ableism

ableism n. discrimination against individuals with disabilities or the tendency to be prejudiced against and to stereotype them negatively as, for example, less intelligent, nonproductive, or dependent on others. —ableist adj.

ablution

ablution n. 1. a largely obsolete therapeutic technique utilizing water to calm agitated patients, such as by wrapping them in wet towels or immersing them in water.si It was abandoned with the advent of psychotropic drugs. 2. a symbolic cleansing of the body, or of possessions, with the intent of purification.

ABMS

ABMS abbreviation for American Board of Medical Specialties.

Abney’s effect

Abney’s effect a perceptual phenomenon in which the addition of white light leads to a shift in the hue of a monochromatic color. [William Abney (1843–1920), British chemist and physicist]

abnormal

abnormal adj. relating to any deviation from what is considered typical, usual, or healthy, particularly if the deviation is considered harmful or maladaptive. In statistics, for example, abnormal scores are those that are outside the usual or expected range. The term, however, is most often applied to behavior that differs from a culturally accepted norm, especially when indicative of a mental disorder. —abnormality n. —abnormally adv.

abnormal behavior

abnormal behavior behavior that is atypical or statistically uncommon within a particular culture or that is maladaptive or detrimental to an individual or to those around that individual. Such behavior is often regarded as evidence of a mental or emotional disturbance, ranging from minor adjustment problems to severe mental disorder.

abnormal fixation

abnormal fixation in vision, the inability to focus on a given target of interest. Abnormal fixations may be the result of saccadic intrusions or oscillations (see saccade) or nystagmus.

abnormal grief

abnormal grief see complicated grief.

abnormal psychology

abnormal psychology the branch of psychology devoted to the study, assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior. See also psychopathology.

abnormality

abnormality n. 1. the state or condition of being abnormal. 2. a defect or malformation in structure or function.

aboiement

aboiement n. the involuntary, uncontrollable production of animalistic sounds. Aboiement (French, “barking”) is a symptom sometimes occurring in schizophrenia and Tourette’s disorder.

abortifacient

abortifacient n. any agent that induces abortion. Also called abortient.

abortion

abortion n. the expulsion from the uterus of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently. An abortion may be either spontaneous, in which case it occurs naturally and is also called a miscarriage, or induced, in which case it is produced deliberately by artificial means such as drugs or surgery and done for therapeutic reasons or as an elective decision. The practice is controversial and may involve abortion counseling, the provision of guidance, advice, information, and support on issues concerning termination of pregnancy and the alternatives of adoption or raising the child.

abortion laws

abortion laws laws concerning the rights of women to obtain an abortion, which in the United States are provisioned through the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade.

aboulia

aboulia n. see abulia.

above-average effect

above-average effect the tendency of a person to hold overly favorable views of one’s own intellectual and social abilities relative to others. For example, students’ predictions of their own final exam score in a particular college class often are based on their highest score received to that point, but their predictions of someone else’s final exam score typically are based on that student’s mean score. The above-average effect appears to be common and consistent across a variety of judgment domains. Also called better-than-average effect. Compare below-average effect.

ABPH

ABPH abbreviation for American Board of Psychological Hypnosis.

ABPP

ABPP abbreviation for American Board of Professional Psychology.

ABR

ABR abbreviation for auditory brainstem response. See brainstem auditory evoked response.

abreaction

abreaction n. the therapeutic process of bringing forgotten or inhibited material (i.e., experiences, memories) from the unconscious into consciousness, with concurrent emotional release and discharge of tension and anxiety. See also catharsis.

abscess

abscess n. a contained but often enlarging area of infection that includes pus and dead tissue. A brain abscess raises intracranial pressure and can cause substantial neurological deficits, such as poor coordination, decreased sensation, confusion, and other altered mental states.

abscissa

abscissa n. the horizontal coordinate in a graph or data plot; that is, the x-axis. See also ordinate.

absence

absence n. a brief loss of consciousness or period of mental inattentiveness, particularly when associated with a seizure (see absence seizure), with no memory for the event afterward.

absence culture

absence culture an informal organizational norm that leads employees and managers to believe that they are entitled to take more days off work than the number allowed. In some organizations, for example, employees may have come to regard sick leave as a benefit to be claimed rather than a provision to be utilized only when strictly necessary.

absence seizure

absence seizure a type of generalized seizure, formerly called petit mal seizure, in which the individual abruptly ceases activity and cannot afterward remember the event. The absences usually last from 5 to 15 seconds, during which the individual is unresponsive and motionless, staring blankly. Seizures of this type typically begin between ages 4 and 12 and rarely persist into adulthood.

absence without leave (AWOL)

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absent grief

absent grief a form of complicated grief in which a person shows no, or only a few, signs of distress about the death of a loved one. This pattern of grief is thought to be an impaired response resulting from denial or avoidance of the emotional realities of the loss.

absent state

absent state a vacant, dreamlike state of detachment that may occur in complex partial seizures.

absent-mindedness

absent-mindedness n. a state of apparent inattention marked by a tendency to be preoccupied with one’s own thoughts and not with external conditions. See also mind wandering.

absenteeism

absenteeism n. unjustified absence from work or school, especially when regular or persistent. Although absenteeism has been linked to job satisfaction, other factors, such as organizational culture and the absence culture in particular, may be more relevant.

absolute

absolute adj. 1. not limited or subject to restriction, as in absolute power. 2. not conditional on or relative to anything else, as in absolutism. See also cultural universalism. 3. denoting an ultimate limit, as in absolute zero. —absolutist adj.

absolute difference

absolute difference the distance between two numeric values, disregarding whether this is positive or negative. The absolute difference thus provides no information about relative magnitude. For example, the absolute difference between 11 and 20 is 9, as is the absolute difference between 13 and 4.

absolute error

absolute error the degree to which an observation is inaccurate without specification of whether it errs by being too high or too low. Absolute error is computed as the average absolute difference between the intended or expected value and the actual value. See also constant error; random error.

absolute idealism

absolute idealism the philosophical position that both mental and material reality are manifestations of a universal and absolute mind or spirit. See idealism; idealistic monism. [proposed by German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831)]

absolute impression

absolute impression a psychophysical judgment based on implied or vague standards, such as It was a bright day.

absolute judgment

absolute judgment a psychophysical judgment in which a single stimulus is placed in a particular category (e.g., bright, loud), as opposed to one in which several stimuli are compared to one another or to a given standard (e.g., brighter, louder). Compare comparative judgment.

absolute limen (AL)

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absolute measurement

absolute measurement a measurement made directly and independently of comparison with other measurements. An absolute measurement of an individual’s height, for instance, would yield a single definitive value that need not be assessed relative to another person to be meaningful. Compare relative measurement.

absolute pitch

absolute pitch the ability to identify the pitch of a sound accurately without the use of a reference pitch. Also called perfect pitch. Compare relative pitch.

absolute reality

absolute reality in philosophy, the totality of what really exists, regarded as a unity transcending the world of phenomena experienced and interpreted by humans. The concept of an absolute reality is mainly of significance in the idealist tradition deriving from the work of Immanuel Kant. See noumenon; transcendentalism.

absolute refractory period

absolute refractory period see refractory period.

absolute scotoma

absolute scotoma see scotoma.

absolute threshold

absolute threshold the minimum amount of stimulation required to trigger a reaction or produce a sensation. Absolute threshold is measured across several trials. It is the lowest or weakest level of stimulation (e.g., the slightest, most indistinct sound) that can be detected on 50% of trials. Although the name suggests a fixed level at which stimuli effectively elicit sensations, the absolute threshold fluctuates according to alterations in receptors and environmental conditions. Also called absolute limen (AL); detection threshold; sensation threshold.

absolute value

absolute value a number considered without regard to its algebraic sign (i.e., whether it is positive or negative). For example, assume that for each person in a weight management program there was a number indicating the difference between the current week’s weight and the weight on the previous week. This could reveal a negative number (e.g., –1) if the person lost one pound; conversely, it could be a positive value (e.g., +1) if the person weighed one pound more than last week. If the absolute value of the weight difference was taken, it would simply reveal a difference of 1 pound, without any indication of whether it was plus or minus. Also called modulus.

absolute-judgment method

absolute-judgment method see method of absolute judgment.

absolutism

absolutism n. the philosophical position that there are absolute ethical, aesthetic, or epistemological values. Phenomena are believed to have a fixed reality; thus, what is regarded as true in one circumstance will be regarded as true in all others as well. For example, a particular action will always be deemed immoral regardless of its outcome or any other individual or subjective consideration. Such a position involves a rejection (in whole or in part) of relativism.

absorption

absorption n. 1. an extreme involvement or preoccupation with one object, idea, or pursuit, with inattention to other aspects of the environment. Compare sustained attention. See also Tellegen Absorption Scale. 2. the uptake of fluid and dissolved substances into a cell across the plasma membrane. For example, an administered drug moves through various biological membranes from its site of administration to its target organ. Absorption into the target organ is dependent on a number of factors, including the method of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous); the properties of the drug (e.g., molecular size, ability to cross lipid membranes); the amount of drug administered; and the characteristics or state of the individual (e.g., body mass, sex, age, presence of disease, presence of other drugs). 3. in physics, the conversion of energy from one form to another on entering a medium.

absorption curve

absorption curve a graph that plots the number of photons of light of different wavelengths absorbed by a photopigment.

abstinence

abstinence n. the act of refraining from the use of something, particularly alcohol or drugs, or from participation in sexual or other activity. In most instances, abstinence from drugs or alcohol is the primary goal of substance abuse treatment. See also relapse; substance withdrawal. —abstinent adj.

abstinence delirium

abstinence delirium a form of delirium that may result from rapid withdrawal from alcohol or drugs of abuse. See alcohol withdrawal delirium; delirium tremens.

abstinence rule

abstinence rule see rule of abstinence.

abstinence syndrome

abstinence syndrome an older term for the characteristic set of physiological and behavioral events that may accompany rapid withdrawal from dependence-inducing substances.

abstract ability

abstract ability see abstract intelligence.

abstract attitude

abstract attitude a cognitive style that involves the ability to grasp essentials and common properties, to keep different aspects of a situation in mind and shift from one to another, to predict and plan ahead, and to think symbolically and draw conclusions. These capacities are often impaired in people with certain neurological or psychological disorders. Also called categorical attitude. Compare concrete attitude. See also abstract thinking. [defined by Kurt Goldstein]

abstract conceptualization

abstract conceptualization the process of forming abstract concepts, which may be general and apply to numerous particular instances (e.g., dog, fish) or wholly intangible and have no specific material referent (e.g., liberty, youth). See abstraction; conceptualization.

abstract idea

abstract idea an idea or concept that has no specific material referent, such as justice, or one that applies to a great many particular instances, having a meaning apart from any particular, such as dog. See also universals.

abstract intelligence

abstract intelligence the intellectual ability to think in terms of abstract concepts. Also called abstract ability. See abstract thinking. Compare concrete intelligence.

abstract learning

abstract learning acquiring knowledge of general or intangible material, such as the meanings of concepts and propositions and the logical and systematic relations between them.

abstract representation

abstract representation in cognitive theory, a mental representation of a stimulus in an abstract or essential form that is not tied to any one of its variable surface forms. For example, the letter A can be thought about at an abstract level with no reference to specific surface forms, such as a, A, or a. Compare concrete picture.

abstract thinking

abstract thinking thinking characterized by the use of general ideas or concepts. Compare concrete thinking. See also abstract attitude; categorical thought.

abstract word

abstract word in linguistics, a word denoting a concept or idea not readily perceptible to the senses, such as curiosity or metaphor. Compare concrete word.

abstract-versus-representational dimension

abstract-versus-representational dimension the degree to which a work of art is nonrepresentational versus representational of reality. Representational art is characterized by a great amount of detail, whereas abstract art is highly selective in the inclusion of detail. See also realism factor.

abstraction

abstraction n. 1. the formation of general ideas or concepts by extracting similarities from particular instances. The precise cognitive processes by which this occurs remain a subject of investigation. 2. such a concept, especially a wholly intangible one, such as goodness or truth. 3. in conditioning, discrimination based on a single property of multicomponent stimuli. —abstract vb.

abstraction experiment

abstraction experiment a study that investigates participants’ ability to induce the general properties of a category or concept from specific instances that are presented to them as examples or nonexamples. See also concept-discovery task; concept-formation test.

absurdities test

absurdities test a type of test in which participants identify incongruities in a picture, story, or other written material. Absurdity tasks are intended to assess reasoning abilities and may be incorporated into intelligence tests and neuropsychological evaluations.

abulia (aboulia)

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abuse

abuse 1. n. interactions in which one person behaves in a cruel, violent, demeaning, or invasive manner toward another person or an animal. The term most commonly implies physical mistreatment but also encompasses sexual and psychological (emotional) mistreatment. 2. vb. to subject a person or animal to such treatment. 3. n. see substance abuse. 4. n. colloquially, the misuse of a substance to the extent that it causes the individual difficulty, whether or not it meets a foormal diagnosis or substance abuse. —abuser n.

abuse excuse

abuse excuse experience of prior abuse (e.g., physical, mental, or sexual) used as a defense for a person’s violent acts.

abuse potential

abuse potential the relative likelihood that a particular psychoactive substance will reinforce drug-taking behavior to the point of abuse. Factors that determine abuse potential include subjective experience with a given substance, route of drug administration (e.g., intravenous, inhalation, oral), and the onset speed, duration, and nature of the drug effect. Substances with a high abuse potential include intravenous heroin, crack cocaine, morphine, and smoked opium. Substances with a low abuse potential include the hallucinogens and antipsychotic medications. Also called abuse liability.

abusive punishment

abusive punishment use of excessive physical force to discipline a child that results in bodily injury, including noticeable marks, bruises, cuts, or welts; such punishment includes beating, burning, or tying up a child. Compare corporal punishment.

ABX paradigm

ABX paradigm a psychophysical procedure in which a pair of auditory stimuli (A and B) are presented, followed by another stimulus (X). In one version of the task, participants are asked to judge whether X is identical to A or B; in another version, they have to judge whether X was included in the A–B pair.

ACA

ACA abbreviation for American Counseling Association.

academic

academic adj. relating to formal learning with conventional or theoretical study at a school or other educational institution.

academic achievement

academic achievement 1. any identifiable success in the areas of scholarship or disciplined study. 2. in educational psychology, a level of proficiency in scholastic work in general or in a specific skill, such as arithmetic or reading. Evidence of future academic achievement is usually based on the results of standardized ability tests and assessment of performance by a teacher or other supervisor.

academic aptitude

academic aptitude competence or capacity to perform a scholastic mental act, such as the ability to learn quickly in areas of scholarship or disciplined study. Academic aptitude may be either innate or acquired by education and practice. See also aptitude.

academic failure

academic failure any marked insufficiency or inadequacy in the area of scholarship or study, for example, when a learner does not achieve an expected competence. Contributing factors may include home environment and family, peers, economic context, learning environment and attributes of instruction, and individual characteristics.

academic freedom

academic freedom within an institution of learning, the liberty of a teacher to educate, of a student to study, and of both to express opinions, particularly regarding controversial topics (e.g., morals, religion, politics), without interference from or punishment by government, school officials, teachers, or community groups.

academic intelligence

academic intelligence the intellectual skills that, according to some theories, are particularly important to success in school environments (e.g., analysis, evaluation, judgment, recognition). See also analytical intelligence. [originally described in 1974 by Ulric Neisser]

academic intelligence task

academic intelligence task a task that requires the use of academic skills and knowledge, such as one that involves solving arithmetic problems or verbal analogies. Compare practical intelligence task.

academic intervention

academic intervention the active involvement of school officials and teachers in developing and implementing an effective plan for the prevention or remediation of inappropriate and disruptive student behavior or for assisting students with academic difficulties. Successful programs of intervention are most often individualized, child focused, and minimally restrictive. Academic intervention is the antithesis of reactive strategies, such as loss of privileges and time out.

academic overachievement

academic overachievement 1. academic performance that exceeds the expected level for a particular individual, or the usual predicted attainment level, especially as indicated by norm-referenced and standardized intelligence or aptitude tests. 2. the act of driving oneself relentlessly in attempting to reach a difficult scholastic goal.

academic problem

academic problem a learning problem in a schoolchild who does not acquire the necessary grade-level knowledge or cannot successfully pursue the expected grade-level tasks and scholarly goals. It cannot be attributed to any underlying neurological, psychological, or other disorder and thus is distinct from a learning disability.

academic self-concept

academic self-concept an individual’s evaluation of his or her success in academic or educational studies. The two aspects of this evaluation are (a) a general academic self-concept in which students assess their overall learning skills and performance; and (b) a specific academic self-concept of their prowess in such specific subjects as mathematics, social science, or language studies. A major consideration for any individual is whether a positive self-concept is an aid to academic achievement. Another consideration is whether academic achievement, in itself, enhances a positive self-concept.

academic underachievement

academic underachievement 1. performance below a particular person’s predicted capacity, especially as indicated by norm-referenced and standardized intelligence or aptitude tests. 2. lack of drive in pursuit of scholastic goals. Causative factors can include unstimulating curriculum and instruction, negative attitudes of parents or teachers, changes in the student, and individual choices that militate against learning.

Academy for Eating Disorders (AED)

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Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW)

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acalculia

acalculia n. loss of the ability to perform simple arithmetic operations that results from brain injury or disease, usually to the parietal lobe. It is an acquired condition, whereas dyscalculia is developmental.

acamprosate

acamprosate n. an analog of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) used in the management of alcohol dependence. Although exact mechanisms of action are unclear, acamprosate may act by directly binding to the GABA receptor complex (see GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor; GABAB receptorgabab-receptor); it may also act by inhibiting the actions of the excitatory amino acid glutamate, for example by inhibiting NMDA receptors. When administered in combination with behavioral treatments, it has some efficacy in reducing alcohol intake or increasing alcohol-free periods in people recovering from alcohol dependence. U.S. trade name: Campral.

acarophobia

acarophobia n. a former name for delusional parasitosis. Its use was discontinued upon recognition that the condition does not involve a persistent and irrational fear of being infested by parasites (a phobia) but rather a firmly held belief of having been infested (a delusion). —acarophobic adj.

acatamathesia (akatamathesia)

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acataphasia (akataphasia)

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acathisia

acathisia n. see akathisia.

ACC

ACC abbreviation for anterior cingulate cortex.

accelerated longitudinal design

accelerated longitudinal design see cohort-sequential design.

acceleration

acceleration n. 1. an increase in speed of movement or rate of change. Compare deceleration. 2. in mathematics and statistics, the rate of change in the slope of a function or the rate of change in one variable as a function of an increase in a second variable.

acceleration effects

acceleration effects physiological, biochemical, or psychological changes in the body resulting from acceleration imposing g-forces greater than 1. Examples include displacement of body fluids, changes in pupil size, changes in or disturbances of heart rhythm, increases in blood pressure, deficiency of oxygen in the blood (see hypoxemia), disorientation and confusion, amnesia, grayout, blackout, and gravity-induced loss of consciousness.

acceleration forces

acceleration forces forces exerted on an object by the rate of change of its velocity. In psychology, the focus is on the range of forces sustained by the human body when it is in a moving vehicle, such as an automobile or aircraft, and the resultant physical, physiological, and psychological consequences. See acceleration effects.

acceleration–deceleration injury

acceleration–deceleration injury a form of head injury caused by the head suddenly being placed into motion or abruptly stopped, as, for example, when the individual is in a car accident. The sudden motion or stop causes diffuse stretching of white matter tracts in addition to bleeding and other neurological effects (e.g., biochemical cascades that eventually lead to axonal injury). The injury may have a variety of consequences, including personality change, attention problems, memory disorders, and executive dysfunction.

accent

accent n. 1. in linguistics, phonetic features of an individual’s speech that are associated with geographical region or social class. The standard version of a language (see standard language) is usually considered by native speakers to be unaccented. Compare dialect. 2. a stress placed on a syllable of a word, orthographically marked in some languages.

accentuation theory

accentuation theory the proposition that classification of items produces encoding biases, that is, that individuals tend to exaggerate (accentuate) the similarities among items placed in the same category and the differences among items placed in different categories. This accentuation effect is an important component of social identity theory. [proposed in 1959 by Polish-born British social psychologist Henri Tajfel (1919–1982)]

acceptance

acceptance n. 1. a favorable attitude toward an idea, situation, person, or group. In the context of psychotherapy and counseling, it is the receptive, nonjudgmental attitude of therapists or counselors, which conveys an implicit respect and regard for their clients as individuals. 2. willing acknowledgment of validity or correctness. In the context of recovery from substance abuse and other addictions, it is essential for a person to accept that he or she has a problem before any interventions can be effective.

acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)

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acceptance region

acceptance region the range of values for a test statistic that leads to acceptance of the null hypothesis, such that the alternative hypothesis is rejected as a valid explanation for observed data. Compare critical region.

acceptance sampling

acceptance sampling a process in which a random sample is chosen from a larger group of items and used to make a decision about the quality of the items in that group. It is often used in commerce to test the quality of merchandise in a batch: A random sample from the batch is inspected and the results used to determine whether the batch as a whole meets desired standards or whether it fails to meet standards and should be rejected as defective. Also called lot acceptance sampling.

acceptance stage

acceptance stage the last of the five stages of grief described by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. It is characterized by some degree of emotional detachment, objectivity, or resignation on the part of oneself or an important other to the reality of impending or actual death, other great loss, or trauma.

acceptor

acceptor n. see allocator.

access

access vb. to retrieve or recall a memory.

accessibility

accessibility n. see accessible; availability.

accessible

accessible adj. 1. receptive or responsive to personal interaction and other external stimuli. A client in psychotherapy, for example, is thought to be accessible if he or she responds to the therapist in a way that facilitates the development of rapport and, ultimately, fosters the examination of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral issues. 2. retrievable through memory or other cognitive processes, as in attitude accessibility for example. 3. of a building or other site and its facilities and fixtures: easy to approach, enter, or use, particularly by people with disabilities. 4. in a tissue, reachable by means of standard surgical or diagnostic procedures. 5. in a Markov chain, describing a state j that there is a possibility of reaching from another state i in some number of steps. —accessibility n.

accessory

accessory 1. adj. ancillary, supplemental, or contributory. 2. n. a thing or person that is supplementary or subordinate.

accessory nerve

accessory nerve the 11th cranial nerve, sometimes so named because one of its functions is that of serving as an accessory to the 10th cranial nerve (the vagus nerve). It innervates the sternomastoid and trapezius muscles in the neck.

accessory structure

accessory structure in biology, a structure that assists or can take over the function of another (the primary) structure.

accessory symptoms

accessory symptoms see secondary symptoms.

accident

accident n. an unexpected or unintended event, especially one resulting in human injury or death, system damage, or system loss. —accidental adj.

accident analysis

accident analysis a systematic process undertaken to determine the causes of an accident, with the goal of reducing the likelihood that such an accident will occur again. The most frequently used accident analysis methods include failure modes and effects analysis and fault-tree analysis.

accident behavior

accident behavior behavior that could result in injury to the individual or other people or in physical damage to equipment or the environment. Such behavior may arise from personal factors, such as inattention or risk taking, but may also reflect situational factors, such as long work hours or poorly designed work systems. See accident prevention.

accident prevention

accident prevention the use of scientifically tested methods to reduce the number and severity of accidents. These include the systematic study of accidents and the circumstances in which they occur (see accident analysis); the identification and control of workplace hazards (see job-safety analysis); the evaluation and redesign of systems and processes (see safety engineering); and the use of training programs, instruction, and other forms of safety education.

accident proneness

accident proneness a chronic susceptibility to accidents. This concept has been heavily debated since its introduction around 1920, and many question the existence of a fixed accident-prone personality. However, several individual variables and sociological and situational factors have been identified as important predictors of accident involvement, including aggressiveness, impulsiveness, thrill and adventure seeking, workload and cognitive demand, and stress.

accident reduction

accident reduction see accident prevention.

accident-path model

accident-path model a model used in accident analysis to illustrate the antecedents and causes of an accident using a chronological or otherwise ordered pattern. The goal is to determine the types and extent of interventions necessary to prevent accidents.

accidental chaining

accidental chaining learning, by reinforcement, a sequence of two or more actions that includes an act unnecessary to obtain reinforcement (see also chaining). This occurs as a result of accidental temporal conjunction between the unnecessary act and a stimulus circumstance that precedes a reinforced response.

accidental group

accidental group any self-organizing group that comes into existence gradually as individuals find themselves repeatedly interacting with the same subset of individuals. Commuters who ride the same daily trains to and from work are an example. Such a group will not normally have the defined goals, procedures, and structures of a formal group.

accidental hypothermia

accidental hypothermia see hypothermia.

accidental property

accidental property a characteristic of an idea or entity that is not essential to its nature or existence. For example, being musical is an accidental property of human beings, whereas being mortal is an essential property.

accidental reinforcement

accidental reinforcement the accidental occurrence of a reinforcer after an act, which may inadvertently strengthen the likelihood of occurrence of that act. Superstitious behavior is often a result of accidental reinforcement. For example, a golfer might lean as a putt nears the hole. Such leaning has been followed in the past by the ball going in the hole (the reinforcer), so even though leaning has no causal effect on whether the ball goes in, the accidental contingent relationship between leaning and the ball being holed leads to reinforcement of leaning. Also called adventitious reinforcement.

accidental sampling

accidental sampling see convenience sampling.

acclimatization

acclimatization n. adjustment or adaptation to new circumstances or environmental conditions, particularly the physiological changes that improve an individual’s ability to tolerate environmental alterations. Also called acclimation. —acclimatize vb.

accommodation

accommodation n. 1. adjustment or modification. For example, regarding individuals with disabilities, it refers to reasonable accommodations made to meet their needs. In the context of bargaining and interpersonal negotiations, it refers to modification of the various parties’ demands or actions in order to achieve agreement or a mutually beneficial outcome. 2. the process by which the focus of the eye is changed to allow near or distant objects to form sharp images on the retina. Accommodation is achieved mainly by contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles, which exert tension on the zonules attached to the lens, but also involves adjustments in the convergence of the eyes and the size of the pupils. 3. see Piagetian theory. —accommodate vb.

accommodation time

accommodation time the time it takes for the eyes to focus on a visual stimulus following its presentation.

accommodative coping

accommodative coping a stress-management strategy in which a person adjusts his or her preferences and orientations to suit given situational forces and constraints. Involving a devaluation of, or disengagement from, blocked goals and a lowering of personal performance standards and aspirations, accommodative coping thus represents a neutralization rather than an active solution of a particular problem. Accommodative processes generally appear following repeated unsuccessful attempts to change the situation through assimilative coping. Additionally, accommodative processes are thought to be more prominent in later life, when individuals tend to experience an increasingly unfavorable balance of developmental gains and losses. [identified in 1990 by Jochen Brandtstädter and Gerolf Renner, German psychologists]

accommodative insufficiency

accommodative insufficiency a reduction in the efficiency of the eye’s ability to change focus for objects at different distances (visual accommodation), as evidenced primarily by blurring of near vision. It is usually caused by either dysfunction of the eye’s ciliary muscles or by midbrain injury.

accommodative spasm

accommodative spasm failure of the eye muscles involved in accommodation to relax after focusing on near objects, resulting in transient myopia. Affecting one or both eyes, it is usually caused by an injury to the parasympathetic nervous system and can occur after head injury. The primary symptom is visual blurring at all distances, in many cases occurring over a period of months or even years.

accomplishment quotient

accomplishment quotient see achievement quotient.

accountability

accountability n. 1. the extent to which an individual is answerable to another (e.g., a supervisor, official review body, a group of peers) for his or her behavior, decisions, or judgments. In groups, accountability is influenced by anonymity and the extent to which the contributions of each member of the group are clearly identifiable. 2. in health care, the responsibility of individual providers, clinics, or hospitals to document their efforts, their resource utilization, and the outcome of their services and to report this information to insurance companies or state or federal agencies. —accountable adj.

accreditation

accreditation n. the formal process in which an agency or organization evaluates and approves an institution or program of study as meeting predetermined standards. Accreditation applies to institutions as certification applies to individuals. —accredited adj.

accretion

accretion n. 1. a form of learning resulting from the cumulative effect of repeated associations and reinforcements. 2. the accumulation of objects or material in the environment, which may indicate the degree of individual responsibility of people who use a particular area. Littering is an example of accretion. Compare erosion.

acculturation

acculturation n. the processes by which groups or individuals adjust the social and cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns of their culture of origin to those of a different culture. Psychological acculturation is an individual’s attitudinal and behavioral adjustment to another culture, which typically varies with regard to degree and type. Compare deculturation; enculturation. —acculturate vb.

acculturation strategies

acculturation strategies in cross-cultural psychology, a framework proposing four ways in which members of a nondominant group (e.g., immigrants, racial or ethnic minorities) may experience acculturation and manage their contact with and participation in the culture of a larger, dominant group. The assimilation strategy is one in which individuals do not wish to maintain their original cultural identity and prefer instead to seek daily interaction with the dominant group. By contrast, the separation strategy is one in which individuals hold onto their original culture and avoid interaction with the dominant group. A third strategy is integration, in which individuals maintain their original culture while still seeking to participate as an integral part of the larger social network. The fourth strategy, marginalization, describes an unwillingness or inability of individuals to identify with and participate in either their culture of origin or that of the dominant group. These strategies are partly determined by the extent to which the dominant group does or does not force a nondominant group to adapt to its cultural mandates or constraints (e.g., through discrimination). [proposed by Canadian psychologist John W. Berry (1939– )]

accumbens

accumbens n. see nucleus accumbens.

accumulated advantage

accumulated advantage see Matthew effect.

accuracy

accuracy n. 1. lack of error or bias in a measure; the more accurate the measure, the closer the measurement is to the true score for an individual. 2. a measure of performance on a task, usually defined as the proportion of correct responses. 3. more generally, exactness or freedom from error. See also precision. —accurate adj.

accuracy motive

accuracy motive see self-assessment motive.

accuracy standards

accuracy standards criteria used to assess the scientific value of the information and conclusions presented in an evaluation report. Such standards include ensuring the completeness of data collection and the reliability and validity of procedures and measures, conducting appropriate qualitative and quantitative analyses, and impartially reporting results to arrive at justified conclusions. See also feasibility standards; propriety standards; utility standards.

accusative

accusative n. in linguistics, the case of a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that forms the direct object of a clause or sentence. In English, unlike more inflected languages, only certain personal and possessive pronouns change their form when they appear in accusative position (so that English speakers say, for example, She hit me and not She hit I). Also called objective. Compare dative; genitive; nominative.

Accutane

Accutane n. a trade name for isotretinoin.

acenesthesia

acenesthesia n. 1. loss of the sensation of physical existence. 2. a lack of awareness of one’s own body. See depersonalization.

ACEP

ACEP abbreviation for American Coaching Effectiveness Program. See American Sport Education Program.

acetaldehyde

acetaldehyde n. a toxic and volatile initial product of alcohol (ethanol) metabolism that is thought to be responsible for the alcohol flush reaction and certain other physical sequelae of alcohol consumption, including unpleasant effects such as nausea, vomiting, and headache. Acetaldehyde is produced when alcohol is broken down by a liver enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase. It is then broken down by another liver enzyme (acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) into acetate and, ultimately, into carbon dioxide and water. Acetaldehyde is also a major component of tobacco smoke. It may influence the development, progression, and persistence of alcohol use and of tobacco use. See also disulfiram.

acetaminophen

acetaminophen n. a common analgesic and antipyretic agent with an efficacy similar to aspirin, except that it does not possess antirheumatic or anti-inflammatory properties. It is rapidly distributed in the body and has a short half-life (around 2 hours). Acetaminophen is a widely used alternative to aspirin, especially when usage of the latter is inadvisable (e.g., in patients with bleeding disorders). It is also sold in combination with other analgesics, antihistamines, decongestants, or cough suppressants. However, acute overdose or chronic daily dosing of acetaminophen may cause liver damage (hepatotoxicity), and consumption of alcohol increases the risk of liver damage. Rapid intervention, including the administration of N-acetylcysteine, is required to prevent fatal hepatotoxicity after acetaminophen poisoning. Also called APAP; paracetamol. U.S. trade name (among others): Tylenol.

acetanilide

acetanilide n. see anilide.

acetazolamide

acetazolamide n. see carbonic anhydrase inhibitor.

acetone

acetone n. a colorless volatile liquid with a sweet, fruity odor that forms in excessive amounts in the blood of people with diabetes or other metabolic disorders in which the body uses fat instead of glucose (sugar) for energy. Also called dimethyl ketone.

acetylcholine (ACh)

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acetylcholine receptor (AChR)

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acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

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acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AChEI)

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acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)

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acetylurea

acetylurea n. any of a group of drugs that are analogs of hydantoins used in the treatment of partial seizures.

ACh

ACh abbreviation for acetylcholine.

AChE

AChE abbreviation for acetylcholinesterase. See cholinesterase.

AChEI

AChEI abbreviation for acetlycholinesterase inhibitor. See cholinesterase.

acheiria (achiria)

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achieved status

achieved status social standing and prestige acquired by means of one’s personal accomplishments.

achievement

achievement n. 1. the attainment of some goal, or the goal attained. See also need for achievement. 2. acquired knowledge (especially in a particular subject), proficiency, or skill. The term is most often used in this sense to mean academic achievement.

achievement age (AA)

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achievement battery

achievement battery any group of achievement tests designed to provide an index of a person’s knowledge or specific physical or mental skills across a range of related topics.

achievement ethic

achievement ethic a personal or cultural standard that requires a high level of accomplishment in both work and leisure activities. See also work ethic.

achievement goal theory

achievement goal theory aconceptualization of motivation that identifies two types of achievement goals, task-oriented (see task orientation) and ego-oriented (see ego orientation), and that relates these to differences in individuals’ perceived ability for the task and their achievement behavior. This theory emerged from the work of educational psychologists and subsequently was modified for use in sport psychology as well.

achievement level

achievement level 1. the degree of proficiency attained in academic work in general or in a specific scholastic skill, such as arithmetic. 2. an evaluation of individual or group performance on a task or activity (e.g., a chess match or athletic event), particularly following training.

achievement measures

achievement measures tasks, instruments, or systems designed to demonstrate a student’s level of proficiency and to ascertain the value, strength, or quality of performance by comparison with a peer standard.

achievement motivation

achievement motivation 1. the desire to perform well and be successful. In this sense, the term often is used synonymously with need for achievement. 2. the desire to overcome obstacles and master difficult challenges. High scorers in achievement motivation are likely to set higher standards and work with greater perseverance than equally gifted low scorers. David McClelland found a significant relationship between high achievement motivation and early independence in childhood; in addition, there is a positive correlation between high achievement motivation and actual achievement in later life. [first described by Henry Alexander Murray]

achievement potential

achievement potential 1. the capacity of a person to develop certain skills or traits in order to attain a certain projected level of proficiency. 2. academic skills or abilities that may develop over time through education and practice.

achievement quotient (AQ)

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achievement test

achievement test any norm-referenced standardized test intended to measure an individual’s current level of skill or knowledge in a given subject. Often the distinction is made that achievement tests emphasize ability acquired through formal learning or training, whereas aptitude tests (usually in the form of intelligence tests) emphasize innate potential.

achievement-oriented leadership

achievement-oriented leadership in the path–goal theory of leadership, a style in which the leader encourages excellent performance and continuous improvement by showing a high degree of confidence in followers and setting challenging goals.

achiever

achiever n. a person who is able to accomplish some action or desired result.

achieving stage

achieving stage see Schaie’s stages of cognitive development.

achiria

achiria n. see acheiria.

achondroplasia

achondroplasia n. a form of autosomal dominant dwarfism in which the bones derived from cartilage develop at a slower rate than the bones derived from connective tissue. This results in an enlarged cranial vault and abnormally high forehead. Motor development of infants with this disorder may be slow, but in most cases intelligence is normal. Also called achondroplastic dwarfism. —achondroplastic adj.

AChR

AChR abbreviation for acetylcholine receptor.

achromatic

achromatic adj. 1. without hue and saturation. Thus, an achromatic color is black, white, or a shade of gray. 2. able to refract light without splitting it into its constituent wavelengths. The term generally refers to lenses that do not distort the color of objects viewed through them. Compare chromatic.

achromatic interval

achromatic interval in vision, the interval of light intensity between the amount required for detection of a monochromatic stimulus and the amount required to perceive the color of the stimulus.

achromatic–chromatic scale

achromatic–chromatic scale a scale of color values ranging through the chromatic spectrum of hues and including the achromatic shades of black through gray to white.

achromatism

achromatism n. color blindness marked by the inability to perceive any color whatsoever: Everything is seen in different shades of gray. It is a congenital condition stemming from a lack of retinal cones. When acquired as a result of brain injury, it is called cerebral achromatopsia; the typical site of injury is the ventromedial occipital cortex of the brain (see V4). Also called achromatopsia. See also dichromatism; monochromatism; trichromatism.

acid

acid 1. adj. denoting one of the four primary odor qualities in the Crocker–Henderson odor system. 2. n. a common colloquial term for LSD. See also hallucinogen.

acid flashback

acid flashback a common colloquial term for the experience reported by some users of LSD in which part of the experience recurs later when the individual has not been using the drug.

acid trip

acid trip see trip.

acidosis

acidosis n. an abnormally high level of acidity (hydrogen ion concentration) in the blood and tissues, which upsets the body’s acid–base balance. The condition has numerous causes and symptoms vary with each, potentially including such neurological abnormalities as confusion, fatigue or lethargy, and irritability. Rapid breathing is often seen as well. Compare alkalosis. —acidotic adj.

acmesthesia

acmesthesia n. a form of paresthesia in which a cutaneous stimulus normally sensed as pain is perceived instead as sharp touch or pressure.

ACoA

ACoA abbreviation for anterior communicating artery. ACOA abbreviation for Adult Children of Alcoholics.

ACOA

ACoA abbreviation for anterior communicating artery. ACOA abbreviation for Adult Children of Alcoholics.

AComA

AComA abbreviation for anterior communicating artery.

aconuresis

aconuresis n. involuntary passage of urine. It is a rare synonym of enuresis.

acoria (akoria)

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Acosta’s syndrome

Acosta’s syndrome see altitude sickness. [José de Acosta (1539–1600), Spanish geographer]

acoustic

acoustic adj. associated with sound. The word is usually used to modify technical terms (e.g., acoustic wave, acoustic impedance, acoustic reflex). Acoustical is used as a modifier in all other contexts (e.g., acoustical engineer).

acoustic cue

acoustic cue in phonology, one of the physical properties of a speech sound (e.g., wave frequency, voice-onset time, intensity) that mark its identity.

acoustic encoding

acoustic encoding see visual encoding.

acoustic environments

acoustic environments the acoustic or sound-propagating qualities of a physical environment. In addition to sound intensity (i.e., loudness), an important feature of acoustic environments is reverberation time: the time taken for a sound to decay 60 dB. Perception of sound inside differs from that outside because of reverberation.

acoustic filter

acoustic filter a component of some versions of the working memory model that allows only speechlike stimuli to access the model’s phonological store.

acoustic nerve

acoustic nerve see auditory nerve.

acoustic neuroma

acoustic neuroma a benign tumor arising from the auditory nerve, between the cochlea and the brainstem. Common symptoms include tinnitus, unilateral hearing loss, and vertigo.

acoustic phonetics

acoustic phonetics the branch of phonetics that studies the physical properties of human speech sounds and the physiological means by which they are perceived. Compare articulatory phonetics.

acoustic pressure

acoustic pressure see sound pressure.

acoustic reflex

acoustic reflex contraction of the middle ear muscles (the tensor tympani and stapedius muscle) elicited by intense sounds. This reflex restricts movement of the ossicles, thus reducing the sound energy transmitted to the inner ear and partially protecting it from damage.

acoustic resonance

acoustic resonance a frequency-dependent change in the response of an acoustic system. The response of a system is a maximum at its resonance frequency.

acoustic spectrum

acoustic spectrum see sound spectrum.

acoustic store

acoustic store 1. a component of short-term memory that retains auditory information based on how items sound. Forgetting occurs when words or letters in acoustic store sound alike. Compare articulatory store. 2. see phonological loop.

acoustic trauma

acoustic trauma physical injury to the inner ear resulting from exposure to intense noise, such as explosions, or continuous prolonged loud music or machinery noise. It is a common cause of sensorineural deafness.

acoustic-mnestic aphasia

acoustic-mnestic aphasia a form of aphasia resulting from lesions in the left temporal lobe. It is marked by difficulty in remembering verbal material, particularly in recalling word lists and reproducing long sentences. Also called acoustic–amnestic aphasia.

Acoustical Society of America (ASA)

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acoustics

acoustics n. the science of sound: a branch of physics concerned with the study of sound, including its physical properties, production, transmission, and reception. See also bioacoustics; psychoacoustics.

acoustics as emotions

acoustics as emotions acoustic patterns that are specific to particular emotions and therefore enable recognition of emotion in speech. These acoustic properties are measured by formant analysis, spectral analysis, intonation scoring, and inverse filtering of the speech signal to arrive at an estimate of the glottal waveform.

ACPT

ACPT abbreviation for Auditory Continuous Performance Test.

acquaintance rape

acquaintance rape see date rape.

acquiescence

acquiescence n. agreement or acceptance, typically without protest or argument. —acquiesce vb. —acquiescent adj.

acquiescent response set

acquiescent response set see yea-saying.

acquired

acquired adj. denoting a response, behavior, idea, or information that has been learned or developed on the basis of specific forms of experience.

acquired characteristic

acquired characteristic a structural or functional characteristic or a psychological feature (e.g., a trait or behavior) of an organism that arises from experience or through interactions with the environment rather than resulting primarily from genetic factors. Also called acquired character.

acquired color blindness

acquired color blindness defective color vision that develops in a person with previously normal vision. Acquired forms of color blindness can be caused by retinal disease (e.g., glaucoma, retinitis pigmentosa), optic nerve disease (e.g., in multiple sclerosis), or injury to areas of the occipitotemporal cortex that are responsible for color processing, as in cerebral achromatopsia (see achromatism) and hemiachromatopsia. Systemic disorders (e.g., diabetes mellitus), anoxia, and many toxins (e.g., alcohol) can also produce color deficiencies. Acquired color blindness often differs from genetic forms of the condition (see color blindness). The discrimination of colors may be impaired in all parts of the spectrum, and the patient may have difficulty in identifying desaturated colors. Color blindness is typically present in the entire visual field, but that due to cerebral injury may be limited to the left or right half of the visual field.

acquired distinctiveness of cues

acquired distinctiveness of cues prior learning about certain stimulus features in one situation that may facilitate learning to respond to the same stimulus features in another situation. For example, learning to sort balls based on color rather than shape or size may facilitate learning to sort wood blocks based on color rather than shape or size.

acquired drive

acquired drive see secondary drive.

acquired dyslexia

acquired dyslexia see dyslexia.

acquired dyspraxia

acquired dyspraxia dyspraxia manifested as the loss of a previously acquired ability to perform coordinated movements. It usually follows or is associated with brain injury or stroke. Compare developmental dyspraxia.

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

acquired immune deficiency syndrome see AIDS.

acquired response

acquired response a response that has been learned, such as a classically conditioned or an instrumentally reinforced response. Also called learned response.

acquired speech disorder

acquired speech disorder a speech disorder that develops at some time after birth, which may be manifested as the loss of a previously acquired ability to produce articulate speech.

acquired visual impairment

acquired visual impairment see adventitious visual impairment.

acquisition

acquisition n. the attainment by an individual of new behavior, information, or skills or the process by which this occurs. Although often used interchangeably with learning, acquisition tends to be defined somewhat more concretely as the period during which progressive, measurable changes in a response are seen. —acquire vb.

acquisition curve

acquisition curve see learning curve.

acquisition trial

acquisition trial see learning trial.

acquisitive stage

acquisitive stage see Schaie’s stages of cognitive development.

acquisitiveness

acquisitiveness n. the tendency or desire to acquire and accumulate objects or possessions. Compare hoarding. —acquisitive adj.

acro-

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acroanesthesia

acroanesthesia n. an absence of sensitivity in one or more extremities.

acrocentric chromosome

acrocentric chromosome a chromosome in which the centromere is near one end, making one arm of the replicating chromosome shorter than the other. An acrocentric chromosome may be much smaller than others and may occur as additional genetic material in such disorders as cat’s-eye syndrome.

acrocephalopolysyndactyly

acrocephalopolysyndactyly n. see Carpenter’s syndrome.

acrocephalosyndactyly

acrocephalosyndactyly n. any of several related inherited disorders (all dominant traits) that cause abnormalities of the skull, face, hands, and feet. Apert syndrome, Apert–Crouzon syndrome, and Pfeiffer’s syndrome (acrocephalosyndactyly Types I, II, and V) are due to different mutations in the FGFR2 gene (encoding fibroblast growth factor receptor) on chromosome 10. Chotzen’s syndrome (Type III) is due to a mutation in the TWIST gene on chromosome 7 (locus 7p21.3–21.2), which affects the expression of FGFR2.

acrocephaly

acrocephaly n. see oxycephaly.

acrocinesis

acrocinesis n. excessive motion or movement. Also called acrocinesia; acrokinesia.

acrodysostosis

acrodysostosis n. see peripheral dysostosis with nasal hypoplasia.

acroesthesia

acroesthesia n. an increased sensitivity to stimuli applied to the extremities.

acromegaly

acromegaly n. an abnormal enlargement of the bones in the hands, feet, face, and skull due to excessive secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland during adulthood. —acromegalic adj.

acromicria

acromicria n. a type of underdevelopment marked by abnormally small fingers, toes, or facial features.

acroparesthesia

acroparesthesia n. a feeling of numbness, tingling, or other abnormal sensation in one or more extremities. Kinds of acroparesthesia include Nothnagel’s acroparesthesia, which is accompanied by circulatory disorders, and Schultze’s acroparesthesia, marked by peripheral-nerve irritability but without circulatory abnormalities.

acrophobia

acrophobia n. an excessive, irrational fear of heights, resulting in the avoidance of elevations or marked distress when unable to avoid high places. —acrophobic adj.

acrotomophilia

acrotomophilia n. a paraphilia in which a person is sexually aroused by people whose body parts, typically arms or legs, have been amputated or by amputation sites in the body. Also called acrotophilia. Compare apotemnophilia.

ACSI

ACSI abbreviation for Athletic Coping Skills Inventory.

ACSM

ACSM abbreviation for American College of Sports Medicine.

ACSW

ACSW abbreviation for Academy of Certified Social Workers.

act

act n. a complex behavior, as distinct from a simple movement. ACT 1. abbreviation for acceptance and commitment therapy. 2. abbreviation for atropine-coma therapy. 3. abbreviation for attention-control training. 4. abbreviation for Auditory Consonant Trigram. ACT* acronym (pronounced act-star) for adaptive control of thought theory, in revised form. ACT* is a theory of the mental representation of knowledge and of skilled behaviors that implement knowledge. [formulated by U.S. cognitive psychologist John R. Anderson (1947– )]

ACT

ACT Assessment

ACT Assessment American College Testing Assessment: a set of four multiple-choice academic college tests (English, mathematics, reading, science) administered nationwide five times yearly; an optional, supplemental essay writing test may also be given. The assessment consists of 215 total questions intended to evaluate the participant’s overall academic achievement and mastery of the basic skills required for satisfactory performance in college, rather than the person’s aptitude or intelligence. The ACT Assessment is one of four major components of the American College Testing Program (ACTP), a system for gathering data about students and providing it to designated educational institutions.

act psychology

act psychology a philosophical and psychological approach based on the proposition that the act and content of psychological processes are separate functions; for example, the act of seeing color leads to a perception of the visual content, or image. Historically, proponents of act psychology held that acts (mental representation and transformation, judgment, emotion), rather than contents, are the proper subject of psychology, in contrast to Wilhelm Wundt’s emphasis on introspection and conscious contents. Compare content psychology. See also intentionality.

ACT*

ACTH

ACTH abbreviation for adrenocorticotropic hormone. See corticotropin.

ACTH-releasing factor

ACTH-releasing factor see corticotropin-releasing factor.

actin

actin n. see muscle fiber.

acting in

acting in in psychoanalysis, a form of resistance, occurring within the therapy hour, in which the patient defends against repressed wishes, memories, or both by using actions (e.g., getting up and walking about) to impede the flow of free association.

acting out

acting out 1. the behavioral expression of emotions that serves to relieve tension associated with these emotions or to communicate them in a disguised, or indirect, way to others. Such behaviors may include arguing, fighting, stealing, threatening, or throwing tantrums. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, reenactment of past events as an expression of unconscious emotional conflicts, feelings, or desires—often sexual or aggressive—with no conscious awareness of the origin or meaning of these behaviors.

action

action n. 1. a self-initiated sequence of movements, usually with respect to some goal. It may consist of an integrated set of component behaviors as opposed to a single response. 2. the occurrence or performance of a process or function (e.g., the action of an enzyme). 3. the state or process of being active.

action at a distance

action at a distance the interaction of bodies that are not in physical contact and have no intervening mechanical medium, as by a field of force, such as gravitation. See field theory.

action disorganization syndrome (ADS)

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action group

action group a task-oriented group whose purpose is to achieve a modification of the environment. For example, a residential care facility may convene an action group to implement changes to its practices that help improve mealtime nutrition for residents.

action identification

action identification the way in which specific behaviors, ranging from low-level muscle movements to high-level, abstract goal pursuits, are construed. For example, the behavior of pressing a key on a keyboard could be construed as I am pressing a key, I am typing, or I am writing a novel. [introduced in 1985 by Robin R. Vallacher, U.S. psychologist, and Daniel M. Wegner (1948– ), Canadian-born U.S. psychologist]

action orientation

action orientation a style of responding to dilemmas or conflicts that is characterized by swift, decisive action to achieve mental and behavioral change. Action orientation has been suggested as a key moderator of cognitive control under demanding conditions, such that action-oriented individuals are better able to exert control under high demands than are individuals with a state orientation.

action painting

action painting a form of painting, often used in art therapy, in which individuals spontaneously create unplanned abstract works using unconventional techniques, such as splashing, dribbling, trickling, or slapping the paint more or less randomly onto the canvas. When used therapeutically, these productions are reviewed and incorporated into treatment. Also called tachisme.

action pattern

action pattern a predictable behavioral sequence that is elicited by certain requisite stimuli. For example, during the mating season, a male fish aggressively defends its territory against other males. See also fixed action pattern.

action potential (AP)

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action readiness

action readiness a state of preparedness for action that is elicited as part of an emotional response and associated with such physiological indicators as changes in heart rate, respiratory rate, and muscle tension. The term is often used synonymously with action tendency but also refers to a general readiness for action that does not involve an urge to carry out a specific behavior.

action research

action research 1. as originally defined in the mid-1940s by Kurt Lewin, research developed and carried out to address a social issue or problem, results of which are used to improve the situation. Exploring the most effective way to respond to prejudiced comments is an example of action research, as is investigating interventions to reduce the incidence and consequences of domestic violence. 2. more generally, any research directed toward a practical goal, usually an improvement in a particular process or system. In organizational development, for example, action research involves not only systematically collecting data about an organization but also providing feedback to the organization, taking actions to improve the organization based on the feedback, and then evaluating the results of these actions.

action slip

action slip any error that involves some kind of cognitive lapse and results in an unintended action, as in putting one’s spectacles in the refrigerator. Action slips are commonly identified as mistakes due to absent-mindedness.

action stream

action stream see dorsal stream.

action teaching

action teaching the use of classroom activities, field work, Internet-based demonstrations, and other assignments to construct engaging learning environments that integrate coursework with societal issues. Similar to action research but in an educational context, action teaching turns textbook lessons into interactive experiences in which students learn not only topical information but also ways to address important social problems. Examples of this teaching method include an exercise in which students from an introductory psychology class learn about persuasion by using different strategies to solicit donations from community residents for a particular charitable organization or cause, and an exercise in which students from a research methods class learn about experimental design by creating and conducting their own study on the reasons many commuters do not take public transportation to work. [coined in 2000 by U.S. social psychologist Scott L. Plous (1959– )]

action tendency

action tendency an urge to carry out certain expressive or instrumental behaviors that is linked to a specific emotion. For example, the action tendency of fear involves an urge to escape, and that of anger involves an urge to attack. Some theorists argue that the action tendency of an emotional reaction should be regarded as its essential defining characteristic. Compare action readiness.

action theory

action theory all those theories, collectively, that explain behavior in terms of goal-directed human beings acting intentionally with reference to the environment and present situation. Action theory was known originally as will psychology, founded in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt, who emphasized and distinguished between motivation and volition of human behavior.

action tremor

action tremor trembling of a body part that arises when the individual is engaged in directed voluntary activity and that increases as the movement progresses. Action tremors are classified into the following subtypes: Postural tremor occurs when the person maintains a position against gravity, such as holding the arms outstretched; kinetic tremor appears during movement of a body part, such as moving the wrists up and down; intention tremor is the trembling of a body part that arises near the conclusion of a directed, voluntary movement, such as touching a finger to one’s nose; task-specific tremor appears during the performance of highly skilled, goal-oriented tasks such as handwriting; and isometric tremor occurs during a voluntary muscle contraction that is not accompanied by any other movement. Compare resting tremor.

action unit

action unit the simplest facial movement used as a code in the Facial Action Coding System. Action units are the visible signs of the operation of single facial muscles.

action-based model

action-based model a version of cognitive dissonance theory postulating that the existence of inconsistency, even in the absence of aversive consequences, is sufficient to produce cognitive dissonance. It further postulates that inconsistency is unpleasant because it is adaptive to have clear action tendencies (i.e., approach vs. avoidance tendencies) toward objects in the environment. See also new-look theory; self-consistency perspective; self-standards model. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Eddie Harmon-Jones]

action-oriented therapy

action-oriented therapy any therapy that emphasizes doing and taking action rather than verbal communication or discussion.

action-specific energy

action-specific energy in classical ethology, a hypothetical supply of motivational energy within an organism that is associated with specific unlearned behavioral responses known as fixed action patterns. Each response has its own energy supply, which builds up until the organism encounters the appropriate stimulus (see releaser) that triggers the response and thus depletes the energy supply. After the response and in the absence of the releaser, the action-specific energy begins to build up again. [proposed by Konrad Lorenz]

actional verb

actional verb in linguistics, a verb that denotes physical action, usually performed by an agent and resulting in an effect on a patient, such as kick or kiss. A nonactional verb is one that denotes an occurrence, experience, state, or condition, such as be, have, see, think, or explain. Some psychologists believe that the distinction between actional and nonactional verbs is significant in explaining patterns of early language development. See also causative verb.

Actiq

Actiq n. a trade name for fentanyl.

activating event

activating event in rational emotive behavior therapy, an event—current, past, or anticipated—that triggers irrational beliefs and disruptive emotions.

activation

activation n. 1. in many theories of memory, an attribute of the representational units (such as nodes or logogens) that varies from weaker to stronger, with more strongly activated representations competing to control processing. 2. the process of alerting an organ or body system for action, particularly arousal of one organ or system by another. An example is the pituitary gland’s release of hormones that activate the ovaries and testes for puberty. —activate vb. —activational adj.

activation hypothesis

activation hypothesis 1. the idea that numerical weightings assigned to the links or nodes of cognitive network models can represent their degree of activity or processing. Consciousness is sometimes attributed to above-threshold numbers in such models. 2. the hypothesis that high metabolic activity reflects activation of brain areas subserving mental tasks.

activation pattern

activation pattern in electroencephalography, the suppression of alpha waves and a shift to low-voltage, rapid activity when the person undergoing the procedure opens his or her eyes to view an object or display. The alpha desynchronization may be localized or general, as measured in various cerebral areas, and transient or sustained.

activation theory of emotion

activation theory of emotion the theory that emotion is measurable as change in the individual’s level of neural excitation of the reticular formation and associated degree of cortical and thalamic alertness, as revealed via electroencephalography. It is a refinement of an earlier activation–arousal theory equating emotion to change in the difficult-to-measure level of an individual’s energy expenditure. Also called arousal theory.

activation–arousal theory

activation–arousal theory see activation theory of emotion.

activation–elaboration

activation–elaboration a dual-process theory of memory holding that concepts stored in memory vary in their levels both of activation and elaboration.

activation–synthesis hypothesis

activation–synthesis hypothesis a hypothesis that explains dreams as a product of cortical interpretation of random neural activity rising from the brainstem (specifically the pons). It has been superseded by the AIM model. See PGO spikes. [originated by U.S. psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson (1933– ) and Robert W. McCarley (1937– )]

activational effect

activational effect a transient hormonal effect that typically causes a short-term change in behavior or physiological activity in adult animals. For example, increased testosterone in male songbirds in spring leads to increased aggression in territory defense and increased courtship behavior. Compare organizational effect.

active

active adj. 1. currently performing some action, either continuously or intermittently. 2. exerting an effect or influence on a process or thing. 3. in grammar, denoting the active voice of a verb. 4. vigorous, lively, or energetic.

active analytic psychotherapy

active analytic psychotherapy the therapeutic approach of Viennese psychoanalyst Wilhelm Stekel (1868–1940) in which the analyst takes a much more active role than prescribed in classical psychoanalysis and gives more attention to intrapsychic conflicts in the patient’s current life than to exploring early childhood experiences. The therapist intervenes in the process of free association to discuss important issues, confronts the patient’s resistances directly, offers advice and exhortation, and helps the patient interpret his or her dreams intuitively in the light of current attitudes and problems. Through these methods, and by avoiding many of the Freudian steps such as analysis of transference, Stekel sought to shorten the therapeutic process considerably. Also called active analysis.

active attention

active attention see secondary attention.

active avoidance

active avoidance a type of operant conditioning in which an explicit act prevents or postpones the delivery of an aversive stimulus, as when pressing a lever blocks the delivery of an electric shock. That is, avoidance is achieved by an overt action. Compare passive avoidance.

active concretization

active concretization in schizophrenia, the process of transforming abstract concepts into concrete representations or forms. For example, an individual with paranoid schizophrenia who experiences feelings that the whole world is hostile may later become convinced that the neighbors are trying to harm him or her. If this individual should then begin to have specific perceptual experiences that support this conviction, such as auditory hallucinations of threatening remarks made by the neighbors, perceptualization of the concept has occurred; this is the most advanced level of active concretization. [defined by Italian-born U.S. psychiatrist Silvano Arieti (1914–1982)]

active control trial

active control trial a two-group experimental design in which one group receives the treatment under study and the second group receives a comparable standard treatment. Although efficacy generally is best evaluated by comparing a treatment to a placebo, active control trials are used in situations when withholding treatment from individuals by assigning them to a placebo group is not ethical. Compare placebo controlled trial.

active coping

active coping a stress-management strategy in which a person directly works to control a stressor through appropriately targeted behavior, embracing responsibility for resolving the situation using one’s available internal resources. This type of coping strategy may take various forms, such as changing established habits. Active coping generally is considered adaptive, having been associated with fewer mood disturbances, enhanced self-efficacy, and other favorable consequences. It is similar to the earlier conceptualization of problem-focused coping but distinguished by its focus upon one’s internal resources. Compare passive coping. [identified in 1987 by Gregory K. Brown and Perry M. Nicassio (1947– ), U.S. clinical psychologists]

active deception

active deception intentionally misleading research participants by giving them false information in order to get more valid results. For example, a researcher might present participants with incorrect correlations between gender and performance in different academic subject areas before testing whether such hypothetical statistics affect subsequent performance on different achievement tests. Compare passive deception. See deception research.

active euthanasia

active euthanasia direct action performed to terminate the life of a person (or animal) who is suffering greatly and is considered to have no chance for recovery. Administering a lethal injection is the most common method of active euthanasia today. This practice is distinguished from passive euthanasia, in which treatments are withheld but no direct action to terminate the life is taken. See also assisted death; slow euthanasia.

active intermodal mapping (AIM)

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active joy

active joy see joy.

active learning

active learning 1. learning that occurs through the actual performance of behavior or acting out of an idea. 2. the active seeking out of new information, rather than simply being a passive recipient of a learning experience. Active learners set goals, select strategies, recognize when they understand, and work with others to further learning.

active listening

active listening a psychotherapeutic technique in which the therapist listens to a client closely, asking questions as needed, in order to fully understand the content of the message and the depth of the client’s emotion. The therapist typically restates what has been said to ensure accurate understanding. Active listening is particularly associated with client-centered therapy.

active memory

active memory a memory that is currently the focus of consciousness or was recently in awareness, as distinct from the vast body of stored memories that are currently inactive. Activation occurs through retrieval. According to one theory, an item in short-term or working memory is an item from long-term memory that has been activated.

active negativism

active negativism see negativism.

active noise cancellation

active noise cancellation a method of controlling noise levels that involves the production of sound signals to cancel other sounds. Compare active noise reduction.

active noise protection (ANP)

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active noise reduction (ANR)

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active performance

active performance the actual performance of behavior or acting out an idea, in contrast to mentally rehearsing or imagining the action.

active placebo

active placebo an agent used in double-blind controlled trials of pharmacological products that has no therapeutic effect but—unlike a completely inert dummy placebo—may produce side effects characteristic of the drug under investigation. Active placebos are therefore considered by some to be more likely to reveal true differences in drug–placebo responding.

active recreation

active recreation a form of recreational therapy in which the individual is an active participant in an activity, such as dancing or playing Scrabble, that requires physical or mental exertion. Compare passive recreation.

active rehearsal

active rehearsal see cumulative rehearsal.

active therapy

active therapy any form of psychotherapy in which the therapist assumes an active, directive role. An active therapist may express opinions, offer interpretations, make suggestions and recommendations, give advice about the client’s actions and decisions, issue injunctions and prohibitions, or urge the client to take a particular action, such as facing an anxiety-provoking situation directly.

active touch

active touch touch perception of the characteristics of an object through voluntary, intentional contact movement (especially by the hands) that is self-initiated. Compare passive touch. See also haptic.

active transport

active transport the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane by a mechanism that requires energy. The movement may depend on a special affinity between ions, a metabolic reaction, or another energy-consuming process. Active transport is involved in the movement of sodium and potassium ions across the membrane of a nerve cell. Compare passive transport.

active vocabulary

active vocabulary see productive vocabulary.

active voice

active voice in linguistics, the category of a verb in which the grammatical subject of the clause or sentence is the agent of the action and the grammatical object is its patient. The great majority of English sentences are constructed using the active voice. The active voice is illustrated by the sentence The thief stole the purse, as opposed to The purse was stolen by the thief. Compare passive voice.

activism

activism n. 1. the practice of taking committed action to achieve an end, particularly as it relates to a political or social goal. See also community action group; social action program. 2. in philosophy, the doctrine that any relationship between thought and reality is characterized by continuous activity on the part of the mind, rather than passive receptivity. —activist adj., n.

activities of daily living (ADLs)

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activities, interests, opinions (AIO)

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activity analysis

activity analysis the objective evaluation of an individual’s behavior during a specified period, usually by breaking it down into smaller components, such as eating, working, social activities, resting, and so on.

activity cage

activity cage an enclosed space in which animals move freely while their behavior is observed, recorded, or measured.

activity cycle

activity cycle any regularly recurring sequence of events characterized by fluctuating levels of activity. Unlike activity rhythms, activity cycles may be learned and thus are not always associated with biological rhythms.

activity deprivation

activity deprivation lack of opportunity to engage in physical activity due to restrictive circumstances, for example, confinement in a small area, which may result in distress and physical discomfort. See also activity drive.

activity drive

activity drive an organism’s hypothetical innate desire or urge to be physically active, often expressed as a need to move about, even in the absence of any apparent stimuli motivating movement, such that activity deprivation may cause distress.

activity group therapy

activity group therapy one of two main types of group therapy defined by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981), the other being analytic group psychotherapy. Designed for children 6 to 12 years old, activity group therapy emphasizes participation in games, crafts, and other age-appropriate activities. Its deliberate lack of restraint and absence of interpretation are intended to provide a permissive, nonthreatening atmosphere that encourages children to express their feelings, the effect of which is believed to be fundamental change in personality structure. Slavson introduced activity group therapy in 1934 as a response to the distinct needs of individuals in this age group, which he saw as resulting from their weak ego organization, the basic narcissistic quality of their libido, and the surface nature of their unconscious.

activity log

activity log a diary kept by a researcher or research participant of activities in various settings. An activity log may include information about the location of the participant by time period (e.g., at home, at work, traveling) and whether the time is spent alone or with family, friends, or work associates. An activity log as a method of obtaining a record of events generally is superior to interviews based on a participant’s memory.

activity record

activity record the written or recorded data detailing a student’s extracurricular involvement in school activities, clubs, or special projects.

activity rhythm

activity rhythm the pattern of individual behavior over the course of a day, month, or year that exhibits a clear cycle of activity more or less in synchrony with temporal cues. For example, rats are generally active for approximately 12 hours a day, during the hours of darkness. See biological rhythm.

activity system

activity system see behavior system.

activity theory

activity theory 1. a school of thought, developed primarily by Soviet psychologists, that focuses on activity in general—rather than the distinct concepts of behavior or mental states—as the primary unit of analysis. In this context, an activity is a nonadditive unit that orients an organism in the world; it is essentially a system comprising an operation (a routine behavior requiring little thought, e.g., typing) that serves to accomplish an action (a behavior that involves planning, e.g., creating a bibliography) in the minimum meaningful context that provides understanding of the function of the individual in interacting with the environment (e.g., preparing a paper for a university course as part of a network of students). The theory emphasizes a hierarchical structure of activity, object-orientedness, internalization and externalization, mediation (by tools, language, and other cultural artifacts or instruments), and continuous development. Also called activity psychology. 2. a theory proposing that old age is a lively, creative experience characterized by maintaining existing social roles, activities, and relationships or replacing any lost ones with new ones. Compare continuity theory; disengagement theory.

activity therapy

activity therapy any type of therapy based on one or more of various activities, such as arts and crafts, exercise, music, and drama. See creative arts therapy.

activity wheel

activity wheel a revolving drum that turns by the weight of an animal running inside. The activity wheel records the number of revolutions and is often used for research purposes. Also called running wheel.

activity-interview group psychotherapy

activity-interview group psychotherapy a form of analytic group psychotherapy for children 6 to 12 years old who, because of excessively high levels of fear, anxiety, and guilt, do not benefit from the activity group therapy originally developed for this age group. It uses group discussions, work activities, recreational activities, and other verbal and nonverbal techniques to stimulate the expression and exploration of daydreams, fantasies, and other experiences. During the process, the therapist asks questions that encourage the children to understand the underlying meanings of their behavior, attitudes, and feelings andthat thus address sources of intrapsychic conflicts. The therapist may also offer explanations and interpretations if appropriate. [introduced in 1943 by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

activity–passivity

activity–passivity in psychoanalytic theory, polarities characterizing instinctual aims (see aim of the instinct). Sigmund Freud asserted that instincts are always active but that their aims can be either active (e.g., sadism, voyeurism) or passive (e.g., exhibitionism, masochism). The concept now plays a role in many trait theories of personality.

actomyosin

actomyosin n. see muscle fiber.

actor–observer effect

actor–observer effect in attribution theory, the tendency for individuals acting in a situation to attribute the causes of their behavior to external or situational factors, such as social pressure, but for observers to attribute the same behavior to internal or dispositional factors, such as personality. See fundamental attribution error. See also dispositional attribution; situational attribution. [introduced in 1971 by U.S. psychologists Edward E. Jones (1926–1993) and Richard E. Nisbett (1941– )]

ACTP

ACTP abbreviation for American College Testing Program. See ACT Assessment.

actual

actual adj. in philosophy, existing as a real and present fact. The actual is often contrasted with the merely apparent. Something may appear to the senses to be real but may not actually exist. In the intellectual tradition founded by Aristotle, the actual is contrasted to the potential, which is the capacity to change: An entity is actual when form and substance come together to produce it as an end. See also entelechy.

actual neurosis

actual neurosis in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, a neurosis that stems from current sexual frustrations (e.g., coitus interruptus, otherwise incomplete sexual experience, forced abstinence), as contrasted with one that stems from past experiences or psychological conflicts. The term, originally applied primarily to anxiety neurosis and neurasthenia, has more recently been used to describe a preexisting psychological (i.e., actual neurotic) structure that makes some victims of trauma vulnerable to developing posttraumatic stress disorder.

actual self

actual self in various psychodynamic writings, the real self or true self as it exists at a particular point in time, as opposed to an idealized, grandiose, or otherwise distorted self. The term is also used by client-centered therapists to describe the self untainted by societal constraints and parental expectations.

actualization

actualization n. the process of mobilizing one’s potentialities and realizing them in concrete form. According to Carl Rogers, all humans have an innate actualizing tendency to grow and realize the self fully. See also self-actualization. —actualize vb.

actuarial

actuarial adj. statistical: based on quantified experience and data. In medicine, the use of data about prior instances to estimate the likelihood or risk of a particular outcome is sometimes cited as an alternative to clinical diagnoses, which are open to human error.

actuarial prediction

actuarial prediction see clinical prediction.

actuarial risk assessment

actuarial risk assessment a statistically calculated prediction of the likelihood that an individual will pose a threat to others or engage in a certain behavior (e.g., violence) within a given period. Unlike in a clinical risk assessment, someone conducting an actuarial risk assessment relies on data from specific, measurable variables (e.g., age, gender, prior criminal activity) that have been validated as predictors and uses mathematical analyses and formulas to calculate the probability of dangerousness or violent behavior.

actus reus

actus reus the illegal act (Latin, “guilty act”) that, combined with a criminal intent in committing it (see mens rea), constitutes a crime.

acuity

acuity n. sharpness of perception. Whereas visual acuity is sharpness of vision and auditory acuity sharpness of hearing, sensory acuity is the precision with which any sensory stimulation is perceived.

acuity grating

acuity grating a stimulus used to measure an individual’s sharpness of visual perception. It consists of alternating black and white lines spaced closely together; the point at which the participant perceives the lines to be homogeneous gives an indication of visual acuity. When the contrast of the lines is varied, the acuity grating can be used to test contrast sensitivity.

aculalia

aculalia n. nonsensical speech associated with lack of comprehension of written or spoken language, as occurs in Wernicke’s aphasia.

acupressure

acupressure n. a form of complementary and alternative medicine in which pressure is applied with the fingers or thumbs to specific points on the body to relieve pain, treat symptoms of disease, or improve overall health.

acupuncture

acupuncture n. a form of complementary and alternative medicine in which fine needles are inserted into the body at specific points to relieve pain, induce anesthesia (acupuncture anesthesia), or treat disease. It is based on the concept in traditional Chinese medicine that “meridians,” or pathways, conduct a life-force energy known as chi between places on the skin and the body’s organ systems. Western scientists are unable to explain specifically how acupuncture produces its effects but theorize that the needling sites may be related to trigger points in the gate-control theory of pain or may stimulate the release of endogenous opioids. The technique is highly popular in many Western societies and has been deemed appropriate by the World Health Organization for use in treating more than 40 medical conditions. Compare acupressure. —acupuncturist n.

acupuncture anesthesia

acupuncture anesthesia the loss of sensation, often of pain, that results from the insertion of acupuncture needles into the body at specific points. The technique may be used alone or in combination with other pain-management techniques during surgery.

acute

acute adj. 1. denoting conditions or symptoms of sudden onset, short duration, and often great intensity. Compare chronic. 2. sharp, keen, or very sensitive (e.g., acute hearing).

acute alcoholic myopathy

acute alcoholic myopathy a condition of severe pain, tenderness, and swelling of the muscles, accompanied by cramps and muscular weakness, that develops after a period of heavy drinking. The effects may be general or focused in one body area. In some cases, muscle fibers may undergo necrosis (death of constituent cells). Recovery may require several weeks to several months.

acute alcoholism

acute alcoholism the complex of usually short-term symptoms associated with severe alcohol intoxication. Symptoms may include impaired motor control, incoordination, respiratory depression, stupor, vomiting, dehydration, and headache.

acute anxiety

acute anxiety a sudden feeling of dread and apprehension accompanied by somatic symptoms of tension, usually precipitated by a threatening situation, such as an examination or court hearing. The feeling typically subsides as soon as the situation is over.

acute brain disorder

acute brain disorder any pattern of symptoms resulting from temporary, reversible impairment of brain functioning.

acute cerebellar ataxia

acute cerebellar ataxia a disorder that occurs suddenly, most often in children, following a viral infection. It is characterized by slurred speech; muscular incoordination (ataxia); rapid, involuntary eye movements (nystagmus); and intention tremor (see action tremor). Also called acute cerebral tremor.

acute cerebrovascular accident

acute cerebrovascular accident the onset of symptoms of stroke. See cerebrovascular accident.

acute confusional state

acute confusional state severe confusion that can include symptoms of agitation, memory disturbance, disorientation, and delirium. It often occurs as a result of severe mental or physical illness.

acute delirium

acute delirium a sudden but brief disturbance in consciousness resulting from metabolic disturbance (e.g., high fever) or toxic agents (e.g., excessive amounts of alcohol). It is marked by illusions, hallucinations, delusions, excitement, restlessness, and incoherence.

acute delusional psychosis

acute delusional psychosis a diagnostic entity specific to French psychiatry, in which it is known as bouffée délirante (French, “delirious outburst”), involving the sudden onset of schizophrenic symptoms in response to a stressful life event. It is temporary (lasting no longer than 3 months), has no strong evidence of a genetic link, and has a favorable prognosis; spontaneous resolution of symptoms is not uncommon. Acute delusional psychosis is essentially equivalent to brief psychotic disorder.

acute depression

acute depression 1. a sudden onset of depression. 2. a severe episode of depression, characterized by many more symptoms than are necessary to meet the criteria for a major depressive episode.

acute dystonia

acute dystonia a sudden loss of normal muscle tone. See dystonia.

acute mania

acute mania the manic phase of bipolar I disorder (see bipolar disorder), characterized by an extremely unstable euphoric or irritable mood with hyperactivity, excessively rapid thought and speech, uninhibited and reckless behavior, grandiosity, and flight of ideas. See manic episode.

acute mountain sickness

acute mountain sickness an illness that can affect mountain climbers, hikers, or skiers who have ascended too rapidly above 2,400 m (8,000 ft), especially when coming from sea level. Caused by the effects of reduced atmospheric pressure and oxygen pressure at high altitudes, it affects the nervous system, lungs, muscles, and heart. The faster the ascent and the higher the altitude, the greater is the degree of illness. In two out of every 10,000 cases, swelling occurs around the brain, causing confusion and leading to coma (high-altitude cerebral edema). See also altitude sickness.

acute onset

acute onset a sudden, rapid, or unanticipated development of a disease or its symptoms.

acute otitis media

acute otitis media see otitis media.

acute preparation

acute preparation the process by which a research animal undergoes an experimental procedure, often surgical in nature, and is then studied for a relatively short period (typically under anesthetic before being euthanized). Compare chronic preparation.

acute psychotic episode

acute psychotic episode an appearance of florid (blatant) psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech, that is of sudden onset and usually short duration.

acute schizophrenic episode

acute schizophrenic episode an appearance of florid (blatant) schizophrenic symptoms, such as disordered thinking and disturbances in emotional responsiveness and behavior, that is of sudden onset.

acute stress disorder (ASD)

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acute stress response

acute stress response see hyperarousal.

acute tolerance

acute tolerance a type of tolerance (physical dependence) that develops rapidly, sometimes in response to a single small dose of a particular drug. See also tachyphylaxis.

ad hoc

ad hoc for a particular purpose or in response to some particular event or occurrence. For example, an ad hoc committee is convened on a short-term basis to address a single problem, and an ad hoc hypothesis is an explanation of a particular phenomenon, rather than a general theory. [Latin, literally: “to this”]

ad hoc category

ad hoc category a category formed to meet a special criterion or demand, usually in the moment that it is needed. For example, one might form the category things I would take from my house if it were on fire. Compare basic-level category.

ad lib

ad lib 1. in nonhuman animal experiments, denoting or relating to a schedule of unlimited access to food, water, or both. The body weight achieved by animals under such conditions is called the free-feeding weight. 2. more generally, without restriction. [from Latin ad libitum, “as desired”]

ad litem

ad litem for the purpose of the suit (in a court of law). See guardian ad litem. [Latin, literally: “for the lawsuit”]

ad-

ADS abbreviation for action disorganization syndrome.

ADA

ADA abbreviation for Americans With Disabilities Act.

Adam

Adam n. slang for MDMA, a hallucinogen.

ADAMHA

ADAMHA abbreviation for Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration.

Adapin

Adapin n. a trade name for doxepin.

adaptability

adaptability n. 1. the capacity to make appropriate responses to changed or changing situations. 2. the ability to modify or adjust one’s behavior in meeting different circumstances or different people. —adaptable adj.

adaptation

adaptation n. 1. adjustment of a sense organ to the intensity or quality of stimulation, resulting in a temporary change in sensory or perceptual experience, as in visual adaptation when the pupil of the eye adjusts to dim or bright light. 2. reduced responsiveness in a sensory receptor or sensory system caused by prolonged or repeated stimulation. The adaptation may be specific, for example, to the orientation of a particular stimulus. Also called sensory adaptation. 3. modification to suit different or changing circumstances. In this sense, the term often refers to behavior that enables an individual to adjust to the environment effectively and function optimally in various domains, such as coping with daily stressors. It is also applied more widely, for example, in ergonomics, to denote a system that alters information presentation, interface design, or output according to the capabilities or characteristics of the user, system, or environmental state. Compare maladaptation. 4. adjustments to the demands, restrictions, and mores of society, including the ability to live and work harmoniously with others and to engage in satisfying social interactions and relationships. Also called social adaptation. 5. the modification of an organism in structure or function that increases its ability to reproduce successfully and its offspring’s ability to survive and reproduce successfully. 6. in Piagetian theory, the process of adjusting one’s cognitive structures to meet environmental demands, which involves the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation. —adapt vb. —adaptational adj. —adaptive adj.

adaptation level (AL)

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adaptation period

adaptation period a period of time during which a research participant becomes accustomed to the materials, instruments, or equipment to be used in a study or reaches a certain performance level. Adaptation periods help reduce the influence of situational novelty on a participant’s behavior.

adaptation stage

adaptation stage see general adaptation syndrome.

adaptation time

adaptation time the period of time from the start of a stimulus until the sense organ stimulated has adapted completely and no longer responds.

adapted child

adapted child one of the child ego states in transactional analysis, characterized as compliant, orderly, and manipulative. Compare natural child.

adaptive act

adaptive act the process whereby an organism learns to make the appropriate responses that are needed for an adjustment to the environment. For example, a caged pigeon learns to peck on a lighted key in order to receive food.

adaptive behavior

adaptive behavior 1. the level of everyday performance of tasks that is required for a person to fulfill typical roles in society, including maintaining independence and meeting cultural expectations regarding personal and social responsibility. Specific categories in which adaptive behavior is usually assessed include self-help, mobility, health care, communication, domestic skills, consumer skills, community use, practical academic skills, and vocational skills. Limitations in adaptive behavior are one of the criteria for diagnosis or classification of intellectual disability and for determining legal competence. 2. any behavior that enables an individual to adjust to the environment appropriately and effectively. It is often discussed in the context of evolution. See also adjustment process.

adaptive behavior scale

adaptive behavior scale 1. any standardized assessment protocol with established psychometric properties used to document and quantify everyday performance of skills necessary for personal independence and social responsibility, consistent with cultural expectations (see adaptive behavior). An example is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. 2. any protocol assessing behavioral and social performance that is based on developmental norms, with domains structured in developmental sequence or degree of ascending task complexity or difficulty. 3. a component of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development.

adaptive control of thought theory

adaptive control of thought theory see ACT*act.

adaptive hypothesis

adaptive hypothesis the view that the function of the primary autonomous ego is to cope with an “average expectable environment” through perception, memory, affect regulation, and motility. This is the view taken by Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Hartmann (1894–1970) in his version of ego psychology.

adaptive intelligence

adaptive intelligence the ability to apply knowledge to novel situations, such as solving problems and conversing with others, demonstrating an effective ability to interact with, and learn from, the environment.

adaptive nonresponding theory

adaptive nonresponding theory a theory that sleep evolved as a means of creating species-specific daily periods of inactivity concurrent with periods of greatest threat from predators.

adaptive production system

adaptive production system a production system able to change or adjust the rules in production memory as a result of interacting with an environment. Both Soar and classifier systems fall into this category.

adaptive sampling

adaptive sampling a method of sampling data in which information from past outcomes is used to reduce the chances of collecting future data that correspond to poor outcomes. A group of individuals randomly chosen from the population of interest is evaluated, and the information gathered is used to concentrate additional selection efforts where they are most likely to be successful. For example, if a researcher is interested in studying a certain nonhuman animal of a particular age, he or she could first assess a subset of animals from a given geographical area and then target further sampling efforts in the specific portions of that area shown to possess the most individuals meeting the criteria.

adaptive skills

adaptive skills abilities that enable one to meet new challenges, such as the ability to adjust to a new environment and to learn new things. Adaptive skills also involve self-management, such as the ability to control one’s impulses.

adaptive strategy choice model (ASCM)

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adaptive system

adaptive system in ergonomics, a system with the capability to alter information presentation, interface design, or output according to the capabilities or characteristics of the user, system, or environmental state.

adaptive task allocation

adaptive task allocation in ergonomics, a system design that supports allocation of tasks to the human operator or the machine according to the state of the system, the state of the operator (e.g., if fatigued), or other operational rules. Adaptive task allocation maintains a flexible function allocation policy.

adaptive testing

adaptive testing a testing technique designed to adjust to the response characteristics of individual examinees by presenting items of varying difficulty based on the examinee’s responses to previous items. The process continues until a stable estimate of the ability level of the examinee can be determined. See also item response theory.

adaptometer

adaptometer n. an instrument used to measure the time taken to adapt to a given amount of light, used in the diagnosis of night blindness and other visual disorders.

ADC

ADC abbreviation for AIDS dementia complex.

ADD

ADD abbreviation for attention-deficit disorder. See attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Adderall

Adderall n. a trade name for dextroamphetamine in combination with amphetamine.

addict

addict n. a person who has developed a substance dependence or addiction. The term is also used colloquially to refer to a person with a compulsive behavior such as persistent gambling.

addicted athlete

addicted athlete 1. an individual, especially a professional athlete, who is addicted to a substance for purposes of performance enhancement in sport. 2. an individual habitually involved in an athletic activity who will experience withdrawal symptoms if deprived of participating in the activity. See also compulsive exerciser.

addiction

addiction n. a state of psychological or physical dependence (or both) on the use of alcohol or other drugs. The term is often used as an equivalent term for substance dependence and sometimes applied to behavioral disorders, such as sexual, Internet, and gambling addictions. A chemical substance with significant potential for producing dependence is called an addictive drug. —addictive adj.

addictive behavior

addictive behavior actions, often obsessive and destructive, that are related to one’s abuse of or dependence on a substance and that dominate one’s life. Addictive behaviors may include drug-seeking behavior, risk taking, and breaking laws in the course of sustaining one’s drug habit.

addictive drug

addictive drug any psychoactive substance that has a high likelihood of producing substance dependence. Such substances include alcohol, amphetamines and amphetamine-like CNS stimulants, caffeine, cocaine and crack, hallucinogens, inhalants, nicotine, opioids, PCP (phencyclidine) and phencyclidine-like substances, and CNS depressants.

addictive personality

addictive personality a hypothetical personality pattern thought to increase the likelihood that a person will become dependent on one or more substances. Research has not supported the existence of such a personality, but has identified traits associated with substance abuse, such as impulsivity, behavioral undercontrol, and characteristics associated with neurobehavioral disinhibition.

Addison’s disease

Addison’s disease see adrenocortical insufficiency.

addition rule

addition rule a maxim of probability theory stating that the likelihood of observing a set of distinct events is equal to the sum of the probabilities of observing the individual events. Also called addition law; or rule. Compare multiplication rule.

addition test

addition test a task requiring the solution of arithmetic addition problems. Early tests of intelligence, such as those of Louis L. Thurstone, sometimes included such tasks, but with the advent of modern computational devices, such as calculators and computers, the tasks have become less relevant.

additive

additive adj. characterized or produced by addition. For example, a function is said to be additive when the quantities defining it may be summed to obtain a meaningful result. Compare nonadditive.

additive bilingualism

additive bilingualism the sociolinguistic situation in which a second language is adopted by a speech community without threatening the status of the first language. For example, most English-speaking Canadians learn French in order to gain access to prestige jobs that require bilingualism but continue to use English as their main language. This contrasts with subtractive bilingualism, in which the second language comes to replace the functions of the first language. The bilingualism of many immigrant communities is considered subtractive, resulting in language shift within one or two generations.

additive color mixture

additive color mixture the process and effect of combining colored lights, as manifested in new, composite colors; for example, in stage lighting, red and green spotlights are blended to form yellow. The color in television is another example of additive color mixture.

additive effect

additive effect the joint effect of two or more independent variables on a dependent variable where this is equal to the sum of their individual effects: The value of either independent variable is unconditional upon the value of the other and there is no interaction effect.

additive gene

additive gene a gene in which there are neither dominant nor recessive alleles, although gradations may exist between extremes. The resulting phenotype does not follow a pattern of Mendelian inheritance but instead is determined by the combined effect of the alleles. Additive genes are responsible for such traits as height and skin color and are also believed to be the genetic component of some pathologies such as autism, Alzheimer’s disease, and diabetes.

additive model

additive model a description of the relationship between a response variable and a set of predictor variables in which the effect of each predictor is assumed to be the same across all levels of the other predictors in the model. Thus, the combined effect of all predictors is determined by summing their individual effects.

additive scale

additive scale a scale with all points distributed equally so that a meaningful result can be obtained by addition (e.g., a metric ruler).

additive task

additive task a task or project that a group can complete by aggregating individual members’ efforts or contributions. An example is a five-person team pulling together on a rope. Groups usually outperform individuals on such tasks, but overall group productivity rarely reaches its maximum potential owing to social loafing. Compare compensatory task; conjunctive task; disjunctive task.

additive-factors method

additive-factors method a procedure for analyzing reaction-time data to determine whether two variables affect the same or different processing stages. If two variables influence different stages, their effects should be additive. If two variables influence the same stage, their effects should be interactive.

adduction

adduction n. 1. movement of a limb toward the midline of the body. Any muscle that produces such movement is called an adductor. Compare abduction. 2. in conditioning, the production of new behavior by combining the discriminative stimuli of separate discriminated operants. —adduct vb.

ADE

ADE abbreviation for adverse drug event. See adverse drug reaction.

ADEA

ADEA abbreviation for Age Discrimination in Employment Act.

adendritic

adendritic adj. describing neurons that lack dendrites.

adenine

adenine (symbol: A) n. a purine compound present in the nucleotides of living organisms. It is one of the four bases in DNA and RNA that constitute the genetic code, the others being cytosine, guanine, and thymine or uracil.

adeno- (aden-)

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adenohypophysis

adenohypophysis n. see anterior pituitary; pituitary gland.

adenoma

adenoma n. a benign (noncancerous) tumor derived from epithelium that has glandular properties. The most common adenoma in the central nervous system is in the pituitary gland (pituitary adenoma). —adenomatous adj.

adenosine

adenosine n. a compound in living cells consisting of an adenine molecule and a ribose sugar molecule. Adenosine functions as a neuromodulator: By binding to special adenosine receptors, it influences the release of several neurotransmitters in the central nervous system. Combined with three phosphate units, adenosine becomes ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which functions as an energy source in metabolic activities.

adenosine 3’,5’-monophosphate

adenosine 3’,5’-monophosphate see cyclic AMP.

adenosine triphosphate

adenosine triphosphate see ATP.

adenylate cyclase

adenylate cyclase an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP, which functions as a second messenger in signaling pathways within cells. Also called adenyl cyclase.

adequate sample

adequate sample a sample that sufficiently represents the larger population from which it was drawn in terms of size, being large enough to provide satisfactory precision by minimizing the possibility of chance affecting the data obtained.

adequate stimulus

adequate stimulus the type of stimulus for which a given sensory organ is particularly adapted. Thus, the adequate stimulus for the eye is photic (light) energy. Although mechanical pressure on the eye or an electrical shock can stimulate the retina and produce sensations of light, these are not adequate stimuli for the eye.

ADH

ADH abbreviation for antidiuretic hormone. See vasopressin.

ADHD

ADHD abbreviation for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

adherence

adherence n. the ability of an individual to conform to a treatment regimen, especially one involving drug treatment, as outlined by a health care provider. External factors that affect adherence may include appropriate education regarding a drug and its use, the individual’s ability to pay for or otherwise obtain the treatment recommended, and familial or cultural value systems influencing the acceptability of the treatment to the individual. Internal factors include the individual’s belief in the potency of the treatment, the presence or absence of unpleasant side effects, and the individual’s capability to understand or conform to instructions given by the health care provider. Also called compliance See also nonadherence..

adhesive otitis media

adhesive otitis media see otitis media.

adience

adience n. a response or behavior that results in movement toward a stimulus, either by physical approach or by an action that increases contact with the stimulus. Compare abience. —adient adj.

adinazolam

adinazolam n. a benzodiazepine of the triazolobenzodiazepine class with antidepressant as well as anxiolytic properties. It currently is not available in the United States. Italian trade name: Deracyn.

Adipex

Adipex n. a trade name for phentermine.

adipo- (adip-)

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adipocyte

adipocyte n. a cell that forms adipose tissue and is specialized for the synthesis and storage of triglycerides (triacylglycerols), the form in which most fat is stored in the body. Adipocytes also contain enzymes that can mobilize the stored fat as fatty acids and glycerol (see fat metabolism). Also called fat cell.

adipose tissue

adipose tissue connective tissue consisting largely of fat cells (see adipocyte), which is found beneath the skin and around major organs. It provides protection and insulation and functions as an energy reserve. See also brown fat; fat metabolism.

adipsia

adipsia n. an absence of thirst, manifest as a lack of drinking. Adipsia is associated with lesions of the thirst center in the anterior hypothalamus but may also be caused by head injury, stroke, or other conditions. Compare polydipsia.

ADJ

ADJ abbreviation for adjusting schedule of reinforcement.

adj R 2

adj R 2 symbol for adjusted R2.

adjective checklist

adjective checklist 1. a self-inventory, used in personality assessment, consisting of a list of adjectives (e.g., intelligent, lazy, productive) that the respondent checks off as descriptive of or applicable to himself or herself. 2. in consumer psychology, a list of adjectives used, for example, in the assessment of a product image and in advertising research.

adjudication

adjudication n. 1. any formal decision of a court. 2. the act or process of settling a matter by judicial proceedings or, in cases involving insurance claims, by insurance examiners or specialized software. —adjudicate vb.

adjudicative competence

adjudicative competence an umbrella term that encompasses all forms of meaningful participation in proceedings of the criminal justice system, including competency to stand trial, competency to plead guilty, and competency to waive Miranda rights.

adjunct

adjunct n. 1. a drug that is used concurrently with another drug in treating a condition in order to provide additional therapeutic effects. It may have a mechanism of action that differs from that of the main drug used in treatment. 2. more generally, a supplementary or nonessential part of something. —adjunctive adj.

adjunctive behavior

adjunctive behavior relatively unvaried behavior that occurs following, but is otherwise unrelated to, regular delivery of a reinforcer in operant or instrumental conditioning. It differs from simple respondent behavior in that the likelihood of its occurrence is influenced by the time between stimulus presentations. An example is schedule-induced polydipsia, in which excessive drinking of water occurs when small portions of food are delivered intermittently. Compare terminal behavior.

adjunctive therapist

adjunctive therapist 1. in psychotherapy, a provider of any secondary adjunctive therapy. 2. in health care, a member of a multidisciplinary treatment team whose functions are ancillary to the main therapeutic program. Such therapists provide direct clinical services to patients in such areas as improvement of daily living skills, behavior management, coordination of educational activities, and management of leisure time.

adjunctive therapy

adjunctive therapy one or more secondary interventions used concurrently with a primary intervention to enhance treatment effectiveness. For example, medication may be used concurrently with cognitive behavior therapy, with the latter as the primary form of intervention; group therapy may be used secondarily to individual psychodynamic psychotherapy, with each intervention bringing its own characteristic perspectives and methods to bear on the client’s mental awareness and healing. Adjunctive therapy is typically conducted by a different practitioner than is the primary intervention, which distinguishes it from combination therapy. The term is sometimes used synonymously with adjuvant therapy. See also collaborative care.

adjusted effect

adjusted effect the effect of a predictor or independent variable on a response or dependent variable after the influence of one or more other predictors has been removed. For example, a researcher might find that education level predicts income via the mediator of residential area; an adjusted effect would be one without the influence of the mediator included.

adjusted R

adjusted R the correlation between scores on a response or dependent variable and the values predicted by a set of independent variables, after accounting for the number of predictors and the number of observations involved in the calculation. See also multiple correlation coefficient.

adjusted R 2

adjusted R 2 (symbol: adj. R2; R2adj) the square of the correlation between scores on a response or dependent variable and the values predicted by a set of independent variables after accounting for the number of predictors and the number of observations involved in the calculation. It gives the proportion of the variance in a response that is accounted for by its relationship with the predictors and yields a better estimate of the population variance than the adjusted R upon which it is based. Also called shrunken R2. See also coefficient of multiple determination.

adjusting schedule of reinforcement (ADJ)

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adjustive behavior

adjustive behavior any response of an organism that effectively incorporates environmental or situational demands.

adjustment

adjustment n. 1. a change in attitude, behavior, or both by an individual on the basis of some recognized need or desire to change, particularly to account for the current environment or changing, atypical, or unexpected conditions. It may be assessed via a type of survey called an adjustment inventory, which compares a person’s emotional and social adjustment with a representative sample of other individuals. A well-adjusted person is one who satisfies needs in a healthy, beneficial manner and demonstrates appropriate social and psychological responses to situations and demands. 2. modification to match a standard. See method of adjustment. —adjust vb.

adjustment disorder

adjustment disorder in DSM–IV–TR, impairment in social or occupational functioning and unexpected severe emotional or behavioral symptoms occurring within 3 months after an individual experiences a specific identifiable stressful event, such as a divorce, business crisis, or family discord. The event does not meet the traumatic stressor criteria of experiencing or witnessing actual or threatened death or serious injury or a threat to the physical integrity of oneself or others, which can lead to acute stress disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder. Symptoms may include anxiety, depression, and conduct disturbances and tend to remit following elimination of the stressors or acquisition of new coping skills. In chronic adjustment disorder, the symptoms last more than 6 months due to either the persistence or the severity of the stressor. DSM–5 retains the same symptom criteria for adjustment disorder but reconceptualizes it as a heterogeneous array of stress-response syndromes that occur after exposure to a distressing traumatic or nontraumatic event, rather than as a residual category for distress that does not meet criteria for a more discrete disorder (as in DSM–IV–TR).

adjustment inventory

adjustment inventory see adjustment.

adjustment method

adjustment method see method of adjustment.

adjustment process

adjustment process any means through which human beings modify attitudes and behaviors in response to environmental demands. Such attempts to maintain a balance between needs and the circumstances that influence the satisfaction of those needs are influenced by numerous factors that vary widely across situations and individuals and are the subject of much research.

adjustment reaction

adjustment reaction a temporary, maladaptive psychological response to a stressful situation. See adjustment disorder.

adjuvant therapy

adjuvant therapy therapy that is provided after the initial (primary) form of treatment and that is intended to enhance effectiveness or to increase the chances of a cure. Adjuvant therapy typically refers to medical treatment, particularly any drug therapy used in support of nondrug interventions. For example, in the treatment of cancer, chemotherapy and radiation are often used as adjuvant therapies after the primary intervention of surgery. The term is sometimes used in psychotherapy as a synonym for the preferred adjunctive therapy.

Adlerian psychology

Adlerian psychology see individual psychology.

Adlerian therapy

Adlerian therapy a brief psychoeducational treatment based on the individual psychology of Alfred Adler; the therapy aims to decrease an individual’s symptoms and improve his or her functioning by emphasizing the individual’s strivings for success, connectedness with others, and contributions to society as hallmarks of mental health. It is used both in clinical settings with individuals, couples, families, and groups and in educational settings.

ADLs

ADLs abbreviation for activities of daily living.

administration

administration n. 1. the application of a drug or other agent in the diagnosis or treatment of a disorder. This may be accomplished enterally (via the digestive tract, as with oral administration) or parenterally (via all other means, including subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous injection; rectal and vaginal suppositories; inhalation; and absorption through skin or mucous membranes). 2. the giving of a test for the purpose of obtaining information.

administrative controls

administrative controls in safety engineering, managerial interventions—such as training, rotating work schedules to reduce exposure (e.g., to hazardous chemicals), and implementing clearance requirements—that can help to maintain a safe environment in the workplace. Administrative controls, supplemented by the use of personal protective equipment, are considered the second resort after engineering controls. See also hazard-control protocol.

admission

admission n. 1. the act of registering an individual for treatment or observation in a health care facility. See first admission; readmission; voluntary admission. 2. the process involved in determining one’s eligibilty to entrer an educational program. —admit vb.

admission certification

admission certification an aspect of utilization review in which the medical necessity of a patient’s admission to a health care facility is determined.

admission criteria

admission criteria a set of standards or tests used to decide whether to allow a student entry to an educational program.

admission procedures

admission procedures the administrative and medical procedures of admitting a person as an inpatient to a health care facility.

adolescence

adolescence n. the period of human development that starts with puberty (approximately 10 to 12 years of age) and ends with physiological and neurobiological maturity, shown in neuroscientific research to extend to at least age 20, with significant brain development in the late adolescent stage of 18 to 20 yrs. Although brain development continues for many individuals into their mid to late twenties, this latter period is considered to be young adulthood. During the adolescent period, major changes occur at varying rates in physical characteristics, sexual characteristics, and sexual interest, resulting in significant effects on body image, self-concept, and self-esteem. Major cognitive and social developments take place as well: Most young people acquire enhanced abilities to think abstractly, make rational decisions about behavior, evaluate reality hypothetically, reconsider prior experiences from altered points of view, assess data from multiple dimensions, reflect inwardly, create complex models of understanding, and project complicated future scenarios. Adolescents also increase their peer focus and involvement in peer-related activities, place greater emphasis on social acceptance, and seek more independence and autonomy from parents. —adolescent adj., n.

adolescent egocentrism

adolescent egocentrism the feeling of personal uniqueness often experienced in adolescence; that is, the conviction that one is special and is or should be the constant focus of others’ attention. See also imaginary audience; personal fable. [described by U.S. developmental psychologist David Elkind (1931– )]

adolescent growth spurt

adolescent growth spurt see pubescent growth spurt.

adolescent gynecomastia

adolescent gynecomastia enlargement of the breasts in adolescent males, typically resulting from hormonal (estrogen–androgen) imbalances during puberty, in which case it is usually minor and transient. It may also occur as a side effect of medication or street drug use or in association with various conditions, such as Klinefelter’s syndrome. See gynecomastia.

adolescent pregnancy

adolescent pregnancy pregnancy that occurs during the period of adolescence. Adolescent pregnancy is a controversial social issue, particularly when it occurs during the early and middle years of adolescence, when teenagers are typically not emotionally or financially prepared to raise children. A number of possible causes contribute to variations in teenage pregnancy rates, including social and cultural customs, family background and education, and economic and social conditions. Also called teenage (or teen) pregnancy.

adolescent psychology

adolescent psychology the branch of psychology that describes and studies adolescents, their development, and their behavior.

adolescent psychotherapy

adolescent psychotherapy psychotherapy for adolescents who are experiencing social, emotional, or behavioral problems.

adolescent rebellion

adolescent rebellion the rejection by adolescents of family values and family control over their behavior, reflecting their desire for increased independence.

adolescent sex changes

adolescent sex changes the physical and physiological changes that start at puberty. They include accelerated development of sex organs, the appearance of secondary sex characteristics, and the first occurrence of seminal ejaculation in boys and menstruation in girls.

adopter categories

adopter categories categories into which consumers who buy a new product or service can be grouped on the basis of how soon they adopt the innovation after it first appears on the market. The five main categories are innovators (see consumer innovator), early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Analysis of adopter categories is important in determining the likely success of a new product or service and in devising the most effective strategies for marketing it.

adoption

adoption n. the legal process by which an infant or child is permanently placed with a family other than his or her birth family. An adoption may be private, in which a birth parent voluntarily plans for the placement of the child with adoptive parents through intermediaries, or public, in which a child removed from his or her birth parent(s) because of neglect or abuse is placed with adoptive parents through public child welfare agencies. Adoptions may also be closed, allowing no contact between the birth and adoptive parents, or open, permitting varying degrees of pre- and postplacement contact and making possible a relationship between all three parties.

adoption study

adoption study a research design that investigates the relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the development of personality, behavior, or disorder by comparing the similarities of biological parent–child pairs with those of adoptive parent–child pairs.

adoptive parent

adoptive parent the adult who legally adopts a child and raises him or her. Compare birth parent.

ADR

ADR abbreviation for adverse drug reaction.

adren-

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adrenal cortical hyperfunction

adrenal cortical hyperfunction the excessive production of one or more of the hormones of the adrenal cortex. The manifestations vary with the hormone but potentially include (among others) virilism, hypertension, sudden weight gain, torso obesity, and low blood levels of potassium. Causes may include a tumor or congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a disorder marked by increased adrenal production of cortisol precursors and androgens.

adrenal gland

adrenal gland an endocrine gland adjacent to the kidney. Its outer layer, the adrenal cortex, secretes such hormones as androgens, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. Its inner core, the adrenal medulla, secretes the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, both of which are catecholamines and also serve as neurotransmitters. Also called suprarenal gland.

adrenal hyperplasia

adrenal hyperplasia see congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

adrenal virilism

adrenal virilism see virilism.

adrenalectomy

adrenalectomy n. surgical removal of one or both of the adrenal glands.

adrenaline

adrenaline n. see epinephrine.

adrenarche

adrenarche n. the stage of prepubertal development marked by the start of androgen secretion by the adrenal cortex and normally occurring between 6 to 8 years of age. Premature adrenarche, characterized by pubertal levels of adrenal androgens, is manifested by the early appearance of pubic hair. It may be associated with psychological disturbances. By parent report on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, 44% of the children with premature adrenarche met the diagnostic criteria for psychological disorders, primarily anxiety disorders. The condition is also associated with self-reported depression and parent-reported behavior problems, as well as low scores on various intelligence tests.

adrenergic

adrenergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving epinephrine (adrenaline). For example, an adrenergic neuron is one that employs epinephrine as a neurotransmitter. The term often is used more broadly to include norepinephrine as well.

adrenergic blocking agent

adrenergic blocking agent any pharmacological substance that either partially or completely inhibits the binding of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine or epinephrine to adrenergic receptors and thus blocks or disrupts the action of these neurotransmitters. Such blocking agents are classed according to whether they inhibit binding to alpha- or beta-adrenergic receptors. They include alpha blockers (also called alpha-adrenoreceptor blocking agents), used primarily to widen blood vessels in the treatment of hypertension, and beta blockers (also called beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agents), used to treat hypertension as well but by reducing the rate and force of heart contractions, arrhythmia, tremor, and anxiety-related symptoms. Also called adrenoceptor blocking agent; adrenoreceptor blocking agent.

adrenergic drug

adrenergic drug see sympathomimetic drug.

adrenergic reaction

adrenergic reaction the response of organs innervated by the sympathetic nervous system to stimulation by the adrenergic hormones norepinephrine or epinephrine. Adrenergic reactions include increased heart rate, constriction of blood vessels, and dilation of the pupils.

adrenergic receptor

adrenergic receptor a molecule in a cell membrane that specifically binds and responds to norepinephrine and, to a lesser extent, epinephrine, which act as neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system. There are two types: alpha-adrenergic receptors (or alpha receptors) and beta-adrenergic receptors (or beta receptors). Also called adrenoceptor; adrenoreceptor.

adrenergic system

adrenergic system the part of the autonomic nervous system, including receptor sites, that is influenced by adrenergic neurotransmitters and drugs. The nerves included in the adrenergic system vary somewhat with species but generally include all postganglionic sympathetic fibers. Compare cholinergic system.

adreno- (adren-)

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adrenoceptor

adrenoceptor n. see adrenergic receptor.

adrenocortical insufficiency

adrenocortical insufficiency a potentially life-threatening condition caused by failure of the adrenal cortex to produce adequate levels of hormones required for normal metabolic functions. Symptoms may include fatigue, muscle weakness, dizziness, anxiety, and depression. Primary adrenocortical insufficiency is caused by abnormal functioning of the adrenal cortex itself and is called Addison’s disease, whereas secondary adrenocortical insufficiency is caused by failure of the pituitary gland to produce enough corticotropin, which stimulates hormone release from the adrenal cortex.

adrenocorticoid

adrenocorticoid n. see corticosteroid.

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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adrenogenital syndrome

adrenogenital syndrome see congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

adrenoleukodystrophy

adrenoleukodystrophy n. a genetic disease characterized by destruction of the myelin sheath surrounding the neurons of the brain (i.e., demyelination) and progressive dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Nerve function becomes erratic, resulting in a variety of physiological and behavioral symptoms involving changes in body tone, motor movements, gait, speech, ability to eat, vision, hearing, memory, attention, and cognitive processes. There are several types of adrenoleukodystrophy, of which the childhood X-chromosome-linked form is the most common and severe.

adrenoreceptor

adrenoreceptor n. see adrenergic receptor.

ADS abbreviation for action disorganization syndrome.

ADS model

ADS model abbreviation for aperture, draw, syntax model.

adult

adult n. 1. a person who has reached adulthood. 2. a person who has reached the legal age of maturity. Although it may vary across jurisdictions, an individual 18 years of age is typically considered an adult. —adult adj.

adult attachment

adult attachment see attachment style.

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)

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Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACOA)

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adult day care

adult day care a group program for the nonresidential care and supervision of adults with functional impairments, designed to meet their health, social, and functional needs in a setting other than their homes. See day care center.

adult development

adult development biological, psychological, and sociocultural developmental processes that begin in late adolescence and continue through old age.

adult education

adult education formal schooling, often offered at night, that is specifically appropriate for adults who wish either to improve their work or career performance or to learn about a particular subject area of interest. See also continuing education.

adult foster care

adult foster care the provision of community-based living arrangements to adults who require supervision, personal care, or other services in daily living on a 24-hour basis. Host families open their own homes to, and act as caregivers for, such adults who are unable safely to live independently, which is what distinguishes adult foster homes from other residential care facilities.

adult home

adult home an assisted-living residence that provides shared rooms, common meals, personal care services, activities, and protective oversight to adults who are unable to live independently. Intensive medical or nursing services are generally not available.

adult progeria

adult progeria see aging disorder.

adult sensorineural lesion

adult sensorineural lesion see sensorineural lesion.

adult stem cell

adult stem cell see stem cell.

adult-onset diabetes

adult-onset diabetes see diabetes mellitus.

adultery

adultery n. a voluntary sexual relationship between a married person and an individual who is not his or her spouse. In most Western countries, this is grounds for divorce; in some other cultures, adulterers may face severe social sanctions or legal penalties, including death. See also infidelity. —adulterer n. —adulterous adj.

adulthood

adulthood n. the period of human development in which full physical growth and maturity have been achieved and certain biological, cognitive, social, personality, and other changes associated with the aging process occur. Beginning after adolescence, adulthood is sometimes divided into young adulthood (roughly 20 to 35 years of age); middle adulthood (about 36 to 64 years); and later adulthood (age 65 and beyond). The last is sometimes subdivided into young-old (65 to 74), old-old (75 to 84), and oldest old (85 and beyond). The oldest old group is the fastest growing segment of the population in many developed countries. See also emerging adulthood.

adultomorphism

adultomorphism n. 1. the attribution of adult traits or motives to children. Compare pedomorphism. 2. more specifically, the tendency to reconstruct developmental phases by extrapolating from adult psychopathology. —adultomorphic adj.

advance directive

advance directive a legal mechanism for individuals to specify their wishes and instructions about prospective health care in the event they later become unable to make such decisions. This can be achieved by means of a durable power of attorney, a legal document designating a health care proxy to make health care decisions on another person’s behalf. Other advance directives include a living will, a legal document clarifying a person’s wishes regarding future medical or, increasingly, mental health treatment; and a do not resuscitate (DNR) order stating that cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is not to be performed if the patient’s heart or breathing stops. Federal law requires hospitals, nursing homes, and other institutions that receive Medicare or Medicaid funds to provide all patients upon admission with written information regarding advance directives. See also informed consent.

advanced organizers

advanced organizers verbal or written information presented to students before a lecture or other teaching session to enhance their attentiveness and information acquisition in the subsequent lecture. The purposes are (a) to promote an initial understanding of the content, (b) to familiarize students with the way in which information is to be presented, and (c) to identify the purposes for learning the subsequent material. Schematic representations, templates, and prior knowledge information processing are ways of enhancing advanced organization.

advanced placement examinations (AP)

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advantage by illness

advantage by illness see secondary gain.

advantage law

advantage law see law of advantage.

adventitious

adventitious adj. appearing or occurring unexpectedly or in an unusual place; accidental. The term is often used specifically to describe a condition or disorder that has occurred as a result of injury or illness following a period of normal function. Compare congenital.

adventitious deafness

adventitious deafness a loss of hearing that results from injury or illness following a period of normal hearing ability. Compare congenital deafness.

adventitious reinforcement

adventitious reinforcement see accidental reinforcement.

adventitious visual impairment

adventitious visual impairment partial or total visual impairment that results from injury or illness following a period of normal visual ability. Onset of the impairment can produce severe grief, mourning reactions, and dependency. As a consequence, any residual visual capacity may not be used effectively, exacerbating psychological and social-adjustment problems. Also called acquired visual impairment. Compare congenital visual impairment.

adventure-recreation model

adventure-recreation model a model for those who seek risk in outdoor recreational activities. It establishes the relationship among level of engagement, type and level of risk, social orientation, locus of decision making, frequency of participation, and preferred environment. Also called risk-recreation model.

adversarial system

adversarial system the type of legal system, as in the United States, in which a dispute between opposing parties is heard before an independent trier of fact (i.e., a judge or jury). In many European countries, but not the United Kingdom, an inquisitorial system is used, in which the judge leads the investigation by interrogating the parties.

adverse drug reaction (ADR)

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adverse event

adverse event 1. in health care, an injury or harmful effect resulting from medical intervention or research. 2. in pharmacology, see adverse drug reaction.

adverse impact

adverse impact the deleterious effect that certain hiring procedures or selection criteria may have on the employment chances of those in a protected class. For example, testing for competence in written English might have an adverse impact on recent immigrants; such testing should therefore be avoided unless this skill is a bona fide occupational qualification. Also called disparate impact. See also Griggs v. Duke Power Co.griggs-v-duke-power-co; Uniform Guidelines for Employee Selection Procedures.

adverse witness

adverse witness an individual who reveals bias against the party that called him or her to give evidence in a court of law. An adverse witness may be a hostile witness; the two terms often are used interchangeably.

advertisement n. 1. a public announcement appearing in print, broadcast, or electronic media that is designed to bring individuals’ attention to a particular item or service in order to encourage the purchase, consumption, or increased use of that item or service. See also advertising psychology; advertising research. 2. in animal behavior, a signal or display that emphasizes or calls attention to the organism producing it. For example, a male bird defending a territory might use advertisement in the form of bright coloration and conspicuous song both to attract mates and to deter competing males. Compare camouflage.

advertising psychology

advertising psychology the study of the psychological impact that advertisements in various media have on prospective buyers and of the factors contributing to their effectiveness, including different presentation techniques and physical and technological characteristics.

advertising research

advertising research the study of (a) the selection of effective advertising appeals for specific products or brands; (b) the creation of product images, including trade names and package designs; and (c) the development of methods of measuring the effectiveness of advertising campaigns in different media. Advertising research is also used in generic advertising, that is, in the advertising of an industry or product category, such as cigars or coffee, rather than of specific brands.

advertising response modeling (ARM)

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advice giving

advice giving a counseling technique in which the therapist advises the client on alternatives or options for consideration.

advocacy

advocacy n. speaking or acting on behalf of an individual or group to uphold their rights or explain their point of view. An individual engaged in advocacy is called an advocate, of which there are two general types: A case advocate represents a single individual, and a class advocate represents a whole group. An example of a case advocate is a therapist who speaks for a client in court hearings or other situations involving decisions based on the client’s mental health or related issues. An example of a class advocate is an individual in health care that represents consumers to protect their rights to effective treatment. See ombudsman.

AEA

AEA abbreviation for arachidonoylethanolamide. See endogenous cannabinoid.

AED

AED abbreviation for Academy for Eating Disorders.

AEP

AEP abbreviation for average evoked potential.

AEq

AEq abbreviation for age equivalent.

AERA

AERA abbreviation for American Educational Research Association.

aerial perspective

aerial perspective a monocular cue to depth perception consisting of the relative clarity of objects under varying atmospheric conditions. Nearer objects are usually clearer in detail, whereas more distant objects are less distinct and appear bluer.

aero- (aer-)

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aerobic activity

aerobic activity see endurance activity.

aerobic exercise

aerobic exercise physical activity, typically prolonged and of moderate intensity (e.g., walking, jogging, cycling), that involves the use of oxygen in the muscles to provide the needed energy. Aerobic exercise strengthens the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and is associated with a variety of health benefits, including increased endurance, reduction of body fat, and decreased depression and anxiety. Compare anaerobic exercise.

aesthesiometer

aesthesiometer n. see esthesiometry.

aesthesiometry

aesthesiometry n. see esthesiometry.

aesthetic appreciation

aesthetic appreciation the extent to which a stimulus is enjoyed because of its beauty or some other factor associated with aesthetic preference.

aesthetic emotion

aesthetic emotion an emotion linked to the experience of natural beauty or art, including abstract visual displays, music, and dance.

aesthetic evolution

aesthetic evolution the concept that the arts change in an orderly fashion over time because of intrinsic factors rather than as a response to extra-artistic forces. According to this conception, art has to be novel; this leads to systematic changes in content and styles.

aesthetic overshadowing

aesthetic overshadowing the fact that a single prominent characteristic of a stimulus accounts almost entirely for preference for the stimulus generally, with other characteristics being largely ignored. For example, a person viewing a painting who finds the colors appealing will tend to disregard itssize, complexity, and other aspects in determining his or her overall liking for the item.

aesthetic preference

aesthetic preference the extent to which a particular stimulus is preferred to others for reasons of beauty or taste. See also arousal potential.

aesthetic taste

aesthetic taste an individual’s judgment of works of art as being more or less beautiful or otherwise pleasing.

aesthetic value

aesthetic value the emotional or spiritual value attributed to a work of art or nature because of its beauty or other factors associated with aesthetic preference.

aesthetics

aesthetics n. the philosophical study of beauty and art, concerned particularly with the articulation of taste and questions regarding the value of aesthetic experience and the making of aesthetic judgments. See also environmental aesthetics; psychological aesthetics. —aesthetic adj.

affect

affect n. any experience of feeling or emotion, ranging from suffering to elation, from the simplest to the most complex sensations of feeling, and from the most normal to the most pathological emotional reactions. Often described in terms of positive affect or negative affect, both mood and emotion are considered affective states. Along with cognition and conation, affect is one of the three traditionally identified components of the mind.

affect display

affect display a facial, vocal, or gestural behavior that serves as an indicator of affect. See emotional expression.

affect intensity

affect intensity the strength of experience of emotional states from very low to very high, irrespective of the nature (e.g., positive versus negative) of those states.

affect inversion

affect inversion see reversal of affect.

affect misattribution procedure (AMP)

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affect regulation

affect regulation the attempt to alter or control one’s mood or emotional state so as to maximize pleasant experiences and minimize unpleasant ones. Because people cannot usually change their emotions simply by deciding to feel differently, they use many indirect strategies for affect regulation. These include cognitive techniques such as reframing and distraction, behavioral methods such as progressive relaxation and meditation, and unconscious processes such as denial and dissociation.

affect scale

affect scale any of several self-rated measures for quantifying the intensity of moods or emotional states. An example is the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

affect theory

affect theory the idea that feelings and emotions are the primary motives for human behavior, with people desiring to maximize their positive feelings and minimize their negative ones. Within the theory, affects are considered to be innate and universal responses that create consciousness and direct cognition. Eight primary affects are postulated: the positive ones of excitement and enjoyment; the negative ones of distress, fear, shame, disgust, and anger; and the relatively neutral one of interest. Despite their biological nature and triggering mechanisms, primary affects are subject to significant social modification and social causation. See also script theory. [proposed in 1962 by Silvan S. Tomkins]

affect-block

affect-block n. a condition marked by an inability to adequately express or experience emotions, especially strong ones, because of a dissociation of these emotions from ideas or thoughts. It is characteristically seen in individuals with schizophrenia or obsessive-compulsive disorder.

affection

affection n. fondness, tenderness, and liking, especially when nonsexual. Feelings of emotional attachment between individuals, particularly human infants and caregivers, are called affectional bonds. They are particularly important to attachment theory, and their presence is evidenced by proximity-seeking behaviors and mutual distress if loss or involuntary separation occurs. —affectionate adj.

affective

affective adj. demonstrating, capable of producing, or otherwise pertaining to emotion or feelings. —affectivity n.

affective aggression

affective aggression see aggression.

affective ambivalence

affective ambivalence see ambivalence.

affective assessment

affective assessment evaluation of an individual’s emotional state and degree of emotional intensity.

affective commitment

affective commitment that element of an employee’s organizational commitment that can be attributed to a feeling of involvement with the organization and an identification with its goals and objectives. Compare continuance commitment.

affective concordance

affective concordance see concordance.

affective development

affective development see emotional development.

affective discharge

affective discharge the expression of strong emotions (e.g., sorrow or anger) by clients undergoing therapy in which the therapist uses techniques aimed at facilitating deeper exploration of past experiences. Affective discharge is believed to be a release of psychic energy. Also called cathectic discharge.

affective discordance

affective discordance see discordance.

affective disorder

affective disorder see mood disorder.

affective domain

affective domain see Bloom’s taxonomy.

affective education

affective education in Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, any program in which learning is focused on the relation between thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The goals of affective education are twofold: (a) to help children become familiar with a range of feelings (e.g., anger, fear, sadness, and excitement), differentiate among them, and understand the connections of these feelings to thoughts and behaviors; and thus (b) to encourage positive behavior change.

affective engineering

affective engineering see kansei engineering.

affective equilibrium

affective equilibrium the idea that a single affective judgment for a set of stimuli (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) is formed around the median of the judgments made for individual stimuli in the set.

affective forecasting

affective forecasting predicting one’s own future emotional states, especially in connection with some event or outcome that one faces. People often “forecast” more extreme and lasting emotional reactions to events than they actually experience.

affective hallucination

affective hallucination a hallucination that occurs in the context of affective psychosis and has a manic or depressive content.

affective interaction

affective interaction 1. highly emotional interpersonal interactions, as may occur in individual or group therapy or in a family. 2. in robotics and computer design, the process of communicating emotional information to and from the user to improve the user experience.

affective logic

affective logic the hypothesis that emotions have their own independent set of mental operations, distinct from those governing other forms of mental life. [proposed by Théodule Ribot]

affective meaning

affective meaning the attitude or emotion elicited by a stimulus, such as a musical piece, a drawing, or—especially—a word or phrase. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with connotative meaning (see denotative meaning).

affective memory

affective memory see emotional memory.

affective neuroscience

affective neuroscience a discipline that addresses the brain mechanisms underlying emotions. In seeking to understand the particular roles of major subcortical and cortical structures in the elicitation, experience, and regulation of emotion, affective neuroscience provides an important framework for understanding the neural processes that underlie psychopathology, particularly the mood and substance-related disorders. Also called social affective neuroscience. [term coined by Estonian-born U.S. physiological psychologist Jaak Panksepp (1943– )]

affective psychosis

affective psychosis a mood disorder accompanied by delusions or hallucinations (i.e., psychotic features). The mood disruption precedes the psychotic symptoms, and the psychotic symptoms only occur during a major depressive episode or a manic episode.

affective rigidity

affective rigidity a condition in which emotions or feelings remain unchanged through varying situations in which such changes would normally occur. Affective rigidity is common in obsessive-compulsive disorder and schizophrenia.

affective theory

affective theory a framework underlying certain approaches to psychotherapy that emphasizes the importance of feelings and emotions in therapeutic change.

affective tone

affective tone the mood or feeling associated with a particular experience or stimulus. In psychotherapy, when a client fails to recognize his or her affective tone, the therapist may draw the client’s attention to it as a primary element of the therapeutic interaction. Also called feeling tone.

affective well-being

affective well-being see subjective well-being.

affective–cognitive consistency

affective–cognitive consistency the degree to which the affective and cognitive bases of an attitude are evaluatively consistent with one another. For example, if the affective basis is extremely positive and the cognitive basis is extremely negative, affective–cognitive consistency is low. See also affective–evaluative consistency; cognitive–evaluative consistency.

affective–cognitive structure

affective–cognitive structure the combination of an emotional experience with a thought or image, such as the linking of the emotions of relief and fear reduction to the idea of a parent as a haven of safety.

affective–evaluative consistency

affective–evaluative consistency the degree to which the affective basis of an attitude (see bases of an attitude) and the overall attitude are evaluatively consistent with one another. For example, if the affective basis is extremely positive and the overall attitude is extremely negative, affective–evaluative consistency is low. See also affective–cognitive consistency; cognitive–evaluative consistency.

affectively based persuasion

affectively based persuasion an active attempt to change an attitude primarily by altering the emotions, feelings, or mood states associated with the attitude object. Also called emotionally based persuasion. See also bases of an attitude; fear appeal. Compare cognitively based persuasion.

affectivity

affectivity n. the degree of a person’s response or susceptibility to pleasure, pain, and other emotional stimuli. Evaluation of affectivity is an important component of a psychological examination; the therapist or clinician may look for evidence of such reactions as blunted affect, inappropriate affect, loss of affect, ambivalence, depersonalization, elation, depression, or anxiety.

afferent

afferent adj. conducting or conveying from the periphery toward a central point. Compare efferent.

afferent nerve fiber

afferent nerve fiber a nerve fiber, typically a sensory fiber, that conducts impulses toward the brain or spinal cord or from a lower to a higher center of the central nervous system. Compare efferent nerve fiber.

afferent pathway

afferent pathway a neural pathway that conducts impulses from a sense organ toward the brain or spinal cord or from one brain region to another. Compare efferent pathway.

afferent sensory neuron

afferent sensory neuron a neuron that conducts impulses from a sense organ to the brain or spinal cord.

afferent stimulation

afferent stimulation stimulation of a sensory system, leading to conduction of neural impulses to the brain or spinal cord.

affiliation

affiliation n. a social relationship in which a person joins or seeks out one or more other individuals, usually on the basis of liking or a personal attachment rather than perceived material benefits. Some propose that the seeking of cooperative, friendly association with others who resemble or like one or whom one likes is a fundamental human desire, referring to it variously as the affiliation motivation, affiliative drive, affiliative need, or need for affiliation. See also belonging. —affiliative adj.

affinity

affinity n. 1. an inherent attraction to or liking for a particular person, place, or thing, often based on some commonality. See elective affinity. 2. relationship by marriage or adoption rather than blood. Compare consanguinity. 3. in pharmacology, see binding affinity.

affirmative

affirmative n. in linguistics, the form of a sentence used to make a positive assertion about something rather than a negative statement or a question (see interrogative).

affirmative action

affirmative action a policy designed to promote equal educational or employment opportunities by requiring active recruitment or promotion of people from minority groups or another protected class. The policy is controversial in some of its aspects and has been subject to legal challenges, particularly on the grounds that it constitutes reverse discrimination.

affirmative defense

affirmative defense a defense in which the defendant admits committing the act with which he or she is charged but provides evidence that undermines the prosecution’s or plaintiff’s claim of criminal intent (see mens rea). The insanity defense, diminished responsibility, contributory negligence (the defendant’s claim that the plaintiff acted carelessly or with disregard and was partially at fault), and self-defense are examples of affirmative defenses.

affirmative postmodernism

affirmative postmodernism a perspective in postmodernism holding that social, cultural, and political progress is possible within a postmodern framework of assumptions. It is associated most closely with French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard (1924–1998). Compare skeptical postmodernism.

affirmative therapy

affirmative therapy a socioculturally informed intervention that empowers clients and their communities, particularly in situations in which ethnic, gender, or sexual orientation diversity has been resisted or in which normal conditions (e.g., gay identity) have been pathologized. Emphasizing self- and cultural awareness, this therapy may be practiced as a distinct intervention or within the context of other psychotherapies.

affixation

affixation n. the linguistic process in which affixes (prefixes, suffixes, and infixes) are added to words to create inflected or derived forms (e.g., un-glue; walk-ing; material-ize). Languages vary in extent of affixation and frequency of types of affixation. See also agglutination; agglutinative language. —affix vb.

affordance

affordance n. 1. in the theory of ecological perception, any property of the physical environment that offers or allows an organism the opportunity for a particular physical action. An example is the location of the handle on a refrigerator. When the handle is on the left-hand side, it affords a left-hand reach-and-grasp movement. 2. the ease with which the action possibilities of an item or system can be discerned, as in “this remote control has bad affordance.”

affricate

affricate n. a speech sound consisting of a plosive (e.g., [t]) followed immediately by a fricative (e.g., [sh]), such as the [ch] sound in chair.

AFMET

AFMET acronym for Air Force Medical Evaluation Test, the former name for the Biographical Evaluation and Screening of Troops program.

AFP

AFP abbreviation for alpha-fetoprotein.

AFQT

AFQT abbreviation for Armed Forces Qualification Test.

AFR

AFR abbreviation for alcohol flush reaction.

African American

African American a citizen or resident of the United States whose ancestry, at least in part, can be traced to sub-Saharan Africa. Many are descendants of slaves from West Africa, but immigrants from other parts of Africa, the Caribbean, and South America also identify as part of this group, currently the largest racial minority in the United States.

African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

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African trypanosomiasis

African trypanosomiasis see sleeping sickness.

after-nystagmus

after-nystagmus n. the element of vestibular nystagmus that occurs after rotating the head, consisting of rapid, involuntary movement of the eyes in the direction opposite to that of the rotation.

afterbirth

afterbirth n. the third and final stage of birth, involving expulsion of the placenta and other membranes from the uterus. See also delivery; labor.

aftercare

aftercare n. 1. a program of outpatient treatment and support services provided for individuals discharged from an institution, such as a hospital or mental health facility, to help maintain improvement, prevent relapse, and aid adjustment of the individual to the community. Aftercare may also refer to inpatient services provided for convalescent patients, such as those who are recovering from surgery. 2. a form of day care, as in programs designed to care for children after school. See child care.

aftercurrent

aftercurrent n. see afterpotential.

afterdischarge

afterdischarge n. continued production of nerve impulses after the stimulus that caused the activity has been removed.

aftereffect

aftereffect n. the altered perception of a sensory stimulus that results from prolonged exposure to another stimulus. Aftereffects are often visual and are usually the inverted form of the original stimulus. For example, viewing a pattern of lines tilted to the left will make a pattern of vertical lines appear to be tilted to the right (the tilt aftereffect; TAE). There are various other types of aftereffects, including the contingent aftereffect and the motion aftereffect.

afterimage

afterimage n. the image that remains after a stimulus ends or is removed. A positive afterimage occurs rarely, lasts a few seconds, and is caused by a continuation of receptor and neural processes following cessation of the stimulus; it has approximately the color and brightness of the original stimulus. A negative afterimage is more common, is often more intense, and lasts longer. It is usually complementary to the original stimulus in color and brightness; for example, if the stimulus was bright yellow, the negative afterimage will be dark blue.

afterplay

afterplay n. affectionate and sensual activity (e.g., hugging, caressing, kissing) that continues after orgasm is achieved in sexual activity.

afterpotential

afterpotential n. the part of an action potential that remains after the electric potential has reached its peak, or spike. Also called aftercurrent. See also negative afterpotential; positive afterpotential.

agape

agape n. a complex form of love involving feelings of tenderness; protectiveness; self-denial; and aesthetic preference for the features, gestures, speech, and other traits of a person. The term, which derives from a Greek word meaning “brotherly love,” is sometimes used to denote an unselfish love as taught by such religious figures as Jesus and the Buddha.

AGCT

AGCT abbreviation for Army General Classification Test. See Army tests.

age

age 1. n. the amount of time that has passed since an organism’s birth; that is, an individual’s chronological age. Compare gestational age. 2. n. a measure of physical or mental development (e.g., anatomical age, educational age, or reading age). 3. n. a specific period of human life (as in middle age, old age). See developmental levels. 4. vb. to grow older. See aging; secondary aging.

age calibration

age calibration a process in which a test score is assigned a value so that the score may be interpreted relative to other test takers in the same age range.

age cohort

age cohort see cohort.

age crisis

age crisis a theoretical, qualitative change in personality associated with inner conflicts occurring at a particular stage of life. Empirical research has failed to find indications of such radical changes in personality associated with a particular stage of life. See also midlife crisis.

age dedifferentiation hypothesis

age dedifferentiation hypothesis see differentiation–dedifferentiation hypothesis.

age differentiation hypothesis

age differentiation hypothesis see differentiation–dedifferentiation hypothesis.

age discrimination

age discrimination differential treatment of individuals on the basis of chronological age. In the United States, federal legislation has been enacted making age discrimination illegal in various contexts. An example is the Age Discrimination in Employment Act. See ageism.

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)

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age effect

age effect 1. in research, any outcome associated with being a certain age. Such effects may be difficult to separate from cohort effects and period effects. 2. in the psychology of groups, any of various cognitive and interpersonal consequences that result when group members respond to others on the basis of their age. See also ageism.

age equivalent (AEq)

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age norm

age norm the standard score or range of scores that represent the average achievement level of people of a particular chronological age.

age of consent

age of consent the age at which an individual is considered legally competent to assent to something, such as consensual sex, marriage, treatment, or participation in research. See also informed consent.

age of onset

age of onset the chronological age at which symptoms of a disease or disorder first appear in an individual. One of the hallmarks of some genetic syndromes is that the age of onset is earlier in individuals with hereditary susceptibility than in other cases.

age ratio

age ratio one indicator of the predictive power of an aptitude test, obtained by dividing the student’s chronological age at one administration of a test by his or her age at a later administration of the same test.

age regression

age regression a hypnotic technique in which the therapist helps the client recall a crucial experience by inducing amnesia for the present, then suggesting that he or she return, year by year, to the earlier date when a particular experience took place. This technique is also used in forensic contexts to help eyewitnesses and victims recall their experiences. The use of age regression in either context is controversial, given the potential for false memories and the debatable legitimacy of recovered memories.

age-associated memory impairment (AAMI)

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age-equivalent scale

age-equivalent scale a system for expressing test scores in terms of the chronological ages at which the scores are typically obtained.

age-grade scaling

age-grade scaling a method of standardizing a test by establishing norms based on a sample of children who are of the typical chronological age for their grade in school.

ageism

ageism n. the tendency to be prejudiced against older adults, to negatively stereotype them (e.g., as unhealthy, helpless, or incompetent), and to discriminate against them, especially in employment and health care. —ageist adj. [coined in 1969 by U.S. gerontologist and psychiatrist Robert N. Butler (1927–2010)]

agency

agency n. the state of being active, usually in the service of a goal, or of having the power and capability to produce an effect or exert influence.

agency shop

agency shop an arrangement between a labor union and an employer in which employees who are not union members pay a representational fee (usually equal to the dues paid by members) as a condition of employment. See also closed shop; open shop; union shop.

agency theory

agency theory a theory that describes economic and organizational activity in terms of a series of agreements between principals, who require goods or services, and agents, who supply these goods or services. Central to this theory is the rational economic assumption that both agents and principals will attempt to maximize their respective utilities. An agency problem may arise when the interests of principals (e.g., shareholders in a company) and agents (e.g., managers) are not congruent, or when principals have insufficient information about the activities of agents. Agency theory suggests ways in which these problems can be reduced, notably by redesigning contracts or compensation schemes so that agents have an incentive to act in the best interests of principals (e.g., by some form of gainsharing) and by improving monitoring procedures.

agenesis

agenesis n. the failure of a body part to develop fully or to develop at all. An example is corpus callosum agenesis, in which the nerve tract joining the two cerebral hemispheres (see corpus callosum) fails to develop. —agenetic adj.

agenitalism

agenitalism n. 1. congenital absence of sex organs. 2. a condition caused by the lack of secretion of sex hormones.

agent

agent n. 1. a person or entity that acts or has the capacity to act, particularly on behalf of another or of a group. For example, an agent may be a therapist who helps a client gain self-understanding or an individual who initiates a social interaction. 2. a means by which something is done or caused. For example, an infectious agent is a bacterium or other microorganism that causes a particular disease. 3. in linguistics, the entity that performs the main action in a clause or sentence. It is prototypically an animate noun and usually, but not always, the grammatical subject of the clause. The agent is an important category in case grammar. Compare experiencer; instrumental; patient. 4. in parapsychology, the person who instigates an alleged occurrence of psychokinesis or telepathy. Compare percipient. See also sender. 5. in philosophy, an entity that possesses both the power to bring about an event and the power to refrain from bringing it about. In this sense, an agent possesses free will or some similar power to act or forbear. A person as agent is considered to be partly or wholly the originator of his or her own actions. 6. a computer program that makes use of distributed cognition in problem solving. This type of program is designed for use in such areas as telecommunications and Internet-based tasks. —agentive adj.

agentic orientation

agentic orientation an emphasis on achieving, doing, succeeding, and making one’s own mark in the world, which may be expressed through such traits as competitiveness and self-focus.

agentic state

agentic state a psychological condition that occurs when individuals, as subordinates to a higher authority in an organized status hierarchy, feel compelled to obey the orders issued by that authority. See behavioral study of obedience; destructive obedience. [described by Stanley Milgram]

ageusia (aguesia)

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agglutination

agglutination n. in linguistics, the creation of a word from the combination of several morphemes that remain essentially unchanged in the process. For example, the word unbeatable is created by the agglutination of the morphemes un-, beat, and -able. —agglutinate vb.

agglutinative language

agglutinative language in linguistic typology, a language that expresses ideas in complex words formed by the agglutination of numerous distinct morphemes. Turkish is considered a typical agglutinative language. Compare fusional language; isolating language.

aggravated damages

aggravated damages a sum of money a defendant is ordered to pay the plaintiff in a civil lawsuit to provide compensation for emotional harm. Aggravated damages are considered a type of compensatory damages and are awarded under circumstances in which the defendant’s actions were particularly malevolent and caused the plaintiff significant anguish, distress, embarrassment, grief, humiliation, or other pain and suffering.

aggravating factor

aggravating factor a fact relating to a crime or to the defendant that makes the offense more serious or supports the argument for a harsher sentence. An example is the use of a deadly weapon in the commission of a crime. Also called aggravating circumstance. Compare mitigating factor.

aggregate data

aggregate data scores or observations that have been re-expressed by a summary statistic. Calculating the arithmetic average of a set of test scores obtained over time for each individual in a group and then using each person’s single average score as representative of his or her test performance would be an example of aggregating data.

aggregate idea

aggregate idea an idea that is formed by recombination of the elements of a complex stimulus (such as the set of tones of a clanging noise) into a new compound stimulus (such as a musical chord). The new, aggregate idea can be characterized by its elements but is not itself contained in those elements. [defined by Wilhelm Wundt]

aggregation

aggregation n. 1. a collection of organisms in one location with no obvious social structure or social organization, possessing only a minimum of shared purpose or interdependence. Examples include people in a shopping mall, commuters on a subway platform, or a group of butterflies around a puddle of water. Compare group. 2. in statistics, a process of combining and summarizing a set of scores into a smaller set of scores that capture an aspect of the original set. Compare disaggregation. —aggregate vb. —aggregative adj.

aggregation problems

aggregation problems the difficulty of separating individual effects from situational effects when established groups or institutions are used as the unit of analysis in an evaluation. For example, investigators are likely to attribute characteristics of the institution to the individual.

aggression

aggression n. behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically. It can be distinguished from anger in that anger is oriented at overcoming the target but not necessarily through harm or destruction. When such behavior is purposively performed with the primary goal of intentional injury or destruction, it is termed hostile aggression. Other types of aggression are less deliberately damaging and may be instrumentally motivated (proactive) or affectively motivated (reactive). Instrumental aggression involves an action carried out principally to achieve another goal, such as acquiring a desired resource. Affective aggression involves an emotional response that tends to be targeted toward the perceived source of the distress but may be displaced onto other people or objects if the disturbing agent cannot be attacked (see displaced aggression). In the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the aggressive impulse is innate and derived from the death instinct, but many non-Freudian psychoanalysts and most nonpsychoanalytically oriented psychologists view it as socially learned or as a reaction to frustration (see frustration–aggression hypothesis). See also pathological aggression. Aggression among nonhuman animals also exists, involving direct physical attack by one on another or the threat of such attack. Over the years, different researchers have identified different types of animal aggression based on such considerations as the members involved (e.g., intraspecific or interspecific), the apparent intent (e.g., offensive or defensive), or the stimuli eliciting them. One of the most influential classification schemes has been that proposed in 1968 by U.S. physiological psychologist Kenneth Evan Moyer (1919–2006). It describes predatory aggression to obtain food and the converse antipredatory aggression, territorial aggression to repel intruders from an area, intermale aggression against a competitor, fear-induced aggression, irritable aggression in response to pain or deprivation of an item required for survival, sexual aggression to secure mates, maternal aggression to protect young offspring, and instrumental aggression. See also dominance aggression. —aggressive adj.

aggression–frustration hypothesis

aggression–frustration hypothesis see frustration–aggression hypothesis.

aggressive character

aggressive character a personality characterized by a hostile or competitive attitude to others and the pursuit of power, prestige, and material possessions. Karen D. Horney defined the development of such a character as one of three basic neurotic trends used as a defense against basic anxiety. Compare compliant character; detached character.

aggressive cue

aggressive cue a signal or stimulus in a person’s environment that is interpreted as aggressive or that is typically associated with aggression.

aggressive instinct

aggressive instinct in psychoanalytic theory, a derivative of the death instinct that directs destructive impulses away from the self and toward the outside world.

aggressive mimicry

aggressive mimicry the presence in a predatory species of physical or behavioral traits (or both) that closely resemble those of a nonpredatory species, with the result that potential prey more readily approach the predator. For example, the females of a species of firefly can imitate the sexual flash patterns of a different species, luring males of that species close enough to be eaten.

aggressive-rejected child

aggressive-rejected child in sociometric measures of peer acceptance, a child who is prone to hostile and antagonistic behavior toward, and is actively disliked by, his or her peers. Such children show more conduct-disorder psychopathology and delinquency later in adolescence. Compare withdrawn-rejected child. See also sociometric status.

aggressiveness

aggressiveness n. a tendency toward social dominance, threatening behavior, and hostility. It may occur sporadically or be a characteristic trait of an individual. —aggressive adj.

aging

aging n. the biological and psychological changes associated with chronological age. A distinction is often made between changes that are due to normal biological processes (see primary aging) and changes that are caused by age-related pathologies (see secondary aging).

aging disorder

aging disorder any disruption of the gradual structural and immune changes that occur with the passage of time, resulting in premature aging and increased probability of early death. An example is progeria (or Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome), a very rare inherited disorder in which children age extremely rapidly and typically die of a heart attack or stroke between the ages of 10 and 15 years. Another example is adult progeria (or Werner syndrome), with an onset occurring before the age of 30 and an average life expectancy of 20 years from diagnosis; patients typically die of atherosclerosis or some form of cancer.

aging in place

aging in place the ability of older individuals to live safely, independently, and comfortably in their own homes as they age and as their health-related and other needs change. Factors that influence whether an older individual can successfully age in place–that is, without need for long-term institutionalized care–include environmental characteristics of the “place” itself (e.g., home, neighborhood, community), such as its physical suitability, safety, and access to appropriate support services if needed, and personal characteristics or circumstances that support an individual’s independence, such as economic stability, positive relationships with family and friends, a sense of self-efficacy, and ability to manage activities of daily living.

agitated depression

agitated depression a major depressive episode in which psychomotor agitation (excessive but purposeless activity), restlessness, and irritability predominate.

agitation

agitation n. a state of increased but typically purposeless and repetitious activity, as in psychomotor agitation.

agitographia

agitographia n. very rapid writing with nonconscious omissions and distortions of letters, words, or parts of words.

agitophasia

agitophasia n. very rapid and cluttered speech in which sounds, words, or parts of words are omitted or distorted. Also called agitolalia.

aglossia

aglossia n. congenital absence of the tongue, a condition rarely occurring in isolation and most often accompanied by other systemic abnormalities, such as cleft palate, malformed limbs, and missing fingers and toes. Hypoglossia refers to a short, incompletely developed tongue. Both aglossia and hypoglossia result in difficulty or inability to achieve articulation.

agnosia

agnosia n. loss or impairment of the ability to recognize or appreciate the nature of sensory stimuli due to brain damage or disorder. Recognition impairment is profound and specific to a particular sensory modality. Auditory agnosia, tactile agnosia, and visual agnosia are the most common types, and each has a variety of subtypes.

agnosic alexia

agnosic alexia see alexia.

agnosticism

agnosticism n. a skeptical position holding that the truth or falsity of certain metaphysical ideas or propositions cannot be known. The word is most often used in regard to theological doctrines, especially to belief in the existence of God. [coined in 1869 by British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895)] —agnostic adj., n.

agnus castus

agnus castus an herbal preparation derived from the flowers of the chasteberry tree and approved in Germany for use in the management of symptoms associated with the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (see premenstrual dysphoric disorder) and in the alleviation of menstrual cycle abnormalities or irregularities. Although its active components and mechanism of action are unknown, agnus castus has been shown to possess significant estrogenic activity and is thought to act upon the pituitary gland. Agnus castus may also possess dopaminergic activity, and thus its concurrent use with either dopamine-receptor agonists or dopamine-receptor antagonists is not recommended, given the potential interactions that may occur. Side effects of agnus castus use are rare but may include rashes and itching, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, headache, drowsiness, and confusion. Also called vitex agnus castus.

agonadal

agonadal adj. denoting or resulting from absence of the primary sex organs (gonads, i.e., testes or ovaries).

agonist

agonist n. 1. a drug or other chemical agent that binds to a particular receptor and produces a physiological effect, typically one similar to that of the body’s own neurotransmitter at that receptor. There are partial agonists, which stimulate the receptor only somewhat to produce the same physiological effect as the natural neurotransmitter but to a lesser degree, and inverse agonists, which act at the receptor to produce a physiological effect opposite to that produced by another agonist at that same receptor. 2. a contracting muscle whose action generates force in the intended direction. Compare antagonist. —agonism n. —agonistic adj.

agonist–antagonist

agonist–antagonist a substance that simultaneously binds to multiple receptors, mimicking the action of the body’s natural neurotransmitter at one type of receptor and inhibiting that action at another, different type of receptor.

agonistic behavior

agonistic behavior competitive interactions involving components of both fear and aggression. In dominance or territorial encounters, behavioral interactions typically involve fluctuations in fearful and aggressive behavior within both parties, so that neither can be said to be purely aggressive or fearful.

agoraphobia

agoraphobia n. an excessive, irrational fear of being in open or unfamiliar places, resulting in the avoidance of public situations from which escape may be difficult, such as standing in line or being in a crowd. In DSM–IV–TR, agoraphobia may accompany panic disorder (panic disorder with agoraphobia), in which an individual experiences unexpected panic attacks, or it may occur in the absence of panic disorder (agoraphobia without history of panic disorder), when an individual fears paniclike symptoms or limited symptom attacks but has not experienced full-blown panic attacks. In DSM–5, panic disorder and agoraphobia are treated as separate entities with separate criteria; their combined presence is considered two diagnoses. See also anxiety disorder. —agoraphobic adj.

agrammatic comprehension

agrammatic comprehension an inability to understand the meaning of sentences, even though the individual word items are understood correctly. This inability is most often apparent where sentences depart from standard word order (in English, subject–active verb–object) or are syntactically complex. The impairment is associated with conduction aphasia and agrammatism.

agrammatism

agrammatism n. a manifestation of aphasia characterized by loss or impairment of the ability to use speech that conforms to grammatical rules, such as those governing word order. Also called agrammatic aphasia; dysgrammatism. —agrammatic. adj.

agranular cortex

agranular cortex the portion of the cerebral cortex that lacks granule cells. It is found in layers I, III, and V of the cortex (see cortical layers) and refers particularly to the primary motor cortex (Brodmann’s area 4), in which layer V (the major projection area) is very thick. Compare granular cortex.

agranulocytosis

agranulocytosis n. a decline in the number of certain white blood cells (neutrophils), typically as a result of an immune reaction to a drug or other chemical or the toxic effect of this substance on the bone marrow, causing production of white blood cells to fall. Agranulocytosis is diagnosed when the neutrophil count is below 200/mm3 or when the total white-blood-cell count is below 500/mm3. The condition results in suppression of the immune response, rendering individuals vulnerable to opportunistic infections. Psychotropic drugs, such as clozapine and phenothiazine antipsychotics, can induce agranulocytosis.

agraphia

agraphia n. loss or impairment of the ability to write as a result of neurological damage or disorder. The specific forms of writing difficulties vary considerably but may include problems with spelling irregular or ambiguous words, writing numbers or particular letters, or performing the motor movements needed for handwriting. Agraphia generally is seen in aphasia, although there is considerable variability of writing ability within a given aphasia type. Also called dysgraphia. —agraphic adj.

agreeableness

agreeableness n. the tendency to act in a cooperative, unselfish manner, construed as one end of a dimension of individual differences (agreeableness vs. disagreeableness) in the Big Five personality model. It is also a dimension in the five-factor personality model. —agreeable adj.

agreement

agreement n. in linguistics, the correct relation between the different grammatical elements of a sentence, so that, for example, the number of the verb corresponds to that of its subject, and the number and gender of a pronoun correspond to those of its noun.

agreement coefficient

agreement coefficient see coefficient of agreement.

agrypnia

agrypnia n. see insomnia.

aguesia

aguesia n. see ageusia.

agyria

agyria n. see lissencephaly.

AH

AH abbreviation for alternative hypothesis.

aha experience

aha experience the emotional reaction that typically occurs at a moment of sudden insight into a problem or other puzzling issue. It is the experience one would have upon realizing, for example, how to fix a computer problem, master a dance step, or resolve some other difficulty. In psychotherapy, it is specifically a client’s sudden insight into his or her motives for cognitions, affects, or behaviors. Also called aha moment; aha reaction.

ahistoric therapy

ahistoric therapy a therapeutic approach that focuses on here-and-now situations and behaviors. It is distinguished from approaches that place a strong emphasis on earlier events and circumstances.

ahistorical

ahistorical adj. 1. denoting a perspective that sees behavior in terms of contemporary causative factors, with emphasis on the here and now. Sometimes there is an implication that historical causes may be represented in current processes that produce their effects contemporaneously. See presentist. 2. more generally, not concerned with or not taking into account history, historical factors, or historical perspective.

AHP

AHP abbreviation for allied health professional.

ahylognosia

ahylognosia see tactile agnosia.

ahypnia

ahypnia n. see insomnia.

ahypnosia

ahypnosia n. see insomnia.

AI

AI 1. abbreviation for artificial insemination. 2. abbreviation for artificial intelligence.

AIC

AIC abbreviation for Akaike’s information criterion.

aided recall

aided recall the process of remembering or attempting to remember something where a prompt is given to assist recall. Aided recall is used, for example, to assist an eyewitness or victim of a crime to retrieve memories relevant to the event or to assist consumers in remembering information contained in advertising, as a means of testing the effectiveness of a promotion. It can include the use of funnel interviews (in which the researcher starts with general questions and then moves on to specific ones) as well as multiple-choice tests. For example, the interviewer might ask members of the public if they remember seeing a particular advertisement. If they do, the interviewer will ask about specific aspects of the advertisement.

AIDS

AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a clinical condition in which the immune system is so severely damaged from infection with human immunodeficiency virus (see HIV) as to allow serious opportunistic infections and diseases.

AIDS counseling

AIDS counseling cguidance, advice, and information provided to individuals on issues related to HIV infection and AIDS. Such counseling typically covers ways to avoid exposure to HIV infection, provision of HIV antibody testing, and the importance of adhering to medication, as well as dealing with the myriad psychological and social issues associated with AIDS, including stigma and the anxiety over having a life-threatening illness. Also called HIV/AIDS counseling.

AIDS dementia complex (ADC)

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aim

aim n. 1. the symbolic or internal representation of a goal that may motivate and direct behavior toward achieving that goal: an intention or purpose. 2. a goal toward which an organism directs behavior, effort, or activity: an objective. 3. in psychoanalytic theory, see aim of the instinct; object of instinct. AIM acronym for active intermodal mapping.

AIM

AIM model

AIM model a model proposing that various states of consciousness may be defined and differentiated according to their position on three axes of brain activity: (a) Activation—how active is the brain when one is awake, in NREM sleep, or in REM sleep, as measured by electroencephalography?; (b) Input–output gating—how is information that is processed by the brain during each phase in the sleep–wake cycle generated, via external sensory input (as in external stimuli during waking) or internally (as in dreams)?; and (c) Modulation—which neurochemical modulatory system is predominant during each phase, the aminergic or the cholinergic? The model has been used to investigate altered states of consciousness and various phenomena associated with dreaming (notably the lucid dream); it has also been proposed more generally as an approach to the mind–body problem. It was devised by U.S. psychiatrist J. Allan Hobson (1933– ) as an expansion of the earlier activation–synthesis hypothesis that he developed with U.S. psychiatrist Robert W. McCarley (1937– ).

aim of the instinct

aim of the instinct in psychoanalytic theory, the activity through which an instinct is gratified, resulting in the release of internal tension. For example, kissing may satisfy the oral instinct. Also called instinctual aim. See also reversal of affect.

aim-inhibited

aim-inhibited adj. in psychoanalytic theory, describing a behavior—particularly an interpersonal behavior—in which the underlying drives are deflected from their original object and remain largely unconscious. According to the theory, aim inhibition characterizes those situations in which an instinct fails to achieve direct satisfaction of its aim but obtains reduced gratification through activities or relationships similar to the original aim. Sigmund Freud used this idea to explain affectional relationships within families and platonic friendships as deriving from an aim-inhibited sexual instinct.

aiming test

aiming test a test of visual–motor coordination, precision, and speed. The participant either thrusts a stylus into a series of progressively smaller holes momentarily uncovered by a rotating shutter or places dots in small circles as rapidly as possible (see dotting test).

AIO

AIO abbreviation for activities, interests, opinions. See psychographics.

air conduction

air conduction the process of conducting sound waves through the ear canal to the eardrum, which vibrates in response to changes in adjacent air pressure.

Air Force Medical Evaluation Test (AFMET)

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air sickness

air sickness motion sickness caused by air travel.

air traffic control

air traffic control personnel, equipment, and systems that support the safety and security of aircraft through information, communication, observation, and control of flight trajectories. See aviation psychology.

air-conduction testing

air-conduction testing an audiological procedure that measures a person’s threshold for pure tones in each ear at individual frequencies.

air-pollution adaptation

air-pollution adaptation habituation to local levels of air pollution through desensitization to their effects on health and aesthetic judgments. Signal detection theory suggests a shift in response bias rather than in actual threshold effects.

air-pressure effects

air-pressure effects the adverse mental or physical effects of a significant variation in atmospheric pressure. The effects experienced at high pressures—for example, in diving more than 10 m (33 ft) beneath the surface of the sea—may include difficulty breathing, nitrogen poisoning marked by light-headedness and mental instability, and oxygen poisoning caused by breathing oxygen under extreme pressure. Exposure to low pressures, as in mountain climbing or air travel without oxygen or air-pressure modification, characteristically causes oxygen starvation, with impaired performance and eventual loss of consciousness and death. See also acute mountain sickness; altitude sickness; decompression sickness; grayout.

air–bone gap

air–bone gap the difference between the air-conduction and bone-conduction hearing levels at specific frequencies, which indicates the amount of conductive impairment in the ear tested.

AIS

AIS abbreviation for androgen-insensitivity syndrome.

Ajzen–Fishbein model

Ajzen–Fishbein model the original framework for what is now known as the theory of reasoned action. [Icek Ajzen (1942– ) and Martin Fishbein (1936–2009), U.S. social psychologists]

Akaike’s information criterion (AIC)

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akatamathesia

akatamathesia n. see acatamathesia.

akataphasia

akataphasia n. see acataphasia.

akathisia (acathisia)

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akinesia

akinesia n. loss or reduction of voluntary movement. Also called akinesis. —akinetic adj.

akinesia algera

akinesia algera a condition in which severe pain is experienced with any body movement, a disorder often associated with psychogenic factors.

akinesthesia

akinesthesia n. loss or impairment of the sense that provides information from muscles, tendons, and joints. Also called akinesthesis. —akinesthesic or akinesthetic adj.

akinetic

akinetic adj. characterized by loss of voluntary movement not due to paralysis. See akinesia.

akinetic mutism

akinetic mutism an absence or gross reduction of voluntary movements and speech, although the individual does follow eye movements. The condition is associated with damage to the cingulate cortex and supplementary motor area in the mesial part of the frontal lobes.

akinetic seizure

akinetic seizure see atonic seizure.

Akineton

Akineton n. a trade name for biperiden.

akinetopsia

akinetopsia n. inability to see objects in motion as a result of damage to the V5 area of visual cortex. Individuals with akinetopsia perceive moving stimuli as a series of stationary strobelike images and see visual trails behind moving objects. Also called motion agnosia. —akinetopsic adj.

akoria

akoria n. see acoria.

AL

AL 1. abbreviation for absolute limen. (See absolute threshold. 2. abbreviation for adaptation level.

Al-Anon

Al-Anon n. an international self-help organization for people who have been affected by the compulsive use of alcohol by a family member or friend. Founded in the United States in 1951, it uses the twelve-step program adapted from Alcoholics Anonymous and includes Alateen for younger individuals. Al-Anon members share their experiences with and offer support to one another in order to promote personal recovery and growth.

alalia

alalia n. partial or total inability to speak that is most often associated with neuromuscular paralysis of the vocal chords. The term is occasionally used as a synonym for mutism.

alanine

alanine n. a nonessential amino acid found in plasma that has a role in the metabolism of sugar and acid and provides energy for various organs. Its consumption as a supplement in the form of beta-alanine may be associated with improved physical functioning (e.g., in athletes, the elderly) by building muscle mass, and it also may have a role in depression, schizophrenia, and other disorders.

alarm call

alarm call a vocalization produced by a nonhuman animal, often in response to detecting a potential predator, that warns other individuals to either escape or join in mutual attack of the predator. Alarm calls appear to be altruistic acts (placing the caller at increased risk) and are often explained through kin selection or reciprocal altruism.

alarm reaction

alarm reaction see general adaptation syndrome.

alaryngeal

alaryngeal adj. without or not involving the larynx, the structure at the top of the trachea (windpipe) that contains the vocal cords.

Alateen

Alateen n. see Al-Anon.

albinism

albinism n. any of a group of genetic disorders characterized by defective pigmentation of the eyes, hair, and skin due to inadequate production or distribution of melanin pigment in the body. In addition to pigmentation abnormalities, symptoms may include strabismus (abnormal alignment of the eyes), nystagmus (involuntary rapid eye movement), refractive (focusing) errors, reduced visual acuity, and photophobia (extreme sensitivity to light).

Albright’s disease

Albright’s disease a disorder caused by dysfunction of the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, characterized by pigment abnormalities, skeletal pseudocysts, and precocious puberty in females. [Fuller Albright (1900–1969), U.S. physician]

Albright’s hereditary osteodystrophy

Albright’s hereditary osteodystrophy a hereditary condition that resembles hypoparathyroidism but is caused by failure of response to, rather than deficiency of, parathyroid hormone (see pseudohypoparathyroidism). It is commonly marked by short stature, obesity, short metacarpals, and ectopic calcification. [Fuller Albright]

alcohol

alcohol n. ethanol (ethyl alcohol) or any other member of the large group of organic compounds to which ethanol belongs. Other members include methanol and isopropanol. Ethanol is the primary psychoactive agent in alcoholic drinks. Other alcohols are generally toxic if ingested.

alcohol abuse

alcohol abuse a pattern of alcohol consumption that persists despite recurrent significant adverse consequences resulting directly from alcohol use, including neglect of important personal, financial, social, occupational, or recreational activities; absenteeism from work or school; repeated encounters with the police; and the use of alcohol in situations in which drinking is hazardous (e.g., driving while intoxicated). In DSM–IV–TR, it is distinct from alcohol dependence in that the diagnosis does not require tolerance, withdrawal, or alcohol use–related compulsive behavior. In DSM–5, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence have been subsumed into alcohol use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance abuse.

alcohol dependence

alcohol dependence in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of repeated or compulsive use of alcohol despite significant behavioral, physiological, and psychosocial problems; it may also feature cravings, the development of tolerance, and characteristic withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended. The diagnosis is further differentiated from alcohol abuse by the preoccupation with obtaining alcohol or recovering from its effects. Alcohol dependence is sometimes considered to be the equivalent of alcoholism. In DSM–5, it and alcohol abuse have been subsumed into alcohol use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance dependence

alcohol derivative

alcohol derivative any drug that utilizes the sedative and hypnotic effects of alcohol for therapeutic purposes. In the 1890s, it was found that compounds derived from methyl alcohol had CNS depressant effects. In the 1950s, a new generation of alcohol-based compounds with greater hypnotic activity was introduced. They included ethchlorvynol and ethinamate; the latter is a more potent sleep inducer than ethchlorvynol, but its abuse potential is similar to that of barbiturates. Due to their toxicity, alcohol derivatives are rarely used in modern clinical practice.

alcohol flush reaction (AFR)

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alcohol hallucinosis

alcohol hallucinosis see alcoholic hallucinosis.

alcohol intoxication

alcohol intoxication in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible condition that develops soon after the ingestion of alcohol. It comprises behavioral or psychological changes, such as inappropriate or aggressive behavior, impaired judgment, or impaired social functioning; and physiological changes, such as slurred speech, unsteady gait, and disruption of attention or memory. The effects typically become more marked with increased alcohol intake. Severe intoxication levels can result in respiratory depression and death. See also substance intoxication.

alcohol intoxication delirium

alcohol intoxication delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that develops over a short period (usually hours to days) following heavy alcohol consumption. Disturbance of consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention) is accompanied by changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, or language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with alcohol intoxication. See also substance intoxication delirium.

alcohol myopia

alcohol myopia alcohol-induced impairment of perception and cognition, specifically, a narrowed focus on immediately salient events, desires, or behaviors to the exclusion of less immediate ones. This can lead, for example, to aggressive behavior if an intoxicated individual focuses on (and overinterprets) an immediate threat rather than considering the potential negative ramifications of responding to that threat. [identified by U.S. psychologists Claude M. Steele (1946– ) and Robert A. Josephs (1961– )]

alcohol rehabilitation

alcohol rehabilitation interventions designed to enable the alcohol-dependent person either to achieve and maintain abstinence, which is the generally accepted goal of treatment for alcohol dependence, or to reach and maintain a stable pattern of nonproblem drinking, which is a controversial, less common goal of treatment. Also called alcoholism treatment; alcohol rehab.

alcohol use disorder

alcohol use disorder a catchall diagnosis encompassing varying degrees of excessive use of alcohol. In DSM–5, the term specifically encompasses both abuse of and dependence on alcohol, thus superseding the DSM–IV–TR’s distinct diagnoses of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. The disorder is characterized by such symptoms as alcohol craving, recurrent use of alcohol that interferes with the fulfillment of one’s daily responsibilites, alcohol-seeking behavior, inability to control one’s drinking, drinking despite potential hazards (e.g., drinking while driving), the need for increased amounts of alcohol to achieve its effects (tolerance), and withdrawal symptoms when one stops or reduces alcohol intake (e.g., hand tremors, nausea, agitation, hallucinations). The disorder is distinguished as mild, moderate, or severe depending on the number of these symptoms that an individual may have: Mild cases present with two to three symptoms; moderate cases four to five symptoms; and severe cases six or more symptoms.

alcohol withdrawal

alcohol withdrawal in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a group of physical symptoms that arise after cessation of repeated and prolonged heavy alcohol consumption. Withdrawal symptoms include autonomic hyperactivity (sweating, pounding heart, dry mouth, etc.), hand tremor, insomnia, nausea or vomiting, psychomotor agitation, anxiety, and in some cases hallucinations or illusions, seizures, and delirium tremens. See also hangover.

alcohol withdrawal delirium

alcohol withdrawal delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that develops over a short period of time (usually hours to days) following cessation of prolonged, heavy alcohol consumption. The features are disturbed consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention) and changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with alcohol withdrawal. See also delirium tremens.

alcohol-amnestic disorder

alcohol-amnestic disorder see alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder.

alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder

alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder a disturbance in memory caused by the persisting effects of alcohol. The ability to learn new information or to recall previously learned information is impaired severely enough to interfere markedly with social or occupational functioning and to represent a significant decline from a previous level of functioning. Formerly called alcohol-amnestic disorder. See also Korsakoff’s syndrome; Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome.

alcohol-induced persisting dementia

alcohol-induced persisting dementia a deterioration of mental function resulting from the persisting effects of alcohol abuse. It is characterized by multiple cognitive deficits, especially of memory, but also including impairment of speech (see aphasia), movement (see apraxia), and sensory capabilities (see agnosia), and executive dysfunction. Also called alcoholic dementia. See also substance-induced persisting dementia.

alcohol-induced psychotic disorder

alcohol-induced psychotic disorder hallucinations or delusions due to the direct physiological effects of alcohol. See also alcoholic hallucinosis; substance-induced psychotic disorder.

Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration (ADAMHA)

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alcoholic

alcoholic n. a person who is dependent on alcohol, that is, who regularly drinks to the point of intoxication despite negative consequences. See also alcohol dependence.

alcoholic blackout

alcoholic blackout see blackout.

alcoholic brain syndrome

alcoholic brain syndrome any of several syndromes associated with the acute or chronic effects of alcohol on brain function, including alcohol intoxication delirium, alcohol withdrawal delirium, alcohol-induced persisting dementia, alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder, and alcohol-induced psychotic disorder.

alcoholic cerebellar degeneration

alcoholic cerebellar degeneration degeneration of Purkinje cells in the midline of the cerebellum caused by long-term alcohol abuse, commonly producing gait disturbances.

alcoholic dementia

alcoholic dementia see alcohol-induced persisting dementia.

alcoholic hallucinosis

alcoholic hallucinosis alcohol use–related hallucinations, often auditory, that the individual may not realize are hallucinations. The individual remains lucid but may feel persecuted and behave aggressively. Also called alcohol hallucinosis. See also alcohol-induced psychotic disorder.

alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome

alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome a form of Korsakoff’s syndrome caused by long-term alcohol abuse. See alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder.

alcoholic myopathy

alcoholic myopathy see acute alcoholic myopathy.

alcoholic neuropathy

alcoholic neuropathy any of various neurological disturbances, including weakness and abnormal skin sensations, such as numbness, tingling, and burning, that are secondary to chronic heavy consumption of alcohol. Specific causative factors are not well understood but appear to include vitamin deficiencies and a directly toxic effect of alcohol on nerves.

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)

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alcoholism

alcoholism n. a syndrome of compulsive and dependent alcohol use. The term may be used synonymously with alcohol dependence or refer to persistent heavy alcohol use without a formal diagnosis.

aldolase (ALS)

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Aldomet

Aldomet n. a trade name for methyldopa.

aldosterone

aldosterone n. the principle mineralocorticoid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, the outer layer of the adrenal gland. It helps to regulate mineral and water metabolism by promoting potassium excretion and sodium retention in the kidneys. Excess secretion of aldosterone results in a pathological condition called aldosteronism (or hyperaldosteronism), marked by headaches, muscle weakness, fatigue, hypertension, and numbness. Primary aldosteronism is caused by abnormal functioning of the adrenal cortex itself and is called Conn’s syndrome, whereas secondary aldosteronism is the result of a liver, heart, or kidney disease affecting the adrenal glands.

alert inactivity

alert inactivity an infant state of arousal marked by facial relaxation, calm and even breathing, open, luminous eyes, and considerable visual exploration.

alerting device

alerting device an assistive technology device that alerts individuals with hearing loss to the occurrence of an event that is typically signaled by auditory means, such as the ringing of a doorbell, the buzzing of an alarm clock, or the beeping of a smoke or fire alarm. It might employ a flashing light, vibrations, or other nonauditory stimuli.

alerting mechanisms

alerting mechanisms systems within the central nervous system that trigger a response or direct the attention of higher brain centers to possible threats. Most important is the arousal mechanism of the reticular formation in the brainstem.

alertness

alertness n. the state of being awake, aware, attentive, and prepared to act or react. Neurologically, alertness corresponds with high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves resulting from stimulation of the reticular formation. See also arousal. —alert adj.

alexia

alexia n. loss or impairment of the ability to comprehend written or printed words as a result of lesions, stroke, or other forms of neurological damage or disorder. It is generally seen in aphasia but may occur in isolation, in which case it is called pure alexia (or alexia without agraphia or agnosic alexia) and characterized by reading impairment with preserved language production and auditory comprehension. Individuals with pure alexia can also write but are frequently unable to read what they have written (hence it is also called word blindness). See also dyslexia.

alexia with agraphia

alexia with agraphia a form of acquired dyslexia in which both reading and writing ability are impaired. Often problems producing or comprehending speech are also present. The condition is traditionally associated with lesions of the angular gyrus but is now known to involve other regions of the brain as well.

alexithymia

alexithymia n. an inability to express, describe, or distinguish among one’s emotions. It may occur in a variety of disorders, especially psychosomatic and some substance use disorders, or following repeated exposure to a traumatic stressor. It also may be a disorder in its own right. See also normative male alexithymia.

Alfenta

Alfenta n. a trade name for alfentanil. See fentanyl.

alfentanil

alfentanil n. see fentanyl.

algebraic summation

algebraic summation summation that takes into account the signs of the terms. Thus, when both excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are induced in a neuron, an action potential is evoked only if the excitatory potentials exceed the inhibitory potentials by at least a threshold amount.

algedonic

algedonic adj. relating to pain associated with pleasure, or the pleasantness–unpleasantness dimension of experience. Algedonics is the study of the mixture of pleasure and pain.

algedonic aesthetics

algedonic aesthetics the concept that pleasure arises when sensory organs are in a hypernormal state of readiness to respond, and displeasure arises when they are in a hyponormal state of readiness. [formulated in the late 19th century by U.S. philosopher Henry R. Marshall (1852–1927)]

algesia

algesia n. the ability to experience the sensation of pain. Compare analgesia. —algesic adj.

algesimeter

algesimeter n. an instrument used to measure the sensitivity of an individual to pain. It contains a calibrated needle that is pressed against a body surface in order to determine the person’s pain threshold. Also called algesiometer; algometer.

algo- (alg-)

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algolagnia

algolagnia n. a sexual disorder in which sexual excitement is achieved by passively experiencing or actively inflicting pain. See sexual masochism; sexual sadism.

algometer

algometer n. see algesimeter.

algophilia

algophilia n. liking for the experience or infliction of pain. See also algolagnia; masochism; sadism.

algopsychalia

algopsychalia n. physical pain recognized by the patient as being of mental rather than physical origin, which sometimes accompanies mental difficulties and illness (e.g., anxiety, depression, schizophrenia). See also psychalgia; psychic pain.

algorithm

algorithm n. a well-defined procedure or set of rules that is used to solve a problem or accomplish a task or that is used for conducting a series of computations. An example is trying all the possible combinations in sequence in order to open a combination lock. Algorithms, which may be represented visually as flow charts, are essential to computer programming and information processing. The word is derived from the name of the 9th-century Arab mathematician al-Khwarizmi. Compare heuristic. See also British Museum algorithm; brute force; exhaustive search. —algorithmic adj.

ALI Guidelines

ALI Guidelines abbreviation for American Law Institute Guidelines. See American Law Institute Model Penal Code insanity test.

alien abduction

alien abduction a claim by individuals that they have been kidnapped by extraterrestrial beings. Although this phenomenon is commonly associated with delusional thinking, posttraumatic stress disorder, and acute stress reactions, many of these individuals have no other clear symptoms of mental disorder. There is no conclusive scientific evidence to support the validity of their claims. Also called extraterrestrial kidnapping.

alien hand syndrome

alien hand syndrome a phenomenon in which an individual perceives his or her hand to be acting under its own control or to be “foreign.” It is a specific kind of alien limb syndrome.

alien limb syndrome

alien limb syndrome a neurological disorder characterized by unintended hand, arm, or leg movements, often accompanied by a feeling that one has no control over the limb. The individual may not even recognize the limb as his or her own. The syndrome may be associated with lesions to the supplementary motor area or the motor regions of the corpus callosum.

alienation

alienation n. 1. estrangement from others, resulting in the absence of close or friendly relationships with people in one’s social group (e.g., family, workplace, community). 2. a deep-seated sense of dissatisfaction with one’s personal existence and a lack of trust in one’s social or physical environment or in oneself. 3. estrangement from one’s own customary or expected ways of functioning. 4. the experience of being separated from reality or isolated from one’s thoughts, feelings, or physical being, as in derealization and depersonalization. —alienated adj.

alienation coefficient

alienation coefficient see coefficient of alienation.

alkalosis

alkalosis n. an abnormally high level of alkalinity (bicarbonate ion concentration) in the blood and tissues, which upsets the body’s acid–base balance. The condition is often marked by slow, shallow breathing. It has a variety of causes and additional symptoms vary with each, potentially including neurological abnormalities such as muscle twitching, confusion, tremors or spasms, and numbness. Compare acidosis. —alkalotic adj.

all-

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all-or-none law

all-or-none law the principle that the amplitude of the action potential in a neuron is independent of the magnitude of the stimulus. Thus, all stimuli above the neuron’s threshold trigger action potentials of identical magnitude (although they may vary in frequency); stimuli below this threshold may produce local graded potentials but no propagated impulses. Also called all-or-none principle.

all-or-none learning

all-or-none learning the theory that, in any given learning trial, learning occurs either completely and fully or not at all. This contrasts with a hypothesis of trial-by-trial incremental learning.

all-payer system

all-payer system a health care system in which prices for health care services and payment methods are the same regardless of who is paying (e.g., the patient or an insurance company). Also called multipayer system.

all-possible-subsets regression

all-possible-subsets regression a method for predicting an outcome variable based on a series of equations formed by all possible subsets of predictors from a finite pool of predictors. The “best” subset is identified using criteria established by the researcher, such as the value of Akaike’s information criterion or of the coefficient of multiple determination. Also called all-possible-subsets multiple regression; setwise regression.

allachesthesia

allachesthesia n. see allesthesia.

allele

allele n. an alternate form of a gene that occupies a given position on each of a pair of homologous chromosomes. Each person typically has two alleles of each gene: One is inherited from the mother and the other from the father. Alleles may be alike (homozygous) or different (heterozygous) and are responsible for variation in inherited characteristics, such as hair color or blood type. See also dominant allele; recessive allele. —allelic adj.

allergy

allergy n. a condition in which the body produces an abnormal or inappropriate immune response to certain, normally harmless substances known as allergens, such as dust, pollen, nuts, or animal dander. In an allergic person, the allergens stimulate the release of histamine and other chemicals, leading to symptoms that can include (but are not limited to) inflammation, sneezing, itching, and vomiting. See also anaphylaxis. —allergic adj.

allesthesia (allaesthesia; alloesthesia)

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alley maze

alley maze a maze consisting of paths formed by walls of opaque material tall enough to prevent an individual within it from jumping out. Alternatively, alley mazes may have shorter walls and be covered by a top. An incorrect choice within the maze leads to a cul-de-sac. It is one of two primary types of maze, the other being an elevated maze.

alley problem

alley problem the conundrum posed by the apparent convergence of two parallel structures that extend from the viewer into the distance. Parallel rows of trees, railroad tracks, or walls of buildings forming an alley are all common stimuli that appear to meet in the distance. See also illusion; linear perspective.

alliaceous

alliaceous adj. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality smelled in garlic and chlorine.

alliance

alliance n. an association formed between two or more individuals to promote mutual interests. For example, nonhuman animals form alliances that allow members collectively to control resources that one individual could not control alone. Two male primates of lower rank may act together to control resources that normally only the alpha male would control. A group of male lions (often related) may form an alliance to take over a pride of females from another male. See also therapeutic alliance.

allied health professional (AHP)

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allo- (all-)

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allocation decision

allocation decision 1. in decision theory, a choice in which an individual must decide how to distribute a limited resource across entities (e.g., hypothetical factories or hospitals). 2. in group problem solving, the group’s allocation of particular roles or jobs to individual members.

allocation rule

allocation rule see classification rule.

allocator

allocator n. in bargaining and game theory, the individual or group making the initial offer to the other party (the acceptor).

allocentric

allocentric 1. adj. denoting interest in or focus on other people or objects rather than the self. Compare autocentric. 2. n. an individual who is dispositionally predisposed to put the goals and needs of the group above his or her own. Compare idiocentric. See also sociocentrism. —allocentrism n.

allocheiria (allochiria)

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allochthonous

allochthonous adj. stemming from sources or forces external to a particular system: not indigenous or innate. Compare autochthonous.

allocortex

allocortex n. those regions of the cerebral cortex that are phylogenetically older and have fewer than six main layers of cells. The allocortex is involved primarily in olfactory functions and limbic functions related to memory and emotion, and it comprises the three-layered archicortex (or archipallium), found mostly in the hippocampus, and the four- or five-layered paleocortex (or paleopallium), found mostly in the pyriform area and parahippocampal gyrus. Compare neocortex.

alloeroticism

alloeroticism n. the extension of erotic feelings toward and the derivation of sexual satisfaction from others, as opposed to autoeroticism. Also called alloerotism. —alloerotic adj.

alloesthesia

alloesthesia n. see allesthesia.

allogrooming

allogrooming n. behavior that involves two or more nonhuman animals picking through each other’s fur, hair, or feathers. Often thought to have a solely hygienic function (i.e., the removal of dirt and parasites), allogrooming has been shown to have positive social effects as well, through production of endogenous opioids in recipients. It is thus a mechanism that reinforces social relationships.

allomone

allomone n. a chemical signal that is released outside the body by members of one species and affects the behavior of members of another species. Compare pheromone.

allomorph

allomorph n. in linguistics, any of several different speech sounds or written forms that are used to represent the same morpheme. For example, the [s] sound at the end of cats and the [z] sound at the end of dogs represent the same noun-plural morpheme and are therefore allomorphs. Similarly, in writing, the -t at the end of burnt and the -ed at the end of turned are allomorphs representing the same past-tense morpheme. —allomorphic adj.

allonursing

allonursing n. the provision by a female of nourishment for offspring that are not her own. Although seen in rodents, ungulates, primates, and other mammalian species, allonursing remains poorly understood in light of the fact that lactation imposes substantial physiological costs on mothers and thus seemingly should not be directed toward foreign offspring. The various explanations offered for this behavior include the parenting hypothesis, stating that the individual is practicing to improve her maternal skills; the reciprocity hypothesis, stating that the individual helps one who has helped her by sharing responsibility for nourishment; the misdirected parental care hypothesis, stating that the individual is unaware the offspring is not her own; the milk evacuation hypothesis, stating that the individual nourishes others to get rid of surplus milk not consumed by her own offspring; and the kin selection hypothesis, stating that the individual obtains greater inclusive fitness by nourishing offspring to whom she is indirectly related. Additionally, allonursing may have social benefits similar to those of allogrooming. Also called communal nursing; nonoffspring nursing.

alloparenting

alloparenting n. care of infants by individuals who are not their parents. It is seen especially among cooperative-breeding species where alloparents (also known as helpers or helpers at the nest) may provide essential services for offspring survival.

allopathy

allopathy n. a system of medicine in which a disease or disorder is treated with agents that produce effects different from or incompatible with those caused by the disease or disorder. Allopathy is often equated with conventional or pharmacological medical practice. Compare homeopathy. —allopathic adj.

allopatric

allopatric adj. see sympatric.

allophasis

allophasis n. disorganized, incoherent speech.

allophone

allophone n. in linguistics, any of several slightly different speech sounds that are regarded as contextual variants of the same phoneme. For example, in English the aspirated [p] sound at the beginning of paid and the unaspirated [p] sound in spade have no contrastive function in the phonological system of the language and are therefore regarded as allophones of the same phoneme, /p/. —allophonic adj.

alloplasty

alloplasty n. 1. a process of adaptive response that aims to alter the environment, as opposed to altering the self. Also called alloplastic adaptation. 2. surgical repair of diseased or damaged tissue through implantation using synthetic or organic material from outside the patient’s body. Compare autoplasty. —alloplastic adj.

allopregnenolone

allopregnenolone n. a naturally occurring steroid that modulates GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor activity in a manner similar to that of benzodiazepine anxiolytics.

allopsychic delusion

allopsychic delusion a delusion about others or the world outside of the self. Compare autopsychic delusion.

allostasis

allostasis n. stability through change. Allostasis refers particularly to the idea that parameters of most physiological regulatory systems change to accommodate environmental demands. Although allostatic processes are critical for adaptive functioning, chronic or repeated activation of physiological systems in response to life’s challenges is hypothesized to exact a toll on such systems.

allosteric modulation

allosteric modulation the binding of a substance (called an allosteric modulator) to a certain site on a receptor in a way that alters the conformation of other sites on the receptor, thereby increasing or decreasing the affinity of the receptor for other molecules. Allosteric modulation has been recognized as an alternative pharmacological approach to gain selectivity in drug action.

allotriophagy

allotriophagy n. a desire to eat inappropriate foods or nonnutritive substances. Also called allotriophagia. See also pica.

Allport–Vernon–Lindzey Study of Values (SOV)

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Allport’s personality trait theory

Allport’s personality trait theory the theory that an individual’s personality traits or personal dispositions are key to understanding the uniqueness and consistency of his or her behavior. Traits are regarded as dynamic forces that interact with each other and the environment to determine the characteristic actions or reactions that define the self (see proprium). See also common trait. [Gordon W. Allport]

allusive thinking

allusive thinking a type of thinking marked by inference and suggestion rather than traditional logic and direct communication of ideas. The concepts employed may seem diffuse and indistinct. See also analogical thinking.

alogia

alogia n. inability to speak because of dysfunction in the central nervous system. In a less severe form, it is sometimes referred to as dyslogia.

alpha

alpha (symbol: α) n. 1. the likelihood of incorrectly rejecting a statement or hypothesis concerning a characteristic of a population. More specifically, it is the probability of incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis (i.e., committing a Type I error) in research. Although the value of alpha is chosen by the investigator based on what is deemed acceptable for a particular study, alpha values of .05 and .01 are commonly used. 2. a measure of reliability for a set of responses to a test or measure. See Cronbach’s alpha.

alpha alcoholism

alpha alcoholism see Jellinek’s alcoholism species.

alpha biofeedback

alpha biofeedback see alpha-wave training.

alpha blocker

alpha blocker see adrenergic blocking agent.

alpha blocking

alpha blocking the suppression of alpha waves that is observed in some individuals via electroencephalography (EEG) when they focus their eyes on an unexpected stimulus or perform an active mental task. It is sometimes taken as an indicator of orienting or attention. The notion of “alpha blocking” is inferential, however; what is actually observed is a drop in visible alpha-band activity in the “raw” scalp EEG. Typically, blocked alpha waves are replaced by faster, low-amplitude, irregular waveforms on the EEG, a phenomenon called desynchronization.

alpha coefficient

alpha coefficient see Cronbach’s alpha.

alpha error

alpha error see Type I error.

Alpha examination

Alpha examination see Army tests.

alpha female

alpha female see alpha male.

alpha level

alpha level see significance level.

alpha male

alpha male the top-ranked or dominant male within a group, with primary access to resources, including food and mates. In many species, the alpha male prevents other males from mating or from mating during the peak time of female fertility. There are alpha females as well, with primary access to resources within their social groups; in some species, they inhibit reproduction among other females.

alpha motor neuron

alpha motor neuron see motor neuron.

alpha movement

alpha movement a form of apparent movement in which an object appears to expand or contract when increasingly larger or smaller versions of it are presented in rapid succession. Also called alpha motion.

alpha neurofeedback

alpha neurofeedback see alpha-wave training.

alpha receptor

alpha receptor see alpha-adrenergic receptor.

alpha rhythm

alpha rhythm see alpha wave.

alpha state

alpha state a state of relaxed wakefulness associated with increased production of alpha waves in some individuals. It is claimed that alpha states may be induced by alpha-wave training, meditation, yoga, hypnotic suggestion, flow experiences, and other calmly focused activities.

Alpha test

Alpha test see Army tests.

alpha wave

alpha wave in scalp electroencephalography, a type of low-amplitude brain wave (frequency 8–12 Hz) that typically occurs when the eyes are closed or unfocused and no deliberate mental tasks are taking place; it is associated with a wakeful but relaxed state. There is some evidence that the occurrence of alpha waves can be increased, through meditation techniques or alpha-wave training for example. Also called alpha rhythm; Berger rhythm.

alpha-adrenergic receptor

alpha-adrenergic receptor a receptor that binds norepinephrine and causes stimulation of smooth muscle in responses of the sympathetic nervous system, such as pupil dilation and increased vascular resistance (see vasoconstriction). There are two types, α1-adrenoreceptors and α2-adrenoreceptors, each of which is divided into subtypes designated by subscript capital letters (α1A-adrenoreceptor, α2A-adrenoreceptor, etc.). Also called alpha adrenoceptor; alpha adrenoreceptor; alpha receptor. Compare beta-adrenergic receptor.

alpha-adrenoreceptor blocking agent

alpha-adrenoreceptor blocking agent see adrenergic blocking agent.

alpha-block conditioning

alpha-block conditioning the training of humans or other animals to block alpha waves by reinforcement or biofeedback. See alpha blocking.

alpha-endorphin

alpha-endorphin n. see endorphin.

alpha-fetoprotein (α-fetoprotein; AFP)

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alpha-mannosidosis

alpha-mannosidosis n. a rare and progressive autosomal recessive, lysosomal storage disease involving deficient activity of an enzyme, alpha-D-mannosidase, needed to metabolize the sugar mannose. Mutations in the MAN2B1 gene cause the disease. Affected individuals have slow motor development; intellectual disability; skeletal abnormalities; and anomalous facial features (e.g., large head, low hairline, flattened bridge of the nose, protruding jaw, large tongue). Early-onset alpha-mannosidosis, the most severe form, can affect the fetus but most often begins in early infancy. It is typically fatal during childhood. Onset of the disorder later in childhood or early adolescence is associated with milder symptoms that progress more slowly and with an increased lifespan into middle age.

alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH; alpha-MSH)

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alpha-methylparatyrosine (AMPT)

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alpha-MSH (α-MSH)

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alpha-wave training

alpha-wave training a type of neurofeedback training that aims to teach individuals how to achieve a state of peaceful wakefulness and relaxation by increasing alpha-band activity (alpha waves). The technique usually involves alpha neurofeedback (formerly called alpha biofeedback), the process of providing a feedback stimulus (typically an auditory tone) when alpha waves appear over the occipital cortex on a scalp electroencephalogram. The efficacy of such training is disputed. See also alpha state.

alphabet

alphabet n. a set of letters or signs, usually listed in a fixed order, that are used to represent the basic speech sounds of a language in writing. In linguistics, the term is restricted to those writing systems in which the symbols represent individual phonemes rather than syllables. Compare syllabary. —alphabetical adj.

Alport syndrome

Alport syndrome a familial condition characterized by hematuria (bloody urine), nephropathy (disease of the kidney), and deafness. Hematuria may first appear in infancy, whereas deafness is likely to develop around puberty. The condition also may be accompanied by cataracts and intellectual disability. It is caused by mutation of the genes COL4A3, COL4A4, COL4A5, or COL4A6, which specify chains of basement membrane (Type IV) collagen. [described in 1927 by Arthur Cecil Alport (1879–1959), British physician]

alprazolam

alprazolam n. a benzodiazepine used for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. It is rapidly absorbed and has a relatively brief duration of action. Common side effects include drowsiness, light-headedness, headache, and confusion. U.S. trade name: Xanax.

ALS

ALS 1. abbreviation for aldolase. 2. abbreviation for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

als ob

als ob as if (German). The phrase is associated with the thought of German philosopher Hans Vaihinger (1852–1933), who proposed that certain “fictions,” such as free will, immortality, and objective morality, should be supported and lived as if (als ob) they were true, because there is biological advantage in doing so. Vaihinger’s work influenced that of Alfred Adler.

Alström–Hallgren syndrome

Alström–Hallgren syndrome a familial disorder that is characterized by obesity, deafness, visual disorders, and diabetes and occasionally associated with mental disorders. [Carl-Henry Alström (1907–1993), Swedish physician; Bertil Hallgren, 20th-century Swedish geneticist]

ALT

ALT abbreviation for alternative schedule of reinforcement.

alter ego

alter ego 1. a second identity or aspect of a person that exists metaphorically as his or her substitute or representative, with different characteristics. For example, an avatar is a digital alter ego that provides a virtual representation of a computer or Internet user in games, online discussion boards, or alternate online universes. 2. an intimate, supportive friend with whom an individual can share all types of problems and experiences, as if he or she were another self. 3. in psychodrama, a group member, other than the therapist, who assumes the role of a significant figure in the protagonist’s life (see auxiliary ego) but who also speaks as part of the protagonist in order to give voice to and portray actions felt but not expressed by the protagonist.

alter-ego transference

alter-ego transference see twinship transference.

alteration hypothesis

alteration hypothesis a theoretical explanation of the misinformation effect stating that misleading information introduced after a witnessed event replaces, transforms, or impairs the original memory of the event, leading to erroneous reporting of that event. Also called substitution hypothesis. Compare coexistence hypothesis.

altercasting

altercasting n. in role theory, the process of imposing identities and social roles on others (“alters”), usually by treating them in ways that are consistent with the imposed identity or role. —altercast vb.

altered state of consciousness (ASC)

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alternate binaural loudness-balance test

alternate binaural loudness-balance test a test for abnormal sensitivity to loud sounds (see recruitment). The individual hears two tones of the same frequency played alternately into the two ears, but the intensity of the sound at one ear is set to begin at a level 20 dB higher than the other. The intensity of the sound increases in the defective ear until it is perceived to match the sound level in the normal ear.

alternate form

alternate form a set of test items that are developed to be similar to another set of test items, so that the two sets represent different versions of the same test. In order to demonstrate that one test is an alternate form of the other, a researcher usually must show that there is matching content (each test has the same number of each kind of item) and that factor loadings and measurement errors are approximately the same across the two versions. Alternate forms of a test can be used to measure its reliability (see alternate-forms reliability). Also called comparable form; equivalent form; parallel form.

alternate-forms reliability

alternate-forms reliability a measure of the consistency and freedom from error of a test, as indicated by a correlation coefficient obtained from responses to two or more alternate forms of the test. Also called comparable-forms reliability; equivalent-forms reliability; parallel-forms reliability.

alternate-uses test

alternate-uses test a test of divergent thinking that requires the participant to cite as many uses as possible for a specified object other than its common use. For example, a newspaper could be used for starting a fire or packing objects in a box.

alternating personality

alternating personality a personality with components that appear alternately. See dissociative identity disorder.

alternating perspective

alternating perspective the abrupt transition from one perspective to another that occurs when an ambiguous figure is viewed. Only one perspective can be perceived at a given time. See Necker cube; reversible figure; Rubin’s figure.

alternating treatments design

alternating treatments design a type of study in which the experimental condition or treatment assigned to the participant changes from session to session or within sessions. For example, a researcher comparing two methods for eliminating the disruptive classroom behavior of a student might have the teacher use one method throughout the morning and the other method throughout the afternoon and then evaluate the student’s behavior with each technique.

alternation learning

alternation learning 1. a task in which an individual must learn to alternate responses, never making the same response twice in a row. 2. alternation of reward and nonreward for a single response. In this case, responding is faster for a reward than it is when no reward is available.

alternation method

alternation method a technique used in studies of thinking, language, and problem solving, in which the participant is required to follow an increasingly complex sequence of activities in order to reach a goal or receive a reward. An example is RRR LLL, or triple alternation: turning right three times, then left three times.

alternative behavior completion

alternative behavior completion a technique in behavior therapy for extinguishing unwanted habits by substituting an incompatible behavior for the nondesired behavior (e.g., substituting nail care for nail biting). This technique can be practiced in vivo (see in vivo desensitization) or imaginally in the therapy session or assigned as homework. It is often used as an alternative to mild aversion therapy. See also competing response training.

alternative dispute resolution

alternative dispute resolution the resolving of disputes between parties using neutral third parties, who act as arbitrators or mediators, rather than by engaging in a lawsuit.

alternative distribution

alternative distribution see split recovery.

alternative hypothesis (AH; symbol: H1, Ha)

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alternative hypothesis distribution

alternative hypothesis distribution a theoretical set of plausible values of a characteristic under certain assumptions that is compared to its corresponding null distribution in the process of conducting a power analysis.

alternative medicine

alternative medicine see complementary and alternative medicine.

alternative psychology

alternative psychology any approach to understanding psychological issues that ignores or rejects accepted academic, scientific, or mainstream views. These approaches may involve unorthodox metaphysical assumptions and focus on spiritualistic and mystical influences. Emphasis may be on aspects of human thought, feeling, and actions that are ignored by mainstream psychology.

alternative psychotherapy

alternative psychotherapy any treatment approach not considered to be within the mainstream of psychotherapy. For example, the use of psychedelic therapy in the 1950s and 1960s was considered alternative. Primal therapy and Reichian analysis are also considered alternative approaches by most therapists.

alternative schedule of reinforcement (ALT)

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alternative school

alternative school any school in the traditional or conventional educational system that provides flexible and innovative teaching, curriculum, grading, or degree requirements.

alternative sentencing

alternative sentencing the imposition of sanctions other than traditional imprisonment on those convicted of crimes so as to reduce recidivism and help individuals become successful members of society. Examples include diversion programs, electronic monitoring, and community service. Also called community correction.

altitude sickness

altitude sickness illness resulting from the oxygen deficiency experienced at high altitudes (see hypoxia). Symptoms include nausea, breathlessness, nosebleed, and impaired mental processes. Also called Acosta’s syndrome; D’Acosta’s syndrome; hypobaropathy; mountain-climber’s syndrome; mountain sickness. See also acute mountain sickness.

altitude test

altitude test a type of assessment or examination intended to calculate an individual’s ability in a particular area as indicated by the level of performance that the individual can attain.

altricial

altricial adj. describing animals, such as primates (including humans), that are not fully developed at birth and require considerable and sustained parental care beyond nursing or feeding in order to survive. Compare precocial.

altruism

altruism n. an apparently unselfish behavior that provides benefit to others at some cost to the individual. In humans, it covers a wide range of behaviors, including volunteerism and martyrdom, but the degree to which such behaviors are legitimately without egoistic motivation is subject to debate. In animal behavior, it is difficult to understand how altruism could evolve in a species since natural selection operates on individuals. However, organisms displaying altruism can benefit if they help their relatives (see kin selection) or if an altruistic act is subsequently reciprocated (reciprocal altruism). —altruistic adj. —altruist n.

altruistic aggression

altruistic aggression a form of aggression among nonhuman animals in which the aggressor defends not itself but other group or family members.

altruistic suicide

altruistic suicide one of four types of suicide proposed in 1897 by Émile Durkheim, involving the belief that killing oneself will serve a greater societal good by saving others from suffering or otherwise benefiting them. Examples include suicides required by social norms (e.g., the act of Sati in India) and those in which people give their lives to save their friends (e.g., covering an explosion to protect fellow soldiers in combat). Whereas Durkheim considered egoistic suicide a function of deficient integration into social groups, he viewed altruistic suicide as resulting from excessive social integration. Indeed, altruistic suicide is generally committed by members of highly integrated groups: Individuals experience such great loyalty or identification with the rules and values of the group as to view death as an obligation or honorable sacrifice. See also anomic suicide; fatalistic suicide.

alveolar

alveolar 1. adj. denoting a speech sound made with the tongue touching or near the upper alveolar ridge, for example, [d], [t], [n], or [s]. See also dental; interdental. 2. n. an alveolar speech sound.

alveolar ridge

alveolar ridge the bony ridge of either the upper or lower jawbones that contains the sockets of the teeth (i.e., the alveoli).

Alzheimer’s Association

Alzheimer’s Association a nonprofit organization that provides information, support groups, and other assistance to individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers and that promotes research in the field to enhance early detection, prevention, and treatment of the disease. Originally known as the Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association upon its founding in 1980, the organization adopted its current name in 1988. It is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and has more than 75 local chapters nationwide.

Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer’s disease a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cortical atrophy, neuronal death, synapse loss, and accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning. Early features include deficits in memory (e.g., rapid forgetting of new information, impaired recall and recognition), anomia, executive dysfunction, depressive symptoms, and subtle personality changes such as decreased energy, social withdrawal, indifference, and impulsivity. As the disease progresses, there is global deterioration of cognitive capacities with intellectual decline, aphasia, agnosia, and apraxia as well as behavioral features, including apathy, emotional blunting, mood-dependent delusions, decreased sleep and appetite, and increased motor activity (e.g., restlessness, wandering). Major risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease include advanced age (it typically occurs after age 70), a family history of the disease, and genetic factors, particularly the presence of the ApoE4 allele (see apolipoprotein E) on chromosome 19. In a small minority (＜10%) of cases, referred to as having early-onset Alzheimer’s disease, a diagnosis is made between the ages of 30 and 65 and is usually attributed to genetic causes. [first described in 1907 by Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915), German neurologist]

amacrine cell

amacrine cell any of a diverse class of neurons in the retina that connect retinal bipolar cells and retinal ganglion cells, and other amacrine cells. Amacrine cells contribute to the center–surround antagonism of retinal ganglion cell receptive fields. However, they have no axons and do not contribute directly to the output of the retina.

amae

amae n. an indigenous Japanese concept that describes a behavioral pattern roughly translated as indulgent dependency in which people ask others to perform actions for them that they could actually perform for themselves. Typically found in mother–child relationships, amae is distinguished from true dependency by the inappropriateness of the requests and their presumed acceptance. [first described by Japanese psychologist Takeo Doi (1920–2009)]

Amalric’s syndrome

Amalric’s syndrome see Diallinas–Amalric syndrome. [French ophthalmologist Pierre Amalric (1923–1999)]

amantadine

amantadine n. an antiviral drug that is also used to treat Parkinson’s disease and to ameliorate drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms. U.S. trade name: Symmetrel.

amaurosis

amaurosis n. partial or complete loss of sight without evidence of organic abnormality of the affected eye or eyes. The cause is often damage to the optic nerve or the brain. The condition may be hereditary, as in Leber’s disease; transient (see amaurosis fugax); part of a syndrome, such as Tay–Sachs disease; or the result of complete destruction of the striate cortex (cortical amaurosis). See also functional blindness.

amaurosis fugax

amaurosis fugax recurrent episodes of visual loss, which can be caused by, among other things, glaucoma, intoxication, optic neuritis, migraine, or retinal vascular disease. The visual loss is painless and usually lasts 2 to 3 minutes; recovery of vision is more gradual, marked by gray, blurred, or hazy vision. Also called transient monocular blindness.

ambenomium

ambenomium n. an anticholinesterase (see cholinergic drug) that can be taken orally to relieve the symptoms of myasthenia gravis. U.S. trade name: Mytelase.

ambi-

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ambidextrous

ambidextrous adj. able to use either hand with equal skill.

Ambien

Ambien n. a trade name for zolpidem.

ambient awareness

ambient awareness 1. awareness of unattended aspects of visual and auditory scenes. A unique stimulus element is processed at some level even when attention is engaged elsewhere. Compare situation awareness; vigilance. 2. an ongoing awareness of the activities of others (e.g., friends, families, colleagues) that is sustained by constant interaction with them through social networking media such as Facebook and Twitter and other information technologies.

ambient conditions

ambient conditions the physical variables in a particular environment (e.g., temperature, humidity, air quality, noise level, and intensity of light) that, taken as a whole, create an atmosphere that may evoke a distinct feeling or mood. Ambient conditions can be distinguished from specific elements of the environment.

ambient optic array

ambient optic array the visual information contained in the reflected light that surrounds a viewer at any point in time. James J. Gibson proposed that the visual system evolved within this ambient optic array, enabling visual perception of the external environment to emerge directly and without need for mental representations of the environment. Also called optic array. See also ecological perception.

ambiguity

ambiguity n. 1. the property of a behavior, behavior pattern, or situation that might be interpreted in more than one way. 2. in linguistics, the property of a word, phrase, or sentence that has more than one possible meaning. Ambiguity in a phrase or sentence may be lexical, as in The students are revolting, or structural, as in black cats and dogs; often there is a combination of both factors. In psycholinguistics, the main area of interest has been the process used to interpret sentences whose surface structure could reflect two quite different deep structures, as in the instruction Before opening tin, stand in boiling water for 10 minutes. In psychoanalytic theory, ambiguous words or phrases are usually interpreted as a reflection of the speaker’s conflicted hidden feelings or unconscious wishes about the subject. See also homonym; polysemy; pun. —ambiguous adj.

ambiguity scale

ambiguity scale any questionnaire used in evaluating tolerance or intolerance for vagueness, ambiguity, and indefiniteness.

ambiguity tolerance

ambiguity tolerance the degree to which one is able to accept, and to function without distress or disorientation in, situations having conflicting or multiple interpretations or outcomes.

ambiguous figure

ambiguous figure a visual stimulus that can be interpreted in more than one way, such as an embedded figure or a reversible figure. A well-known example is the young girl–old woman image, in which the black-and-white drawing sometimes appears to be of a young girl and sometimes of an old lady. This phenomenon is not restricted to the visual: An ambiguous stimulus is one of any sensory modality that can have multiple interpretations.

ambiguous genitalia

ambiguous genitalia sex organs that are not fully differentiated between male and female, as in girls born with a clitoris that could be mistaken for a penis. See also hermaphroditism.

ambisexual

ambisexual adj. 1. denoting individuals or characteristics that manifest no sex or gender dominance. Compare asexual. 2. an older term for bisexual (see bisexuality), now rarely used. —ambisexuality n.

ambitendency

ambitendency n. 1. the tendency to act in opposite ways, based on conflicting behavioral motivations. 2. a pattern of incomplete motor responses in anticipation of a voluntary action. It occurs in catatonic states as a type of psychomotor retardation in which the individual appears motorically stuck and exhibits hesitant, indecisive motions in the absence of voluntary movement. 3. in Jungian psychology, the psychic ambivalence that is caused by the existence of opposing tendencies.

ambivalence

ambivalence n. 1. the simultaneous existence of contradictory feelings and attitudes, such as pleasantness and unpleasantness or friendliness and hostility, toward the same person, object, event, or situation. Eugen Bleuler, who first defined ambivalence in a psychological sense and referred to it as affective ambivalence, regarded extreme ambivalence, such as an individual expressing great love for his or her mother while also asking how to kill her, as a major symptom of schizophrenia. 2. uncertainty or indecisiveness about a course of action. —ambivalent adj.

ambivalence of an attitude

ambivalence of an attitude the extent to which the evaluative responses associated with an attitude are inconsistent with one another. If the responses are uniformly positive or uniformly negative, ambivalence is low. If both positive and negative responses are associated with the attitude, ambivalence is high. See also affective–cognitive consistency; affective–evaluative consistency; cognitive–evaluative consistency; cross-dimension attitude consistency; within-dimension attitude consistency.

ambivalent attachment

ambivalent attachment 1. in the Strange Situation, a form of insecure attachment in which infants show a combination of positive and negative responses toward a parent. After separation, for example, infants may simultaneously seek and resist close contact with the returning parent. Also called resistant attachment. 2. an adult interpersonal style characterized by worry that a partner will break off a relationship or by hesitancy in forming deeply committed relationships despite a desire to do so. Also called anxious–ambivalent attachment style.

ambivalent sexism

ambivalent sexism a type of sexism that is characterized by the coexistence of negative and positive attitudes toward one of the two sexes. For example, such attitudes toward women might involve fear and hostility on the one hand and an exaggerated chivalry and protectiveness on the other. [initially described in 1996 by U.S. social psychologists Peter Glick and Susan T. Fiske (1952– )]

ambiversion

ambiversion n. the tendency to display characteristics of introversion and extraversion in approximately equal degrees. Such a person would be referred to as an ambivert.

ambly-

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amblyacousia

amblyacousia n. dullness or loss of hearing.

amblyopia

amblyopia n. poor vision caused by abnormal visual experience in early life and not any physical defect of the eye. Common predisposing conditions include misalignment of the eyes (strabismus) and differing refractive powers of the eyes (anisometropia). Also called (colloquially) lazy eye. —amblyopic adj.

amblyoscope

amblyoscope n. an instrument used to determine the angle of deviation of the eyes (the degree of strabismus), as well as the extent to which the eyes can be used together even though one or both are deviated. Also called orthoptoscope.

ambrosiac

ambrosiac adj. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality that is smelled in musk and sandalwood. Also called ambrosial.

ambulation

ambulation n. the act of walking from place to place. Ambulation training often is necessary in the rehabilitation of individuals who have had a spinal injury, stroke, or other trauma affecting the neuromuscular system and in the physical therapy of individuals with certain genetic or congenital disorders.

ambulatory care

ambulatory care medical or psychological services provided to individuals on an outpatient, nonemergency basis. Such services may include observation, diagnosis, treatment (referred to as ambulatory treatment), and rehabilitation and are often provided at such places as a doctor’s office, health center, or hospital outpatient department.

ambulatory schizophrenia

ambulatory schizophrenia a condition in which a person who was previously hospitalized with extreme symptoms and then diagnosed as having schizophrenia no longer requires hospitalization but nonetheless behaves eccentrically and cannot function in a manner consistent with social expectations.

ambulatory services

ambulatory services mental health, counseling, or medical services provided on an outpatient basis, that is, without the recipient of those services needing to be in or remain in a hospital, clinic, or other health care facility. See also walk-in clinic.

ambulatory treatment

ambulatory treatment see ambulatory care.

amelioration

amelioration n. a change for the better in a condition, especially one involving a disease or disorder. —ameliorative adj., n.

amenity move

amenity move a type of residence change, often occurring around the time of retirement, that is made to improve the quality of one’s life.

amenorrhea

amenorrhea n. the absence of menstruation. When menstruation fails to begin after puberty, the condition is called primary amenorrhea. If menstrual periods stop, in the absence of pregnancy or menopause, the condition is known as secondary amenorrhea. Changes in physical or mental health can be a causal factor.

American Academy of Clinical Sexologists, Inc. (AACS)

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American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD)

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American Anorexia/Bulimia Association

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American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

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American Association of Applied and Preventive Psychology (AAAPP)

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American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP)

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American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP)

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American Association of Mental Retardation (AAMR)

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American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors and Therapists (AASECT)

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American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)

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American Birth Control League (ABCL)

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American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS)

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American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP)

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American Board of Psychological Hypnosis (ABPH)

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American Coaching Effectiveness Program (ACEP)

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American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)

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American College Testing Program (ACTP)

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American Counseling Association (ACA)

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American Educational Research Association (AERA)

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American Indian

American Indian see Native American.

American Law Institute Model Penal Code insanity test

American Law Institute Model Penal Code insanity test a legal standard for establishing criminal responsibility, adopted in 1962, that combines elements of the M’Naghten rule and the irresistible impulse rule. According to this standard, individuals are not responsible for criminal conduct if mental illness or defect rendered them either unable to understand at the time that what they were doing was against the law or unable to control their behavior enough to keep from breaking the law. Also called American Law Institute Guidelines (ALI Guidelines); Brawner decision; Brawner rule. See also Insanity Defense Reform Act.

American Manual Alphabet

American Manual Alphabet see fingerspelling.

American optical H–R–R plates

American optical H–R–R plates see Hardy–Rand–Rittler pseudoisochromatic plates.

American Orthopsychiatric Association

American Orthopsychiatric Association an interdisciplinary professional organization engaged in preventive, treatment, and advocacy approaches to mental health. The prefix ortho- (from the Greek orthos, “straight”) emphasizes the need for preventive approaches. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry is its major publication. [founded in 1924 by U.S. physician Karl Menninger (1893–1990)]

American Pain Society (APS)

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American Parkinson Disease Association, Inc. (APDA)

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American Philosophical Society (APS)

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American Psychiatric Association (APA)

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American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA)

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American Psychological Association (APA)

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American Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS)

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American Psychological Foundation (APF)

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American Psychological Society (APS)

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American Psychosomatic Society (APS)

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American Sign Language (ASL)

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American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR)

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American Sport Education Program (ASEP)

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Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)

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Ames room

Ames room an irregularly shaped but apparently rectangular room in which cues for depth perception are used experimentally to distort the viewer’s perception of the relative size of objects within the room. Also called Ames distorted room. [Adelbert Ames Jr. (1880–1955), U.S. psychologist, inventor, and artist]

Ameslan

Ameslan n. a contraction of American Sign Language.

amethystic

amethystic n. see anti-intoxicant.

ametropia

ametropia n. any refractive abnormality of the eye, including myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism. The inability of the eye to bend (refract) light into perfect focus on the retina reduces visual acuity and causes blurriness.

AMH

AMH abbreviation for anti-Müllerian hormone. See Müllerian-inhibiting hormone.

AMI

AMI 1. abbreviation for Athletic Motivation Inventory. 2. abbreviation for Autobiographical Memory Interview.

amicus curiae

amicus curiae a third party (Latin, “friend of the court”), such as a psychologist, who is invited or volunteers to educate the court on a matter that has relevance to the dispute before it. See expert witness.

amiloride

amiloride n. a heterocyclic carboxy-guanidinium compound used clinically as a diuretic to prevent sodium resorption in the kidneys and so lower blood pressure by blocking sodium channels. Amiloride is also used by taste researchers to block sodium channels on the tongue to study the perception of saltiness.

amimia

amimia n. 1. a language or communication disorder characterized by an inability to convey meaning through appropriate gestures (motor or expressive amimia) or to interpret the gestures of others (sensory or receptive amimia). 2. loss of memory.

amine

amine n. a chemical compound that contains one or more amino groups (–NH2). Several neurotransmitters are amines, including acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. See also amine hormone; amino acid; biogenic amine.

amine hormone

amine hormone any of a class of chemical compounds that contain a single amino acid that has been modified into a hormone, such as melatonin or norepinephrine. Also called monoamine hormone.

amino acid

amino acid an organic compound that contains an amino group (–NH2) and a carboxyl group (–COOH). Twenty amino acids are constituents of proteins; nine of these are essential amino acids, that is, they cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from foods. Other amino acids (e.g., glutamic acid, glycine) are neurotransmitters or precursors to neurotransmitters.

amino acid imbalance

amino acid imbalance a bodily condition characterized by a deficiency of certain essential amino acids in relation to others. It may result from an inborn error of metabolism, such as phenylketonuria or homocystinuria, or be precipitated by improper diet. An amino acid imbalance may affect metabolic, neurological, and developmental processes.

aminoketone

aminoketone n. the chemical classification of the antidepressant agent bupropion, whose structure and mechanism of action differ from other marketed antidepressants. Although the specific method of action is unknown, it is presumed to involve noradrenergic or dopaminergic mechanisms.

aminopterin

aminopterin n. a drug similar to methotrexate that is used in the treatment of leukemia. During the 1950s and 1960s, it was also sometimes used in nonclinical settings to induce abortions. Surviving infants showed teratogenic effects (see teratogen), such as hydrocephalus, craniosynostosis (premature skull ossification) with skull defects, and mild to moderate intellectual disability.

aminotransferase

aminotransferase n. any of a class of transferase enzymes that catalyze the transfer of an amino group (–NH2) from a donor molecule to a recipient molecule. Two of the better known aminotransferases are aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, which are normally found in the liver and heart, respectively, and are released into the bloodstream as a result of damage to those organs. Hence, they are used as indicators in liver and heart function tests.

amitriptyline

amitriptyline n. a tricyclic antidepressant introduced into clinical use in 1961; with imipramine, it was the first widely used antidepressant agent. Its tertiary amine structure makes it a more potent inhibitor of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake than secondary amines (thereby increasing the availability of serotonin for neurotransmission). It is actually more pronoradrenergic than serotonergic, and it also has significant antihistamine, anticholinergic, and adrenoreceptor-blocking activity (producing adverse side effects). It is an effective antidepressant, but its side effects and toxicity in overdose have led to a decline in its use in favor of the SSRIs and other agents. Although still used as an antidepressant, amitriptyline is no longer considered first-line medication and is more likely to be employed in low doses for chronic pain management or the prevention of migraine. It is also sold in combination with a benzodiazepine anxiolytic (as Limbitrol in the United States) or an antipsychotic (as Etrafon or Triavil in the United States). U.S. trade name: Elavil.

Ammon’s horn

Ammon’s horn see hippocampus.

amnesia

amnesia n. partial or complete loss of memory. Either temporary or permanent, it may be due to physiological factors such as injury or disease (organic amnesia), to substance use (drug-induced amnesia), or to psychological factors such as a traumatic experience (see dissociative amnesia). A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information is called anterograde amnesia, and one marked by inability to recall previously learned information or past events is called retrograde amnesia. When severe enough to interfere markedly with social or occupational functioning or to represent a significant decline from a previous level of functioning, the memory loss is known as amnestic disorder. —amnesiac adj., n. —amnesic or amnestic adj.

amnesic syndrome

amnesic syndrome see amnestic disorder.

amnestic aphasia

amnestic aphasia see anomic aphasia.

amnestic apraxia

amnestic apraxia an inability to remember and therefore carry out a command, although there is no loss of ability to perform the task. Also called amnesic apraxia.

amnestic disorder

amnestic disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information (anterograde amnesia) or to recall previously learned information or past events (retrograde amnesia) that is severe enough to interfere markedly with social or occupational functioning or represents a significant decline from a previous level of functioning. A distinction is made between amnestic disorder due to a general medical condition, substance-induced persisting amnestic disorder, and amnestic disorder not otherwise specified. The first of these can be caused by a variety of conditions, such as head injury, anoxia, herpes-simplex encephalitis, and posterior cerebral artery stroke, resulting in lesions in specific brain regions, including the medial temporal lobe and the diencephalon, and their connections with various cortical areas. It may be transient, lasting from several hours to no more than a month (see also transient global amnesia), or chronic (lasting more than 1 month). In DSM–5, amnestic disorder, along with dementia, has been subsumed into the category major neurocognitive disorder and is no longer considered a distinct entity. Formally called amnesic (or amnestic) syndrome.

amniocentesis

amniocentesis n. a method of examining fetal chromosomes for any abnormality or for determination of sex. A hollow needle is inserted through the mother’s abdominal wall into the uterus, enabling collection of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal cells. Compare chorionic villus sampling; percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling.

amniotic sac

amniotic sac the fluid-filled membrane that encases and protects the embryo of a bird, reptile, or mammal.

amobarbital

amobarbital n. an intermediate-acting, rapidly excreted barbiturate that was formerly used as a sedative and hypnotic. Like other barbiturates, its toxicity has led to its clinical eclipse by safer agents, such as the benzodiazepines. Amobarbital abuse can result in addiction, stupor, and death. It was occasionally used to conduct interviews (Amytal interviews) designed to elicit unconscious material from patients, as well as information that was consciously withheld. Such interviews were also used in attempting to distinguish between patients who were malingering and those who had a bona fide conversion disorder. Due to numerous legal and ethical issues surrounding amobarbital interviews, in addition to the medical risks associated with administration of barbiturates, such techniques are no longer acceptable in modern clinical practice. U.S. trade name: Amytal.

amok (amuck)

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amorphagnosia (amorphognosia)

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amorphosynthesis

amorphosynthesis n. a disturbance in the ability to synthesize multiple sensory inputs from a particular side of the body, with the right side most commonly affected. The condition is usually a sign of a lesion in the left parietal lobe of the brain.

amotivational syndrome

amotivational syndrome a behavior pattern characterized by loss of drive and initiative. It is commonly seen in schizophrenia. The pattern is also believed to be associated with cannabis abuse, based on anecdotal observations of the lifestyles of chronic cannabis users in various cultures around the world. There is, however, little empirical support for this association. See anhedonia.

amount of masking

amount of masking see auditory masking.

amoxapine

amoxapine n. an antidepressant, one of the secondary amine tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), that inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin. It may also have antipsychotic activity. Amoxapine may cause extrapyramidal symptoms and tardive dyskinesia but is less associated with anticholinergic side effects than are other TCAs. U.S. trade name: Asendin.

AMP

AMP abbreviation for affect misattribution procedure.

AMPA

AMPA abbreviation for alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid: an agonist that binds to AMPA receptors.

AMPA receptor

AMPA receptor a type of glutamate receptor that binds AMPA as well as glutamate. AMPA receptors are coupled to ligand-gated ion channels and are responsible for most of the activity at synapses where glutamate is the neurotransmitter. Compare NMDA receptor.

amphetamine

amphetamine n. a CNS stimulant, closely related in structure and activity to ephedrine (see ephedra), that is the prototype of the group of drugs known as the amphetamines. Amphetamine is a chiral molecule, composed of two stereoisomers (mirror images): levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. Specific amphetamines may be racemic mixtures of both stereoisomers (U.S. trade name: Benzedrine.

amphetamine abuse

amphetamine abuse in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of use of amphetamines or amphetamine-like substances that is marked by recurrent significant adverse consequences related to the repeated ingestion of these substances. This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of amphetamine dependence: If the criteria for amphetamine abuse and amphetamine dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given. In DSM–5, however, both have been combined into one category, stimulant use disorder, and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance abuse.

amphetamine dependence

amphetamine dependence in DSM–IV–TR, repeated or continued use of an amphetamine or amphetamine-like substance despite significant substance-related behavioral, physiological, and psychosocial problems, with or without tolerance or characteristic symptoms if use is suspended (see amphetamine withdrawal). In DSM–5, amphetamine dependence has been combined with amphetamine abuse into a single disorder, and neither is considered a distinct diagnosis any longer (see stimulant use disorder). See also substance dependence.

amphetamine intoxication

amphetamine intoxication a reversible syndrome caused by the recent ingestion of amphetamines or amphetamine-like substances. It is characterized by behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., aggressive behavior, impaired judgment, suspiciousness, paranoia), as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement (e.g., unsteady gait, impairment in attention or memory). The equivalent term in DSM–5 is stimulant intoxication. See also substance intoxication.

amphetamine intoxication delirium

amphetamine intoxication delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that develops over a short period of time (usually hours to days) following the heavy ingestion of amphetamines or amphetamine-like substances. The features include disturbed consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention) and changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, or language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with amphetamine intoxication. See also substance intoxication delirium.

amphetamine psychosis

amphetamine psychosis see amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder.

amphetamine withdrawal

amphetamine withdrawal in DSM–IV–TR, a characteristic withdrawal syndrome that develops after cessation of (or reduction in) prolonged, heavy consumption of an amphetamine or amphetamine-like substance. The essential characteristic is depressed mood, sometimes severe, and there may also be fatigue, disturbed sleep, increased appetite, vivid and unpleasant dreams, or psychomotor retardation or agitation, or all of these features. Marked withdrawal symptoms (see crash) often follow an episode of intense, high-dose use. The equivalent term in DSM–5 is stimulant withdrawal. See also substance withdrawal.

amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder

amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder a condition marked by paranoid delusions due to the direct physiological effects of an amphetamine or amphetamine-like substance. The delusions can continue as long as the use of these substances continues and might persist for weeks or months after withdrawal from the substances has been completed. Also called amphetamine psychosis.

amphetamines

amphetamines pl. n. a group of synthetic drugs (substituted phenylethylamines) that stimulate the reticular formation in the brain and cause a release of stored norepinephrine. The effect is a prolonged state of arousal and relief from feelings of fatigue (see CNS stimulant). Amphetamines were introduced in 1932 for a variety of clinical uses. During World War II, they were widely dispensed to combat soldiers to enable them to remain alert for periods of up to 60 hours. Tolerance develops progressively with continued use until the individual reaches a point of exhaustion and sleeps continuously for several days. Amphetamine abuse can result in dependence and a well-defined state of psychosis (see amphetamine dependence; amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder). Although widely used in the past for weight loss, relief of depression, and other indications, modern use of amphetamines is more circumscribed because of their adverse effects. They are now used mainly in short- and long-acting preparations to manage symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and to treat certain cases of severe depression or narcolepsy, and they still maintain a military use in the management of fatigue. Amphetamines include amphetamine itself (the prototype), dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine. Related drugs, with a similar mode of action but different molecular structure, include methylphenidate. In addition, some forms and derivatives (including DOM, MDA, and MDMA) have been manufactured as recreational hallucinogenic drugs.

amphi-

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amplification effect

amplification effect see dilution effect.

amplitude

amplitude n. magnitude or extent (e.g., of a stimulus) or peak value (e.g., of a sinusoid wave).

amplitude distortion

amplitude distortion a hearing disorder in which loud sounds are distorted or misjudged.

amplitude modulation

amplitude modulation see modulation.

amplitude of light wave

amplitude of light wave the maximum deviation of a wave of light from its median intensity. The greater the amplitude of a light wave, the brighter it appears.

amplitude spectrum

amplitude spectrum see sound spectrum.

AMPT

AMPT abbreviation for alpha-methylparatyrosine.

ampulla

ampulla n. (pl. ampullae) any saclike enlargement of a duct or passageway. Ampullae located at each end of the semicircular canals of the inner ear contain hair cells that help maintain balance.

amputation

amputation n. the surgical or traumatic removal of a limb or other appendage from the body. Surgical amputation generally is performed as a life-saving measure following an injury, to prevent the spread of a malignant tumor or gangrene, or to remove a body part that no longer has adequate blood circulation (e.g., as a result of diabetes or severe frostbite).

amputation fetish

amputation fetish see acrotomophilia.

amputee identity disorder

amputee identity disorder see body integrity identity disorder.

Amsterdam criteria

Amsterdam criteria the classic criteria for identifying a family with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), also known as Lynch syndrome. The criteria are characterized by a 3-2-1 paradigm: To meet the criteria of HNPCC, a family must have at least 3 patients with colon cancer, one of whom is a first-degree relative of the other, in at least 2 generations, with an age of onset before age 50 in at least 1 patient. See also MLH1; MSH2.

Amsterdam dwarf disease

Amsterdam dwarf disease see Cornelia de Lange syndrome.

amuck

amuck n. see amok.

amurakh

amurakh n. a culture-bound syndrome observed among Siberian women and characterized by compulsive mimicking of other people’s words or behaviors. See also latah.

amusia

amusia n. loss of musical ability, usually associated with lesions in one or both of the temporal lobes. The inability to reproduce melodies is called motor (or expressive) amusia, and the inability to recognize and appreciate various characteristics of musical tones and sequences is called sensory (or receptive) amusia. The latter is also considered a type of auditory agnosia.

amygdala

amygdala n. an almond-shaped structure in the temporal lobe that is a component of the limbic system and considered part of the basal ganglia. It comprises two main groups of nuclei—the corticomedial group and the basolateral group—and through widespread connections with other brain areas has numerous viscerosensory and autonomic functions as well as an important role in memory, emotion, perception of threat, and fear learning. Also called amygdaloid body; amygdaloid complex; amygdaloid nuclei. —amygdaloid adj.

amygdaloid stimulation

amygdaloid stimulation electrical activation of the amygdala, which induces changes in emotional, behavioral, and motivational responses.

amyl nitrite

amyl nitrite an organic nitrite, administered by nasal inhalation, that dilates (widens) arteries by relaxing smooth muscles in arterial walls. The main effects are to dilate the coronary arteries supplying the heart and to reduce blood pressure. Amyl nitrite has been used therapeutically in the treatment of angina pectoris and as an antidote to cyanide poisoning. It is now best known as a recreational drug that is reputed to enhance orgasm and other aspects of the sexual experience; adverse effects can include anxiety, nausea, dizziness, faintness associated with a drop in blood pressure, and impaired oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

amyloid

amyloid n. a chemically diverse protein that accumulates abnormally between neural and other bodily cells, negatively affecting their functioning. There are various types, each associated with different pathological conditions. For example, beta-amyloid has received considerable attention for its detrimental influence upon memory and cognition in Alzheimer’s disease. —amyloidal adj.

amyloid plaque

amyloid plaque a clump of beta-amyloid protein surrounded by degenerated dendrites that is particularly associated with symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Increased concentration of such plaques in the cerebral cortex of the brain is correlated with the severity of dementia. Also called neuritic plaque; senile plaque.

amyloid precursor protein (APP)

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amyloidosis

amyloidosis n. a disorder marked by the accumulation of amyloid in the tissues. The cause is believed to be an immune-deficiency disease. Amyloidosis is eventually destructive because it interferes with the normal function of tissues, forming tumors in the respiratory tract, liver, kidney, and other organs. Primary amyloidosis occurs in association with multiple myeloma or in the absence of other diseases, whereas secondary amyloidosis is associated with a chronic disease, such as tuberculosis.

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

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Amytal

Amytal n. a trade name for amobarbital.

Amytal interview

Amytal interview see amobarbital.

an-

ANS abbreviation for autonomic nervous system.

ana-

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anabolic-androgenic steroid

anabolic-androgenic steroid any synthetic form of testosterone used both legally (to treat delayed puberty and loss of lean muscle mass) and illegally (as a performance enhancing drug). The misuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids is associated with mood swings, violence, paranoia, impaired judgment, liver damage, hypertension, acne, and changes in genitalia (e.g., testicular shrinkage). Also called anabolic steroid.

anabolism

anabolism n. see metabolism. —anabolic adj.

anaclisis

anaclisis n. 1. an extreme dependence on another person for emotional or physical support or both, just as an infant is dependent on the parents for the satisfaction of his or her basic needs. See anaclitic object choice. 2. in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the attachment of the sex drive to the satisfaction of another instinct, such as hunger or defecation. —anaclitic adj.

anaclitic depression

anaclitic depression depression involving interpersonal dependency. It is characterized by intense fears of abandonment and feelings of helplessness and weakness. See sociotropy. Compare introjective depression.

anaclitic identification

anaclitic identification in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the first phase of the identification process, which is rooted in the child’s initial dependence on the mother (as well as others) for basic biological and emotional needs. The child acquires the mother’s characteristics in the service of becoming his or her own source of reinforcement and comfort. The child also incorporates the mother into his or her superego (see ego-ideal). A weaker version of this is seen with other significant figures in the child’s life (e.g., teachers). Compare defensive identification.

anaclitic object choice

anaclitic object choice in psychoanalytic theory, the selection of a mate or other love object who will provide the same type of assistance, comfort, and support that the individual received from the parents during infancy and early childhood: A woman chooses a man resembling her father and a man chooses a woman like his mother. Sigmund Freud contrasted this with narcissistic object choice, which involves selecting a mate who is similar to oneself. According to Freud, these are the only two possible types of object choice. Also called anaclitic love. See also anaclisis.

anaclitic personality

anaclitic personality according to some psychoanalytic theories, a line of personality development that is focused on feelings of powerlessness and fear of abandonment with regard to interpersonal relationships and—if the personality fails to develop properly—may result in psychopathological dependency. Compare introjective personality.

anacusis (anakusis)

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anaerobic exercise

anaerobic exercise strength-based physical activity, such as weight training and sprinting, that occurs in short, intense bursts with limited oxygen intake. The anaerobic threshold is the point at which energy use by the body is so great as to require the muscles to begin producing energy in the absence of adequate oxygen. Compare aerobic exercise.

anaesthesia

anaesthesia n. see anesthesia.

Anafranil

Anafranil n. a trade name for clomipramine.

anaglyph

anaglyph n. a single picture made from two copies of the same image that differ in color and are slightly displaced from one another in the horizontal plane. When viewed through identically colored glasses, the image appears three dimensional as a result of stereopsis.

anaglyptoscope

anaglyptoscope n. a device that reverses the areas of light and shadow on an object, altering the perception of depth. Shadow is a powerful depth cue. Also called anaglyphoscope. See depth from shading.

anagogic interpretation

anagogic interpretation the interpretation of dreams and other unconscious material as expressions of ideals or spiritual forces, in contrast to the instinct-based interpretations of classical psychoanalysis. [introduced by Carl Jung and developed by Austrian psychoanalyst Herbert Silberer (1882–1923)]

anagram

anagram n. a word puzzle with scrambled letters. In studies of problem solving and implicit memory, a common task involves asking participants to determine the word that corresponds to an anagram (e.g., rlmoebp–problem).

anal character

anal character see anal personality.

anal eroticism

anal eroticism in psychoanalytic theory, pleasurable sensations associated with expulsion, retention, or observation of the feces or through stimulation of the anus. These sensations first arise in the anal stage of psychosexual development, between the ages of 1 and 3. Also called anal erotism. See also anal personality; coprophilia.

anal intercourse

anal intercourse a form of sexual activity in which pleasure is achieved through the insertion of the penis into the anus. Also called coitus analis; coitus in ano. See also sodomy.

anal masturbation

anal masturbation a form of anal eroticism in which sexual excitement is achieved through manual or mechanical self-stimulation of the anus.

anal personality

anal personality in classical psychoanalytic theory, a pattern of personality traits believed to stem from the anal stage of psychosexual development, when defecation is a primary source of pleasure. Special satisfaction from retention of the feces will result in an adult anal-retentive personality, marked by frugality, obstinacy, and orderliness, whereas fixation on expelling feces will produce an aggressive and disorderly anal-expulsive personality. Also called anal character. See also anal-aggressive personality; hoarding orientation.

anal phase

anal phase see anal stage.

anal sadism

anal sadism in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the expression of aggressive impulses in the anal stage of psychosexual development, involving both the destruction of the object and its possession and control. It is manifested in the adult in the form of an anal-aggressive personality.

anal stage

anal stage in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the second stage of psychosexual development, typically occurring during the 2nd year of life, in which the child’s interest and sexual pleasure are focused on the expulsion and retention of feces and the sadistic instinct is linked to the desire to both possess and destroy the object. Fixation during this stage results in an anal personality. Also called anal phase. See also anal-expulsive phase; anal-retentive phase; anal-sadistic phase.

anal-aggressive personality

anal-aggressive personality in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, a personality type characterized by obstinacy, obstructionism, defiance, and passive resistance. Such traits are held to stem from the anal stage, in which the child asserted himself or herself by withholding feces. Also called anal-aggressive character. See also anal personality; anal sadism; anal-sadistic phase.

anal-expulsive phase

anal-expulsive phase in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, a phase of the anal stage in which pleasure is obtained by expelling feces and the sadistic instinct is linked to destruction of the object. According to the theory, fixation at this phase results in an adult anal personality. See also anal-sadistic phase. Compare anal-retentive phase.

anal-retentive phase

anal-retentive phase in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, a phase of the anal stage in which pleasure is obtained by retaining feces, thereby defying the parent, and in which the sadistic instinct is linked to possession and control of the object. Fixation at this phase results in an adult anal personality. See also anal-sadistic phase. Compare anal-expulsive phase.

anal-sadistic phase

anal-sadistic phase in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, a phase of the anal stage in which the child manifests aggressive and destructive tendencies. One expression of these tendencies is withholding the feces in defiance of parental urging. See anal-aggressive personality. See also anal-expulsive phase; anal-retentive phase.

analeptic

analeptic n. any stimulant other than amphetamines that produces subjective effects similar to those caused by amphetamine use. These effects may include alertness, elevated mood, increased energy, decreased appetite, irritability, and insomnia. The group includes diethylpropion, methylphenidate, and pemoline. See also appetite suppressant.

analgesia

analgesia n. absence of or reduction in the sensation of pain. Compare algesia. —analgesic adj.

analgesic

analgesic n. a drug or other agent that alleviates pain. Analgesic drugs usually are classed as opioid (narcotic) or nonopioid (nonnarcotic), depending on their chemical composition and potential for physical dependence. Opioid analgesics are generally the most effective in relieving pain. The most widely used of the less potent nonopioid analgesics are the NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)—most notably aspirin—and acetaminophen.

analog

analog adj. relating to the representation of information by means of a continuously varying physical quantity, such as voltage, rather than by means of discrete digits. Compare digital.

analog computer

analog computer a computer that solves problems, usually mathematical, by using a physical analog of the mathematical relationships expressed in the computer’s program. These analogs of computational variables are usually an electrical voltage or the rotation of a shaft. See digital computer.

analogical thinking

analogical thinking thinking characterized by extrapolations from the familiar to the unfamiliar, rather than by the use of formal logic or consecutive reasoning. It is particularly important in problem solving and learning, in which known similarities between aspects of certain entities are used to make assumptions about other aspects or entities. Also called analogical reasoning.

analogies test

analogies test a test of the participant’s ability to comprehend the relationship between two items and then extend that relationship to a different situation: For example, paintbrush is to paint as pen is to ___.

analogue

analogue n. 1. something that is like, or similar in some respect to, something else. 2. an organ of one species that has a similar function to an organ of another species, although they have different structures and phylogeny. The wings of bats and flies are examples. See analogy.

analogue observation

analogue observation a response recorded from a participant in an analogue study designed to induce a particular behavior in a controlled environment, such as a laboratory or clinic. Compare naturalistic observation; self-monitoring observation.

analogue study

analogue study an experimental design in which the procedures or participants used are similar but not identical to the situation of interest. For example, if researchers are interested in the effects of therapist gender on client perceptions of therapist trustworthiness, they may use undergraduate students who are not clients and provide simulated counseling dialogues that are typed and identified as offered by a male or female therapist. The results of such studies are assumed to offer a high degree of experimental control. Also called analogue model.

analogy

analogy n. 1. a similarity between two entities in certain limited respects. In biology, it refers to similarity of function in structures with different evolutionary origins, such as wings in bats and butterflies. See also homology; homoplasy. 2. a method of argument that relies on an inference that a similarity between two or more entities in some attributes justifies a probable assumption that they will be similar in other attributes (see false analogy). Analogy is often used in arguments about the existence of God and of other minds. 3. in linguistics, the process by which the regular patterns of inflection, word formation, and the like in a language are extended to novel or anomalous instances. This can be observed in historical language change as well as in language acquisition. A notable form of analogy occurs when children regularize irregular grammatical forms, such as applying the -ed past-tense ending to irregular verbs, creating novel forms such as go-ed. —analogical adj. —analogous adj.

analogy of the cave

analogy of the cave a metaphor used by Plato to illustrate his contention that humans are only dimly aware of the true nature of things. Plato likened human life to the state of being imprisoned in a cave, with the world outside casting shadows on the cave walls: He contended that these shadows are all one actually experiences of the real world, which is timeless and ideal. See Platonic idealism; theory of forms. See also transcendentalism.

analysand

analysand n. in psychoanalysis, a patient who is undergoing analysis.

analysis

analysis n. 1. the division of any entity into its component parts, typically for the purpose of investigation or study. 2. see psychoanalysis. —analytic or analytical adj.

analysis by synthesis

analysis by synthesis any theory of information processing stating that both bottom-up processes and top-down processes interact in the recognition and interpretation of sensory input. According to theories of this type, which are associated particularly with speech perception and language processing, the person initially assesses (analyzes) the physical attributes and constituent elements of a stimulus (data-driven processing) and then, guided by contextual information and knowledge acquired from previous experience or learning (conceptually driven processing), determines the significant information from this preliminary analysis of the stimulus and assembles (synthesizes) it into an internal representation or interpretation of what the stimulus might be. This internal representation is compared to the stimulus input: If the two match, then the stimulus is recognized; if not, alternative representations are assembled for comparison until a match is found. In other words, one analyzes the original stimulus input, hypothesizes what it is, determines what the input would be like if the hypothesis were correct, and then assesses whether the input is actually like that.

analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

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analysis of resistance

analysis of resistance a basic procedure in psychoanalysis in which the patient’s tendency to maintain the repression of unconscious impulses and experiences that interfere with free association is subjected to analytic scrutiny. The process of explaining resistances is believed to be a major contribution to insight and positive change.

analysis of transference

analysis of transference in psychoanalysis, the interpretation of a patient’s early relationships and experiences as they are reflected and expressed in his or her present relationship to the analyst. Also called transference analysis. See transference.

analysis of variance (ANOVA)

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analysis unit

analysis unit see unit of analysis.

analyst

analyst n. generally, one who practices psychoanalysis. This is usually a psychoanalyst in the tradition of Sigmund Freud; however, the term is also applied to therapists adhering to the methods of various neoanalytic theorists.

analytic approach

analytic approach any method based on breaking down a complex process into its parts so as to better understand the whole. For example, a researcher studying cognition in preschool children might identify such component skills as problem solving, reasoning, judgment, imagination, and memory; examine each item in turn; and then determine how they interact. Compare synthetic approach.

analytic couch

analytic couch see couch.

analytic group psychotherapy

analytic group psychotherapy one of two main types of group therapy defined by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981), the other being activity group therapy. Based on transference, interpretation, and other core principles of psychoanalytic theory—notably catharsis, insight, reality testing, and sublimation—analytic group psychotherapy was formally defined in 1950. It is divided into three subtypes: (a) play group psychotherapy for preschool children; (b) activity-interview group psychotherapy for schoolchildren 6 to 12 years old; and (c) interview group psychotherapy for adolescents and adults. Slavson believed group therapy to be fundamentally similar to individual treatment and a useful tool for producing personality changes without radically changing a person’s intrapsychic structure.

analytic induction

analytic induction a qualitative research strategy for developing and testing a theory in which the researcher tentatively defines a phenomenon, creates a hypothesis to explain it, and examines a single specific occurrence of the phenomenon in order to confirm or refute the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is confirmed, additional cases are examined to confirm the results until a sufficient degree of certainty about the correctness of the hypothesis is obtained and the study may be concluded. If the hypothesis is not confirmed, the phenomenon is redefined or the hypothesis revised so as to accommodate the findings.

analytic philosophy

analytic philosophy an approach to philosophy developed by Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) and British philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) at the beginning of the 20th century. According to this view, the truth or falsity of complex statements could be determined by analyzing them into simple, elemental, logical propositions. The main task of philosophy is therefore the clarification of thought and language rather than the creation of speculative systems or theories. This approach influenced logical positivism and remained dominant in Britain and the United States during the 20th century. Compare continental philosophy.

analytic psychology

analytic psychology the system of psychoanalysis proposed by Carl Jung, in which the psyche is interpreted primarily in terms of philosophical values, primordial images and symbols, and a drive for self-fulfillment. Jung’s basic concepts are (a) the ego, which maintains a balance between conscious and unconscious activities and gradually develops a unique self through individuation; (b) the personal unconscious, made up of memories, thoughts, and feelings based on personal experience; (c) the collective unconscious, made up of ancestral images, or archetypes, that constitute the inherited foundation of an individual’s intellectual life and personality; and (d) dynamic polarities, or tension systems, which derive their psychic energy from the libido and influence the development and expression of the ego: conscious versus unconscious values, introversion versus extraversion, sublimation versus repression, rational versus irrational. The object of Jungian therapy, is to achieve a creative balance among all these forces. Also called analytical psychology.

analytic rules

analytic rules the three rules laid down by Sigmund Freud for conducting psychoanalytic therapy: the basic rule of free association, which is the instruction to say everything that comes to mind and is assumed to give free reign to the unconscious to bring repressed impulses and experiences to the surface; the rule of abstinence, which discourages gratifications that might drain energy that could be utilized in the therapeutic process; and the rule against acting out feelings and events instead of talking them out.

analytic third

analytic third in object relations theory, the intersubjective field that an analyst and patient jointly create with each other to debovelop a new, shared reality that includes the thoughts, fantasies and, emotions. [proposed in 1994 by U.S. psychoanalyst Thomas Ogden]

analytical intelligence

analytical intelligence in the triarchic theory of intelligence, the skills measured by conventional tests of intelligence, such as analysis, comparison, evaluation, critique, and judgment. Compare creative intelligence; practical intelligence.

analytical psychotherapy

analytical psychotherapy 1. a method of psychotherapy using psychoanalytic principles but with less depth of analysis, more active intervention on the part of the therapist, and less frequent sessions than are required for a true psychoanalysis. See psychodynamic psychotherapy. 2. historically, an alternative method to psychoanalysis proposed by Viennese psychoanalyst Wilhelm Stekel (1868–1940).

analyzer

analyzer n. a theoretical part or function of the central nervous system responsible for making evaluations of stimuli within particular senses. Each sense (e.g., vision) has a series of analyzers, and each analyzer is responsive to a particular stimulus dimension (e.g., color, length, orientation, or brightness). The concept was introduced by Ivan Pavlov.

anamnesis

anamnesis n. a patient’s account of his or her developmental, family, and medical history prior to the onset of a mental or physical disorder. Compare catamnesis. [first suggested by Adolf Meyer as an aid to diagnosis and exploration of possible causes of a patient’s disorder]

anancastic personality (anankastic personality)

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anandamide

anandamide n. see endogenous cannabinoid.

anandria

anandria n. the absence of masculinity in a male.

anaphia

anaphia n. the absence or loss of ability to perceive tactile sensations or stimuli. Also called anhaphia.

anaphora

anaphora n. in linguistics, the use of a word (often a pronoun) to refer back to a word used earlier, usually to avoid repetition. In You take the high road, I’ll take the low one, the use of one to mean road is an example of anaphora. Ability to form and process such constructions has been a major preoccupation of generative grammar and psycholinguistics. See also antecedent. —anaphoric adj.

anaphrodisiac

anaphrodisiac n. a drug or other agent that functions as a sexual sedative to reduce or repress sexual desire. Among substances claimed to have this effect are potassium bromide, heroin, and camphor. Anaphrodisiacs also may be a cause of sexual anesthesia. See also chemical castration.

anaphylaxis

anaphylaxis n. hypersensitivity to the introduction of a substance (e.g., a food item such as peanuts or a drug such as penicillin) into body tissues, resulting from previous exposure to it. Symptoms, such as breathing difficulties and wheezing, are sudden, and anaphylactic shock—pulmonary edema, heart arrhythmia, shock, loss of consciousness, and potential respiratory or cardiac arrest—may occur if untreated. —anaphylactic adj.

anaplastic astrocytoma

anaplastic astrocytoma see glioma.

anarthria

anarthria n. a motor speech disorder characterized by an inability to speak because of damage to or disruption of the central nervous system. Individuals with anarthria cannot control the larynx and other muscles involved in producing speech sounds; other language functions generally are unaffected. The condition is distinct from dysarthria, which is a difficulty in speaking coherently. —anarthric adj.

anastomosis

anastomosis n. (pl. anastomoses) 1. the surgical connection of two normally separate structures. 2. an alternate pathway formed by branching of a main circuit, as found in nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. The brain is served by arterial anastomoses that help ensure a continuing blood flow in the event of one pathway being blocked by a blood clot or rupture of a blood vessel.

anatomical age

anatomical age a measure of the stage of physical development of an individual, based on the condition of certain skeletal features as compared with the normal state of the bones for a specified chronological age. Also called physical age. See also mental age.

anatomically detailed doll

anatomically detailed doll a doll with anatomically correct genitalia that is used as an assessment tool in the diagnosis of sexual abuse in children. There are currently no uniform standards or normative data for conducting interviews with such dolls, and their clinical reliability with very young children is questionable. Also called anatomically correct doll.

ancestor worship

ancestor worship a practice found in various cultures, especially in Asia and Africa, that involves the veneration of departed kin and the summoning of ancestral spirits through rituals and prayer.

ancestral trait

ancestral trait an evolutionary trait that is homologous within groups of organisms (see homology) that are all descended from a common ancestor in which the trait first evolved. Because an ancestral trait may occur across many species—for example, opposable thumbs in marmosets, ring-tailed lemurs, and gorillas—it cannot be used to further elucidate their genetic relationships.

anchor

anchor n. a reference used when making a series of subjective judgments. For example, in an experiment in which participants gauge distances between objects, the experimenter introduces an anchor by informing the participants that the distance between two of the stimulus objects is a given value. That value then functions as a reference point for participants in their subsequent judgments. Similarly, the options listed for a multiple-choice test item provide an anchor for the test taker to use when answering.

anchor test

anchor test a set of test items used as a reference point in comparing alternate forms of a test. One alternate form is administered to one group of participants, another is administered to a different group, and the items comprising the anchor test are administered to both groups. Scores on each alternate form are then compared with scores on the anchor test.

anchoring

anchoring n. 1. in adaptation level theory, the assignment of set points (anchors) for judgment scales. According to this theory, all judgments are relative to an implicit scale of comparison; for example, poverty is evaluated differently when people are given specific examples of either extreme or moderate poverty. 2. the process in which one or more items in a list being learned serve as anchors with which the other items are associated. For instance, the first and last items in a list of words may serve as anchors, cuing the words in between.

anchoring bias

anchoring bias the tendency, in forming perceptions or making quantitative judgments under conditions of uncertainty, to give excessive weight to the starting value (or anchor), based on the first received information or one’s initial judgment, and not to modify this anchor sufficiently in light of later information. For example, estimates of the product of 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 tend to be higher than estimates of the product of 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8 × 9. Also called anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic; anchoring effect. See also atmosphere effect.

ancillary

ancillary adj. supporting or supplemental but not necessarily critical to some function or event.

ANCOVA

ANCOVA acronym for analysis of covariance.

and rule

and rule see multiplication rule.

Andersen’s disease

Andersen’s disease a familial disorder marked by cirrhosis of the liver with involvement of the heart, kidneys, muscles, and nervous system. The disease is due to a deficit of an enzyme needed to convert glucose carried from the digestive tract into glycogen for storage by the liver. [Dorothy Ha nsine Andersen (1901–1963), U.S. pediatrician]

Andersen’s syndrome

Andersen’s syndrome a disorder consisting of three pathological conditions: cystic fibrosis of the pancreas, celiac disease, and vitamin A deficiency. The syndrome may be marked by symptoms of depression, muscle wasting, and hypotonia (weak, floppy muscles). Children may have difficulty in walking or standing. Also called Andersen’s triad. [Dorothy Hansine Andersen]

Andrade’s syndrome

Andrade’s syndrome a form of amyloidosis characterized by flaccid paralysis, sensory disorders, impotence, and premature menopause. Also called Corino de Andrade’s paramyloidosis; familial Portuguese polyneuritic amyloidosis; Wohlwill–Corino Andrade syndrome. [Corino de Andrade, Portuguese physician; Joachim Friedrich Wohlwill (1881–1958), German physician]

andro- (andr-)

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androcentric

androcentric adj. denoting a male perspective, sometimes one that marginalizes or excludes women and their experience. See also phallocentric. —androcentrism n.

androgen

androgen n. any of a class of steroid hormones that act as the principal male sex hormones, the major one being testosterone. Androgens are produced mainly by the testes and influence the development of masculine sex characteristics. They are also secreted in small quantities by the cortex of the adrenal gland and can be produced synthetically. —androgenic adj.

androgen antagonist

androgen antagonist n. see antiandrogen.

androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

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androgenization

androgenization n. the masculinizing effect of androgens, especially testosterone, on body tissues and organs sensitive to them, as in the development of male sex characteristics.

androgynophilia

androgynophilia n. 1. sexual attraction to both males and females. See bisexuality. 2. sexual attraction to someone who is androgynous in appearance.

androgynous personality

androgynous personality a personality style in which an individual displays both stereotypical masculine and stereotypical feminine psychological characteristics (e.g., both assertiveness and sensitivity).

androgyny

androgyny n. 1. the presence of male and female characteristics in one individual. 2. the state of being neither masculine nor feminine in appearance, as in dress. See also gynandromorph; hermaphroditism. —androgyne n. —androgynous adj.

android

android 1. adj. possessing human features. 2. n. an automaton resembling a human being. The term was popularized by science fiction writers in the mid- and late 20th century. Also called humanoid.

andropause

andropause n. see male climacteric.

androstenedione

androstenedione n. a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex (the outer layer of the adrenal gland) and the gonads as a precursor of the male and female sex hormones, particularly testosterone and estrone.

androsterone

androsterone n. a steroid hormone, secreted by the adrenal cortex and testis, with weak androgenic effects.

anecdotal method

anecdotal method an investigational technique in which informal verbal reports of incidents casually observed are accepted as useful information. The anecdotal method is scientifically inadequate but can offer clues as to areas of investigation that warrant more systematic, controlled research.

anecdotal record

anecdotal record in education, a factual, written record containing spontaneous, succinct, cumulative descriptions of a student’s behavior. Such observations are usually considered significant because they highlight a given aspect of the student’s personality and may prove useful in future evaluations.

anechoic chamber

anechoic chamber an enclosure designed to eliminate sound reverberations and echoes. This enclosure is usually located within or combined with a sound-attenuating chamber.

Anectine

Anectine n. a trade name for succinylcholine.

anencephaly

anencephaly n. congenital absence of the cranial vault (the bones forming the rear of the skull), with cerebral hemispheres completely missing or reduced to small masses. Infants born with anencephaly are usually blind, deaf, unconscious, and unable to feel pain. Anencephaly is an example of a neural tube defect. —anencephalic adj.

anergia

anergia n. 1. absence of energy. 2. a state of passivity. Also called anergy. —anergic adj.

anesthesia (anaesthesia)

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anethopath

anethopath n. a person lacking ethical or moral inhibitions. See also antisocial personality disorder. —anethopathy n.

aneuploidy

aneuploidy n. the condition in which a cell or organism has fewer or more than the normal number of chromosomes, for example (in humans), 45 or 49 instead of the normal 46. Aneuploidy is often associated with neurological or cognitive defects. See autosome. —aneuploid adj., n.

aneurysm (aneurism)

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angakok

angakok n. an Inuit name for a shaman or spiritual guide. The angakok is a central figure of Inuit spiritual life; present at major ceremonies, he foretells weather and the movement of game animals, cures illness, retrieves lost or stolen souls, and converses with other spiritual beings.

angel dust

angel dust a street name for crystals of PCP (phencyclidine). The crystals are sometimes sprinkled onto oregano, parsley, or alfalfa and sold as marijuana.

Angelman syndrome

Angelman syndrome a congenital disorder caused by a genetic abnormality on chromosome 15 and characterized by abnormalities or impairments in neurological, motor, and cognitive functioning, including severe learning disabilities, absence of speech, and a stiff, jerky gait and movements (see ataxia). Individuals with Angelman syndrome have happy dispositions and a propensity for paroxysms of inappropriate laughter. Craniofacial abnormalities, including a small or unusually flattened head, a large mouth, and a protruding jaw, are also common. The condition was formerly called happy-puppet syndrome. [Harry Angelman (1915–1996), British pediatrician]

anger

anger n. an emotion characterized by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice. It can manifest itself in behaviors designed to remove the object of the anger (e.g., determined action) or behaviors designed merely to express the emotion (e.g., swearing). Anger is distinct from, but a significant activator of, aggression, which is behavior intended to harm someone or something. Despite their mutually influential relationship, anger is neither necessary nor sufficient for aggression to occur.

anger control therapy

anger control therapy a treatment that makes use of therapist-guided progressive exposure to anger-provoking cues in conjunction with therapist modeling, client rehearsal, assertiveness training, and other forms of coping skills training. Practiced in both individual and group settings, the intervention is used with clients who have general difficulty with anger (e.g., intensity, frequency, or mode of expression) or with clients who have specific disorders.

anger management

anger management techniques used by individuals—sometimes in counseling or therapy—to control their inappropriate reactions to anger-provoking stimuli and to express their feelings of anger in appropriate ways that are respectful of others. Such techniques include using relaxation methods (breathing deeply, repeating a word or phrase, visualizing a relaxing experience) to reduce physiological responses to anger, replacing exaggerated or overly dramatic thoughts with more rational ones (see cognitive restructuring), communicating more calmly and thoughtfully about one’s anger, and removing oneself from situations or circumstances that provoke anger or avoiding them altogether.

anger stage

anger stage the second of the five stages of grief described by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. It is characterized by anger, resentment, or even rage at one’s own (or at an important other’s) impending or actual death, other great loss, or trauma.

angio- (angi-)

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angioedema

angioedema n. a disorder marked by recurrent episodes of noninflammatory swelling of certain body tissues, particularly the skin, mucous membranes, viscera, and central nervous system. The disorder may begin suddenly and last for hours or days, sometimes causing death. Attacks may be triggered by food or drug allergies, insect stings or bites, or viral infection, in most cases the cause is never known. A hereditary form may be associated with emotional stress. Also called angioneurotic edema; Quincke’s disease; Quincke’s edema.

angiography

angiography n. the visualization of blood vessels by radiological techniques, used as an aid in diagnosing abnormalities or discovering blockages in areas of the circulatory system. For example, it can identify blood clots, tumors, aneurysms, and the degree of narrowing of the coronary arteries, which supply the heart. A dye opaque to X-rays is injected into a vessel and any disruption of blood flow is revealed as a contrasting pattern. When the imaging is of arteries, it is also called arteriography. The image produced is called an angiogram (or arteriogram). See also cerebral angiography; digital subtraction angiography.

angioma

angioma n. a tumor of the vascular system: an abnormal mass of blood vessels or lymph vessels.

angioscotoma

angioscotoma n. a type of visual field defect caused by shadows of blood vessels on the retina.

angiotensin

angiotensin n. one of a family of peptides, including angiotensins I, II, and III, that are produced by the enzymatic action of renin on a precursor protein (angiotensinogen) in the bloodstream. Their effects include narrowing of blood vessels (vasoconstriction), increased blood pressure, thirst, and stimulation of aldosterone release from the adrenal glands. See also renin–angiotensin system.

angst

angst n. 1. fear or anxiety (German). 2. in existentialism, a state of anguish or despair in which a person recognizes the fundamental uncertainty of existence and understands the significance of conscious choice and personal responsibility.

angular gyrus

angular gyrus a ridge along the lower surface of the parietal lobe of the brain, formed by a junction of the superior and middle temporal gyri. This region has been proposed as the key area of reading and writing function. Lesions are associated with alexia and agraphia, and structural abnormalities with dyslexia.

angular transformation

angular transformation see arc sine transformation.

anhaphia

anhaphia n. see anaphia.

anhedonia

anhedonia n. the inability to enjoy experiences or activities that normally would be pleasurable. It is one of two defining symptoms of a major depressive episode (the other being a persistent depressed mood), but it is also seen in other disorders, including schizophrenia. [first defined in 1897 by Théodule Ribot] —anhedonic adj.

anhypnia

anhypnia n. see insomnia.

aniconia

aniconia n. an absence of mental imagery.

anilide

anilide n. any of a group of aniline derivatives developed as analgesics and antipyretics. The parent compound, acetanilide, was originally introduced in 1886 as an antipyretic, but its toxicity led to its disuse and the development of a number of derivatives, of which acetaminophen is the only member in current use.

anilingus

anilingus n. the practice of stimulating the anus with the mouth or tongue as a form of sexual activity.

anima

anima n. 1. in the earlier writings of Carl Jung, a person’s innermost being, which is in closest contact with the unconscious and is contrasted with the persona, or the externally directed part of a person. 2. in Jung’s later writings, (a) an archetype that represents universal feminine characteristics or (b) the unconscious feminine aspect of the male psyche. Compare animus.

animal

animal 1. n. a living organism generally distinguished from plants by having motility and mechanisms for rapid response to outside events. 2. n. any such organism other than humans. 3. adj. beastlike, or characteristic of lower animals: lacking human faculties and sensitivities.

animal aggression

animal aggression see aggression.

animal behavior

animal behavior the scientific study of the behavior of animals, typically nonhuman animals. It includes the fields of ethology, comparative psychology, and behavioral ecology. Areas of study include aggression, courtship, grooming, mate selection, play, foraging, and parental behavior, among others.

animal care and use

animal care and use the treatment of nonhuman animals used in research and experimentation. Various regulations, standards, and principles have been developed to protect the well-being of such animals and ensure that they are treated in a humane and ethical manner. In the United States, examples include the Animal Welfare Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1966 and subsequently amended several times, most recently in 2008; and the American Psychological Association’s “Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research,” developed in 1968 by the Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) and revised in 2012. See Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

animal cognition

animal cognition the processes that are believed to be used by nonhuman animals in solving environmental and social problems but that cannot be observed directly. They include problem-solving abilities that appear not to depend on rote memory or trial-and-error learning, suggesting that some animals may be able to reason about potential solutions and therefore to solve problems with apparent spontaneity. See also animal intelligence; comparative cognition; social cognition; theory of mind.

animal communication

animal communication the study of how nonhuman animals communicate with each other either to provide honest signals or to manage or manipulate the behavior of others. Assessment of individuals based on their behavior or signals may be a major function of animal communication.

animal cooperation

animal cooperation behavior in which two or more nonhuman animals act together in a way that leads to mutual benefit. Examples include the cooperative nest building, food finding, and care of young in social insects, the mobbing behavior of some animals toward a predator, and the production of specific signals to indicate sources of food or shelter to others. It is not known whether cases of animal cooperation require that the animals understand the need to cooperate (see cooperation).

animal courtship

animal courtship see courtship.

animal defensive behavior

animal defensive behavior behavior used by a nonhuman animal to avoid being harmed by another. This might involve defensive aggression against a potential predator or against a member of its own species, from its own group or an outside group, or animal escape behavior to avoid the source of harm. It might also involve strategies to become inconspicuous, through camouflage or inactivity, or highly conspicuous, as in the noise that a rattlesnake makes to indicate potential danger if provoked or attacked.

animal dominance

animal dominance the relationship between nonhuman animals that allows some individuals to have greater access to resources (e.g., food, shelter, mates) than others in the group. Dominance ranks are thought to be linear in some cases, with a clear ordering from most to least dominant (see pecking order), but may also be dependent (i.e., based on kin or age relationships) or governed by coalitions in which subordinate individuals acting together can outrank dominant ones. Although dominance is usually thought to be based on aggression, stable dominance relationships may be maintained through the use of animal vocalizations or visual communication, with minimal aggression.

animal emotionality

animal emotionality emotional reactions in nonhuman animals, often measured by exploratory behavior in an open field or by physiological correlates, such as heart rate or defecation rate. Individuals showing less exploratory behavior or greater physiological arousal are said to exhibit higher emotional reactivity.

animal escape behavior

animal escape behavior the attempt of a nonhuman animal to escape an aversive stimulus, such as pain, a distasteful food, a predator, or an attacking or threatening member of the same species. This is one form of animal defensive behavior. See also escape behavior.

animal hypnosis

animal hypnosis a state of motor nonresponsiveness in nonhuman animals, produced by stroking, salient stimuli, or physical restraint. It is called “hypnosis” because of a claimed resemblance to human hypnosis and trance.

animal intelligence

animal intelligence the various abilities of nonhuman animals to solve problems in their environment through mechanisms of learning and animal cognition. Psychologists formerly thought that animal intelligence was best measured relative to human skills, with a linear progression of intelligence from simple to complex organisms. Research has revealed, however, that intelligence can take many forms and is best understood in the context of the particular problems that each species faces. For example, swarm intelligence is the cumulative problem-solving ability of a group of animals of one species, such as an ant colony or a flock of birds. See also comparative cognition.

animal learning

animal learning a field of psychology that studies the learning ability of nonhuman animals.

animal magnetism

animal magnetism a hypothetical physical force that allegedly can have a curative effect when focused on ailing parts of the body, often through the use of a magnetized wand, magnetized rods, or a magnetized bath (see baquet). This method was proposed in 1779 and popularized by Franz Anton Mesmer, who claimed some treatment success with it. In the 1840s, James Braid investigated the curative effects of animal magnetism, concluding that it worked not through the application of magnets to ailing parts of the body but through the practitioner’s induction of a sleeplike state in patients and through the interplay of patient belief and healer suggestion to elicit a positive result. Braid revised the treatment under the term hypnotism (see hypnosis). Both hypnosis and its forerunner, animal magnetism, are also sometimes called mesmerism.

animal model

animal model an animal whose characteristics or conditions are similar to those of humans, thus making it suitable for studying human behavior, processes, disorders or diseases, and so forth.

animal open-field behavior

animal open-field behavior the activity of an animal measured in the form of exploratory behavior, movement, and number of defecations when it is exposed to an enclosed but otherwise relatively unrestricted laboratory environment, such as the open-field chamber.

animal phobia

animal phobia a persistent and irrational fear of a particular type of animal, such as snakes, cats, dogs, insects, mice, birds, or spiders. The focus of fear is often anticipated harm or danger. The emotion of disgust may also play a role in the maintenance of certain animal phobias (e.g., insects, mice, spiders). Situations in which the feared animal may be encountered are often avoided or else endured with intense anxiety or distress. Animal phobias typically start in childhood. The DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5 designation is specific phobia, animal type.

animal psychology

animal psychology see comparative psychology.

animal rights

animal rights the rights of nonhuman animals to be treated with respect and to be free from exploitation and abuse by humans. Proponents of animal rights believe that it is morally wrong to harm, kill, or exploit animals for any human uses, including any type of research, and many advocate that all sentient creatures are in some ways the moral equals of humans. Proponents of animal welfare, however, typically make a moral distinction between humans and nonhuman animals and believe that, whereas individuals have an obligation to treat animals humanely, certain research involving animals is medically and scientifically necessary. See also animal care and use.

animal social behavior

animal social behavior the aggregate of interactions between members of a nonhuman animal group or family, including aggression, animal communication, animal cooperation, courtship, animal dominance, play, and parental behavior. Social organization and social structure can be inferred from a detailed knowledge of animal social behavior.

animal spirits

animal spirits in the system of Galen, a vaguely defined force or substance that is pictured as flowing through hollow tubes from the brain to all parts of the body; as such, it is a precursor of the modern concept of the nerve impulse. Like other aspects of Galen’s system, the concept of animal spirits remained current well into the 17th century. In the mechanistic physiology of René Descartes, for example, the animal spirits are retained to provide a link between body and mind. Descartes, however, anticipated the modern concept of the peripheral nervous system by maintaining that nerves conduct in either direction between the muscles and sense organs. Also called vital spirits. See also hydraulic model.

animal starch

animal starch see glycogen.

animal vocalization

animal vocalization any call or sound produced by a nonhuman animal that can be said to communicate, that is, that can provide information about internal state or likelihood of subsequent action or can be used to assess or manage the behavior of others. Vocalizations are typically produced through vibration of an organ, such as the larynx in some mammals, the two syringes in birds, or the blowholes in whales. Frequently sounds are amplified through special organs, such as throat sacs in amphibians. See also vocal communication.

animal welfare

animal welfare see animal rights.

animal-assisted therapy

animal-assisted therapy the therapeutic use of pets to enhance individuals’ physical, social, emotional, or cognitive functioning. Animal-assisted therapy may be used, for example, to help people receive and give affection, especially in developing communication and social skills. It may be most effective for people who have suffered losses or separation from loved ones. Also called pet-assisted therapy; pet therapy.

animal–human comparison

animal–human comparison the use of information about nonhuman animal behavior to make generalizations about human behavior. Studies of animals are often specifically designed to provide explicit models for some aspect of human behavior, but studies of the diversity of behavior across different animal species can also be used to understand the origins of certain types of human behavior and to suggest alternative solutions to human problems. See comparative psychology.

animate noun

animate noun a noun denoting a living entity capable of being the agent of an action; an inanimate noun is one denoting any other entity. The distinction affects the form of the noun in some languages and can be significant in case grammar.

animatism

animatism n. the belief that within all entities, living and nonliving, there exist supernatural forces or powers.

animism

animism n. the belief that natural phenomena or inanimate objects are alive or possess lifelike characteristics, such as intentions, desires, and feelings. A well-known and often cited phenomenon in precausal thinking, animism was considered by Jean Piaget to be characteristic of the thought of children in the preoperational stage, later fading out and being replaced by the strong belief in the universal nature of physical causality. —animistic adj.

animus

animus n. in analytic psychology, (a) an archetype that represents universal masculine characteristics or (b) the unconscious masculine component of the female psyche. Compare anima. [sense originated by Carl Jung]

anion

anion n. a negatively charged ion, such as a chloride ion. Compare cation. —anionic adj.

aniridia

aniridia n. a rare congenital disorder characterized by partial or almost complete absence of the iris, with abnormal development of the macula lutea and optic nerve. Glaucoma and cataract almost inevitably develop as a consequence of aniridia.

aniridia, cerebellar ataxia, and mental deficiency

aniridia, cerebellar ataxia, and mental deficiency an extremely rare genetic disorder characterized by intellectual disability, lack of normal muscle control, and speech difficulty. Lenses and corneas may be normal, but the eyes lack or have only partial irises. It is thought to be caused by heterozygous mutation in the PAX6 gene on chromosome 11p13. Also called Gillespie syndrome. [first described in 1965 by U.S. ophthalmologist Frederick D. Gillespie (1927– )]

aniseikonia

aniseikonia n. a condition in which the two eyes perceive images of unequal size or shape when these are viewed through each eye separately. It may be an unintended consequence of clinical alterations made to the cornea or lens.

aniso- (anis-)

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anisocoria

anisocoria n. inequality in the size of the pupils. Roughly one quarter of the population has a clinically visible amount of pupillary inequality; this figure increases with age: One third of people over age 60 exhibit anisocoria.

anisometropia

anisometropia n. a condition in which the eyes have differing powers of refraction.

anisometropic amblyopia

anisometropic amblyopia see developmental amblyopia.

anisotropy

anisotropy n. the state of being different, especially with respect to direction or orientation, lack of symmetry of form, or lack of uniformity of responses in different parts of something. Anisotropy in vision can refer to differences between the right and left eyes (e.g., anisometropia). Also called anisotropia. Compare isotropy. —anisotropic adj.

ankylo- (ankyl-)

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ankyloglossia

ankyloglossia n. restricted movement of the tongue due to abnormal shortness of the lingual frenum. Normal speech production may be affected. Also called tongue tie.

ankylosis

ankylosis n. an immobility and consolidation of a joint, usually due to the destruction of membranes lining the joint or to a defect in bone structure. It may occur naturally, as in rheumatoid arthritis, or by surgical fusion (arthrodesis).

Anna O.

Anna O. the pseudonym of Austrian social worker and feminist Bertha Pappenheim (1859–1936), who was a patient of Josef Breuer, a colleague of Sigmund Freud. Breuer’s treatment of her hysteria was written up in an early case study that was an important precursor to psychoanalysis and to Freud’s concept of transference. See also talking cure.

annihilation

annihilation n. complete destruction. In psychoanalytic theory, annihilation is destruction of the self. In object relations theory, fear of annihilation (annihilation anxiety) is viewed as the earliest form of anxiety. Melanie Klein attributed it to the experience of the death instinct; British psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1896–1971) saw it as the anxiety that accompanies impingements from the environment. —annihilate vb.

anniversary reaction

anniversary reaction a strong emotional response on the anniversary of a significant event. It most commonly involves depressive symptoms around the same time of the year that the death of a loved one, a severe disappointment, or other adverse event occurred.

annual cycle

annual cycle a pattern of behavior that recurs over the course of a year. Hibernating animals eat more food and gain weight in the months before winter, migratory animals experience periods of activity twice a year coincident with migration, and seasonally breeding animals undergo annual changes in reproductive physiology and related behavior (such as territory defense and song). Some annual cycles occur even in the absence of external seasonal cues.

annulment

annulment n. 1. in psychoanalytic theory, a process in which disagreeable ideas or events are neutralized or made ineffective by converting them into daydreams and fantasies. Compare repression. 2. a formal pronouncement that a marriage or judicial proceeding is invalid.

annulospiral ending

annulospiral ending a type of nerve fiber ending in muscle spindles in which the nerve fiber is wrapped around the muscle fiber near the center of the spindle. Annulospiral endings show a maximal discharge early in the stretch of a muscle and then adapt to a lower discharge rate. Also called primary sensory ending. Compare flower-spray ending.

annunciator

annunciator n. in ergonomics, an early-warning system that uses sensors to monitor specific system attributes and some form of alert to warn the operator when deviation from the normal limits occurs. Action can then be taken to return the system attribute to its normal state. Compare check reading. —annunciate vb.

anodal polarization

anodal polarization a condition in which the flow of electrical current is toward the positive pole. In a typical nerve cell, the positive pole would be in extracellular fluid, and the current flow would be from the inside toward the outside of the cell membrane.

anodyne

anodyne n. any agent or procedure that relieves pain, including analgesics (e.g., aspirin), anesthetics, or acupuncture.

anoetic

anoetic adj. 1. not involving or subject to intellectual or cognitive processes. Emotions are sometimes considered anoetic. 2. describing a state of knowledge or memory in which there is no consciousness of knowing or remembering. Anoetic consciousness is a corresponding kind of “unknowing knowing” in which one is aware of external stimuli but not of interpreting them. [defined by Endel Tulving] 3. lacking the capacity for understanding or concentrated thought. This meaning, originally applied to intellectual disability, is no longer common. Compare autonoetic; noetic. —anoesis n.

anogenital

anogenital adj. relating to the anatomical region in which the anus and genitalia are located.

anomalopia

anomalopia n. see anomalous trichromatism.

anomalous dichromatism

anomalous dichromatism partial color blindness in which only two colors (usually blue and yellow) can be seen. Also called anomalous dichromasy. See dichromatism.

anomalous experience

anomalous experience any of a variety of experiences that appear to be inconsistent with the usually accepted explanations of reality. Examples include out-of-body experiences, mystical experiences, lucid dreaming, and synesthesia. See also altered state of consciousness.

anomalous stimulus

anomalous stimulus a stimulus that is unexpected in relation to an organism’s recent experience, which gives rise to unique neural events different from those caused by expected stimuli.

anomalous trichromatism

anomalous trichromatism a form of color blindness or color weakness in which affected individuals have three types of retinal cone but one of these has a color sensitivity that is different from that of the corresponding normal cones. It is usually marked by a diminished capacity to respond to the red–green color system. The ability to distinguish these colors increases in proportion to their intensity; that is, less brilliant shades are less easily identified. Also called anomalopia; anomalous trichromasy.

anomaly

anomaly n. 1. anything that is irregular or deviates from the norm, often referring to a congenital or developmental defect. 2. in the analysis of scientific revolutions by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996), an empirical fact that should be but cannot be explained or predicted by a particular theoretical system. —anomalous adj.

anomia

anomia n. 1. loss or impairment of the ability to name objects. All individuals with aphasia exhibit anomia, and the extent of naming difficulty is a good general measure of aphasia severity. 2. an obsolete term for a defective moral sense. [defined by U.S. physician Benjamin Rush (1745–1813)] —anomic adj.

anomic aphasia

anomic aphasia one of eight classically identified types of aphasia, characterized by impairment in object naming (anomia) and word recognition in the absence of other significant language deficits. Conversational speech is fluent, with normal utterance length and grammatically well-formed sentences. Auditory comprehension is good for everyday conversation, but there may be some difficulty with complex syntax. Also called amnestic (or amnesic) aphasia; nominal aphasia.

anomic suicide

anomic suicide one of four types of suicide proposed in 1897 by Émile Durkheim, involving the perception that one’s relationship to society has changed so radically that its values and norms are no longer personally relevant. Feeling bereft of the societal standards upon which he or she had relied, the individual becomes frustrated, disillusioned, and disappointed. Anomic suicides often are associated with periods of social revolution or other significant widespread change. See also altruistic suicide; egoistic suicide; fatalistic suicide.

anomie

anomie n. a sense of alienation and hopelessness in a society or group that is often a response to social upheaval. It also may be accompanied by changes in personal and social values. —anomic adj.

anonymity

anonymity n. a principle of research ethics stating that the identity of a study participant should remain unknown. Relatedly, confidentiality applies to situations in which a participant’s identity is known but should not be disclosed by the researcher.

anopia (anopsia)

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anorchism

anorchism n. congenital absence of one or both testes. The etiology is unknown but genetic factors may be involved. Also called anorchia.

anorectant

anorectant n. see appetite suppressant. Also called anorexiant.

anorexia

anorexia n. absence or loss of appetite for food or, less commonly, for other desires (e.g., sex), especially when chronic. It may be primarily a psychological disorder, as in anorexia nervosa, or it may have physiological causes, such as hypopituitarism. —anorectic or anorexic adj., n.

anorexia nervosa

anorexia nervosa an eating disorder, occurring most frequently in adolescent girls, that involves persistent refusal of food, excessive fear of weight gain, refusal to maintain minimally normal body weight, disturbed perception of body image, and amenorrhea (absence of at least three menstrual periods).

anorgasmia

anorgasmia n. the inability to achieve orgasm. See also female orgasmic disorder; male orgasmic disorder. —anorgasmic adj.

anorthopia

anorthopia n. asymmetrical or distorted vision, sometimes associated with strabismus.

anorthoscope

anorthoscope n. a device consisting of two disks, one in front of the other, that rotate in opposite directions. The front disk is opaque with four slits through which a highly distorted image on the back disk is viewed. Although the image on the rear disk is both rotating and distorted, it will appear normal and stationary when viewed through the front disk if both disks are rotated at the appropriate speed. [first constructed by Belgian physicist Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau (1801–1883)]

anorthoscopic perception

anorthoscopic perception the holistically perceived form of an object revealed over time through a narrow slit aperture. It is distinct from ordinary object perception in that the perceived object arises from the temporal integration of visual information derived from the same retinotopic area (i.e., there is no spatially extended retinotopic image). Also called slit viewing. See anorthoscope. [first reported in 1862 by German astrophysicist Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner (1834–1882)]

anosmia

anosmia n. absence or loss of the ability to smell, which may be general or limited to certain odors. General or total anosmia implies inability to smell all odorants on both sides of the nose, whereas partial anosmia implies an inability to smell certain odorants. —anosmic adj.

anosognosia (anosagnosia)

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ANOVA

ANOVA acronym for analysis of variance.

anovulatory menstrual cycle

anovulatory menstrual cycle a menstrual cycle that occurs without ovulation. It results from an imbalance between hormone production of the pituitary gland and the ovaries and is marked by irregular menstruation. An anovulatory menstrual cycle is most likely to be associated with menarche or menopause.

anoxemia

anoxemia n. the severe reduction or absence of oxygen in the arterial blood. This condition can result in loss of consciousness and brain damage. See also hypoxemia. —anoxemic adj.

anoxia

anoxia n. a decrease in the level of oxygen in the body tissues, including the brain. Consequences depend on the severity of the anoxia and the specific areas of the brain that are affected but can include generalized cognitive deficits or more focal deficits in memory, perception, or executive function. Anoxia sometimes is used as a synonym of hypoxia. —anoxic adj.

ANP

ANP abbreviation for active noise protection.

ANR

ANR abbreviation for active noise reduction.

ANS

ANS abbreviation for autonomic nervous system.

Anschauung

Anschauung n. intuition (German, in which it can also mean “view” or “perception”). In the thought of Immanuel Kant, Anschauung is that means of knowing in which knowledge is immediate and not based on concepts. According to Kant, one’s knowledge of sensible objects is of this kind.

ANT

ANT abbreviation for Attention Network Test.

ant-

ANT abbreviation for Attention Network Test.

Antabuse

Antabuse n. a trade name for disulfiram.

antagonist

antagonist n. 1. a drug or other chemical agent that inhibits the action of another substance. For example, an antagonist may combine with the substance to alter and thus inactivate it (chemical antagonism); an antagonist may reduce the effects of the substance by binding to the same receptor without stimulating it, which decreases the number of available receptors (pharmacological antagonism); or an antagonist may bind to a different receptor and produce a physiological effect opposite to that of the substance (physiological antagonism). 2. a contracting muscle whose action generates force opposing the intended direction of movement. This force may serve to slow the movement rapidly as it approaches the target or it may help to define the movement end point. Compare agonist. —antagonism n. —antagonistic adj.

antagonistic colors

antagonistic colors colors at opposite sides of the color circle, such as red and green or blue and yellow. Also called complementary colors.

antagonistic muscles

antagonistic muscles pairs of muscles (or muscle groups) that oppose each other in function. For example, the biceps flexes the arm at the elbow, whereas the opposing triceps straightens the arm.

ante- (ant-)

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antecedent

antecedent n. 1. an event or stimulus that precedes some other event or stimulus and often elicits, signals, or sets the occasion for a particular behavior or response. See also contingency. 2. in linguistics, the noun or noun phrase to which a pronoun (especially a relative pronoun, such as who, that, or which) refers back. For example, in the train that I caught yesterday, the antecedent of that is train. See anaphora. 3. See consequent.

antecedent variable

antecedent variable any variable that precedes a response variable. For example, in regression analysis it is the independent variable, and in path analysis it is the variable beginning a chain of causal links. Compare consequent variable.

antecedent-focused emotion regulation

antecedent-focused emotion regulation in the process model of emotion regulation, a form of emotion regulation in which one faced with a potentially emotional situation attempts to reappraise it in a way that decreases its emotional relevance. For example, reappraising an upcoming task as a challenge rather than as a threat, or thinking of an upcoming medical procedure as beneficial rather than painful, can reduce one’s subjective emotional experience of the actual event. Thus, reappraisal as antecedent to the event can, if effective, preempt full-blown emotional responses to it. Compare response-focused emotion regulation. [proposed in 1998 by U.S. clinical psychologist James J. Gross]

antergic

antergic adj. exerting force in opposition. For example, antergic pairs of muscles or muscle groups oppose each other in flexing or extending a joint. Compare synergy.

anterior adj. in front of or toward the front. In reference to two-legged upright animals, this term is sometimes used interchangeably with ventral to mean toward the front surface of the body. Compare posterior. —anteriorly adv.

anterior cerebral artery

anterior cerebral artery a branch of the internal carotid artery that forms part of the circle of Willis. The anterior cerebral artery passes above the optic chiasm and extends forward into the longitudinal fissure, where it curves around the horn of the corpus callosum before arching back along the upper surface of the corpus callosum. It supplies blood to portions of the frontal lobe, which is involved in motor functions and higher level cognitive processes, and portions of the parietal lobe, which is involved in sensory functions. Specific structures served include the corpus callosum itself, the cingulate cortex, parts of the basal ganglia, and the septal area.

anterior chamber

anterior chamber see eye.

anterior choroidal artery

anterior choroidal artery a relatively narrow artery that is a posterior branch of the middle cerebral artery. It passes across the optic tract toward the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle and into the choroid plexus, hippocampus, thalamus, amygdala, and related deep structures.

anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

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anterior commissure

anterior commissure see commissure.

anterior communicating artery (ACoA, AComA)

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anterior corticospinal tract

anterior corticospinal tract see corticospinal tract.

anterior cranial fossa

anterior cranial fossa see fossa.

anterior horn

anterior horn 1. the frontmost division of each lateral ventricle in the brain. 2. see ventral horn.

anterior pituitary

anterior pituitary the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It manufactures and releases hormones such as prolactin, growth hormone, and tropic hormones. Also called adenohypophysis.

anterior rhizotomy

anterior rhizotomy see rhizotomy.

anterior root

anterior root see ventral root.

anterior spinothalamic tract

anterior spinothalamic tract see spinothalamic tract.

anterior white commissure

anterior white commissure see white commissure.

anterior–posterior axis

anterior–posterior axis a line or plane running from the front to the back of the body.

anterior–posterior development gradient

anterior–posterior development gradient the more rapid growth of the head region compared with posterior areas of the body during fetal development. In the early embryonic stages, the head and brain make up half of the body mass, and at birth the head represents one quarter of the infant’s total height. See cephalocaudal.

anterograde

anterograde adj. moving or extending forward in time or in space.

anterograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia see amnesia.

anterograde degeneration

anterograde degeneration a pattern of neuron destruction following axonal injury that spreads forward along the axon, away from the nerve cell body. Also called Wallerian degeneration. Compare retrograde degeneration.

anterograde memory

anterograde memory the ability to retain events, experiences, and other information following a particular point in time. When this ability is impaired (i.e., by injury or disease), it becomes very difficult or even impossible to recall what happened from that moment forward, a condition known as anterograde amnesia. For example, an individual with deficits of anterograde memory resulting from a stroke might not remember the name of a new person introduced to him or her but would remember the name of a close childhood friend. Compare retrograde memory.

anterograde transport

anterograde transport see axonal transport.

anterolateral system

anterolateral system a major somatosensory system consisting of nerve fibers that originate mostly from dorsal horn cells and ascend in the white matter of the spinal cord, conveying information about pain, temperature, and touch to higher centers. It includes the spinothalamic tract; the spinoreticular tract, traveling through the spinal cord to the reticular formation of the brainstem; and the spinomesencephalic tract, traveling through the spinal cord to the mesencephalon (midbrain).

anthropo-

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anthropocentrism

anthropocentrism n. the explicit or implicit assumption that human experience is the central reality and, by extension, the idea that all phenomena can be evaluated in the light of their relationship to humans. —anthropocentric adj.

anthropogenesis

anthropogenesis n. the scientific study of the origins and development of humans. Also called anthropogeny. —anthropogenetic or anthropogenic adj.

anthropoid

anthropoid adj. resembling a human being. The term is usually applied to apes: specifically, gorillas, orangutans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gibbons.

anthropological linguistics

anthropological linguistics the branch of linguistics that draws connections between the characteristics of a particular language and the cultural practices, social structures, and worldview of the society in which it is spoken (see linguistic determinism; linguistic relativity). The field developed primarily from an interest in describing languages indigenous to North America, such as Navaho and Hopi.

anthropology

anthropology n. the study of human beings. This typically involves the description and explanation of similarities and differences among human groups in their languages, aesthetic expressions, belief systems, and social structures over the range of human geography and chronology. Physical anthropology focuses on the origin, evolution, and environmental adaptation of human groups, whereas sociocultural anthropology is concerned with the development and functioning of customs, beliefs, and institutions. Outside of the United States, this latter subdivision is often called ethnology. —anthropological adj. —anthropologist n.

anthropometry

anthropometry n. 1. the scientific study of how the size and proportions of the human body are affected by such variables as age, sex, and ethnicity. 2. the taking of measurements of the human body for purposes of comparison and study. —anthropometric adj. —anthropometrist n.

anthropomorphism

anthropomorphism n. 1. the attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman entities such as deities, spirits, animals, plants, or inanimate objects. It is a fundamental tendency of the human imagination as reflected in language, religion, and art. 2. in comparative psychology, the tendency to interpret the behavior and mental processes of nonhuman animals in terms of human abilities. A variation is anthropocentrism, which uses human experience as the standard by which the behavior or mental processes of nonhuman animals, for example, animal intelligence, is evaluated. See also Lloyd Morgan’s canon. Compare zoomorphism. —anthropomorphic adj.

anthroponomy

anthroponomy n. the science of human development as it relates to the development of other organisms and to the environment. —anthroponomical adj.

anthroposcopy

anthroposcopy n. the practice of judging the body build of an individual by inspection, rather than by the use of anthropometric techniques of body measurement. —anthroposcopic adj.

anti- (ant-)

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anti-intoxicant

anti-intoxicant n. a theoretical drug that would have the effect of countering the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Also called amethystic.

anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH)

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Anti-Semitism Scale (A-S Scale)

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antiaging remedy

antiaging remedy any intervention that is hypothesized to slow down or reverse the effects of aging. Typically these interventions are pharmacological (e.g., antioxidants, vitamin C, growth hormones), but they also can be lifestyle changes (e.g., exercise).

antiandrogen

antiandrogen n. a substance that reduces or blocks the physiological effects of androgens, the male sex hormones, on tissues normally responsive to these hormones. Examples include bicalutamide (U.S. trade name: Casodex), finasteride (U.S. trade names: Propecia; Proscar), flutamide (U.S. trade name: Eulexin), and nilutamide (U.S. trade name: Nilandron). They correct the effects of excessive levels of male sex hormones and may be used to control hair loss and prostate cancer in males and to reverse masculine traits (e.g., excessive facial hair) in females. More controversially, antiandrogens have been used in the treatment of repeat sex offenders (see chemical castration). Also called androgen antagonist.

antianxiety medication

antianxiety medication see anxiolytic.

antibiotic

antibiotic n. a drug used to destroy pathogenic or otherwise harmful microorganisms, especially bacteria. Antibiotics can be produced by or obtained from living cells (e.g., molds, yeasts, bacteria) or manufactured as synthetic chemicals with effects similar to natural antibiotics. Some work by interfering with bacterial reproduction, whereas others may disrupt the normal life functions of the pathogen. Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses. Overuse and inappropriate use of these agents are contributing to the development of bacterial resistance to many commonly used antibiotics.

antibody

antibody n. a modified protein molecule, produced by B lymphocytes, that interacts with an antigen and renders it harmless (see immune response). Each type of antibody is designed to interact with a specific antigen and can be mass-produced by the body following exposure to an identical antigen. See antigen–antibody reaction; immunity.

anticathexis

anticathexis n. in psychoanalytic theory, a process in which the ego withdraws psychic energy from certain unconscious wishes and ideas and uses it to strengthen other wishes and ideas capable of blocking the decathected material’s entrance into consciousness. The anticathected material may be similar to the original or opposite but related to it: For example, philanthropy may neutralize an unconscious wish to hoard. Also called countercathexis. See also cathexis. —anticathected adj.

anticholinergic drug

anticholinergic drug any pharmacological agent that blocks or otherwise interferes with the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and thus disrupts the transmission of impulses along parasympathetic routes. Anticholinergic drugs act at acetylcholine receptors, with the majority of such drugs acting at muscarinic receptors and known as antimuscarinic drugs; the others act at nicotinic receptors and are known as antinicotinic drugs. In large doses, anticholinergic drugs may also interfere with actions of histamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Natural anticholinergic drugs include atropine and scopolamine. A variety of synthetic anticholinergic drugs are used to treat neurological disorders, many as antiparkinsonian drugs. They include benztropine, biperiden, procyclidine, and trihexyphenidyl, which are administered primarily to relieve the symptoms of muscular rigidity. Anticholinergic drugs are often used in combinations to control specific symptoms. Tricyclic antidepressants and some conventional antipsychotics also have anticholinergic activity. Also called parasympatholytic drug.

anticholinergic effects

anticholinergic effects side effects that are characteristic of anticholinergic drugs and are also associated with other agents (e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors) that exert antagonist effects at muscarinic receptors. They include dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary hesitancy or retention, and constipation. Similar antagonistic effects may occur at nicotinic receptors as well. Depending on the specific receptors involved, these effects may also be called antimuscarinic effects or antinicotinic effects.

anticholinergic syndrome

anticholinergic syndrome a disorder produced by anticholinergic drugs and due to their antagonistic effects at acetylcholine receptors, marked by symptoms involving both the peripheral and central nervous systems. The former include dry mucous membranes, dry mouth, and flushed skin and face, whereas the latter include ataxia (unsteady gait), drowsiness, slurred speech, confusion and disorientation, hallucinations, and deficits, particularly of short-term memory. Tricyclic antidepressants, aliphatic phenothiazines, antiparkinsonian agents, and scopolamine are examples of drugs that can cause anticholinergic syndrome. This syndrome is often observed in patients receiving combinations of such drugs.

anticholinesterase

anticholinesterase n. see cholinesterase.

anticipation

anticipation n. 1. looking forward to a future event or state, sometimes with an affective component (e.g., pleasure, anxiety). 2. the onset of a hereditary disease at earlier and earlier ages in successive generations.

anticipation learning method

anticipation learning method see serial anticipation method.

anticipatory anxiety

anticipatory anxiety worry or apprehension about an upcoming event or situation because of the possibility of a negative outcome, such as danger, misfortune, or adverse judgment by others. The worry or apprehension is often accompanied by somatic symptoms of tension. Anticipatory anxiety is a common feature of panic disorder, in which the concern is over the possibility of experiencing future panic attacks.

anticipatory attitude change

anticipatory attitude change an alteration in one’s attitude toward something that occurs when one is told to expect a persuasive message on the subject (the direction is unknown). When the topic of the anticipated message is very important, attitudes polarize in the direction of the initial attitude. When the topic is of little importance, attitudes become more moderate.

anticipatory coping

anticipatory coping a stress-management strategy in which one seeks to avoid or minimize problems associated with a critical event occurring in the near future that involves potential risk. Examples of such events include a scheduled public speech, a job interview, an exam, or a promotion. Anticipatory coping thus can be understood as the management of known risks, involving efforts to solve the actual problems (e.g., by increasing effort, by enlisting help, by investing other resources) or to feel good in spite of the risks (e.g., by redefining the situation as less threatening, by distraction, by gaining reassurance from others). It is assumed to increase with middle and old age and is one of four types of coping proposed by German psychologists Ralf Schwarzer (1943– ) and Nina Knoll, the others being preventive coping, proactive coping, and reactive coping.

anticipatory error

anticipatory error 1. the error of making a response before it should be made. 2. an error in which an item is recalled as having been earlier in a list than it actually was.

anticipatory grief

anticipatory grief sorrow and anxiety experienced by someone who expects a loved one to die within a short period. The period of anticipatory grief can be regarded as having both stressful and constructive possibilities: It might cushion the emotional impact when the death actually occurs, but it could have the unfortunate consequence of leading a person to withdraw from the relationship, treating the other person as though he or she were already dead. See also complicated grief; traumatic grief. [introduced as a concept in 1944 by U.S. psychiatrist Erich Lindemann (1900–1974)]

anticipatory guidance

anticipatory guidance counseling and educational services provided to individuals or families before they reach a turning point or significant developmental change in their lives. Examples include parental guidance before a child enters school and counseling of employees soon to reach retirement age.

anticipatory image

anticipatory image a mental image that allows one to envision transformations of that image, even if one has never experienced such transformations in the past. According to Piagetian theory, anticipatory images are not produced until the concrete operational stage. Compare reproductive image.

anticipatory movement

anticipatory movement a movement that is based on (a) expected changes in the environment (e.g., predictive smooth eye or hand movements to track a moving stimulus); (b) expected postural necessity (e.g., to maintain balance when shifting a limb); or (c) preparation for an upcoming action (e.g., prepositioning movements, such as lip rounding in speech).

anticipatory nausea

anticipatory nausea nausea that occurs prior to chemotherapy (typically during the day before administration). Nausea and vomiting can also occur after an individual has received a few treatments, usually in response to triggers in the environment (e.g., odors and sights of the hospital room) that have been associated with the physical side effects of chemotherapy.

anticipatory pleasure

anticipatory pleasure enjoyment that is related to reward motivation and to activities targeting desired outcomes; that is, pleasure from knowing that one will soon be rewarded in goal-directed behavior. It contrasts with consummatory pleasure, which results from the satiation of a desire.

anticipatory regret

anticipatory regret a sense of the potential negative consequences of a decision that influences the choice made. For example, an individual may decide not to make an investment because of the feelings associated with an imagined loss. See prospect theory.

anticipatory response

anticipatory response a response that occurs before the evoking stimulus is presented.

anticipatory schema

anticipatory schema in the perceptual cycle hypothesis, a structured pattern of knowledge (a “preunderstanding”) that influences an organism’s expectations in a given situation, thus guiding the organism’s perception of that situation (i.e., by preparing it to receive certain kinds of information or to perceive particular aspects of the situation) and ultimately directing its exploration and action. For example, a student entering an unfamiliar classroom for the first time may invoke a general classroom schema, which likely contains information about the general characteristics of such a room (the presence of a floor, a ceiling, four walls, a blackboard, desks, etc.) and leads the person to expect to encounter these things within this novel classroom. Since the general classroom schema does not contain information suggesting the presence of, say, a washing machine, the student would not spend time looking for this unanticipated item. Anticipatory schemas are dynamic rather than static; although based on previous experience, they are continuously being revised as a result of new experiences. [defined in 1976 by Ulric Neisser]

anticonfirmationism

anticonfirmationism n. the position that it is not possible to confirm the truth of general propositions, including scientific hypotheses, either by accruing positive instances or by probability estimates. See falsificationism.

anticonformity

anticonformity n. a deliberate, self-conscious refusal to comply with accepted social standards, often accompanied by the expression of ideas, beliefs, or judgments that challenge those standards. Anticonformity is motivated by rebelliousness or obstinacy rather than the need to express oneself sincerely. Also called counterconformity. Compare conformity; nonconformity.

anticonvulsant

anticonvulsant n. any drug used to reduce the frequency or severity of epileptic seizures or to terminate a seizure already underway. Until the advent of the hydantoins in the 1930s, anticonvulsants consisted mainly of bromides and barbiturates: Phenobarbital was first used in the treatment of epilepsy in 1912 and remained the mainstay of treatment until the introduction of the hydantoin phenytoin. Drugs now used to treat partial or tonic–clonic seizures include phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproic acid, phenobarbital, and newer anticonvulsants, such as lamotrigine, gabapentin, tiagabine, topiramate, vigabatrin, and zonisamide. Ethosuximide and other succinimides may be used in managing absence seizures. The benzodiazepines are also effective antiseizure medications. Also called antiepileptic.

antidepressant

antidepressant n. any drug administered in the treatment of depression. Most antidepressants work by increasing the availability of monoamine neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, or dopamine, although they do so by different routes. The monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) work by inhibiting monoamine oxidase, one of the principal enzymes that metabolize these neurotransmitters. Most of the other antidepressants, including the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (see SSRI), inhibit the reuptake of serotonin or norepinephrine (and to a much lesser degree dopamine) into the presynaptic neuron. Either process leaves more of the neurotransmitter free to bind with postsynaptic receptors, initiating a series of events in the postsynaptic neuron that is thought to produce the actual therapeutic effect. In 2007, a boxed warning was added to the labeling of all antidepressants, stating that the risk of suicidal thinking and actual suicide increased in children, adolescents, and young adults taking antidepressants versus those taking placebo in short-term studies of major depressive disorder and that, since depression itself is associated with an increased suicide risk, all patients newly on antidepressant medications should be monitored appropriately.

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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antidromic conduction

antidromic conduction the conduction of a nerve impulse in a reversed direction (i.e., from axon to cell body), produced for experimental purposes. Also called antidromic activation; antidromic phenomenon.

antiepileptic

antiepileptic n. see anticonvulsant.

antiestrogen

antiestrogen n. a substance that reduces or blocks the physiological effects of estrogens, the female sex hormones, on tissues normally responsive to these hormones. Examples include tamoxifen (U.S. trade name: Nolvadex), toremifene (U.S. trade name: Fareston), fulvestrant (U.S. trade name: Faslodex), and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), such as raloxifene (U.S. trade name: Evista), which have both inhibitory and facilitative effects upon different pathways mediated by estrogen receptors. Antiestrogens are used in the treatment or prevention of breast cancer and some estrogenically mediated effects of menopause, as well as in the treatment of some types of female infertility. Also called estrogen antagonist.

antigen

antigen n. any substance that is treated by the immune system as foreign and is therefore capable of inducing an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies that render it harmless. The antigen may be a virus, a bacterium, a toxin (e.g., bee venom), or tissue (e.g., blood) of another individual with different genetic characteristics. —antigenic adj.

antigen–antibody reaction

antigen–antibody reaction the binding of an antibody to its particular antigen as part of the body’s natural defense against the introduction of a foreign substance. The bound antibody renders the foreign substance more susceptible to degradation by immune cells, for example, engulfment by phagocytic cells. Once the individual’s immune system has developed antibodies to fight a certain type of antigen, the antibodies can be mobilized quickly to destroy any repeated invasion by the antigen; thus, the first antigen attack induces immunity to future attacks. See also immune response.

antigonadal action

antigonadal action the blocking of gonadal function by an agent or process, such as a lesion in the pituitary gland or amygdala.

antiharassment policies

antiharassment policies policies and procedures adopted by an organization or institution to prevent and counter harassment due to gender, race, or sexual orientation. They typically include alerting people that antiharassment policies are in place, conducting awareness training designed to educate people about harassment, implementing disciplinary measures when necessary, and having formal grievance procedures.

antihistamine

antihistamine n. any drug or agent that inhibits the effects of histamine at central or peripheral histamine receptors, especially H1 receptors. They may have sedative effects and are a common component of over-the-counter sleeping aids. Some are used in the treatment of allergic reactions or motion sickness (see diphenhydramine; dimenhydrinate). The so-called nonsedating antihistamines have less ability to cross the blood–brain barrier and are used solely in the management of allergic responses. Also called histamine antagonist.

antilibidinal ego

antilibidinal ego in the object relations theory of British psychoanalyst W. Ronald D. Fairbairn (1889–1964), the portion of the ego structure that is similar to Sigmund Freud’s superego. The antilibidinal ego constitutes a nonpleasure-gratifying, self-deprecatory, or even hostile self-image; it is posited to develop out of the unitary ego present at birth when the infantile libidinal ego (similar to the id) experiences deprivation at the hands of the parent and the infant suppresses his or her frustrated needs. Also called internal saboteur. See Fairbairnian theory.

Antilirium

Antilirium n. a trade name for physostigmine.

antimanic drug

antimanic drug see mood stabilizer.

antimetabolite

antimetabolite n. a substance that has a molecular structure so similar to that of another substance required for a normal physiological function that it may be accepted as the required molecule, thereby disrupting a normal metabolic process. For example, the anticoagulant bishydroxycoumarin functions as an antimetabolite by interfering with vitamin K in producing the blood-clotting agent prothrombin.

antimetropia

antimetropia n. a condition in which one eye is myopic (nearsighted) and the other is hyperopic (farsighted).

antimuscarinic drug

antimuscarinic drug see anticholinergic drug.

antinicotinic drug

antinicotinic drug see anticholinergic drug.

antinociceptive

antinociceptive adj. describing or relating to any factor that increases tolerance for, or reduces sensitivity to, harmful stimuli, usually stimuli that cause pain. See also pain perception.

antinodal behavior

antinodal behavior see nodal behavior.

antinomy

antinomy n. 1. in common usage, a state of opposition or contradiction between two things. 2. in the thought of Immanuel Kant, a contradiction between two a priori propositions in metaphysics, each of which can be supported by equally valid proofs. Kant cited a series of such antinomies as part of his argument against speculative metaphysics and in favor of his own position that the only world one can have knowledge of is the world of phenomena.

antioxidant

antioxidant n. a substance, such as beta-carotene, lutein, lycopene, selenium, and vitamins A, C, and E, that may protect cells against the effects of free radicals by inhibiting or removing oxidation.

antiparkinsonian drug

antiparkinsonian drug any pharmacological agent that reduces the severity of symptoms of Parkinson’s disease or drug-induced parkinsonism (common with the use of conventional antipsychotics), including tremors, movement and gait abnormalities, and muscle rigidity. Such agents include antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine), anticholinergic drugs (e.g., benztropine, trihexyphenidyl), dopamine-receptor agonists (e.g., carbidopa, levodopa), and specific enzyme inhibitors of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and of MAO-B (see monoamine oxidase).

antipathy

antipathy n. strong aversion or deep-seated dislike. See also prejudice. —antipathetic adj.

antipredator behavior

antipredator behavior all forms of action by an organism that function to avoid being captured, wounded, or killed by another organism, including antipredatory aggression, defensive behavior, and mobbing as well as vigilance, immobility, the confusion effect, the dilution effect, and flight or other evasive action. To respond adaptively to predation threats and increase their chances of survival, prey animals have to be able to recognize their potential predators. Even though a few studies have demonstrated innate predator recognition, the vast majority of animals have to rely on learning to acquire this information.

antipredator defense

antipredator defense any means by which nonhuman animals avoid predation. It can take the form of camouflage, Batesian mimicry, Müllerian mimicry, warning coloration, or various forms of antipredator behavior.

antipredatory aggression

antipredatory aggression attack behavior directed toward a potential predator as a form of defense. See aggression; defensive behavior.

antipsychiatry

antipsychiatry n. an international movement that emerged in the 1960s under the leadership of British psychiatrist R. D. Laing (1927–1989), South African psychiatrist David Cooper (1931–1986), Italian psychiatrist Franco Basaglia (1924–1980), and U.S. psychiatrist Thomas S. Szasz (1920–2012). Antipsychiatrists contested the scientific and practical validity of psychiatry and radically opposed what they understood as a hospital-centered medical specialty legally empowered to treat and institutionalize individuals with mental disorders. Indeed, many antipsychiatrists argued against the very existence of mental disorders themselves, advancing the notion that they are not illnesses at all but rather alternative ways of behaving that alarm people. They viewed psychiatry as a form of social repression and a means to control deviance, and treatment as a disguised form of punishment. —antipsychiatrist n.

antipsychotic

antipsychotic n. any pharmacological agent used to control the symptoms of schizophrenia and other disorders characterized by impaired reality testing, as evidenced by severely disorganized thought, speech, and behavior. Formerly called major tranquilizers and later neuroleptics, antipsychotics are commonly divided into two major classes: conventional or typical (first-generation) antipsychotics, which were developed in the 1950s and include the phenothiazines and butyrophenones, and the newer atypical (novel or second-generation) antipsychotics, of which clozapine is the prototype, first marketed in the United States in 1990. The latter class has fewer adverse side effects than the former, particularly the neurologically based extrapyramidal symptoms but also the less serious yet unpleasant autonomic effects, such as dry mouth and blurred vision. However, the newer drugs have been associated with some serious metabolic and other effects (see atypical antipsychotic).

antipyretic

antipyretic n. a drug that helps control fever or other forms of hyperthermia (raised body temperature) by acting on the thermoregulatory center in the hypothalamus. Antipyretics may also help the body to dissipate heat faster by dilating peripheral arteries. Aspirin and other nonopioid analgesics function as antipyretics.

antisocial

antisocial adj. denoting or exhibiting behavior that sharply deviates from social norms and also violates other people’s rights. Arson and vandalism are examples of antisocial behavior. Compare prosocial.

antisocial aggression

antisocial aggression any act of instrumental aggression that has socially destructive and undesirable consequences, such as rape or murder. Compare prosocial aggression.

antisocial personality disorder

antisocial personality disorder the presence of a chronic and pervasive disposition to disregard and violate the rights of others. Manifestations include repeated violations of the law, exploitation of others, deceitfulness, impulsivity, aggressiveness, reckless disregard for the safety of self and others, and irresponsibility, accompanied by lack of guilt, remorse, and empathy. The disorder has been known by various names, including dyssocial personality, psychopathic personality, and sociopathic personality. It is among the most heavily researched of the personality disorders and the most difficult to treat. It is included in both DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5.

antispasmodic drug

antispasmodic drug any pharmacological agent used in the management of spasms of smooth muscle. Such drugs are commonly used to treat gastrointestinal conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome.

antiterrorist activities

antiterrorist activities security programs to detect and counter terrorist activities, including those involving potential chemical and biological attacks.

antithesis

antithesis n. 1. a thesis, idea, or proposition that is opposite to or contradicts another. 2. in philosophy, the second stage of a dialectical process based on proposition, contradiction, and the reconciliation of these (thesis, antithesis, and synthesis). The term is often associated with German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) and his theory of the dialectical development of ideas, although it was not a term he used in his analysis. See also dialectical materialism. —antithetical adj.

antitussive

antitussive n. a drug that suppresses coughing by affecting the cough-control center in the medulla oblongata of the brain. Among antitussives are the opioids codeine and dextromethorphan; from 1898 until 1924 when it became illegal, heroin was marketed as an antitussive. Also called cough suppressant.

antiviral drug

antiviral drug any substance that interferes with the normal functioning of viruses. Antiviral drugs may act by blocking host-cell enzyme systems required for viral reproduction, by blocking signals carried in messenger RNA, or by uncoating the nucleic acid molecule of the virus. These drugs are difficult to manage in clinical practice because chemicals that block viral processes may also interfere with the patient’s normal cell functions. However, antivirals occasionally interact with substances in human tissues to yield unexpected benefits, as with amantadine, which can be used as an antiparkinsonian agent.

antivitamin

antivitamin n. a substance that interferes with the functions of vitamins. Most antivitamins are chemicals that are similar in structure to the vitamins they render ineffective. They are used mainly in studies and tests of vitamin deficiencies.

Anton’s syndrome

Anton’s syndrome a rare disorder marked by the lack of awareness of blindness. The person genuinely believes he or she can see despite clinical evidence of loss of vision, such as difficulties in getting around, handling objects, and so forth. The condition is a type of visual anosognosia resulting from injury to the occipital lobe of the brain. [first described in 1899 by Gabriel Anton (1858–1933), Austrian physician]

antonym

antonym n. a word that has the opposite meaning to another word in the same language. After, for example, is the antonym of before. Compare synonym. —antonymous adj.

antonym test

antonym test an examination in which the respondent is presented with a word and asked to supply a word with the opposite meaning to it (e.g., being given true and replying false). Also called opposites test.

anvil

anvil n. see ossicles.

anxiety

anxiety n. an emotion characterized by apprehension and somatic symptoms of tension in which an individual anticipates impending danger, catastrophe, or misfortune. The body often mobilizes itself to meet the perceived threat: Muscles become tense, breathing is faster, and the heart beats more rapidly. Anxiety may be distinguished from fear both conceptually and physiologically, although the two terms are often used interchangeably. Anxiety is considered a future-oriented, long-acting response broadly focused on a diffuse threat, whereas fear is an appropriate, present-oriented, and short-lived response to a clearly identifiable and specific threat. —anxious adj.

anxiety attack

anxiety attack see panic attack.

anxiety discharge

anxiety discharge any anxiety-reducing action or repetitive activity (e.g., exercise, knitting, weeding a garden) associated with normal daily living, viewed as an alternative to suppression of anxiety.

anxiety disorder

anxiety disorder any of a group of disorders that have as their central organizing theme the emotional state of fear, worry, or excessive apprehension. This category includes, for example, panic disorder, various phobias (e.g., specific phobia, social phobia), and generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders have a chronic course, albeit waxing and waning in intensity, and are among the most common mental health problems in the United States. They may also occur as a result of the physiological effects of a medical condition, such as endocrine disorders (e.g., hyperthyroidism), respiratory disorders (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), cardiovascular disorders (e.g., arrhythmia), metabolic disorders (e.g., vitamin B12 deficiency), and neurological disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder were traditionally considered anxiety disorders; however, they are increasingly considered, as in DSM–5, to be separate, if still related, entities.

anxiety fixation

anxiety fixation in psychoanalysis, the maintenance or continuation of an anxiety reaction from an earlier developmental stage into a later one.

anxiety hierarchy

anxiety hierarchy a series of graduated anxiety-arousing stimuli centering on a specific source of anxiety in a specific individual. It is used in the treatment of phobias by systematic desensitization: Patients proceed along the hierarchy from the least threatening situation toward the most threatening situation.

anxiety hysteria

anxiety hysteria in psychoanalysis, a neurosis in which the anxiety generated by unconscious sexual conflicts is expressed in phobic symptoms, such as an irrational fear of dirt or open spaces, and in physical disturbances that are conversion symptoms. The term is seldom used because it combines disorders that are now classified separately. See anxiety disorder; conversion disorder. [defined by Sigmund Freud]

anxiety management

anxiety management cognitive-behavioral, behavioral, or other techniques that aid in the reduction of anxiety, such as biofeedback training, relaxation techniques, or medication.

anxiety neurosis

anxiety neurosis in psychoanalysis, a disturbance in which the most prominent symptoms are persistent anxiety and feelings of impending disaster, accompanied by such symptoms as difficulty in making decisions, insomnia, loss of appetite, and heart palpitations. This term is now seldom used: The current classification of chronic anxiety of this nature is generalized anxiety disorder. Also called anxiety state. See also anxiety disorder.

anxiety object

anxiety object in psychoanalysis, an object upon which anxiety originally caused by another source is displaced. For example, a nonhuman object may be feared because it represents the father who caused the original anxiety. See Little Hans.

anxiety reaction

anxiety reaction an emotional response characterized by marked apprehension and accompanied by somatic symptoms of tension.

anxiety scale

anxiety scale any of numerous assessment instruments designed to measure the severity of anxiety symptoms. An important example is the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. Such scales usually take the form of self-report tests but can also be based on clinician ratings or actual performance.

anxiety sensitivity

anxiety sensitivity fear of sensations associated with anxiety because of the belief that they will have harmful consequences. For example, an individual with high anxiety sensitivity is likely to regard feeling lightheaded as a sign of impending illness or fainting, whereas an individual with low anxiety sensitivity would tend to regard this sensation as simply unpleasant. Research indicates that anxiety sensitivity is a traitlike risk factor that has been linked to the development of panic attacks and panic disorder. [defined in 1985 by U.S. clinical psychologists Steven Reiss and Richard J. McNally]

anxiety state

anxiety state 1. see anxiety neurosis. 2. formerly, a traumatic neurosis precipitated by a wartime experience in which the ego-ideals of war conflict with customary ideals. [defined by Sigmund Freud]

anxiety-relief response

anxiety-relief response in behavior therapy, the repetition of reassuring or tranquilizing words (e.g., calm) in anxiety-provoking situations.

anxiety–performance relationship

anxiety–performance relationship see arousal–performance relationship.

anxiolytic

anxiolytic n. a drug used in the treatment of anxiety, mild behavioral agitation, and insomnia. Formerly called minor tranquilizers, anxiolytics can also be used as adjunctive agents in the treatment of depression, panic disorder, and several other disorders. The most widely used are the benzodiazepines. Other drugs, such as certain SSRIs, have also been shown to have anxiolytic effects. See also azapirone; sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic drug.

anxious depression

anxious depression a major depressive episode accompanied by high levels of anxiety.

anxious–ambivalent attachment style

anxious–ambivalent attachment style see ambivalent attachment.

anxious–avoidant attachment

anxious–avoidant attachment 1. in the Strange Situation, a form of insecure attachment in which an infant explores only minimally and tends to avoid or be indifferent to the parent. 2. an adult interpersonal style characterized by discomfort in being with others and a tendency to avoid intimate relationships with them. Also called avoidant attachment style, it is sometimes identified as taking two forms: dismissive attachment and fearful attachment.

anxious–resistant attachment

anxious–resistant attachment in the Strange Situation, a form of insecure attachment in which an infant appears anxious in the parent’s presence, distressed in the parent’s absence, and angry upon the parent’s return, often resisting contact with him or her.

aortic arch syndrome

aortic arch syndrome a disorder caused by progressive obliteration of the main branches of the aortic arch because of arteriosclerosis, aneurysm, or a related problem. Usually only one or two of the branches are involved, affecting blood flow to a local area. If the carotid or vertebral arteries are involved, the brain will be affected. The patient may experience fainting spells, epilepsy-like seizures, temporary blindness, paralysis on one side of the body, aphasia, memory disturbances, or a combination of symptoms. A typical effect is the carotid-sinus syndrome, in which the patient faints after turning the head.

aortic stenosis

aortic stenosis see stenosis.

AP

AP 1. abbreviation for action potential. 2. abbreviation for advanced placement. See advanced placement examinations.

APA

APA 1. abbreviation for American Psychiatric Association. 2. abbreviation for American Psychological Association.

APA style

APA style guidelines and standards for writing (e.g., grammar) and formatting (e.g., data display, headings) for students, instructors, researchers, and clinicians in the social and behavioral sciences, as collected in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

APAGS

APAGS abbreviation for American Psychological Association of Graduate Students.

APAP

APAP n. see acetaminophen.

apareunia

apareunia n. the inability to perform sexual intercourse.

apastia

apastia n. fasting or abstinence from food.

apathy

apathy n. lack of motivation or goal-directed behavior and indifference to one’s surroundings. Apathy is commonly associated with severe depression or schizophrenia, but it also is a major behavioral symptom in Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and other neurodegenerative disorders. —apathetic adj.

apathy syndrome

apathy syndrome 1. the lack of motivation and interest displayed by many patients with Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, and such mental disorders as schizophrenia and severe depression. 2. the pattern of emotional insulation (indifference, detachment) adopted by many prisoners-of-war and victims of catastrophes in an effort to maintain their stability.

APDA

APDA abbreviation for American Parkinson Disease Association, Inc.

aperiodic reinforcement schedule

aperiodic reinforcement schedule a former name for variable-interval schedule.

Apert syndrome

Apert syndrome an inherited condition in which an abnormally shaped head due to premature closure of some of the cranial sutures (see craniosynostosis syndrome) is accompanied by intellectual disability and syndactyly. The syndactyly usually involves both hands and feet and typically results in fusion of the skin and bones, marked by “mitten hands” and “sock feet.” Apert syndrome may be complicated by Crouzon syndrome (and called Apert–Crouzon syndrome), in which case fusion of the digits is partial. See also acrocephalosyndactyly). [Eugène Apert (1868–1940), French pediatrician]

aperture, draw, syntax model (ADS model)

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APF

APF abbreviation for American Psychological Foundation.

Apgar score

Apgar score an evaluation of newborn infants on five factors: skin color, heart rate, respiratory effort, reflexes, and muscle tone. The evaluation is typically performed at 1 minute and again at 5 minutes after birth to assess the physical condition of the infant and to determine quickly if he or she needs immediate medical care. Each factor is scored 0, 1, or 2, with a maximum total of 10 points. A score below 3 indicates that the infant is in severe distress; a score of 4 to 7 indicates moderate distress; and a score of 7 to 10 indicates that the infant’s condition is normal. [developed in 1952 by Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), U.S. anesthesiologist]

aphagia

aphagia n. inability to swallow or eat. —aphagic adj.

aphakia

aphakia n. the absence of the lens from the eye, a condition that may be congenital or the result of disease, injury, or surgery. —aphakic adj.

aphanisis

aphanisis n. 1. an obsolete term defined by British psychoanalyst Ernest Jones (1879–1958) to indicate total extinction of sexual desire. 2. more broadly, a term defined by French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981) to mean total extinction of self. [from Greek aphanes, “invisible”]

aphasia

aphasia n. an acquired language impairment that results from brain damage typically in the left hemisphere. Common causes of damage include stroke, brain tumors, and cortical degenerative disorders (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease). Traditionally, a distinction has been made between expressive and receptive forms of aphasia, whereby individuals with the former primarily have difficulty producing spoken and written language and those with the latter primarily have difficulty comprehending spoken and written language. A more contemporary distinction, however, is commonly made between fluent aphasias, characterized by plentiful verbal output consisting of well-articulated, easily produced, but inappropriate or meaningless utterances of relatively normal length and prosody (rhythm and intonation), and nonfluent aphasias, characterized by sparse, effortful utterances of short phrase length and disrupted prosody. Fluent aphasias are associated with posterior lesions that spare cortical regions critical for motor control of speech, whereas nonfluent aphasias are associated with anterior lesions that compromise motor and premotor cortical regions involved in speech production. Numerous types of aphasia exist, with eight classically identified: anomic aphasia, Broca’s aphasia, conduction aphasia, global aphasia, mixed transcortical aphasia, transcortical motor aphasia, transcortical sensory aphasia, and Wernicke’s aphasia. Also (but much less preferably) called dysphasia. —aphasic adj.

aphemia

aphemia n. as originally defined by Paul Broca, a motor aphasia with nonfluent speech but intact language functions, as evidenced by intact writing. It contrasts with Broca’s aphasia, in which writing is also disrupted.

aphonia

aphonia n. loss of the voice resulting from disease of or damage to the larynx or vocal tract.

aphrodisiac

aphrodisiac n. any agent or substance that facilitates sexual desire. Perfumes, foods such as raw oysters, and various drugs, particularly alkaloids such as yohimbine, are thought to be aphrodisiacs.

apical dendrite

apical dendrite the dendrite that extends from a pyramidal cell to the outermost surface of the cerebral cortex. Compare basal dendrite.

aplasia

aplasia n. the arrested development of a body tissue or organ.

Aplysia

Aplysia n. a genus of molluscs that have a very simple nervous system and are often used to study neurophysiology, especially the neurophysiology of learning and memory. [initially studied by Austrian-born U.S. neuroscientist Eric Kandel (1929– )]

apnea (apnoea)

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apo-

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apodia

apodia n. the condition of being born with only one foot or with no feet. See also acheiria.

ApoE

ApoE abbreviation for apolipoprotein E.

apoenzyme

apoenzyme n. the protein component of an enzyme. It must combine with a second component, a coenzyme, to make the enzyme functional.

apolipoprotein E (ApoE)

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Apollonian

Apollonian adj. describing a state of mind that is well ordered, rational, and harmonious (from Apollo, the god of prophecy, music, and healing in Greek mythology). This modern use of the term was originated by Friedrich Nietzsche, who drew a contrast between the Apollonian and the Dionysian sides of human nature.

apomorphine

apomorphine n. a morphine derivative used as an expectorant and to induce vomiting. It is also used in the treatment of dyskinesias in Parkinson’s disease and of erectile dysfunction.

apoplexy

apoplexy n. 1. an obsolete term for a hemorrhagic stroke. 2. hemorrhage into an organ, as in a pituitary apoplexy. —apoplectic adj.

apoptosis

apoptosis n. see programmed cell death. —apoptotic adj.

aposematic coloration

aposematic coloration see warning coloration.

apostilb

apostilb (symbol: asb) n. a unit of luminance equal to the luminance of a uniform diffuser emitting 1/π cd/m2.

apotemnophilia

apotemnophilia n. 1. a paraphilia in which a person is sexually aroused at the idea of having a limb amputated. Compare acrotomophilia. 2. see body integrity identity disorder.

APP

APP abbreviation for amyloid precursor protein. See beta-amyloid.

apparatus

apparatus n. 1. any instrument or equipment used in an experiment or other research. 2. in biology, a group of structures that perform a particular function. It may be microscopic, as in the intracellular Golgi apparatus, or macroscopic, as in the vestibular apparatus.

apparent

apparent adj. 1. seeming or illusory. 2. in physics, denoting an observed state that is not in accordance with actual physical conditions. For example, apparent motion is a perception of motion induced by the motion of the observer rather than that of the observed entity. 3. obvious or manifest.

apparent distance

apparent distance the perceived distance of an object from an observer. The visual angle subtended by the image of the object is a powerful but imperfect cue for the apparent distance of the object.

apparent magnitude

apparent magnitude the brightness of an object, which depends on its luminosity and its distance from the observer.

apparent movement

apparent movement an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus. Several types have been identified and labeled with Greek letters, among them the familiar beta movement, in which successive presentations of stationary stimuli across the visual field produce the perception of a single, smoothly moving stimulus, and gamma movement, the seeming expansion of an object when it is suddenly presented and contraction when withdrawn. Also called apparent motion.

apparent size

apparent size the perceived size of a stimulus. This depends on many factors in addition to the size of the stimulus on the retina, most importantly the perceived distance from the observer to the object. See also size constancy; size cue.

apparition

apparition n. 1. a visual illusion that results from distortion of a perceived object. Often interpreted as threatening, apparitions may be associated with a neurological or toxic disorder, such as alcohol-induced psychotic disorder. 2. the perceived manifestation of a ghost or spirit. See also materialization; phantasm. 3. the act of becoming visible.

appeal

appeal n. in advertising, any aspect of a product or service that is highlighted in an attempt to arouse a sympathetic response from consumers. Appeals may be based on psychological studies of consumer desires or needs and may be as obvious as a practical package design or as subtle as an implied suggestion that the product might enhance the purchaser’s sexual attractiveness. Advertising appeals also may be directed toward a specific type of consumer personality. For example, a product appeal for a “conservative family car” might be directed toward married businesspeople with young children, whereas an appeal for a “sexy sports car” might be directed toward younger or older men and women with fewer family responsibilities. Also called product appeal. —appeal vb.

appearance and performance enhancing drug

appearance and performance enhancing drug see performance enhancing drug.

appearance–reality distinction

appearance–reality distinction the knowledge that the appearance of an object does not necessarily correspond to its reality. For example, a sponge shaped like a rock may look like a rock but it is really a sponge. Children younger than 3 may have difficulty making appearance–reality distinctions.

appeasement behavior

appeasement behavior actions by one nonhuman animal that reduce the likelihood of attack or threatening behavior from another. This may involve taking a submission posture, reducing apparent body size (e.g., by crouching), or using vocal signals typical of young animals.

Appelt–Gerken–Lenz syndrome

Appelt–Gerken–Lenz syndrome see Roberts syndrome.

apperception

apperception n. 1. the mental process by which a perception or an idea is assimilated into an individual’s existing knowledge (apperceptive mass). See also tendentious apperception. 2. the act or process of becoming conscious of a perception, so that it is recognized and understood. In apperceptive forms of visual agnosia, this ability is lost or impaired. —apperceive vb. —apperceptive adj.

apperceptive mass

apperceptive mass the previously acquired knowledge with which a new perception or idea must be assimilated if it is to be understood by the perceiver. [defined by German philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841)]

apperceptive visual agnosia

apperceptive visual agnosia see visual agnosia.

appersonation

appersonation n. a delusion in which the individual believes himself or herself to be another person and assumes the characteristics of that other person. Also called appersonification.

appestat

appestat n. a hypothetical area in the brain believed to regulate appetite and food intake. Although parts of the hypothalamus (see lateral hypothalamus; ventromedial nucleus) and brainstem (see solitary nucleus) have been shown definitively to be involved in appetite and food intake, the idea of a single appestat is probably overly simplistic.

appetite

appetite n. any desire, but particularly one for food or one relating to the satisfaction of any physiological need. Appetite is influenced by learning and prior experience and thus can be highly flexible. See also appetitive behavior. —appetitive adj.

appetite suppressant

appetite suppressant any agent that reduces desire for food and thus controls body weight, including the amphetamines and other stimulants (e.g., phentermine, diethylpropion), sibutramine, and serotonin agonists (fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine). Use of the latter compounds, particularly in combination with phentermine (so-called phen-fen), resulted in heart-valve defects, and this combination was removed from the market. Although appetite suppressants may result in short-term weight loss, there is no evidence that they achieve long-term weight reduction unless used in conjunction with a behavioral management program. Also called anorectant; anorexiant.

appetitive behavior

appetitive behavior 1. an active searching process that precedes consummatory behavior (see consummatory response) and is indicative of desire. Influenced by learning and prior experience, it is highly flexible and—in mating behavior—helps to establish or maintain sexual interaction prior to copulation. 2. feeding activity, which is influenced in part by the central nervous system, including areas of the brainstem and nuclei of the hypothalamus in the brain. Lesions of the ventromedial nucleus may result in excessive eating, whereas lesions of nuclei in the lateral hypothalamus may cause deficient eating.

appetitive conditioning

appetitive conditioning a type of classical conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus is a positive reinforcer, such as food.

appetitive stimulus

appetitive stimulus a positive reinforcer (see positive reinforcement) or an unconditioned stimulus that an organism will approach, the effectiveness of which can be modified by deprivation. For example, hunger can increase the effectiveness of food as an appetitive stimulus.

appetitive system

appetitive system extraversion as represented by an individual’s relative sensitivity to positive or rewarding (appetitive) cues and stimuli and his or her processes for approaching them. Compare aversive system. See also behavioral approach system. [proposed by British psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray (1934–2004)]

applied behavior analysis (ABA)

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applied linguistics

applied linguistics the field in which linguistic theories and methods are put to practical use. Contexts in which this occurs include language teaching, the treatment of language disorders, and various aspects of artificial intelligence.

applied psychoanalysis

applied psychoanalysis the application of psychoanalytic principles to the study of art, literature, religion, anthropology, biography, history, philology, and philosophy. Sigmund Freud’s own interpretations of Leonardo da Vinci, Moses, and Hamlet, as well as his studies of folklore and mythology, are prime examples.

applied psychology

applied psychology the application of the theories, principles, and techniques of psychology to practical concerns, such as problems of living or coping, education, vocational guidance, industry, ergonomics, consumer affairs, advertising, political campaigns, and environmental issues. It may be contrasted with theoretical psychology or academic psychology, in which the emphasis is on understanding for its own sake rather than on the utility of the knowledge.

applied psychophysiology

applied psychophysiology the use or study of the principles and techniques of psychophysiology to improve health, performance, or quality of life. See also clinical psychophysiology.

applied relaxation

applied relaxation a technique in which clients are taught, in a stepwise fashion, to relax more and more rapidly over a series of sessions in order to master panic, anxiety, phobias, pain, and other symptoms. The goal is for clients to be able to relax in 20 to 30 seconds in situations in which their symptoms typically occur. See also progressive relaxation.

applied research

applied research studies conducted to solve real-world problems, as opposed to studies that are carried out to develop a theory or to extend basic knowledge. Examples include action research and evaluation research. Compare basic research.

applied science

applied science the use of scientific principles and theories to serve a practical human purpose rather than to extend knowledge for its own sake. Compare basic science.

applied sport psychology

applied sport psychology the use or study of the use of sport psychology to enhance or make consistent the performance of athletes.

applied statistics

applied statistics the use of statistical methods and procedures to understand data in psychology, sociology, economics, and other disciplines. Compare theoretical statistics.

applied tension

applied tension a technique in behavior therapy that focuses on changing physiological responses (e.g., low blood pressure leading to fainting) by having the client practice muscle tensing and releasing during exposure to increasingly anxiety-evoking stimuli associated with a feared situation. The technique was developed and is still primarily used for blood, injury, and injection phobias.

applied verbal behavior

applied verbal behavior see verbal behavior therapy.

apport

apport n. 1. in spiritualism, the manifestation, allegedly by supernatural means, of physical objects during a seance. Such objects are regarded as signs or gifts from the spirits. See also materialization. 2. an object produced in this way.

appraisal

appraisal n. the cognitive evaluation of the nature and significance of a phenomenon or event. —appraise vb.

appraisal dimension

appraisal dimension any of the criteria that account for a person’s evaluation of an interaction with the environment and the generation of an appropriate emotional response. Examples of appraisal dimensions include the goal relevance of an event, its stimulus novelty, its judged pleasantness or unpleasantness, and a judgment of one’s coping potential in relation to this event. Different appraisal theories emphasize different appraisal dimensions. See also stimulus evaluation checks.

appraisal motive

appraisal motive see self-assessment motive.

appraisal theory

appraisal theory a group of theories stating that people’s cognitive appraisals or evaluations of a situation determine the emotions they feel in response to the situation. See also cognitive appraisal theory.

apprehension

apprehension n. 1. uneasiness or dread about an upcoming event or the future generally. Also called apprehensiveness. 2. the act or capability of grasping something mentally. Compare comprehension. —apprehend vb. —apprehensible adj. —apprehensive adj.

apprehension span

apprehension span the number of items that an individual can report from a single brief exposure to an array of items. Typically the number reported is four or five. Also called span of apprehension. See also scope of attention.

apprehension-span test

apprehension-span test a test in which participants report some aspect of a briefly presented array of items (e.g., letters). The whole report task requires participants to report as many letters as they can. Recent studies have used a partial report task, in which individuals must report the presence of a particular letter among a group of distractor letters in the briefly flashed display.

apprenticeship

apprenticeship n. a means by which a novice gains practical experience in a trade or profession, often through a formal program of instruction and supervision from an experienced practitioner or a mentor. See also mentoring.

approach

approach n. 1. a move toward something (e.g., a stimulus, a goal). 2. a particular method or strategy used to achieve a goal or purpose, for example, a psychodynamic approach in therapeutic practice.

Approach Control Test

Approach Control Test a test for simulation and assessment of air traffic control for management of aircraft approaching airports. It assesses the influence of stress factors, such as time pressures.

approach coping

approach coping any strategy for managing a stressful event or situation in which a person actively focuses on the problematic event or situation. Approach strategies may be cognitive in nature (e.g., trying to see the positive side of the situation, considering several alternatives for handling the situation) or behavioral (e.g., trying to find out more about the situation, seeking help from other people who have had similar experiences, praying for guidance, and bargaining or compromising to get something positive from the situation). Although generally seen as more adaptive than avoidance coping, approach strategies do have certain potential costs as well: The orientation toward threatening material can lead to increased distress and, when there is no possibility for changing the situation or for assimilating emotionally to it, nonproductive worry. [identified in 1986 by Susan H. Roth (1948– ), U.S. personality psychologist, and Lawrence J. Cohen (1958– ), U.S. clinical psychologist]

approach gradient

approach gradient the variation in the strength of a drive as a function of the organism’s proximity to its goal. For example, a rat’s goal-directed behavior increases in intensity as it nears its goal of food. The approach gradient appears less steep than the avoidance gradient. [originally proposed by Neal E. Miller]

approach motivation

approach motivation expectation of reward (e.g., a positive emotional experience), which is a condition for goal-directed behavior.

approach response

approach response any behavior that brings an organism closer to a stimulus. See adience.

approach–approach conflict

approach–approach conflict a situation involving a choice between two equally desirable but incompatible alternatives. Also called double-approach conflict. See also approach–avoidance conflict; avoidance–avoidance conflict.

approach–avoidance conflict

approach–avoidance conflict a situation involving a single goal or option that has both desirable and undesirable aspects or consequences. The closer an individual comes to the goal, the greater the anxiety, but withdrawal from the goal then increases the desire. See also approach–approach conflict; avoidance–avoidance conflict; double approach–avoidance conflict.

appropriate affect

appropriate affect an expression of mood or feeling that is in harmony with, or naturally indicative of, the accompanying thought, action, reaction, or verbal expression.

appropriate death

appropriate death the death a person would choose if given the opportunity. The concept draws attention to the differing needs and values of individuals in the terminal phase of life and challenges the assumption that a good death has the same meaning for all people. Palliative care, especially as given in hospices, attempts to protect individuality and offers a communication process and caring environment to provide the maximum possible opportunity for the dying person to make personally meaningful decisions. [introduced by U.S. psychiatrist Avery D. Weisman]

approximation

approximation n. the process of obtaining a value that is at least close to the desired or actual value. For example, one might round a measurement to the nearest decimal place for ease of subsequent calculations. The degree of inaccuracy inherent to this process is known as approximation error.

approximation conditioning

approximation conditioning see shaping.

appurtenance

appurtenance n. in Gestalt psychology, interaction or mutual influence between parts of a perceptual field so that the parts appear to belong together. [defined in 1935 by Kurt Koffka]

apractagnosia

apractagnosia n. an impaired ability to organize, remember, and perform a sequence of movements or skilled motor activities or to analyze spatial relationships. The condition is due to lesions in the lower part of the occipital and parietal lobes of the brain.

apraxia

apraxia n. loss or impairment of the ability to perform purposeful, skilled movements despite intact motor function and comprehension. The condition may be developmental or induced by neurological dysfunction and is believed to represent an impairment of the ability to plan, select, and sequence the motor execution of movements. There are several major types of apraxia, including buccofacial (or orofacial) apraxia, involving difficulty performing skilled facial movements; ideational apraxia, involving difficulty carrying out in the proper order a series of acts that comprise a complex task; ideomotor apraxia, involving difficulty imitating actions or gesturing to command; limb kinetic (or melokinetic) apraxia, involving difficulty making precise, coordinated but individual finger movements; and speech (or verbal) apraxia, involving difficulty coordinating the movements necessary for speaking. See also developmental apraxia of speech. —apraxic adj.

apraxia of gait

apraxia of gait see gait apraxia.

apraxia of speech

apraxia of speech a speech-articulation disorder due to lack of coordination of the muscles used in speaking, in the absence of sensory loss or paralysis. Also called apraxic dysarthria. See also developmental apraxia of speech.

apraxic agraphia

apraxic agraphia see graphomotor apraxia.

apriorism

apriorism n. in philosophy, the position that asserts the reality of innate ideas and the validity of knowledge that is not created by or dependent upon experience. It is thus the opposite of empiricism.

aprosexia

aprosexia n. inability to focus attention.

aprosody

aprosody n. absence of the normal variations in the rhythm, stress, and pitch of speech, resulting in monotone speech. Unusual or abnormal variations are known as dysprosody (or dysprosodia). Also called aprosodia.

APS

APS 1. abbreviation for American Pain Society. 2. abbreviation for American Philosophical Society. 3. abbreviation for American Psychosomatic Society. 4. abbreviation for Association for Psychological Science, formerly called American Psychological Society.

APsaA

APsaA abbreviation for American Psychoanalytic Association.

aptitude

aptitude n. the capacity to acquire competence or skill through training. Specific aptitude is potential in a particular area (e.g., artistic or mathematical aptitude); general aptitude is potential in several fields. Both are distinct from ability, which is an existing competence.

aptitude measure

aptitude measure a unit, instrument, or system for calculating one’s capacity to acquire competence or skill through training, by comparison with a peer standard.

Aptitude Research Project tests

Aptitude Research Project tests see ARP tests.

aptitude test

aptitude test any assessment instrument designed to measure potential for acquiring knowledge or skill. Aptitude tests are thought of as providing a basis for making predictions for an individual’s future success, particularly in an educational or occupational situation. In contrast, achievement tests are considered to reflect the amount of learning already obtained.

aptitude–treatment interaction (ATI)

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AQ

AQ abbreviation for achievement quotient.

AQS

AQS abbreviation for Attachment Q-set.

Aquachloral

Aquachloral n. a trade name for chloral hydrate.

aqueduct of Sylvius

aqueduct of Sylvius see cerebral aqueduct. [Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672), Dutch anatomist]

aqueous humor

aqueous humor the clear fluid that occupies the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye. It is produced by the epithelium of the ciliary processes, which are part of the ciliary body.

AR model

AR model abbreviation for autoregressive model.

arachidonic acid

arachidonic acid a long-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid that is a component of cell membranes. When liberated from the membrane by the enzyme phospholipase A2, it is transformed into a series of compounds known as eicosanoids, which serve as precursors for prostaglandins, thromboxanes, anandamide, and leukotrienes.

arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA)

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arachneophobia

arachneophobia n. see spider phobia.

arachnoid

arachnoid n. see arachnoid mater.

arachnoid granulations

arachnoid granulations a series of extensions of the middle layer of the meninges (arachnoid mater) through the outer layer (dura mater) that permits cerebrospinal fluid to drain into the bloodstream.

arachnoid mater

arachnoid mater the middle one of the three membranous layers (meninges) covering the surface of the brain and spinal cord, so called because its strands of tissue resemble spiders’ webs. Also called arachnoid; arachnoid membrane.

arachnophobia

arachnophobia n. see spider phobia.

Arago phenomenon

Arago phenomenon the impaired sensitivity to light that exists in the center of the visual field under poor light conditions. It is presumably caused by the absence of retinal rods in the fovea centralis. See scotopic vision. [Dominique Arago (1786–1853), French physicist]

Aran–Duchenne disease

Aran–Duchenne disease see spinal muscular atrophy. [François Aran (1817–1861), French physician; Guillaume Duchenne (1806–1875), French neurologist]

ARAS

ARAS abbreviation for ascending reticular activating system.

arbitrary inference

arbitrary inference a cognitive distortion in which a person draws a conclusion that is unrelated to or contradicted by the evidence.

arbitrary matching to sample

arbitrary matching to sample a variation of matching to sample in which the correct alternative during the choice phase bears an arbitrary relationship to the stimulus presented as the sample. For example, after presentation of a blue stimulus as a sample, the correct choice may be to select a triangle. Also called symbolic matching to sample.

arbitrary symbol

arbitrary symbol a linguistic sign (a written or spoken word) that bears no obvious resemblance to the thing or concept signified (see referent). Because the vast majority of words in all languages are considered to fall into this category, arbitrariness is often cited as an important characteristic of human languages; this idea is of central significance in the structuralist approach to linguistics (see structuralism). Compare iconic symbol. See also phonetic symbolism.

arbitration

arbitration n. a method of settling controversies in which the parties involved present their arguments and supporting information to an impartial agent, such as a judge or, in a labor dispute, an arbitrator or arbitration board. By mutual agreement, the arbiter’s decision is final. This process is distinguished from mediation, in which the outside agent (the mediator or conciliator) seeks to help the parties reach a mutually acceptable agreement. —arbitrate vb.

arborization

arborization n. a branching, treelike structure, as of the dendrites of a neuron. Arborization adds to the complexity of neurons and neuronal circuitry.

arc sine transformation

arc sine transformation a means of changing proportional data to approximate a normal distribution: Percentages that denote counts or frequencies are converted into a new set of scores whose distribution assumes a bell-shaped curve. The process minimizes variances across the different groups being compared and allows for the application of certain analytic techniques requiring that normality and other assumptions be met. Also called angular transformation; arcsine transformation.

arch of Corti

arch of Corti see rods of Corti.

archaic inheritance

archaic inheritance presumed phylogenetic influences in the development of the individual’s mental processes, such as the racial memory and archetypes of Carl Jung’s analytic psychology. See phylogeny.

archetype

archetype n. 1. a prototypical example of something or the original model from which something is held to derive. See also prototype. 2. in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, any one of a set of symbols representing aspects of the psyche that derive from the accumulated experience of humankind. These inherited symbols are held in the collective unconscious and serve as a frame of reference with which individuals view the world and as one of the foundations on which the structure of personality is built. Examples are anima, animus, persona, shadow, supreme being, and hero. Also called archetypal image; primordial image. —archetypal adj.

archicerebellum

archicerebellum n. the phylogenetically oldest part of the cerebellum. Compare neocerebellum; paleocerebellum.

archicortex

archicortex n. see allocortex.

Archimedes spiral

Archimedes spiral a simple spiral, formed by a curve whose tangent is maintained at a constant angle. A line drawing of an Archimedes spiral is often rotated to induce a motion aftereffect. [Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 bce), Greek philosopher and mathematician]

archipallium

archipallium n. see allocortex.

architectonic structure

architectonic structure see cytoarchitecture.

architectural constraints

architectural constraints the limitations imposed by the structure of the brain on the type of information that it can process and on the methods it uses for processing. See also chronotopic constraints; representational constraints.

architectural determinism

architectural determinism the mistaken belief that the designed environment dictates behavior or directly causes certain behaviors to occur or not to occur. Design more typically facilitates or inhibits behavior, providing opportunities that influence the probability that certain behaviors will or will not occur. See also person–environment interaction.

architectural programming

architectural programming determination of the performance requirements of buildings and other physical facilities prior to construction. Key considerations include the behavior expected to occur or not to occur in the space, user groups with special needs, and any trade-offs in the behavioral consequences of various design decisions. See also behavior mapping; postoccupancy evaluation.

architectural psychology

architectural psychology the study of the role of the built environment in human behavior, a major subarea in environmental psychology. Also called design and behavior.

archival research

archival research the use of books, journals, historical documents, and other existing records or data available in storage in scientific research. Archival research allows for unobtrusive observation of human activity in natural settings and permits the study of phenomena that otherwise cannot easily be investigated. A persistent drawback, however, is that causal inferences are always more tentative than those provided by laboratory experiments. Also called archival method.

arctic hysteria

arctic hysteria see piblokto.

arcuate fasciculus

arcuate fasciculus a bundle of nerve fibers linking the parts of the brain involved in the interpretation and control of speech (Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area, respectively). See also conduction aphasia.

arcuate nucleus

arcuate nucleus 1. an arc-shaped collection of neurons in the hypothalamus that produce hormones. 2. any of various small groups of gray matter on the bulge of the medulla oblongata. They are extensions of neurons in the basal pons and project to the cerebellum.

arcuate zone of the brain

arcuate zone of the brain the bow-shaped portion of the reticular formation that extends from the spinal cord to the pons and includes the internal and external arcuate fibers and arcuate nuclei. The arcuate fibers are concentrated in the olivary nucleus of the medulla oblongata.

area postrema

area postrema a highly vascularized region of the brain located in the basal wall of the lateral ventricle. Brain capillaries in this area form a relatively permeable region of the blood–brain barrier, enabling the passage of toxic substances to the underlying chemoreceptor trigger zone, which elicits a vomiting response.

area sampling

area sampling a method of selecting individuals for research in which specific neighborhoods, streets, homes, or other geographic areas are designated in advance as the source of participants.

area under the curve (AUC)

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areal linguistics

areal linguistics the study of languages and dialects within a defined geographical area and with an emphasis on regional influences. This approach differs from both linguistic typology and genetic linguistics.

arecoline

arecoline n. a drug, related to muscarine, that stimulates smooth muscles and glands that respond to postganglionic cholinergic agents. It is used in veterinary medicine to eliminate internal parasites and was formerly used in the management of schizophrenia.

areflexia

areflexia n. an absence of motor reflexes.

arginine vasopressin (AVP)

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argininosuccinic aciduria

argininosuccinic aciduria a disorder resulting from an inborn error of metabolism that is characterized by the presence of argininosuccinic acid in the urine, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid and that sometimes leads to epilepsy and intellectual disability. Treatment is based on control of protein intake to prevent hyperammonemia. The trait is transmitted by an autosomal recessive gene, ASL, on chromosome 7.

argot

argot n. unconventional jargon words or phrases (French, “slang”), generally of a particular group.

argument

argument n. 1. a sequence of propositions that provides logical reasons for accepting a conclusion as valid or true. A single one of these statements is referred to as a premise. Argumentation is the process of making an argument from premise to conclusion. 2. a parameter on which the value of a mathematical function depends. 3. a disagreement involving varied, often opposite, positions. 4. in the elaboration-likelihood model, a variable that under conditions of high elaboration influences persuasion by providing information about the central merits of an attitude object.

argument framing

argument framing the extent to which a persuasive message presents information in a manner that stresses the positive consequences of adopting the advocated position versus the negative consequences of failing to adopt the advocated position.

argument quality

argument quality the extent to which an argument elicits primarily positive evaluative responses toward the attitude object rather than primarily negative ones. The greater the number of positive responses relative to negative responses, the higher the quality of the argument.

argument quantity

argument quantity the number of arguments included in a persuasive message.

Argyll Robertson pupil

Argyll Robertson pupil a pupil that is nonresponsive to bright light (see pupillary reflex) or reacts slowly to drugs that induce pupil contraction but constricts with changes in focus (see accommodation). It is a sign of several diseases of the central nervous system, such as a brain tumor, multiple sclerosis, and neurosyphilis. [Douglas Argyll Robertson (1837–1909), British ophthalmologist]

arhinencephaly

arhinencephaly n. see arrhinencephaly.

ARI

ARI abbreviation for Army Research Institute.

Aricept

Aricept n. a trade name for donepezil.

aripiprazole

aripiprazole n. an atypical antipsychotic agent that is thought to exert its effects by acting both as a partial agonist of the dopamine D2 receptor and the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor and as an antagonist of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. It is used in the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar I disorder, and irritability associated with autism and as an adjunct to SSRIs and SNRIs in treatment-resistant depression. U.S. trade name: Abilify.

Aristotelian

Aristotelian adj. 1. of or relating to the tradition of formal logic founded by Aristotle and developed especially by the Scholastic philosophers of the Middle Ages (see Scholasticism). The term Aristotelian is often used to distinguish this tradition of logic from that of modern symbolic logic. 2. of or relating to Aristotle, his works, or his thought. In this more general sense, an Aristotelian approach, which gives primacy to particulars over universals and grants a higher value to empirical knowledge, is often contrasted with the approach of Platonic idealism or Neoplatonism. —Aristotelianism n.

Aristotle’s illusion

Aristotle’s illusion the tactile perception that a single object is two objects when felt with the crossed index and middle fingers. [Aristotle]

arithmetic disability

arithmetic disability a disturbance in the ability to calculate that is associated with neurological impairment. See acalculia.

arithmetic mean

arithmetic mean see mean.

Arizona v. Fulminante

Arizona v. Fulminante a case resulting in an influential 1991 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that admitting into evidence a coerced confession can be considered a harmless error and does not violate due process rights if the remaining evidence is considered to be sufficient to convict the defendant.

ARM

ARM acronym for advertising response modeling.

armamentarium

armamentarium n. 1. the complete equipment of an institution, often a medical institution, necessary or sufficient for instruction, research, or practice. Such equipment includes books, supplies, and instruments. 2. the complete materials necessary to undertake any field of activity.

armchair psychology

armchair psychology a form of psychological inquiry based on introspection and rational processes without recourse necessarily to empirical observation. It may be contrasted with empirical psychology, in which the data come from laboratory procedures or controlled forms of observation and measurement. See rational psychology; speculative psychology.

Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT)

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Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)

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armodafinil

armodafinil n. see modafinil.

armoring

armoring n. a defense mechanism used to protect oneself by blocking one’s experience and expression of life-affirming emotions (sadness, joy, anger, grief, and fear).

Army Alpha Test

Army Alpha Test see Army tests.

Army Beta Test

Army Beta Test see Army tests.

Army General Classification Test (AGCT)

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Army Research Institute (ARI)

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Army tests

Army tests group intelligence tests for military personnel, developed by Lewis M. Terman, Robert M. Yerkes, and others and used by the U.S. Army beginning in World War I. The Army Alpha Test (Alpha test or examination) was a verbal test, measuring such skills as ability to follow directions. The Army Beta Test (Beta test or examination) presented nonverbal problems to illiterate subjects and recent immigrants who were not proficient in English. Both the Alpha and Beta tests were replaced at the outbreak of World War II by the 150-item Army General Classification Test (AGCT), designed to measure verbal comprehension, quantitative reasoning, and spatial perception and used to classify inductees according to their ability to learn military duties. The AGCT was itself replaced in 1950 by the Armed Forces Qualification Test.

Arnold–Chiari malformation

Arnold–Chiari malformation a congenital deformity in which the medulla oblongata and cerebellum protrude through the foramen magnum (see foramen), so that the cerebellum overlaps the top of the spinal cord. Hydrocephalus and meningomyelocele are commonly associated with the different types of the deformity. [Julius Arnold (1835–1915), German pathologist; Hans Chiari (1851–1916), Austrian pathologist]

ARO

ARO abbreviation for Association for Research in Otolaryngology.

aromachology

aromachology n. the field of scientific study that attempts to specify the relationships between psychology and fragrance technology. The focus is on temporary effects of stimuli mediated by the olfactory pathways and moderated by cognition.

aromatase

aromatase n. an enzyme that converts many male sex hormones (androgens) into female sex hormones (estrogens). See also aromatization hypothesis.

aromatherapy

aromatherapy n. a type of therapy purported to improve psychological and physical health through the use of selected essential oils extracted from seeds, herbs, flowers, fruits, and trees. The fragrances of these oils are inhaled or the oils themselves are applied topically, using compresses, baths, or massages, in an effort to induce relaxation, reduce stress and emotional distress, and enhance well-being. Evidence supporting the effectiveness of aromatherapy is largely inconclusive. See also complementary and alternative medicine.

aromatic

aromatic adj. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality smelled in spices and camphor.

aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase

aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase see dopa decarboxylase.

aromatization hypothesis

aromatization hypothesis the hypothesis that, in some rodents, testicular androgens enter the brain and are converted there into estrogens by the action of the aromatase enzyme contained in neurons therein in order to masculinize the developing nervous system.

arousal

arousal n. 1. a state of physiological activation or cortical responsiveness, associated with sensory stimulation and activation of fibers from the reticular activating system. 2. a state of excitement or energy expenditure linked to an emotion. Usually, arousal is closely related to a person’s appraisal of the significance of an event or to the physical intensity of a stimulus. Arousal can either facilitate or debilitate performance. See also catastrophe theory. —arouse vb.

arousal jag

arousal jag an increase of arouses followed by a more or less sudden decrease, often accompanied by laughter as a release of tension. The abrupt fall from elevated levels of arousal to a lower, more appropriate level is thought to produce a pleasurable response. Common experiences that can produce an arousal jag include a roller-coaster ride or watching a scary movie. [introduced in 1970 by Daniel E. Berlyne]

arousal level

arousal level the extent to which an organism is alert to stimuli.

arousal phase

arousal phase see sexual-response cycle.

arousal potential

arousal potential the capability of a stimulus to induce arousal. According to Daniel E. Berlyne, preference for a work of art is due to the amount of general arousal it produces, which derives from its psychophysical properties (e.g., intensity), collative properties (e.g., novelty), and ecological properties (meaningfulness, or signal value). See also isohedonic trap.

arousal regulation

arousal regulation the controlling of cognitive and physiological activation using cognitive behavioral methods. See autogenic training; imagery cue; progressive relaxation.

arousal system

arousal system a diffuse system of nerve cells that controls arousal by activating both the central nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. A principal component is the reticular formation.

arousal theory

arousal theory 1. the theory that the physical environment can affect arousal levels by stimulation and by stress created when psychological or physical needs are not met. Arousal increases when personal space is diminished (see crowding) or when people are subjected to noise, traffic congestion, or other adverse conditions. 2. see activation theory of emotion.

arousal training

arousal training a technique in behavior therapy that teaches clients to detect levels of physiological arousal and then to enhance or reduce these levels depending on therapeutic goals. This technique is often used in anger control therapy and behavioral sex therapy.

arousal transfer

arousal transfer see excitation-transfer theory.

arousal-boost mechanism

arousal-boost mechanism any steadily increasing degree of general arousal associated with or produced by contact with a stimulus that gives rise to a measurable hedonic (pleasure) effect. For example, a person listening to a piece of music might find it pleasurable precisely for the heightened anticipation induced by its harmonic structure. Compare arousal-reduction mechanism. [proposed in 1967 by Daniel E. Berlyne as part of his theory of positive hedonic value as a psychological effect of art]

arousal-reduction mechanism

arousal-reduction mechanism any stimulus or inhibitory reaction that decreases the degree of arousal of an individual after it has reached an uncomfortably high level. According to Daniel E. Berlyne, a sharp increase in arousal can have unpleasant or aversive effects, but an arousal-reduction mechanism can produce positive hedonic value by lowering the arousal curve. The mechanism may have a natural inhibitory effect on central nervous system circuits, or it may result from a stimulus that conveys a sense of harmony or concinnity. Compare arousal-boost mechanism.

arousal–performance relationship

arousal–performance relationship the pattern of association between cognitive or physiological arousal (or both) and achievement at physical or cognitive tasks. Also called anxiety–performance relationship. See catastrophe theory; inverted-U hypothesis; reversal theory.

ARP tests

ARP tests Aptitude Research Project tests: tests of divergent thinking produced by the Southern California Aptitude Research Project. Test items include writing a series of words containing a specified letter (word fluency), writing titles for short-story plots (ideational fluency, originality), writing words similar in meaning to a given word (associational fluency), writing sentences containing words beginning with given letters (expressional fluency), and listing different consequences of a hypothetical situation, such as people no longer needing sleep (see creativity measurement; Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking). These tests received considerable attention from intelligence researchers in the 1960s and 1970s but less since then, largely because the structure of intellect model, which they were designed to operationalize and test, has become much less popular. [devised by Joy Paul Guilford and associates in the 1950s to 1980s]

arpeggio paradox

arpeggio paradox the apparent refutation of the stimulus–response view of behavior patterns that is provided by the speed at which accomplished pianists play arpeggios. Key strikes are too fast for nerve conduction to the brain to occur between them, so that one strike cannot serve as a stimulus for the next.

arranged marriage

arranged marriage a marriage planned and contracted by the parents or other relatives of the partners or by significant figures (e.g., elders) in the partners’ culture or social group. In cultures in which arranged marriages are the norm and in contrast to the concept of the “love match,” marriage is typically seen as the union of two kinship groups and not merely of two individuals.

array

array n. any ordered arrangement of data, particularly a two-dimensional grouping of data into rows and columns. The following listing of students’ scores on a test is an example of a simple array: The concept may be extended to more than two dimensions.

arrest reaction

arrest reaction a behavioral response, usually studied in cats, characterized by sudden immobility, or “freezing.” The arrest reaction can be produced by electrically stimulating various areas of the brain. See also startle response.

arrested testis

arrested testis see cryptorchidism.

arrhinencephaly (arhinencephaly)

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arrhythmia

arrhythmia n. any variation from the normal rhythm of the heartbeat. Kinds of arrhythmia include tachycardia, a rate above 100 beats per minute; bradycardia, a rate of less than 60 beats per minute; premature beats; atrial flutter, in which an upper chamber contracts up to 400 times per minute; and heart block, in which the heart fails to contract because of the interruption or delay of an electrical stimulus needed to trigger the contraction. —arrhythmic adj.

arrowhead illusion

arrowhead illusion see Müller-Lyer illusion.

ART

ART acronym for assisted reproductive technology.

art test

art test a test designed to identify special abilities in the fine arts (e.g., painting, architecture), to assess creativity in the arts, or to evaluate art productions. A variety of techniques are utilized for these different purposes, which include comparing the individual’s judgment of pictures with that of experts, reproducing an object from memory, and identifying mechanical or judgment errors in a standard drawing.

art therapy

art therapy the use of artistic activities, such as painting and clay modeling, in psychotherapy and rehabilitation. The process of making art is seen as healing, an experience that provides the opportunity to express oneself imaginatively, authentically, and spontaneously; over time, this process can lead to personal fulfillment, emotional reparation, and transformation. The products made in art therapy are seen as a means of symbolic communication and a vehicle for developing new insights and understandings, resolving conflicts, solving problems, and formulating new perceptions to achieve positive changes, growth, and rehabilitation.

Artane

Artane n. a trade name for trihexyphenidyl.

arterial circle

arterial circle see circle of Willis.

arterio-

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arteriography

arteriography n. see angiography.

arteriole reaction

arteriole reaction a response controlled by the autonomic nervous system and marked by a change in the diameter of the arterioles, which control the flow of blood from the arteries to the capillaries. Smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles is particularly sensitive to sympathetic nerve impulses and may react to anger, fear, or other emotions by producing dramatic changes of blood pressure.

arteriopathia hypertonica

arteriopathia hypertonica a form of arterial degeneration associated with hypertension. The muscle and elastic tissue of the walls of the arterial system increase and form layers that are eventually replaced by connective-tissue fibers. The condition can be both a cause and an effect of hypertension, leading to cerebrovascular accidents (i.e., strokes) if not controlled by medication.

arteriosclerosis

arteriosclerosis n. a group of diseases characterized by hardening and loss of elasticity of the walls of the arteries. A common type is atherosclerosis. —arteriosclerotic adj.

arteriovenous malformation (AVM)

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arteritis

arteritis n. inflammation of an artery or arteries. A common form is temporal (or giant cell) arteritis, a chronic disease, usually in older people, that largely involves the carotid arterial system, especially the arteries of the temple and scalp. It is marked by the appearance of giant, multinucleate cells and granulomas in the affected arteries. Symptoms include severe temporal-area headaches on both sides and visual disturbances, which may result in loss of sight in one eye. See also panarteritis.

arthritis

arthritis n. inflammation of a joint or joints, causing pain, swelling, and stiffness. A potentially severe and disabling form is rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disorder (see autoimmunity). Arthritis can be chronic, painful, recurrent, and debilitating; psychosocial effects can include lifestyle changes, stress on personal relationships, and depression. —arthritic adj.

arthro- (arthr-)

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arthrogryposis multiplex congenita

arthrogryposis multiplex congenita a group of congenital nonprogressive conditions characterized by multiple joint contractures (stiff joints) and abnormal muscle development. Symptoms vary greatly in range and severity. In some cases, only a few joints may be affected and the range of motion may be nearly normal. In most cases, the hands, wrists, elbows, shoulders, hips, feet, and knees are affected. In the most severe cases, nearly every joint in the body may be involved, including those of the jaw and back. The joint contractures are often accompanied by muscle weakness, which may further limit movement. The disorder is thought to have a genetic cause in 30% of cases and is also associated with decreased movement in utero, connective tissue disorders, or maternal illness. Treatment focuses on the specific findings in each individual and may include physical therapy, removable splints, exercise, and surgery. Also called arthrogryposis; Guérin–Stern syndrome.

arthrometer

arthrometer n. see goniometer.

arthropathy

arthropathy n. any inflammatory, neuropathic, or other disease involving a joint.

article

article n. in linguistics, a determiner that limits a noun with respect to its definiteness and number (e.g., a, the in English) and with respect to its gender in many Romance languages (e.g., el, la in Spanish; le, la in French). See definite article; indefinite article.

articular sensation

articular sensation a sensation derived from the position of the joints.

articulation

articulation n. 1. the shaping and production of the sounds required for intelligible speech. Articulation is a complex process that involves accuracy in the placement of the apparatus of the vocal tract, timing, direction of movements, force expended, speed of response, and neural integration of all actions. Compare misarticulation. 2. a clearly articulated sound or utterance. 3. a joint between bones, which may be fixed or movable. 4. in Gestalt psychology, the level of complexity within a structure. —articulate vb.

articulation disorder

articulation disorder any disorder of speech involving the substitution, omission, distortion, or addition of speech sounds (phonemes). See also dysarthria; phonological disorder; speech and language disorder.

articulation index

articulation index an index used to measure speech intelligibility within an operational environment. It reflects the degree of separation between speech and background or other system noise.

articulation test

articulation test 1. the phonetic analysis and recording of the speech of an individual with faulty sound production according to such criteria as developmental sequence, correct placement of the articulators, and intelligibility. 2. in audition, a hearing test designed to measure the intelligibility of speech.

articulator

articulator n. any of the elements of the vocal tract (e.g., lips, tongue, soft palate) that are involved in articulation, that is, in the shaping and production of speech sounds. Some authorities include the cheeks, larynx, uvula, alveolar ridge, nose, and teeth as articulators.

articulatory apraxia

articulatory apraxia see developmental apraxia of speech.

articulatory control process

articulatory control process see phonological loop.

articulatory loop

articulatory loop see phonological loop.

articulatory phonetics

articulatory phonetics the branch of phonetics concerned with the relationship between the physiology of the articulatory mechanisms in human beings and the physical properties of human speech sounds. Compare acoustic phonetics.

articulatory rehearsal system

articulatory rehearsal system see phonological loop.

articulatory store

articulatory store 1. a component of short-term memory that retains auditory information based on the motor systems involved in pronouncing items, rather than on how they sound. Compare acoustic store. 2. see phonological loop.

articulatory suppression

articulatory suppression a method used to inhibit subvocal rehearsal of items in a memory test or experiment by requiring the participant to perform a distracting verbal task, such as counting or naming, during the retention period.

artifact

artifact n. 1. an experimental finding that is not a reflection of the true state of the phenomenon of interest but rather is the consequence of a flawed design or analytic error. For example, characteristics of the researcher (e.g., expectations, personality) or the participant (e.g., awareness of the researcher’s intent, concern over being evaluated) are common sources of artifacts. See also confound; demand characteristics. 2. any manufactured object, particularly a product of historical significance.

artificial consciousness

artificial consciousness see machine consciousness.

artificial insemination (AI)

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artificial intelligence (AI)

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artificial language

artificial language any language or languagelike system that is not a natural language. The category includes invented languages, such as Esperanto, and the various languages used in computer programming; the formal languages of logic and mathematics are also sometimes included. In linguistics and psycholinguistics, artificial languages are sometimes invented to simulate or to violate certain aspects of natural-language rules.

artificial life

artificial life a research area of artificial intelligence in which computer-based systems exhibit behavioral characteristics of living systems. Often constructed using cellular automata, these systems fall into three categories depending on the approach: software (simulators), hardware (robotics), and wetware (synthetic DNA). This research area often attempts to simulate the effects of communication and other society-based skills on survival.

artificial pupil

artificial pupil an artificial aperture that limits the amount of light entering the eye.

artificial selection

artificial selection human intervention in animal or plant reproduction to improve the value or utility of succeeding generations. Compare natural selection.

artificialism

artificialism n. the assumption that anything that exists must have been made by a conscious entity, such as God or a human being, who is directly responsible for its qualities and movements. Jean Piaget, who introduced the term, drew a contrast between artificialism and animism, which assumes that entities have an innate power or energy to direct their movements and determine their ultimate nature. Both assumptions are characteristic of children in the preoperational stage of development. —artificialist adj.

arts and crafts

arts and crafts creative activities that involve skilled hand fabrication, such as painting, weaving, woodworking, or leatherworking. Arts and crafts are often used in rehabilitation programs as directed by recreational or occupational therapists. See also art therapy.

arugamama

arugamama n. see Morita therapy.

as-if hypothesis

as-if hypothesis an unproven hypothesis that is treated “as if” it were correct, usually because of its value as an explanatory model or its utility as a basis for experiment and research. Many of the hypothetical entities postulated by psychology and psychoanalysis are of this nature.

as-if personality

as-if personality a type of personality style in which the individual behaves as if well adjusted but, in fact, is doing only what is expected and is unable to behave in a genuine or spontaneous manner. This condition has reportedly been observed in individuals with schizophrenia before they exhibit psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations or delusions. [first described in 1942 by U.S. psychologist Helene Deutsch (1884–1982)]

ASA

ASA 1. abbreviation for acetylsalicylic acid. See aspirin. 2. abbreviation for Acoustical Society of America.

ASA model

ASA model abbreviation for attraction–selection–attrition model.

asana

asana n. a yoga posture or position. Each asana is said to have both physical and psychological effects that may be therapeutic or cathartic.

asapholalia

asapholalia n. mumbled or indistinct speech.

asb

asb symbol for apostilb.

ASC

ASC abbreviation for altered state of consciousness.

ascendance

ascendance n. a personality trait involving a desire to be prominent in group situations, to assert oneself, and to acquire positions of authority over others. Traditional paper-and-pencil measures of ascendance can predict an individual’s emergence as the leader in small groups. Also called ascendancy. See also dominance. —ascendant adj.

ascendance–submission

ascendance–submission see dominance–submission.

ascending pathway

ascending pathway 1. a route formed by nerve fibers that carry nerve impulses toward the brain from lower levels of the nervous system. 2. see ascending tract.

ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)

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ascending tract

ascending tract a bundle of nerve fibers that carries sensory inputs through the spinal cord toward the brain. Also called ascending pathway. Compare descending tract.

ascending–descending series

ascending–descending series in psychophysics, the two sets of stimuli—one of increasing magnitude, one of decreasing magnitude—used in the method of limits. In the ascending series, the stimulus, initially below threshold, is increased incrementally until it exceeds threshold; in the descending series, the initial stimulus exceeds threshold and is decreased incrementally until it is below threshold. This procedure controls for habituation and perseveration errors.

ascertainment bias

ascertainment bias error in selecting individuals or units for a sample, such that those units selected are not representative of the relevant population. For example, a medical researcher who studies a sample of patients that omits certain types of people who have the disorder of interest is likely to obtain results having an ascertainment bias. The term is often preferred over sampling bias in clinical contexts.

asceticism

asceticism n. a character trait or lifestyle characterized by simplicity, renunciation of physical pleasures and worldly goods, social withdrawal, and extreme self-discipline. —ascetic adj.

Asch situation

Asch situation an experimental paradigm used to study conformity to group opinion. Participants make judgments as part of a group of confederates who make errors deliberately on certain trials. The extent to which participants publicly agree with the erroneous group judgment or resist the pressure to do so and remain independent provides a measure of conformity. [Solomon Asch]

ASCM

ASCM abbreviation for adaptive strategy choice model.

ascorbic acid

ascorbic acid the chemical name for vitamin C, a nutrient found in many fruits and vegetables, particularly citrus fruits (see vitamin). Unlike most mammals, primates cannot make ascorbic acid, so they must obtain it from foods. Ascorbic acid aids formation of connective tissue and prevents oxidation of cellular components. Deficiency can result in scurvy (marked by bleeding gums and delayed wound healing) and neurological disorders.

ascriptive responsibility

ascriptive responsibility the judgment that an individual who has committed an illegal act can be ascribed criminal responsibility and should therefore be punished. Compare descriptive responsibility.

ASD

ASD 1. abbreviation for acute stress disorder. 2. abbreviation for autism spectrum disorder.

asemia

asemia n. see asymbolia.

asenapine

asenapine n. an atypical antipsychotic agent of the dibenzo-oxepino pyrrole class that is thought to exert its effects by acting as a dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonist. It is used in the treatment of schizophrenia and, alone or as adjunctive therapy, for acute treatment of manic or mixed episodes of bipolar I disorder. U.S. trade name: Saphris.

Asendin

Asendin n. a trade name for amoxapine.

ASEP

ASEP abbreviation for American Sport Education Program.

aseptic meningitis

aseptic meningitis see meningitis.

asexual

asexual adj. 1. lacking sexual characteristics or drive. 2. capable of reproduction without fertilization. Asexual reproduction occurs in many plants and in certain animal species, for example, by budding or by forming an entirely new individual from each separate part after it spontaneously breaks up (fragmentation). —asexuality n.

Asian American

Asian American a citizen or resident of the United States whose ancestry, at least in part, can be traced to the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent.

Asian influenza

Asian influenza a type of influenza caused by the H2N2 strain of influenza virus, which first appeared in north China in 1957. The mortality rate was not high, but the infection was complicated by severe staphylococcal pneumonia in many cases. Some patients also developed postinfluenzal asthenia with psychogenic factors.

asitia

asitia n. repulsion at the thought or sight of food. See also anorexia.

ASL

ASL abbreviation for American Sign Language.

asocial

asocial adj. 1. declining to engage, or incapable of engaging, in social interaction. 2. lacking sensitivity or regard for social values or norms. —asociality n.

asomatognosia

asomatognosia n. lack of sensory awareness of one’s body. Individuals with this disorder may be unable to recognize parts of their body as their own. Asomatognosia affecting one side of the body is known as hemiasomatognosia. See neglect.

asonia

asonia n. see tone deafness.

aspartate

aspartate n. an amino acid neurotransmitter that is excitatory at many synapses.

aspartate aminotransferase

aspartate aminotransferase an enzyme that may be involved in the cause of muscular dystrophy. Increased levels in the blood are a clinical sign of this disease and also of damage to the heart and liver, as in cases of jaundice or myocardial infarction. The former name of this enzyme was glutamic–oxaloacetic transaminase. Also called aspartate transaminase.

aspect

aspect n. see tense.

Asperger’s disorder

Asperger’s disorder a disorder associated with varying degrees of deficits in social and conversational skills, difficulties with transitions from one task to another or with changes in situations or environments, and preference for sameness and predictability of events. Obsessive routines and preoccupation with particular subjects of interest may be present, as may difficulty reading body language and maintaining proper social distance. Some people with Asperger’s disorder have reported oversensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells, and sights, but the nature of such sensitivities is not well researched. In contrast to autism, language skills develop, and there is no clinically significant delay in cognitive or adaptive functioning other than in social interactions. By definition, people with Asperger’s disorder have an IQ in the normal to superior range, and some may exhibit exceptional specific skills or talents. Classified as a pervasive developmental disorder in DSM–IV–TR, Asperger’s disorder has been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder in DSM–5 and is no longer considered a distinct diagnosis. Also called Asperger’s syndrome. [described in 1944 by Hans Asperger (1906–1980), Austrian psychiatrist]

aspermia

aspermia n. failure of the male reproductive organs to produce or emit semen. Also called aspermatism.

asphyxia

asphyxia n. a condition in which the level of oxygen in the blood falls below normal while the proportion of carbon dioxide increases. It may be associated with labored or difficult breathing and marked by signs of pallor or cyanosis. Causes include choking, drowning, electric shock, inhaled smoke or toxic fumes, or disease or injury involving the respiratory system.

asphyxophilia

asphyxophilia n. arousal and enjoyment obtained from being unable to breathe during sexual activity. As a paraphilia, this may involve being choked or strangled by a partner. Compare autoerotic asphyxia.

aspiration

aspiration n. 1. an ambition, goal, or any kind of desired end that might be achieved through personal effort. 2. in phonetics, the articulation of a stop consonant with a sudden plosive burst of air. In English, the consonants p, t, and k are aspirated at the beginning of a syllable but not at the end or in combination with certain other consonants (see allophone). The difference can be easily experienced by placing a finger close to one’s mouth and saying pot (aspirated) and then top and spot (unaspirated).

aspirational group

aspirational group a reference group that an individual aspires to join. An aspirational group may be an actual group characterized by interaction and interpersonal structures (e.g., a professional association, a sports team) or an aggregation of individuals who are thought to possess one or more shared similarities (e.g., the rich, intellectuals). Compare membership group; dissociative group.

aspirin

aspirin n. acetylsalicylic acid: a commonly used nonopioid analgesic, which also has antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties and the ability to prevent formation of blood clots. Aspirin alleviates pain mainly by peripheral mechanisms (see NSAID); in controlling fever, it acts on the body’s thermoregulatory center in the hypothalamus. Adverse effects include gastric irritation or ulceration with bleeding and occasional allergic reactions. Overdosage affects the central nervous system and other body systems (see salicylism).

aspirin combinations

aspirin combinations drug mixtures that include aspirin as one of the components, the others commonly being other analgesics (e.g., acetaminophen, codeine, propoxyphene), stimulants (usually caffeine), or both. Aspirin combinations may also include a barbiturate (e.g., butalbital), a skeletal muscle relaxant (e.g., carisoprodol, orphenadrine), or other drugs. Because many of these preparations can be obtained without a doctor’s prescription, individuals with the habit of regular self-medication are at risk of developing gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., peptic ulcer) and other toxic reactions (see salicylism; caffeine intoxication).

aspirin poisoning

aspirin poisoning see salicylism.

ASPR

ASPR abbreviation for American Society for Psychical Research.

ASR

ASR abbreviation for automated speech recognition.

assault

assault n. 1. a violent attack on an individual. 2. illegal conduct occurring when an individual either attempts to injure another person or threatens to do so and has the capacity to carry out the threat. —assaultive adj.

assembly bonus effect

assembly bonus effect in groups working on a decision-making or intellectual task, an outcome that is superior to what would be achieved by the most capable member or by any simple pooling of individual member efforts. See also group synergy. [first proposed in 1964 by U.S. social psychologists Barry E. Collins and Harold Guetzkow (1915–2008)]

assembly test

assembly test a test requiring participants to put together elements, such as pieces of a puzzle or of an object.

assertion

assertion n. 1. the forceful statement of or insistence on one’s beliefs, claims, rights, or the like. 2. in sport, the use of force within the rules of the game to achieve a strategic advantage over an opponent. Also called proactive aggression.

assertive community treatment

assertive community treatment a service delivery system for individuals with severe mental illness that includes a range of treatment, rehabilitation, and support services provided by a mobile multidisciplinary team comprised of, for example, a psychologist, a psychiatrist, a social worker, a case manager, and a nurse. The team establishes a close, consistent relationship with each individual and delivers services and supports to him or her at home and work.

assertiveness

assertiveness n. an adaptive style of communication in which individuals express their feelings and needs directly, while maintaining respect for others. A lack of assertiveness may contribute to depression and anxiety, whereas maladaptive approaches to assertiveness may manifest as aggression.

assertiveness training

assertiveness training 1. a method of teaching individuals to change verbal and nonverbal signals and behavioral patterns and to enhance interpersonal communication generally through techniques designed to help them express emotions, opinions, and preferences—positive and negative—clearly, directly, and in an appropriate manner. Role play or behavior rehearsal is often used to prepare clients to be appropriately assertive in real-life situations. 2. in sport, the use of specific drills that have the purpose of increasing the physicality of play within the rules.

assessment

assessment n. 1. in general, a judgment of the quality, worth, importance, or value of something or someone. 2. in research, a systematic process of obtaining information from participants and using it to make inferences or judgments about them. In a clinical context, this process is known as a psychological assessment. 3. in animal behavior, an evaluation of an individual based on its behavior or communication signals. A potential rival might use the degree of vigor and complexity of a male’s song or the intensity of its plumage color to assess the probability of displacing that male. Similarly, a female might evaluate the relative quality of different potential mates in mate selection. Assessment may be a major function of animal communication.

assessment center

assessment center an office or department in which participants are observed and evaluated with regard to their future growth and development within an organization. A variety of assessment procedures may be used, including in-basket tests, role play, and individual or group exercises constructed to simulate important activities at the organizational level to which the participants aspire. The assessment center may be used for currently employed personnel, job applicants, or both.

assessment instrument

assessment instrument any test, interview, questionnaire, or other tool for the evaluation of ability, achievement, interests, personality, psychopathology, or the like.

assessment of intelligence

assessment of intelligence the administration of standardized tests to determine an individual’s ability to learn, reason, understand concepts, and acquire knowledge. See also measures of intelligence.

assessment research

assessment research the study of an organizational unit in order to understand its functioning and make recommendations for improvements or changes. See also evaluation research.

assignment therapy

assignment therapy a technique used in group therapy to enhance cohesiveness and communication among the participants so as to obtain maximum therapeutic benefit. A sociometric test is administered to determine the patterns of intermember relations within the group as a whole, and these patterns are then used to assign individuals to smaller, more focused groups. [articulated by Jacob L. Moreno]

assimilation

assimilation n. 1. the process of absorbing, incorporating, or making similar. In making judgments, for example, it refers to finding similarities between the target being judged and features of the context in which it is judged. Thus, meeting a person at an enjoyable party could lead to a more positive evaluation of that person than would have been the case otherwise. The evaluation of the person has been assimilated toward the positive social context. Compare contrast. 2. the process by which an immigrant to a new culture adopts the culture’s beliefs and practices. This is more properly called social assimilation. See also acculturation strategies. 3. see Piagetian theory. —assimilate vb.

assimilation effect

assimilation effect in psychology experiments, an effect in which participants’ judgments shift toward an anchor after it is introduced. For example, judgments of relative distance or weight will usually be evenly distributed along a scale before the experimenter provides an anchor. If, once the anchor is introduced, judgments cluster around the anchor, an assimilation effect is said to have occurred. Compare contrast effect.

assimilative coping

assimilative coping a stress-management strategy in which a person actively tries to transform a situation in such a way that it conforms to his or her goals and aspirations. Examples of assimilative coping include asking for another person’s help or acquiring a new problem-solving skill. Such attempts at modifying the environment are particularly evident during the initial stage of coping and are intended to avoid or diminish actual or anticipated losses. This type of coping strategy generally dominates as long as people feel actively able to change the situation or to enact efficient compensatory or self-regulatory interventions. In the event these efforts fail, an accommodative coping strategy may be adopted instead. [identified in 1990 by Jochen Brandtstädter and Gerolf Renner, German psychologists]

assisted death

assisted death an action taken by one person to end the life of another, at the request of the latter. This action can take the form of either passive euthanasia or active euthanasia. Assisted death differs from mercy killing in that it is generally performed by a physician and is not in response to an acute situation. It is sometimes called physician-assisted suicide, which assumes a firm determination of the cause of death. See also euthanasia.

assisted living

assisted living a form of congregate housing for older adults requiring long-term care services that include meals, personal care, and scheduled nursing care. Typically comprising private rooms or apartments, it encourages a degree of autonomy and independence in residents that is not provided for in nursing homes.

assisted reproductive technology (ART)

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assisted suicide

assisted suicide suicide in which the person ending his or her own life is provided the means to do so (e.g., a prescription) by another. See assisted death.

assistive device

assistive device see assistive technology.

assistive listening device

assistive listening device a device used by a person with hearing loss to emphasize a single specific sound. Unlike conventional hearing aids, which amplify all sounds in the environment, assistive listening devices focus on a single sound, such as the voice of a person with whom one is conversing in a noisy restaurant, and make it more prominent than the background noise. An assistive listening device typically consists of a transmitter and microphone that are placed near the source of the sound in which one is interested and a receiver and output device, such as headphones, that direct the sound to a particular individual.

assistive software

assistive software computer programs designed to enable individuals with disabilities to use computer applications. For example, a screen reader, a software program designed for users with visual impairment, can be used with a speech synthesizer to convert information on a computer monitor into speech.

assistive technology (AT)

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assistive technology service

assistive technology service any organization, business, facility, or supplier that directly assists individuals with disabilities in the choice, purchase or leasing, or use of an assistive technology device, including customization, maintenance, and replacement.

associate

associate 1. n. something that accompanies or is categorized with something else. 2. n. a friend, partner, colleague, or accomplice. 3. n. in learning studies, a word that is paired with another word to be learned with it (see paired-associates learning). 4. vb. to use mental processes to form a connection between ideas, events, objects, and so forth.

associated movement

associated movement involuntary, unnecessary contractions of uninvolved muscles during a movement.

association

association n. 1. a connection or relationship between two items (e.g., ideas, events, feelings) with the result that experiencing the first item activates a representation of the second. Associations are fundamental to learning theory and behaviorism. 2. the degree of statistical dependence or relationship between two or more phenomena. See also correlation; strength of association. 3. a group of individuals who gather occasionally for some common purpose. —associative adj. —associational adj.

association analysis

association analysis see correlation analysis.

association by contiguity

association by contiguity the formation of a mental connection between two items based on the fact that they occur close together in time. Also called contiguity of association. See also law of contiguity.

association cortex

association cortex any of various areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved principally in sensory or motor representations but may be involved in integrative functions. Also called association area.

association disturbance

association disturbance see disturbance of association.

association fiber

association fiber an axon from any of various neurons that link different parts of the same cerebral hemisphere. Compare commissural fiber.

Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP)

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Association for Psychological Science (APS)

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Association for Research in Otolaryngology (ARO)

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Association for the Advancement of Psychology (AAP)

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association model

association model a method used to study the strength of relationship between a predictor variable and a response variable where values for the latter take the form of ordinal data. More specifically, it tests for statistical independence between the variables.

association nuclei

association nuclei nuclei of the thalamus that do not receive direct input from ascending sensory systems. They connect widely with other thalamic nuclei and send axons to association cortex.

association of ideas

association of ideas the process by which simple perceptions and ideas are combined into totalities of varying degrees of complexity and abstractness, as, for example, connecting the relatively simple ideas of four legs, furry coat, a certain shape and size, and so on, into the compound concept cat. The same process is held to explain one’s understanding of entirely abstract ideas, such as power or liberalism. The association of ideas was a key concept for the British empiricist school of philosophers (see empiricism) and remains fundamental in learning theory and behaviorism. See also mental chemistry; mental mechanics.

association psychology

association psychology a psychological approach based on the premise that learning and knowledge are derived from the formation of connections (associations) between ideas or representations of stimuli and responses. Association psychology developed from British empiricist and associationist philosophy (see associationism).

association study

association study research designed to identify possible genetic relationships among individuals who do or do not have a particular disease or disorder.

association value

association value 1. the extent to which a stimulus is associated with other ideas, memories, or values. 2. the extent to which people are able to ascribe meaning to an apparently meaningless stimulus, for example, an arbitrary consonant-vowel-consonant trigram (e.g., KEX or DAG) presented during an association test.

association-reaction time

association-reaction time in a word-association test, the elapsed time between stimulus and response.

associationism

associationism n. the theory that complex mental processes, such as thinking, learning, and memory, can be wholly or mainly explained by the associative links formed between ideas (see association of ideas) according to specific laws. Although Aristotle cited some of these laws (similarity, difference, contiguity in time or space, etc.), the theory was first stated systematically by Thomas Hobbes, who held that all knowledge is compounded from relatively simple sense impressions. The laws and applications of association were later developed by John Locke and other members of the British empiricist school (see empiricism), notably George Berkeley, David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill. Although the approach taken by such thinkers was relatively static and nonexperimental, there are echoes of associationism in much historical and contemporary psychology. Most importantly, associationism has been invoked to explain the pairing of stimuli and responses. As such, it is a fundamental assumption of modern learning theory and all behaviorist approaches (see behaviorism). Also called British associationism.

associationist

associationist n. a theorist who believes that the process of learning can be best described as the acquisition, modification, or elaboration of associations. See associationism.

associationistic learning theory

associationistic learning theory see associative learning.

associative anamnesis

associative anamnesis a psychiatric interview technique in which the patient gives an autobiographical account of his or her history and difficulties, while the therapist listens for key words and expressions that are then used to establish an associative linkage that will bring the patient closer to the unconscious roots of his or her disturbance. [developed by Austrian-born U.S. physician and psychoanalyist Felix Deutsch (1884–1964)]

associative clustering

associative clustering the tendency for items with preexisting associations to be recalled together.

associative fluency

associative fluency the ability to make a wide range of connections when presented with an object, event, word, or concept. High associative fluency has been identified as an aspect of creativity that in many individuals is not positively correlated with high intelligence. See also creative thinking; divergent thinking.

associative illusion

associative illusion a visual illusion produced by the interaction of parts of a design (e.g., the Müller-Lyer illusion).

associative law

associative law any of the principles according to which associations are acquired and strengthened, originally derived from British empiricist philosophy (see associationism). These include the law of contiguity, the law of frequency, and the law of recency (see recency effect).

associative learning

associative learning the process of acquiring new and enduring information via the formation of bonds or connections between elements. In different types of associationistic learning theories, these associated elements may be stimulus and response, mental representations of events, or elements in neural networks. Historically, the associationistic theories of Clark L. Hull and Kenneth W. Spence are contrasted with the nonassociative and cognitive theory of Edward C. Tolman. Compare nonassociative learning.

associative linkage

associative linkage see associative anamnesis.

associative memory

associative memory retrieval or activation of a memory (e.g., of a stimulus, behavior, place, or past event) that occurs upon recall or presentation of something associated with it.

associative play

associative play see social play.

associative strength

associative strength the strength of the connection (association) between two or more items (e.g., between stimulus and response or between items in memory), as measured by the capacity of the first item to elicit the second (forward associative strength) or the second item to elicit the first (backward associative strength).

associative thinking

associative thinking a relatively uncontrolled cognitive activity in which the mind wanders without specific direction among elements, based on their connections (associations) with one another, as occurs during reverie, daydreaming, and free association.

associative visual agnosia

associative visual agnosia see visual agnosia.

associative-chain theory

associative-chain theory in learning theory and behaviorist psychology (see behaviorism), a theory of how complex behaviors, including linguistic behaviors, are formed from combinations of simple stimulus–response associations.

associative–dissociative strategy

associative–dissociative strategy a plan of shifting one’s attentional focus between internal (associative) feedback (e.g., breathing rate, muscle soreness) and external (dissociative) stimuli (e.g., what others are doing, the scenery). Athletes in endurance activities use such strategies to check body functions at specific times and to pay attention to external stimuli at others.

assonance

assonance n. a similarity in the vowel sounds of two or more words, for example, through and flute or sane and stay.

assortative mating

assortative mating mating behavior in which mates are chosen on the basis of a particular trait or group of traits (e.g., attractiveness, similarity of body size). Also called assortive mating. See also mate selection; random mating.

assumed role

assumed role a behavior pattern adopted by a person in the belief that such behavior is expected for a particular position or status; taking on a role is also a method for dealing with uncertainty about how to behave. An example of an assumed role is the sick role. Also called role enactment.

assumed similarity bias

assumed similarity bias the tendency for perceivers to assume that other people possess the same qualities and characteristics that they have. This bias is thought to inflate the accuracy that perceivers attribute to their judgments about others. [first proposed in 1955 by Lee J. Cronbach]

assumption

assumption n. 1. the premise or supposition that something is factual or true; that is, the act of taking something for granted. 2. one or more conditions that need to be met in order for a statistical procedure to be fully justified from a theoretical perspective. For example, the analysis of variance assumes homogeneity of variance and independence of observations, among other criteria. If the assumptions were to be violated to an extreme extent, the results would be invalid. See also robustness.

astasia

astasia n. severe impairment or complete loss of the ability to stand due to problems in motor coordination. —astatic adj.

astasia–abasia

astasia–abasia the ability to walk only with a wobbly, staggering gait, although control is normal while lying down. This is believed to be psychogenic in origin and may be manifested as a symptom of conversion disorder. Also called Blocq’s disease.

astereognosis

astereognosis n. inability to identify the form and nature of an object by touch. It is a form of tactile agnosia. Also called tactile amnesia.

asterixis

asterixis n. transient loss of a fixed position of the hands or arms followed by a jerking recovery movement, usually occurring in association with metabolic disorders. Also called flapping tremor.

asthenia

asthenia n. severe weakness or loss of strength, often associated with general fatigue or certain disorders. Asthenia formerly was thought to be a common symptom of a major depressive episode but is no longer defined as such. —asthenic adj.

asthenic type

asthenic type a body type characterized by a frail, long-limbed, narrow-chested physique. According to Kretschmer typology, individuals so characterized tend to be shy, sensitive, and introversive in temperament (and in extreme cases schizophrenic). Also called leptosome type. See also constitutional type.

asthenopia

asthenopia n. weakness or fatigue of the eyes, usually due to strain and tiring of the eye muscles. —asthenopic adj.

asthma

asthma n. a chronic disorder in which intermittent inflammation and narrowing of the bronchial passages produces wheezing, gasping, coughing, and chest tightness. Though the precipitating cause is usually an allergen, such as dust or pollen, environmental irritants, respiratory infection, anxiety, stress, and other agents may produce or aggravate symptoms. —asthmatic adj.

astigmatism

astigmatism n. a visual disorder in which the light rays of a visual stimulus do not all focus at a single point on the retina due to uneven curvature of the cornea or lens. As a result, light rays are refracted more in one meridian (that of the greatest curvature) than in the other at right angles to it (that of least curvature). The effect is an aberration or distortion of the visual image that makes it difficult to see fine detail. —astigmatic adj.

astigmatoscope

astigmatoscope n. an instrument used to diagnose and measure astigmatism in the eye.

astral projection

astral projection the alleged ability to enter into a trancelike state in which one leaves the physical body and operates in the astral plane (i.e., a hypothesized level of existence accessible to the consciousness or spirit, which acts as a link between the physical and spirit or divine worlds). See out-of-body experience.

astroblastoma

astroblastoma n. see glioma.

astrocyte

astrocyte n. a star-shaped nonneuronal central nervous system cell (glia) with numerous extensions that run in all directions. Astrocytes provide structural support for the brain, are responsible for many homeostatic controls, and may isolate receptive surfaces. Recent research suggests that they may play a role in potassium neurotransmission. Also called astroglia.

astrocytoma

astrocytoma n. see glioma.

astrocytosis

astrocytosis n. a pathological condition marked by a proliferation of astrocytes into tissues of the central nervous system in which neurons have died due to lack of oxygen or glucose, as during episodes of hypoxia or hypoglycemia. Also called astrogliosis.

astrology

astrology n. a pseudoscience based on the belief that the movements and positions of the planets in relation to the constellations of the zodiac influence the lives of individuals and the course of events. The systematic study of astrology originated in ancient Babylon and spread to Greece, India, and the Islamic world. China also developed an astrological system that incorporated astronomy and philosophy. Despite the disapproval of the Church, astrology remained widely influential during the medieval and Renaissance periods in Europe. Even in the modern scientific world, many people believe that their horoscope determines their personal characteristics, tendencies to particular diseases, and liability to good or bad fortune. There is no evidence to support this belief, except perhaps as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Astrology is mainly of interest to psychology because it involved an early theory of personality types, relating the physical and psychological characteristics of individuals to the supposed influence of the heavens. —astrologer n. —astrological adj.

ASVAB

ASVAB abbreviation for Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery.

asyllabia

asyllabia n. a type of aphasia in which a person can recognize individual letters of the alphabet but is unable to form or comprehend syllables or words.

asylum

asylum n. 1. originally, a refuge for criminals (from Greek asylon, “sanctuary”). From the 19th century, the terms asylum or insane asylum were applied to mental institutions. These names are now obsolete, discarded because of their emphasis on refuge rather than treatment. 2. the right to remain in a country, granted by the government of that country to individuals escaping oppression, war, or political unrest in their country of origin or allegiance.

asymbolia

asymbolia n. loss of the ability to understand or use symbols of any kind, including words, gestures, signals, musical notes, chemical formulas, or signs. Also called asemia.

asymmetrical distribution

asymmetrical distribution any nonnormal distribution: a set of ordered scores in which the frequency of values is not equal above and below the center or midpoint of the set. If one divides the distribution at its mean, the arrangement of scores differs across the two halves. See skewness. Compare symmetrical distribution.

asymmetry

asymmetry n. skewness: the condition in which the values of a data set are not arranged equally around a center point. Compare symmetry. —asymmetrical adj.

asymptomatic

asymptomatic adj. not showing any symptoms. For example, hypertension is considered asymptomatic because usually it does not have any outright physical or behavioral symptoms and can be detected only by measuring the blood pressure.

asymptomatic neurosyphilis

asymptomatic neurosyphilis a form of neurosyphilis in which laboratory findings show abnormalities in the cerebrospinal fluid but the patient does not show symptoms of the disease.

asymptote

asymptote n. a straight line that defines the limit of a curve, such that the curve continues to approach but never reaches the line. The concept of asymptote is often invoked in relation to the learning curve. Participants in learning studies frequently show a steady improvement in performance that then levels off as the curve approaches asymptote; any further improvements will be minimal, regardless of further practice or training. —asymptotic adj.

asymptotic method

asymptotic method any statistical procedure for estimating a population quantity that becomes more accurate as the number of observations involved in the calculation increases. Asymptotic methods use assumptions—including efficiency, normality, and symmetry—that generally are not absolutely true for finite samples but that become steadily more true as sample sizes increase. Also called large-sample method.

asymptotic normality

asymptotic normality a property of a distribution whereby that distribution increasingly resembles a bell-shaped curve as one or more of its characteristics become very large (i.e., it tends toward a normal distribution as the sample size upon which it is based approaches infinity).

asynchronous brood

asynchronous brood offspring (usually birds) that hatch successively (rather than simultaneously, as in a synchronous brood). In cattle egrets, for example, eggs hatch 1 or 2 days apart, giving a growth advantage to the first-hatched chick. Often, older chicks will attack young siblings to the point of killing them (see siblicide). However, in terms of parental efficiency in feeding chicks and mean chick survival, producing asynchronous broods is a better strategy than producing synchronous broods.

asynchrony

asynchrony n. lack of temporal correspondence in the occurrence of different events or processes, for example, the delay in time between a child’s language comprehension and language production.

asynergia

asynergia n. faulty coordination of muscle groups involved in the performance of complex motor movements, such as standing, walking, or kneeling. Also called asynergy. —asynergic adj.

asynergic speech

asynergic speech see cerebellar speech.

AT

AT abbreviation for assistive technology.

at risk

at risk vulnerable to a disorder or disease. Risk status for an individual is defined by genetic, physical, and behavioral factors or conditions. For example, children of people with schizophrenia may be considered at risk for schizophrenia, and heavy cigarette smokers are at risk for emphysema and lung cancer.

at-risk mental states

at-risk mental states psychological symptoms or mental processes that render individuals vulnerable to mental illnesses or to adverse behaviors, such as violence.

ataque de nervios

ataque de nervios a culture-bound syndrome found among Latinos, characterized by shaking, uncontrollable shouting or crying, a sense of rising heat, loss of control, and verbal or physical aggression, followed by fainting or seizurelike episodes. Symptoms often occur following a stressful event related to the family, and most individuals quickly return to their previous level of functioning.

ataractic

ataractic 1. adj. the adjectival form of ataraxy. 2. n. an agent that has a calming or quieting effect, producing a state of ataraxy. The name was introduced as an alternative to tranquilizer. Also called ataraxic.

Atarax

Atarax n. a trade name for hydroxyzine.

ataraxy

ataraxy n. a state of mind that is characterized by perfect peace or detached serenity without loss of mental abilities or clouding of consciousness. Also called ataraxia. —ataraxic or ataractic adj.

atavism

atavism n. 1. the presence of a genetic trait inherited from a remote ancestor that did not appear in more recent ancestors, that is, a reversion to an earlier type. 2. more generally, the reappearance of or reversion to an earlier or more primitive characteristic or form (e.g., behavioral atavism). See criminal anthropology. —atavistic adj.

ataxia

ataxia n. inability to perform coordinated voluntary movements. It may be seen as a symptom of various disorders, such as multiple sclerosis or cerebral palsy, or it can occur in isolation. It can be heritable, as in Friedreich’s ataxia, or acquired from injury or infection affecting the nervous system. When due to damage to the cerebellum, it is called cerebellar ataxia, and when due to loss of sensory feedback from the muscles and joints, it is called sensory ataxia. —ataxic adj.

ataxia telangiectasia

ataxia telangiectasia an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized primarily by an inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and by the dilation of small blood vessels in the eyes and skin of the nose and ears. Initial symptoms include limb ataxia and truncal ataxia (swaying of the head and trunk while standing or sitting), which eventually become so severe that the individual must remain in a wheelchair. Other symptoms include increasingly slowed speech, the appearance of such movements as myoclonus or intention tremors (see action tremor), and a proneness to infection, particularly respiratory infection. Also called Louis-Bar syndrome.

ataxiagraph

ataxiagraph n. a device that measures ataxia by assessing the amount a person’s body sways when he or she is standing upright with eyes closed. Also called ataxiameter.

ataxic dysarthria

ataxic dysarthria a speech disorder characterized by slurring, poorly controlled volume, and sudden spastic irregularities of vocal cord function. Also called ataxic speech.

ataxic feeling

ataxic feeling a subjective feeling that the ability to coordinate muscular movement has been lost. The feeling may be psychogenic or caused by such psychotropic drugs as antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, and lithium.

ataxic gait

ataxic gait a wide-based, staggering gait seen in individuals with cerebellar damage, disease, or degeneration.

ataxic speech

ataxic speech see ataxic dysarthria.

ataxic writing

ataxic writing uncoordinated or irregular writing caused by brain damage. See also agraphia.

ateliosis

ateliosis n. 1. incomplete development of the body or of any of its parts, as in infantilism or dwarfism. 2. formerly, the persistence of infantile or childlike cognitive or emotional developmental stages. Also called atelia.

atherosclerosis

atherosclerosis n. a common form of arteriosclerosis resulting from accumulations of lipids such as cholesterol on the inner walls of arteries and their hardening into atherosclerotic (or atheromatous) plaques. —atherosclerotic adj.

athetosis

athetosis n. slow, involuntary, writhing movements of the body, particularly the extremities such as the fingers and toes, caused by damage or degeneration of the basal ganglia. —athetoid adj. —athetotic adj.

athlete-based intervention

athlete-based intervention 1. an intervention that develops an athlete’s perceptions, experiences, or both. 2. an intervention that is initiated and conducted by the athlete.

Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI)

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Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI)

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athletic triad

athletic triad the combination of amenorrhea, disordered eating, and osteoporosis observed in some female athletes, particularly those in subjectively evaluated sports (e.g., gymnastics, diving) or endurance sports (e.g., cross-country running).

athletic type

athletic type a body type characterized by a muscular, well-proportioned, broad-shouldered physique. According to Kretschmer typology, such individuals tend to be energetic and aggressive in temperament. See also Carus typology; constitutional type.

athymia

athymia n. 1. absence of feeling or emotion. 2. congenital absence of the thymus.

athyreosis

athyreosis n. a form of hypothyroidism found in newborns in whom the thyroid gland has failed to develop normally. Affected children either have no thyroid gland or a gland that is abnormally small and whose essential elements are replaced by fibrous tissue. Also called athyreotic cretinism. See also cretinism.

ATI

ATI abbreviation for aptitude–treatment interaction.

Ativan

Ativan n. a trade name for lorazepam.

atmosphere effect

atmosphere effect 1. the tendency for particular behaviors to be stimulated by a particular environment or situation, even when inappropriate, such as gesturing when using the telephone or applauding a poor speech. 2. the tendency for an individual’s thinking on a question to be affected illogically by an impression made by the terms in which the question is stated, as when positively worded premises in a syllogism increase the perceived validity of a false but positively worded conclusion. Also called framing effect. See also anchoring bias.

atmospheric conditions

atmospheric conditions various aspects of the atmosphere (e.g., temperature, humidity, airflow, barometric pressure, composition, toxic conditions) as they affect the comfort and performance of people in their living or working environment.

atmospheric perspective

atmospheric perspective a cue that aids the perception of depth and distance. Atmospheric perspective is the acquired ability to differentiate near and distant objects on the basis of their clear or indistinct appearance.

atomism

atomism n. 1. the view that psychological phenomena can best be understood by analyzing them into elementary units, such as sensations or conditioned responses, and by showing how these units combine to form thoughts, images, perceptions, and behavior. Also called atomistic psychology; molecularism. See also elementarism; reductionism. 2. in vision, the principle that visual perception of a complex stimulus results from an analysis of its elementary components. —atomistic adj.

atonia

atonia n. lack of normal muscle tone. See also dystonia. —atonic adj.

atonic seizure

atonic seizure a rare type of generalized seizure in which there is a rapid loss of muscle tone and the individual suddenly falls. It was formerly called an akinetic seizure.

ATP

ATP adenosine triphosphate: a nucleotide in living cells that is the source of chemical energy for biological processes. A bond between two of its three component phosphate groups is easily split by a particular enzyme, ATPase (adenosine triphosphatase), yielding energy when a cell requires it.

atrial flutter

atrial flutter see arrhythmia.

atrium

atrium n. (pl. atria) a body cavity or chamber, such as either of the two upper chambers of the heart. —atrial adj.

atrophy

atrophy n. a wasting away of the body or a body part, as from lack of nourishment, inactivity, degenerative disease, or normal aging. —atrophic adj.

atropine

atropine n. an anticholinergic drug derived from certain plants, particularly belladonna (see belladonna alkaloid), and also produced synthetically. Its effects include increases in heart rate and rate of breathing, relaxation of smooth muscles, and reduction of secretions (e.g., saliva). It may be used to treat organophosphate poisoning and bradycardia (slowing of the heart rate), or as an adjunct to anesthesia, but it is most commonly employed in eye examinations to dilate the pupil. Atropine is closely related, chemically and pharmacologically, to scopolamine.

atropine-coma therapy (ACT)

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attachment

attachment n. the emotional bond between a human infant or a young nonhuman animal and its parent figure or caregiver; it is developed as a step in establishing a feeling of security and demonstrated by calmness while in the parent’s or caregiver’s presence. Attachment also denotes the tendency to form such bonds with certain other individuals in infancy as well as the tendency in adulthood to seek emotionally supportive social relationships.

attachment and biobehavioral catch-up intervention

attachment and biobehavioral catch-up intervention an attachment-based intervention designed to address the special needs of infants in foster care by creating a predictable interpersonal environment that encourages and sustains their nurturance by their foster parents. By attending to the disrupted attachment needs of these infants, many of whom have been put in foster care because of previous maltreatment by their original caregivers, the intervention seeks to develop their regulatory capacity at both the physiological and behavioral level. Research suggests, for example, that the intervention is effective in helping to decrease levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, in these children. They are also reported to show less avoidance behavior and to seek their caregivers’ comfort when distressed. The intervention is proposed to be particularly effective when involving foster caregivers predisposed to value secure attachments; see autonomous states of mind. [developed by U.S. psychologist Mary Dozier (1954– )]

attachment behavior

attachment behavior 1. behavior associated with the formation of and investment in significant relationships. 2. infant behavior that results in the infant gaining proximity to or contact with his or her caregiver. Its manifestations include crying, smiling, calling, and clinging. See attachment theory. [first described by John Bowlby]

attachment bond

attachment bond the primary, enduring, special relationship that gradually develops between an infant and caregiver.

attachment disorder

attachment disorder see reactive attachment disorder.

Attachment Q-set (AQS)

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attachment style

attachment style the characteristic way people relate to others in the context of intimate relationships, which is heavily influenced by self-worth and interpersonal trust. Theoretically, the degree of attachment security in adults is related directly to how well they bonded to others as children. Four distinct categories of adult attachment style are typically identified: dismissive attachment, fearful attachment, preoccupied attachment, and secure attachment. Attachment styles with respect to infant–mother relationships were first described by Mary D. Salter Ainsworth and her colleagues, who identified two main styles: secure attachment and insecure attachment, the latter characterized by various patterns (e.g., ambivalent attachment; anxious–avoidant attachment). Different attachment styles in infancy are associated with different psychological outcomes in childhood and later life.

attachment theory

attachment theory a theory that (a) postulates an evolutionarily advantageous need, especially in primates, to form close emotional bonds with significant others: specifically, a need for the young to maintain close proximity to and form bonds with their caregivers; and (b) characterizes the different types of relationships between human infants and caregivers. These relationships have been shown to affect the individual’s later emotional development and emotional stability. See also insecure attachment; secure attachment; Strange Situation. [originally developed by John Bowlby and later expanded by Mary D. Salter Ainsworth]

attachment-based intervention

attachment-based intervention any early intervention based on attachment theory and focused on enhancing parents’ or caregivers’ ability to perceive their children’s attachment signals accurately and to respond to those signals in an adequate and prompt way. The goal is to foster secure attachment relationships and prevent less optimal or deviant developmental pathways in children.

attack behavior

attack behavior an aggressive use of force or violence against an adversary, usually with intent to harm. Attack behavior often occurs when signals of warning or threat have been ignored. Some humans and nonhuman animals may use attack as a form of defensive behavior.

attempted suicide

attempted suicide a deliberate but unsuccessful attempt to take one’s own life. Research has suggested that older men who are of low socioeconomic status and who are single, divorced, or widowed are an especially high risk for suicide. Many studies have found an association between childhood physical or sexual abuse and a history of completed suicide attempts as well. Additional risk factors include hopelessness, heightened impulsivity, problem-solving deficits, perfectionism, a family history of suicide, and certain mental disorders (i.e., depression, bipolar disorder, substance dependence disorders, psychotic disorders). Although protective factors are studied far less commonly, one of the most consistently identified is a supportive social network or family. Also called suicide attempt.

attend

attend vb. to direct attention to a location, object, feature, or event, which is presumed to increase processing of the attended information and make it more prominent in conscious awareness.

attendance

attendance n. 1. the number of pupils present in a class, school, or educational function. 2. a record of how consistently a pupil has been present on the days that a class or school is in session.

attendant care

attendant care 1. nonmedical, in-home assistance with dressing, feeding, and other activities of daily living provided to individuals with a physical or developmental disability who otherwise are able to live independently. 2. one-on-one direct supervision by a trained attendant of a juvenile who has been taken into custody in a nonsecure setting.

attending behavior

attending behavior any behavior engaged in by an individual while attentively listening to and observing a speaker, for example, exhibiting an open, interested posture and maintaining eye contact. Helpful attending behaviors, along with active listening, are considered cornerstones of a therapist’s or counselor’s general ability.

attensity

attensity n. the sensory clarity or attention-producing effect of a sensation. [defined about 1900 by Edward Bradford Titchener]

attention

attention n. a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli. Because it has been presumed that human beings do not have an infinite capacity to attend to everything—focusing on certain items at the expense of others—much of the research in this field has been devoted to discerning which factors influence attention and to understanding the neural mechanisms that are involved in the selective processing of information. For example, past experience affects perceptual experience (we notice things that have meaning for us), and some activities (e.g., reading) require conscious participation (i.e., voluntary attention). However, attention can also be captured (i.e., directed involuntarily) by qualities of stimuli in the environment, such as intensity, movement, repetition, contrast, and novelty. See also divided attention; effortless attention; focal attention; involuntary attention; postvoluntary attention; primary attention; secondary attention; selective attention; spatial attention; visual attention.

attention decrement

attention decrement the tendency for people to pay less attention to stimuli coming later in a sequential occurrence or presentation and thus to remember them less well. For example, students studying a list of terms and their meanings will have more difficulty focusing on and committing to memory those at the end.

attention disorder

attention disorder a disturbance characterized by an inability to maintain focus on an activity or by difficulties in taking notice of, responding to, or being aware of the behavior, demands, or requests of other people. Previously, this term was frequently used interchangeably with minimal brain dysfunction, as impairments of attention are among the most common manifestations of brain damage. See also learning disability.

attention fluctuation

attention fluctuation see fluctuation of attention.

attention load measure

attention load measure a method that uses competing cognitive tasks to assess the processing demands made by each task. The degradation in performance of one task is taken to be a measure of the attentional demands made by the other task. See dual-task competition.

Attention Network Test (ANT)

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attention network theory

attention network theory a theory holding that attention is dependent on three separate but interacting neural networks: an alerting or vigilance network, an orientation and selection network, and an executive and conflict network. The theory has been investigated using neuroimaging techniques and a range of experimental tests. See also Attention Network Test. [proposed in 1990 by U.S. psychologists Michael I. Posner (1936– ) and Steven E. Petersen]

attention overload

attention overload a psychological condition that results from excessive demands on attention. The effect is temporary depletion of available attention and an inability to cope with tasks that demand attention. Attention overload can occur in work tasks, such as supervising activity of commercial aircraft in an airport control tower. In resource models of attention, such as the unitary-resource model, overload refers specifically to situations in which the demand for attentional resources exceeds the supply. See also information overload.

attention shifting

attention shifting moving the focus of attention from one location to another. Shifts can be made intentionally or caused automatically by the abrupt onset of a stimulus. For intentional shifts, a spatial cue must be presented a few hundred milliseconds before the displayed information to allow attention to be shifted to the cued location.

attention span

attention span the length of time an individual can concentrate on one specific task or other item of interest. Compare apprehension span. See also scope of attention.

attention training

attention training see attention-control training.

attention-control training (ACT)

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attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

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attention-getting

attention-getting adj. describing a type of behavior, often inappropriate, that is used to gain attention. Childhood temper tantrums are an example of such behavior.

attention-span test

attention-span test any measure of an individual’s ability to focus on a task or of his or her susceptibility to distraction. A problem with all such tests is variance in scores attributable to other variables (e.g., hunger, fatigue, factors in the testing environment).

attentional blindness

attentional blindness a general term for any failure to notice visual stimuli that can be attributed to attentional factors rather than perceptual impairment. See attentional narrowing; change blindness; inattentional blindness: perceptual set; repetition blindness.

attentional blink

attentional blink the inability to detect a second target presented within 500 ms of the first, where the two targets appear in a rapid sequential presentation of distractors and targets. It is attributed to attentional requirements for processing the target and not to perceptual impairment.

attentional capture

attentional capture the involuntary focusing of attention, for example by a change in a stimulus, which interrupts other processing.

attentional control of action model

attentional control of action model see control of action model.

attentional dyslexia

attentional dyslexia a type of visual word-form dyslexia in which a person is able to read words but has difficulty identifying their constituent letters. This is thought to be caused by a failure of the letter-to-word binding system, resulting in the “migration” of letters between words. People with attentional dyslexia are able to read letters significantly better when they are presented in isolation than when presented together with others as part of a text.

attentional focus

attentional focus the focus of an individual’s attention at a particular moment. This focus may be internal (i.e., attending to cognitive, emotional, or pain cues) or external (i.e., attending to environmental cues). See associative–dissociative strategy; Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style.

attentional narrowing

attentional narrowing the restricting of attention in high-stress situations to a small set of information sources, with the potential omission of critical, task-relevant information. For example, when driving to the hospital for a medical emergency, the driver may focus attention only on the road ahead and not notice events at the side of the road, such as a pedestrian entering a crosswalk.

attentional strategy

attentional strategy a pattern of attentional focus for the purpose of efficient execution of a task. The pattern may be specifically learned or habitually developed. For example, a quarterback in football starts with a broad external focus (determining the opposition’s defense pattern) and moves to an internal focus (selecting the appropriate play), then back to a broad external focus after snap (determining pass patterns), and finally to a narrow external focus (selecting the receiver and executing the throw). See also associative–dissociative strategy.

attentiveness

attentiveness n. 1. the state of being alert and actively paying attention. 2. the quality of actively attending to the needs of others.

attenuated positive symptoms

attenuated positive symptoms in schizophrenia, a reduction in hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behavior, or conceptual thought problems. See also positive symptom.

attenuated psychotic symptoms

attenuated psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, an increase in reality-based perceptions and a reduction in symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations, markedly incoherent speech, and disorientation.

attenuation

attenuation n. 1. the lessening or weakening in the intensity, value, or quality of a stimulus. 2. an underestimation of the size of an effect or relationship due to poor measurement or restriction of range. See also correction for attenuation.

attenuation theory

attenuation theory a version of the filter theory of attention proposing that unattended messages are attenuated (i.e., processed weakly) but not entirely blocked from further processing. According to the theory, items in unattended channels of information have different thresholds of recognition depending on their significance to the individual. Thus, a significant word (e.g., the person’s name) would have a low threshold and, when mentioned, would be recognized even if that person’s attention is concentrated elsewhere (e.g., in conversation with someone else). See also cocktail-party effect. [proposed in 1960 by British psychologist Anne Marie Treisman (1935– )]

attenuator

attenuator n. a calibrated device that accurately controls the decrease in the intensity of tones or light on electronic instruments, such as audiometers, stereophonic sound systems, or video equipment.

attitude

attitude n. a relatively enduring and general evaluation of an object, person, group, issue, or concept on a dimension ranging from negative to positive. Attitudes provide summary evaluations of target objects and are often assumed to be derived from specific beliefs, emotions, and past behaviors associated with those objects. —attitudinal adj.

attitude accessibility

attitude accessibility the likelihood that an attitude will be automatically activated from memory on encountering the attitude object. Accessibility is assumed to depend on the strength of the associative link in memory between the representation of the object and the evaluation of the object: The stronger the memory link between the object and its evaluation, the more quickly the attitude will come to mind. Attitudes that come quickly to mind are believed to be better guides to behavior. Accessibility is a determinant of attitude strength.

attitude change

attitude change any alteration in an attitude, which may result from active attempts by others to change the attitude or from processes initiated by the person holding the attitude.

attitude measure

attitude measure a procedure in which individuals are assigned quantitative values that reflect systematic variation on some underlying attitude. Several broad categories have been developed, including direct attitude measures, indirect attitude measures, explicit attitude measures, and implicit attitude measures.

attitude object

attitude object any target of judgment that has an attitude associated with it. Attitude objects may be people, social groups, policy positions, abstract concepts, or physical objects.

attitude scale

attitude scale a self-report measure used to assess an attitude. See Likert scale; semantic differential; Thurstone attitude scales.

attitude strength

attitude strength the extent to which an attitude persists over time, resists change, influences information processing, and guides behavior. Strong attitudes possess all four of these defining features, whereas weak attitudes lack them. A number of attitude properties have been shown to be predictors of an attitude’s strength, including attitude accessibility, ambivalence of an attitude, and centrality of an attitude, among others.

attitude survey

attitude survey a set of attitude measures usually designed to assess attitudes toward more than one attitude object.

attitude system

attitude system a set of two or more attitudes that are associated with one another in memory. Attitude systems can be characterized in terms of the number of attitudes in the system, the strength, number, and pattern of associations among the attitudes, and the evaluative consistency of the attitudes in the system. See also interattitudinal consistency.

attitude-congeniality effect

attitude-congeniality effect the tendency to remember information that is evaluatively consistent with an attitude better than information that is evaluatively inconsistent with an attitude.

attitude-relevant knowledge

attitude-relevant knowledge information that is directly associated with an attitude object and is activated in memory when the object is encountered. Attitude-relevant knowledge is usually measured in terms of the amount of information associated with the object. Also called issue-relevant knowledge; working knowledge.

attitude–behavior consistency

attitude–behavior consistency the extent to which behavior toward an attitude object is consistent with the attitude associated with that object. Positive attitudes are associated with approach behaviors; negative attitudes are associated with withdrawal behaviors.

attitudinal involvement

attitudinal involvement see ego involvement.

attitudinal reflex

attitudinal reflex a reflex that helps put an animal in a position or condition to make a complex response, as in preparing to attack an adversary.

attitudinal types

attitudinal types in Carl Jung’s analytic psychology, two personality types defined by habitual extraversion on the one hand and habitual introversion on the other. See introversion–extraversion. See also functional types.

attraction

attraction n. 1. the interest in and liking of one individual by another, or the mutual interest and liking between two or more individuals. Interpersonal attraction may be based on shared experiences or characteristics, physical appearance, internal motivation (e.g., for affiliation), or some combination of these. Also called interpersonal attraction. 2. in environmental psychology, a quality affecting proximity between individuals. For example, male–female and female–female pairs who enjoy each other’s company position themselves closer to each other than do pairs who feel no personal liking or affection for each other. Environmental influences, such as noise, heat, and humidity, decrease attraction between pairs of individuals. See proxemics. —attractive adj.

attraction relations

attraction relations patterns of liking–disliking, acceptance–rejection, and inclusion–exclusion among members of a group. Such patterns are also called sociometric structures, particularly when assessed through the use of sociometry.

attraction–selection–attrition model (ASA model)

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attractor dynamics

attractor dynamics an approach to analyzing and understanding the interactions of goals, feedback, and the environment in the evolution of a movement trajectory, especially for repetitive movements.

attributable risk

attributable risk in epidemiology, the incidence rate of a disease or disorder that can be considered to have been caused by exposure to a risk factor. A large portion of lung cancers can be attributed to tobacco use, constituting a substantial attributable risk for this disease.

attribute

attribute 1. n. a quality or property of a person, sensation, or object, for example, the tonal attribute of a note. 2. vb. to assign an effect to a particular causal factor or agent. See attribution theory.

attribute model of memory

attribute model of memory a model in which different brain regions process different dimensions or attributes of a learning or memory situation—space, time, sensory dimensions, response, and emotional aspects.

attribution

attribution n. 1. an inference regarding the cause of a person’s behavior or an interpersonal event. Three dimensions are often used to evaluate people’s attributional styles, or characteristic tendencies when inferring such causes: the internal–external dimension (whether they tend to attribute events to the self or to other factors), the stable–unstable dimension (whether they tend to attribute events to enduring or transient causes), and the global–specific dimension (whether they tend to attribute events to causes that affect many events or just a single event). 2. in the two-word stage of language development, a noun qualified by an attribute, for example, blue car.

attribution error

attribution error an error or bias in ascribing motives to behaviors or causes to outcomes. See fundamental attribution error; group attribution error; ultimate attribution error.

attribution of emotion

attribution of emotion see Schachter–Singer theory.

attribution theory

attribution theory a theoretical proposition about the processes by which people ascribe motives to their own and others’ behavior, and particularly whether these motives are either internal and personal (a dispositional attribution) or external and circumstantial (a situational attribution). Harold H. Kelley identified three general principles of attribution: the covariation principle, stating that for a factor to be considered as a cause of behavior it must be present when the behavior occurs and not present when the behavior does not occur; the discounting principle, stating that the role of a particular cause in producing a particular effect should be given less weight if other plausible causes are also present; and the augmentation principle, stating that if someone performs an action when there are known constraints, costs, or risks (e.g., runs a marathon on a cold and rainy day), then his or her motive for doing so must be stronger than any of the inhibitory motives. Kelley’s work and other prominent attribution theories (e.g., correspondent inference theory) emerged from the naive analysis of action developed in 1958 by Fritz Heider.

attribution theory of leadership

attribution theory of leadership 1. a model of leadership emergence and evaluation that assumes that individuals make inferences about leadership ability by observing and interpreting certain environmental and behavioral cues. Like leader categorization theory, this theory assumes that followers respond more positively to a leader who displays the qualities and behaviors that match their implicit leadership theories. See also leader prototype; leadership theories. [proposed in 1982 by U.S. industrial and organizational psychologists Robert G. Lord (1946– ), Roseanne J. Foti (1954– ), and James Steven Phillips] 2. a model that suggests leaders observe their followers’ behavior, make inferences about the causes of that behavior (i.e., whether it is the result of internal, personal factors or of external, circumstantial ones), and then respond on the basis of those inferences. For example, a manager who makes an internal attribution by concluding that an employee’s poor performance on a recent project was due to some characteristic of that person (e.g., lack of motivation) is likely to decide on a harsher disciplinary action than if he or she made an external attribution by concluding the poor performance was due to the situation (e.g., a rushed completion schedule). [proposed in 1979 by U.S. social psychologist Stephen G. Green (1945– ) and U.S. industrial and organizational psychologist Terence R. Mitchell (1942– )]

attribution therapy

attribution therapy a form of therapy in which the therapist tries to change a client’s views concerning the causes of events and behavior.

attributional analysis of persuasion

attributional analysis of persuasion an approach to understanding persuasion in terms of the reasons given by people for why communicators of persuasive messages adopt particular attitudes.

attrition

attrition n. the loss of study participants over time. Attrition may occur for a variety of reasons (e.g., the nature of the data being collected, participant relocation, aversive or costly data collection procedures) and can threaten the external validity and internal validity of research. It also creates the potential for bias—individuals who drop out may have unique characteristics that are relevant to the phenomenon of interest such that the remaining sample is no longer representative of the population—and may reduce the power of statistical analyses.

attunement

attunement n. the matching of affect between infant and parent or caregiver to create emotional synchrony. The parent’s response can take the form of mirroring (e.g., returning an infant’s smile) or be cross-modal (e.g., a vocal response “uh oh” to the infant’s dropping cereal on the floor). Attunement communicates to the infant that the parent can understand and share the infant’s feelings. Compare empathic failure; misattunement. [first described by U.S. psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Daniel Stern (1934–2012)]

atypical

atypical adj. differing from the norm in being unusual, unrepresentative, or uncharacteristic.

atypical antipsychotic

atypical antipsychotic a class of antipsychotic drugs used in the treatment of schizophrenia, delusional disorders, and other disorders characterized by psychotic symptoms, including psychotic bipolar mania. Atypical antipsychotics are also used to treat aggression associated with autism and as adjunctive agents in the treatment of some nonpsychotic conditions, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, explosive disorder, and severe depression. They are dopamine-receptor antagonists and also block the effects of serotonin at 5-HT2A receptors. They have additional actions at other neurotransmitter receptors but are not identical in these additional actions. The prototype of the group is clozapine; others in current clinical use include aripiprazole, asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone. Compared with conventional (typical or first-generation) antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics produce fewer extrapyramidal symptoms, are less likely to alter serum levels of prolactin, and appear to be less likely to cause tardive dyskinesia, all of which are significant adverse effects of the conventional drugs. However, they have been associated with metabolic effects, such as obesity, diabetes, and high cholesterol. In addition, extreme hyperglycemia, sometimes associated with diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar coma or death, has been reported. Clozapine use is also associated with agranulocytosis; later atypical antipsychotics (e.g., olanzapine) do not have this side effect. Also called novel antipsychotic; second-generation antipsychotic.

atypical depression

atypical depression a major depressive episode or, less commonly, dysthymic disorder characterized by atypical features.

atypical features

atypical features symptoms of a disorder other than the standard diagnostic criteria. For a major depressive episode or dysthymic disorder, for example, they would include hypersomnia or improvement of mood in response to positive events.

atypical psychosis

atypical psychosis any of various conditions involving psychotic symptoms that do not meet the criteria for any specific disorder.

Aubert phenomenon

Aubert phenomenon the illusion that a vertical line tilts in the opposite direction from the direction the head is tilted when viewing it. Also called Aubert illusion. [Hermann Aubert (1826–1892), German physician]

AUC

AUC abbreviation for area under the curve.

audibility curve

audibility curve the relationship between the threshold of hearing for a pure tone, expressed in decibels sound-pressure level (dB SPL), and the frequency of the tone. Compare audiogram.

audibility range

audibility range the sound frequencies that elicit the sensation of hearing. For humans with average hearing, the audible range is usually specified as 20 Hz to 20 kHz. However, humans are much less sensitive to frequencies at the extremes of this somewhat arbitrary range. The frequency range of speech is approximately 100 Hz to 4 kHz. In audiometry, pure-tone thresholds are typically measured at frequencies from 250 Hz to 8 kHz. Also called audible range.

audible thought

audible thought a type of hallucination in which one hears one’s own thoughts as if they were projected by an inner voice.

audience

audience n. 1. a body of onlookers that observes some performance, event, or activity. Unlike street crowds or mobs, audiences are usually restrained and conventional in manner; individuals usually join them deliberately and withdraw when the observed performance or activity is completed. Audiences are, in some cases, widely scattered, as in the audience for a television broadcast. 2. the people reached by a communication, particularly when selected as the target of a persuasive message.

audience effect

audience effect the influence on behavior of the presence of bystanders. In humans, performance is often improved when the action is simple and well learned (see social facilitation) but may be inhibited when it is complicated, novel, or difficult to perform or when the person believes the behavior might incur the audience’s disapproval (see social inhibition). The audience effect has also been observed in fish, birds, nonhuman primates, and other animals. For example, studies of Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) have shown that the presence of a male audience can increase aggression during interactions. See also coaction effect; evaluation apprehension.

audience task

audience task any performance, competition, work assignment, or goal-oriented activity that is executed in the presence of one or more individuals who watch the activity. See also social facilitation. Compare coaction task.

audio-

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audiogenic seizure

audiogenic seizure a seizure induced by loud noises. See reflex epilepsy.

audiogram

audiogram n. a graph relating an individual’s pure-tone thresholds at selected frequencies to those of people with normal hearing. The x-axis is the frequency of the tone; the y-axis is hearing level (HL), expressed in decibels (dB). For example, a person whose threshold is 30 dB above normal for a 4 kHz tone would have an audiogram that shows a point at 4 kHz and 30 dB HL. The audiogram is a basic clinical measurement for assessing and diagnosing hearing disorders. See audiometer; audiometric zero. Compare audibility curve.

audiogravic illusion

audiogravic illusion mislocalization of sounds that occurs when the body is tilted or the apparent direction of gravity is altered.

audiogyral illusion

audiogyral illusion the apparent movement of a stationary source of sound when the listener is rotated.

audiology

audiology n. the study of hearing, with an emphasis on the evaluation and treatment of hearing disorders and the rehabilitation of individuals with hearing loss or related disorders (e.g., balance disorders). —audiological adj. —audiologist n.

audiometer

audiometer n. an electronic device used to measure auditory sensitivity, usually in clinical settings. Its primary use is to produce an audiogram. —audiometric adj.

audiometric chamber

audiometric chamber see sound-attenuating chamber.

audiometric zero

audiometric zero the level of a pure tone of a given frequency that is just detectable by a person with normal hearing. For example, the audiometric zero for a 1 kHz pure tone is 7.5 dB SPL (decibels sound-pressure level) for TDH49 headphones, according to U.S. standards (ANSI S3.6-1996 Specification for Audiometers). Audiometric zero is used to calibrate audiometers and, by definition, is 0 dB HL (hearing level). See audiogram.

audiometry

audiometry n. the measurement of an individual’s hearing ability with electronic audiometers to diagnose hearing loss and determine the nature and extent of such loss. Audiometry provides an assessment of the need for hearing aids, aural habilitation (training to help the individual make use of any residual hearing), and possible surgery. Also called diagnostic audiometry. See also electroencephalographic audiometry; electrophysiologic audiometry; screening audiometry; speech audiometry. —audiometrician n.

audiotactile device

audiotactile device an assistive technology device consisting of a touch-sensitive pad and a speech synthesizer, which generates a voice output in response to input from the pad.

audiovisual instruction

audiovisual instruction in academic education, technical training, and personnel training, the use of audio aids, visual aids, or both, such as films, slides, videotapes, audiotapes, television, and computers. Also called audiovisual training.

audit

audit n. an evaluation of a service, intervention, or outcome. For example, in health administration it refers to an examination of the care proposed or rendered by a provider, whereas in research it refers to an examination of the soundness of a study’s findings. See medical audit; treatment audit.

audition

audition n. see hearing.

auditory abilities

auditory abilities abilities to encode and discriminate different sounds or tones, which, according to some theories of intelligence (such as the three-stratum model of intelligence and the Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence), are distinguished from visual abilities of the kind used in discriminating visual stimuli.

auditory acuity

auditory acuity sharpness of hearing: the extent to which one is able to detect and discriminate between sounds that are very similar. For example, auditory frequency acuity is the ability to distinguish between sounds that differ in their frequency composition: A 1 kHz tone can be distinguished from a 1005 Hz tone (a 0.5% change), indicating a high degree of auditory frequency acuity.

auditory agnosia

auditory agnosia loss or impairment of the ability to recognize and understand the nature of verbal or nonverbal sounds. Subtypes are distinguished on the basis of the type of auditory stimulus the person has difficulty recognizing, for example, environmental sounds such as a dog barking or keys jingling (nonverbal auditory agnosia or environmental sounds agnosia), spoken words (pure word deafness), or music (sensory amusia).

auditory aphasia

auditory aphasia a form of aphasia characterized by impairment in or loss of the ability to comprehend spoken language despite normal hearing. Also called word deafness.

auditory attributes

auditory attributes perceptual qualities of sound, including loudness, pitch, and timbre.

auditory blending

auditory blending the ability to synthesize the individual sounds (phonemes) of a word so that the whole word can be recognized.

auditory brainstem response (ABR)

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auditory canal

auditory canal see external auditory meatus.

auditory closure

auditory closure the ability to fill in parts of words that were omitted in auditory presentation. It is typically an automatic process. See closure; phonemic restoration effect; restoration effect.

Auditory Consonant Trigram (ACT)

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Auditory Continuous Performance Test (ACPT)

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auditory cortex

auditory cortex the sensory area for hearing, located on the upper side of the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex. It receives and processes sound input from the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus, a major structure along the auditory pathway. Its main subdivision is the primary auditory cortex (A1), the first cortical region to receive this input. Equivalent to Brodmann’s area 41 and encompassing Heschl’s gyrus, A1 displays both frequency selectivity and tonotopic organization and is critical to the discrimination and localization of sounds. Neurons in A1 predominantly project to Wernicke’s area. Surrounding A1 is the secondary auditory cortex (A2, the “belt” or peripheral area), whose input from the medial geniculate nucleus is more diffuse, and its tonotopic organization less precise, than that of A1. It provides additional auditory regulation to enhance A1 cortical processing. Also called auditory projection area.

auditory discrimination

auditory discrimination the ability to distinguish between sounds. For example, pitch discrimination is the ability to detect changes in sound based upon the subjective attribute of pitch. It is more appropriately called frequency discrimination, however, because of uncertainty that the discrimination is based upon pitch (e.g., under certain circumstances, a change in frequency produces a change in loudness, and the discrimination could be based on a loudness change rather than a pitch change).

auditory display

auditory display 1. acoustic information presented via headphones, which often includes simulations of realistic listening situations. See virtual reality. 2. any presentation of acoustic information.

auditory distance cue

auditory distance cue see distance cue.

auditory distance perception

auditory distance perception the ability to assess the distance of a sound source based only on acoustic information. Humans are relatively poor at auditory distance perception. The primary cues in realistic listening environments appear to be the amplitude of the sound reaching the listener directly from the source, together with the ratio of direct to reverberant sound energy.

auditory evoked potential

auditory evoked potential a biologically produced electrical response to sound. There are many types of auditory evoked potentials, which differ in their methods of recording and processing sounds.

auditory fatigue

auditory fatigue a transient form of hearing loss due to short- or long-term exposure to loud noise.

auditory feedback

auditory feedback the sound of one’s own voice heard while one is speaking, which enables adjustments in intensity, pacing, or clarity of speech. In addition to naturally occurring feedback, there are several types of speaking control systems that provide auditory feedback in voice, speech, and language therapy, including real-time amplification, delayed auditory feedback, and metronomic pacing.

auditory filter

auditory filter the process responsible for the frequency selectivity of the auditory system. The initial stages of auditory processing are often described as consisting of a bank of auditory filters with different center frequencies. The term is closely related to the concept of a critical band but with more emphasis on the “shape” or characteristics of the filter rather than simply its critical bandwidth. See tonotopic organization; tuning curve.

auditory flicker

auditory flicker sound presented as discrete units (with brief gaps) rather than as continuous. See also critical flicker frequency.

auditory fusion

auditory fusion the combining of separate acoustic items into a single perceptual image.

auditory hallucination

auditory hallucination the perception of sound in the absence of an auditory stimulus. Hallucinations may, for example, be of accusatory or laudatory voices or of strange noises and other nonverbal sounds. They occur frequently in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders but may be associated with other conditions as well (e.g., delirium, dementia).

auditory induction

auditory induction perceptual restoration of a brief (up to 300 ms) sound segment that is masked or replaced by a louder sound having an appropriate spectral composition.

auditory labyrinth

auditory labyrinth see labyrinth.

auditory localization

auditory localization the ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources based on acoustic information. When sounds are presented through headphones, the acoustic image usually appears to originate within the head and lacks the three-dimensional quality of real sound sources. The image can be lateralized on a left–right dimension (auditory lateralization)—that is, toward the left or right ear—but not localized in external space. Also called sound localization.

auditory masking

auditory masking a reduction in the ability to detect, discriminate, or recognize one sound (the signal or target) due to the presence of another sound (the masker), measured as an increase in the detection threshold caused by the masker. The amount of masking is the increase in threshold measured in decibels (dB). For example, if the detection threshold with no masker is 10 dB SPL (decibels sound-pressure level) and the masker raises the threshold to 60 dB SPL, the amount of masking is 50 dB or, equivalently, the masker produces 50 dB of masking. The ability of one sound to mask another has been used extensively to assess the frequency selectivity of the auditory system. See also critical band; masking.

auditory memory

auditory memory memory for information obtained by hearing. It may be either short-term memory or long-term memory, and the material retained may be linguistic (e.g., words) or nonlinguistic (e.g., music).

auditory memory span

auditory memory span the number of simple items, such as words or numbers, that can be repeated in the same order by a person after hearing the series once. The auditory memory span indicates the capacity of a person’s working memory. Also called auditory span. See also memory span.

auditory nerve

auditory nerve the branch of the eighth cranial nerve (see vestibulocochlear nerve) concerned with the sense of hearing. It originates in the cochlea, from which nerve fibers pass through several layers of nuclei in the brainstem to terminate predominantly in the auditory cortex. Also called acoustic nerve; cochlear nerve.

auditory object

auditory object see fission.

auditory ossicles

auditory ossicles see ossicles.

auditory pathway

auditory pathway the neural route along which auditory information is conveyed from the cochlear hair cells to the auditory cortex. The major structures in the auditory pathway are the cochlear nucleus, superior olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculus, and the medial geniculate nucleus.

auditory perception

auditory perception the organization and interpretation of sensory information received through the ear. It is a complex process in which pressure changes in the air are funneled into the middle ear, where motion of the tympanic membrane and the tiny attached bones (ossicles) are transmitted to the inner ear and cause vibrations of membranous structures within the coiled, fluid-filled cochlea. Many specialized cells in the cochlea amplify and filter the movements through a variety of electromechanical mechanisms. Eventually, hair cells convert the mechanical motions to neural stimulation that is transmitted along the auditory pathway to the auditory cortex for processing.

auditory perceptual disorder

auditory perceptual disorder a former name for central auditory processing disorder.

auditory processing

auditory processing the processes or mechanisms that underlie hearing.

auditory processing disorder

auditory processing disorder see central auditory processing disorder.

auditory projection area

auditory projection area see auditory cortex.

auditory sensation

auditory sensation the sensation produced by a sound or other auditory stimulus.

auditory sensation level

auditory sensation level see sensation level.

auditory sensation unit

auditory sensation unit the just noticeable difference in sound intensity. See difference threshold.

auditory sensory memory

auditory sensory memory see echoic memory.

auditory skills

auditory skills the skills related to hearing, including auditory discrimination, auditory attention, and auditory memory. Also called central auditory abilities.

auditory space perception

auditory space perception perception of the direction, distance, and elevation of a sound source. See auditory localization.

auditory span

auditory span see auditory memory span.

auditory spectrum

auditory spectrum a term sometimes used to denote the audibility range.

auditory stimulus

auditory stimulus a stimulus capable of eliciting auditory sensation. It usually refers to airborne sound but can include vibration produced by bone conduction or by internally generated events.

auditory system

auditory system the biological structures and processes responsible for hearing. The peripheral auditory system, or auditory periphery, includes the external, middle, and inner ears and the auditory nerve. Auditory structures of the brain, including the auditory cortex, constitute the central auditory system.

auditory threshold

auditory threshold 1. the minimum level of sound that can be detected by an organism. See absolute threshold. 2. any threshold pertaining to hearing, including difference thresholds, pain thresholds, acoustic reflex thresholds, and bone-conduction thresholds.

auditory thrombosis

auditory thrombosis a blood clot in the internal auditory artery, resulting in sudden deafness.

auditory training

auditory training helping people with hearing loss to distinguish sounds and understand spoken language better by teaching them how to make the most effective use of their residual hearing and to discern contextual clues related to situations and environments.

Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT)

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Aufgabe

Aufgabe n. a predisposition toward particular mental operations inherent in the nature of a task or conveyed by the instructions for performing it. Introduced by the Würzburg school in their introspective experiments on mental processes, the concept became a precursor to the later determining tendency and the modern mental set. [German: “assignment”]

augmentation

augmentation n. 1. an increase in the amplitude of average evoked potential, either above background noise in the average-evoked-response technique or by more than would be expected from the increase in the stimulus. 2. more generally, any increase, enlargement, growth, or intensification.

augmentation principle

augmentation principle see attribution theory.

augmentation strategy

augmentation strategy a mechanism to increase the effectiveness of pharmacological agents by the addition of other agents. Augmentation strategies are most commonly used in the treatment of depression.

augmentative communication

augmentative communication communication aided, facilitated, or expanded by a resource other than the communicator. An example is provision of an easy-to-access online dictionary or thesaurus to e-mail recipients, or of links to websites for additional information regarding news items. See also facilitated communication.

augury

augury n. the divination of future events on the basis of omens, portents, or other signs. In ancient Rome, an augur was a priest whose interpretations of natural phenomena (e.g., meteorological events, the flights of birds) were used to guide public decisions.

aura

aura n. 1. a subjective sensation that precedes an epileptic seizure or migraine headache. It may include such phenomena as strange tastes or odors, flashes of light (a visual aura), numbness, and feelings of unreality or déjà vu. 2. in parapsychology, a subtle halo or emanation that purportedly surrounds every person, animal, plant, or object. Some sensitives claim to be able to discern such auras, which can allegedly reveal an individual’s personal qualities as well as his or her state of physical health. It is also claimed that auras may be rendered visible by such means as Kirlian photography and the use of Kilner screens. In spiritualism and theosophy, a person’s aura is sometimes identified with his or her astral body (see astral projection); in other traditions, it may be seen as the manifestation of a life force or energy field. See also effluvium; Reichenbach phenomenon.

aural

aural adj. pertaining to or perceived by the ear.

aural harmonic

aural harmonic a distortion product generated within the ear. See harmonic.

auricle

auricle n. 1. see pinna. 2. a small ear-shaped pouch that extends from the upper anterior portion of each atrium of the heart.

auscultation

auscultation n. a diagnostic method in which the examiner listens for sounds within the body either with the aid of a stethoscope (mediate auscultation) or directly by laying the ear on the surface of the body (immediate auscultation).

Austrian school

Austrian school the theoretical developments in psychology associated principally with the universities of Vienna and Graz in Austria at the end of the 19th century. Influenced by Franz Brentano and Ernst Mach, the emphasis was on the mental processes that produced whole, organized perceptions, a focus that was a precursor to Gestalt psychology. See act psychology.

aut-

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autassassinophilia

autassassinophilia n. a paraphilia in which sexual arousal and the achievement of orgasm are facilitated by the fantasy or belief that one is in danger of being killed. This may include the individual staging a sexual encounter characterized by extreme masochism with the real potential for his or her own murder. Also called autoassassinatophilia. Compare homicidophilia.

autemesia

autemesia n. vomiting for which no organic cause can be identified.

authenticity

authenticity n. 1. in psychotherapy and counseling, genuineness and caring demonstrated by the therapist or counselor through a down-to-earth attitude that the client senses to be a reflection of the true person and not simply of a professional acting in his or her professional role. 2. in existentialism, a mode of being that humans can achieve by accepting the burden of freedom, choice, and responsibility and the need to construct their own values and meanings in a meaningless universe. —authentic adj.

authoritarian

authoritarian adj. 1. describing or relating to a political system or social climate that involves the restriction of individual freedoms and the subjugation of individuals to a centralized, hierarchical authority. For example, an authoritarian group is one in which decisions rest solely with the leader. 2. describing an individual, especially but not limited to one in a position of authority, who uses or favors restrictive, autocratic methods when interacting with others. See authoritarian personality. —authoritarianism n.

authoritarian conscience

authoritarian conscience the type of conscience that is guided by (a) fear of an external authority or (b) the voice of an internalized external authority, such as the superego. Compare humanistic conscience. [defined by Erich Fromm]

authoritarian leader

authoritarian leader the type of leader who determines policy and makes decisions without seeking input from followers, rejects any suggestions from others, assigns tasks to group members without considering their preferences, and dominates interactions through frequent criticism. Also called autocratic leader. Compare democratic leader; laissez-faire leader. [defined by Kurt Lewin and his colleagues in experimental studies of leadership styles]

authoritarian parenting

authoritarian parenting see parenting.

authoritarian personality

authoritarian personality a personality pattern characterized by strict adherence to highly simplified conventional values, an attitude of great deference to authority figures while demanding subservience from those regarded as lower in status, and hostility toward people who deviate from conventional moral prescriptions.

authoritative parenting

authoritative parenting see parenting.

authority

authority n. the capacity to influence others. Formal authority enables an individual to exert influence as a result of either high, legally recognized office (legitimate authority) or high rank in a long-established but not legally codified hierarchy (traditional authority). Informal authority is based on the individual having either attributes that facilitate the achievement of a group’s goals (rational or expert authority) or an attractive and authoritative personality serving to enhance his or her credibility (charismatic authority).

authority and social order maintaining orientation

authority and social order maintaining orientation see conventional level.

authority complex

authority complex a pattern of emotionally charged concepts of authority that are partially or completely repressed. To satisfy an unconscious need for authority, a person projects power onto certain other people (see projection) and experiences inferiority in their presence. Therefore, reactions to authority often take the form of oversubmission.

authority relations

authority relations see status relations.

autism

autism n. 1. a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by markedly impaired social interactions and verbal and nonverbal communication; narrow interests; and repetitive behavior. Manifestations and features of the disorder appear before age 3 but vary greatly across children according to developmental level, language skills, and chronological age. They may include a lack of awareness of the feelings of others, impaired ability to imitate, absence of social play, abnormal speech, abnormal nonverbal communication, and a preference for maintaining environmental sameness. Classified in DSM–IV–TR as a pervasive developmental disorder, autism has been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder in DSM–5 and is no longer considered a distinct diagnosis. Also called autistic disorder; childhood autism; early infantile autism; infantile autism; Kanner’s syndrome. 2. in schizophrenia, an abnormal preoccupation with the self and fantasy such that there is a lack of interest in or ability to focus on external reality. —autistic adj.

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

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autistic disorder

autistic disorder see autism.

autistic fantasy

autistic fantasy a defense mechanism in which a person deals with emotional conflict and stressors by indulging in excessive daydreaming as a substitute for active problem solving.

autistic savant

autistic savant see savant.

autistic thinking

autistic thinking narcissistic, egocentric thought processes, such as fantasizing and daydreaming, that have little or no relation to reality. It is similar to dereistic thinking (see dereism), but the emphasis is on self-absorption rather than disconnection from reality. The term is highly inaccurate and misleading regarding the characteristics of autism.

autistic-contiguous position

autistic-contiguous position in object relations theory, a primitive, preverbal mode of normal infant experience that emphasizes sensory contact with others. If such surface contact is not soothing and comforting, the infant may react to the world as potentially dangerous, a reaction that could become pathological if it becomes rigidified as a defensive style. The concept was introduced by U.S. psychoanalyst Thomas Ogden to describe a mode of relating to the world that precedes Melanie Klein’s paranoid-schizoid position and depressive position. Also called autistic-contiguous mode.

auto- (aut-)

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autoagonistophilia

autoagonistophilia n. sexual arousal from being observed or filmed while engaging in sexual activity.

autoassassinatophilia

autoassassinatophilia n. see autassassinophilia.

autobiographical memory

autobiographical memory 1. a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in his or her own life. Often the terms autobiographical memory and episodic memory are used interchangeably. However, autobiographical memory can consist of information stored in episodic memory (i.e., of events experienced at a particular time and place), semantic memory (i.e., of knowledge of general facts and concepts that give meaning to information), or a mix of the two. For example, the autobiographical memory of one’s first day at school might contain episodic information, such as meeting the teacher, but it might also contain semantic information, such as knowledge that the teacher’s name was Susan. 2. more broadly, memory for any information about the self, including not only personal experiences but also self-related factual knowledge, the self-schema, and so forth.

Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI)

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autobiography

autobiography n. in therapy or counseling, a technique in which a life history, written by the client from his or her own point of view, is used to obtain information regarding the client’s behavioral patterns and feelings. A structured autobiography is based on explicit questions or topic guidelines supplied by the therapist or counselor. An unstructured autobiography contains no guidelines. See also life review.

autocentric

autocentric adj. centered on or within the self. Compare allocentric.

autochthonous

autochthonous adj. 1. native, indigenous, or original. 2. denoting endogenous processes and events that originate within the individual, independently of external influences. Compare allochthonous.

autochthonous gestalt

autochthonous gestalt a perceptual pattern induced by internal factors (autochthonous forces) rather than factors of the external stimulus.

autoclitic

autoclitic n. a unit of verbal behavior (a verbal operant) that depends on other verbal behavior and that alters its effect on a listener. For example, in saying “I think that is a cat,” the words I think serve as an autoclitic to indicate to the listener that the speaker is less than certain about the remaining verbal operants in the sentence. The is is also an autoclitic, indicating that the same stimulus is occasioning the words that and cat.

autocorrelation

autocorrelation n. the situation in which successive values of a variable measured over time are correlated with other values of the same series separated from them by a specific interval. This often occurs with economic or demographic data. Autocorrelations are generally assumed to be linear relationships and may be presented graphically in an autocorrelogram or formulaically in an autocorrelation function. Also called serial correlation. See time-series analysis.

autocratic

autocratic adj. 1. dictatorial, high-handed, and undemocratic. 2. wielding unlimited power and not permitting opposition. —autocrat n.

autocratic leader

autocratic leader see authoritarian leader.

autocrine

autocrine adj. describing or relating to a type of cellular signaling in which a chemical messenger is secreted by a cell into its environment and feeds back to elicit a response in the same cell. For example, some nerve cells have autoreceptors that are affected by neurotransmitter molecules released by the same cell. Compare endocrine; paracrine.

autodysomophobia

autodysomophobia n. see olfactory reference syndrome.

autoenucleation

autoenucleation n. an act of self-mutilation in which an individual excises an organ or tumor from his or her own body, as, for example, when a person with a psychotic disorder removes an eyeball (see enucleation). Also called self-enucleation.

autoerotic asphyxia

autoerotic asphyxia sexual pleasure obtained from being unable to breathe during masturbation. It may involve the person hanging himself or herself, a practice that has been found to result in a number of accidental deaths each year when the person is unable to get free of the rope. Also called autoerotic asphyxiation.

autoeroticism

autoeroticism n. the creation of sexual excitement and gratification by the self, whether through masturbation, other sexual behaviors (e.g., stimulating nongenital portions of the body), or thoughts (e.g., daydreams, fantasies). Also called autoerotism. Compare alloeroticism. —autoerotic adj. [defined by British sexologist Havelock Ellis (1859–1939)]

autoerythrocyte sensitization syndrome

autoerythrocyte sensitization syndrome see Gardner–Diamond syndrome.

autoflagellation

autoflagellation n. sexual pleasure derived from striking, whipping, or beating oneself.

autogenic training

autogenic training a relaxation technique in which a quasi-hypnotic state is self-induced and deep relaxation is achieved through mental imagery, breath control, and exercises that focus attention on physical sensations, including warmth and heaviness of the limbs, a regular heartbeat, abdominal warmth, and cooling of the forehead. The aim is to reduce stress by gaining control of autonomic arousal associated with anxiety and to obtain an ideal performance state. [developed in the early 20th century by German neurologist Johannes Heinrich Schultz (1884–1970)]

autognosis

autognosis n. knowledge of self.

autographism

autographism n. see dermatographism.

autohypnosis

autohypnosis n. see self-hypnosis. —autohypnotic adj.

autohypnotic amnesia

autohypnotic amnesia a Jungian term for repression, based on the observation that a form of amnesia may be induced in a person under hypnosis (see hypnotic amnesia; posthypnotic amnesia). Repression in this context is seen as a form of systematic amnesia, in which the individual “forgets” certain ideas or memories through a process of autosuggestion.

autoimmunity

autoimmunity n. a condition in which the body’s immune system fails to recognize its own tissues as “self” and attempts to reject its own cells. It is a primary factor in the development of such diseases as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (called autoimmune disorders). —autoimmune adj.

autokinesis

autokinesis n. any movement that is voluntary.

autokinetic effect

autokinetic effect the illusion of seeing a static spot of light moving in a dark room. The autokinetic effect has been used in certain psychological experiments, for example, investigating suggestibility or the establishment of group norms. Also called autokinetic illusion.

automaintenance

automaintenance n. a procedure in which stimulus–reinforcer pairings are used to sustain an already established behavior. It is most commonly used with pigeons. Signals are presented, regardless of behaviors, on a response device (e.g., a pecking disk), and reinforcement (e.g., food) is delivered after a specified time period regardless of the pigeons’ pecking activity.

automasochism

automasochism n. sexual pleasure derived from inflicting pain on oneself during masturbation or during sexual activity with a partner. See also sexual masochism.

automated assessment

automated assessment see computerized assessment.

automated desensitization

automated desensitization the use of devices such as digitized media to facilitate the presentation of anxiety-provoking and relaxing stimuli during systematic desensitization. It is especially helpful in situations where a client is reluctant to undergo desensitization in the presence of the therapist. See device for automated desensitization.

automated natural language understanding

automated natural language understanding understanding speech or writing through computer-based processes. Understanding in this context means determining the meaning of what is spoken or written, enabling an appropriate response to questions or commands. Compare automated speech recognition.

automated reasoning

automated reasoning computer-based mathematical reasoning, including geometric theorem proving, algebraic equation solving, and mathematical theorem proving. It is a subdiscipline of artificial intelligence.

automated speech recognition (ASR)

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automatic action

automatic action an act that is performed without requiring attention or conscious awareness.

automatic activation

automatic activation involuntary processing of stimuli and preparation for associated responses. This activation tends to occur more rapidly than that resulting from voluntary processing.

automatic activation of attitudes

automatic activation of attitudes the spontaneous activation of an attitude from memory on encountering the attitude object. The likelihood of automatic activation depends on the attitude accessibility.

automatic drawing

automatic drawing the act of drawing images or objects while in a hypnotic trance or in a situation in which attention is distracted. It may be used in hypnotherapy to provide a therapist with access to unconscious material from the client. See also automatic writing.

automatic obedience

automatic obedience excessive, uncritical, or mechanical compliance with the requests, suggestions, or commands of others.

automatic performance

automatic performance see routinized behavior.

automatic process

automatic process see automaticity.

automatic promotion

automatic promotion see social promotion.

automatic reinforcer

automatic reinforcer a physical or sensory consequence of a behavior that serves to reinforce the behavior, without the influence of another individual. An example is a person continuing to read a book because he or she enjoys it.

automatic speaker recognition

automatic speaker recognition identification of a speaker by means of an analysis, usually computer-based, of the characteristics of his or her speech. Also called automatic speaker identification.

automatic speech

automatic speech 1. speech that erupts involuntarily, or without conscious control. It sometimes occurs as a consequence of dementia, Tourette’s syndrome, or highly emotional states. Automatic speech is not to be confused with synthesized or synthetic speech. 2. speech that is uttered with little or no conscious consideration of the spoken material, such as the days of the week, numbers, the alphabet, and other well-learned material.

automatic thoughts

automatic thoughts 1. thoughts that are instantaneous, habitual, and nonconscious. Automatic thoughts affect a person’s mood and actions. Helping individuals to become aware of the presence and impact of negative automatic thoughts, and then to test their validity, is a central task of cognitive therapy. 2. thoughts that have been so well learned and habitually repeated that they occur without cognitive effort. Also called routinized thoughts.

automatic writing

automatic writing the act of writing while one’s attention is not focused on the task or of writing without conscious awareness, as during a hypnotic trance. It may be used in hypnotherapy to provide a therapist with access to unconscious material from the client. See also automatic drawing.

automaticity

automaticity n. the quality of a behavior or mental process that can be carried out rapidly and without effort or explicit intention (an automatic process). In brain imaging studies, automatic processes show dramatic decreases in cortical activity. See also deautomatization hypothesis; habit.

automatism

automatism n. nonpurposeful behavior performed mechanically, without intention and without conscious awareness. It may be motor or verbal and ranges from simple repetitive acts, such as lipsmacking or repeatedly using the same phrase (e.g., as it were), to complex activities, such as sleepwalking and automatic writing. Automatism is seen in several disorders, including catatonic schizophrenia and complex partial seizures.

automatism defense

automatism defense a legal defense consisting of the claim that criminal intent (see mens rea) is lacking as a result of the defendant’s dissociated state at the time the criminal act was committed. The defense is more common in the United Kingdom and Canada than in the United States.

automatization

automatization n. 1. the development of a skill or habit to a point at which it becomes routine and requires little if any conscious effort or direction. 2. the state of individuals who respond to compulsive impulses so automatically that they may be described as automata (see automaton).

automatograph

automatograph n. a classic device used to measure movement. It consists of a plate that lies on metal balls and thus follows every impulse of the hand that lies flat on it: The plate has an attachment by which the slightest involuntary movements are registered.

automaton

automaton n. 1. a machine that simulates human functions (e.g., a mechanized installation device on a conveyor belt) via preprogramed coded instructions. See also cybernetics; feedback; robotics. 2. a human acting in an autonomous and routine manner, seemingly without an external driving force. See also automatization.

automotive telematics

automotive telematics technology for delivering information to moving automobiles and other road vehicles. The information can include traffic conditions on routes of interest, alternative routing, hotel accommodation, safety news, and entertainment for passengers.

automutilation

automutilation n. sexual pleasure derived from mutilating parts of one’s body or from fantasy about mutilated parts of one’s body. It usually involves cutting some part of the body during masturbation.

autonecrophilia

autonecrophilia n. sexual pleasure derived from the fantasy that one is dead and that another person is having sexual relations with one’s dead body.

autonoetic

autonoetic adj. describing a state of knowledge or memory in which one is aware not only of the known or remembered thing but also of one’s personal experience in relation to that thing. Autonoetic consciousness is a corresponding kind of consciousness in which one’s knowledge of facts, concepts, and meanings is mediated through an awareness of one’s own existence in time. Compare anoetic; noetic. [defined Endel Tulving]

autonomic

autonomic adj. occurring involuntarily, particularly pertaining to the autonomic nervous system or the processes controlled by it. —autonomically adv.

autonomic apparatus

autonomic apparatus all the body organs, including the endocrine glands and viscera, that are controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

autonomic balance

autonomic balance the complementary and reciprocal interactions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system.

autonomic conditioning

autonomic conditioning in classical conditioning, a procedure in which the conditioned response measured is an index of physiological arousal, usually an electrodermal measure such as skin conductance. The conditioned stimulus is usually a simple visual or auditory stimulus presented for 5 to 10 seconds, whereas the unconditioned stimulus is a mildly aversive stimulus such as an electric shock or a loud noise.

autonomic dysfunction

autonomic dysfunction dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system, including impairment, failure, or overactivity of sympathetic or parasympathetic functioning. The dysfunction may be local or generalized, acute or chronic, and is associated with a number of disorders. Also called autonomic neuropathy; dysautonomia. See also familial dysautonomia.

autonomic dysreflexia

autonomic dysreflexia exaggerated activity of the autonomic nervous system in an individual with a spinal cord injury at or above the level of the sixth thoracic vertebra. It is caused by irritation, pain, or similar stimulation of the nervous system below the area of the injury and may be fatal. Symptoms include the sudden onset of headache and hypertension; there may also be arrhythmia, sweating, dilated pupils, blurred vision, nasal stuffiness, flushing, and gooseflesh. Also called autonomic hyperreflexia.

autonomic ganglia

autonomic ganglia the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system. They include the two chains of sympathetic ganglia (see sympathetic chain) and the more peripheral parasympathetic ganglia (see parasympathetic nervous system).

autonomic hyperactivity

autonomic hyperactivity arousal of the autonomic nervous system, particularly its sympathetic nervous system functions, resulting in the physiological symptoms associated with anxiety and fear (e.g., sweating, palpitations, dry mouth, lightheadedness, upset stomach).

autonomic hyperreflexia

autonomic hyperreflexia see autonomic dysreflexia.

autonomic learning

autonomic learning a type of learning in which the responses learned consist of changes in functions involving the autonomic nervous system, such as heart rate or blood pressure. See also conditioned response.

autonomic motor pool

autonomic motor pool motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord that give rise to nerves that supply autonomic ganglia.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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autonomic neuropathy

autonomic neuropathy see autonomic dysfunction.

autonomic reactivity

autonomic reactivity 1. the extent to which an organism responds physiologically to a stimulus, such as a stressor. 2. a pattern of responses of the autonomic nervous system that is characteristic of an individual throughout life. Also called autonomic response specificity; individual response stereotypy.

autonomic response

autonomic response see autonomic nervous system.

autonomic restrictors

autonomic restrictors people with generalized anxiety disorder, who have lower heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance, and respiration rate than do people with other anxiety disorders.

autonomous

autonomous adj. 1. having an independent existence. 2. acting or operating under one’s own direction. 3. having self-government. Compare heteronomous.

autonomous activity

autonomous activity in general systems theory, processes or behaviors that occur spontaneously, in the absence of external eliciting stimuli.

autonomous depression

autonomous depression 1. a major depressive episode that does not occur in response to any obvious psychosocial stressor. See also endogenous depression. 2. less commonly, depression characterized by agitation and self-criticism.

autonomous stage

autonomous stage in Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development, the stage during which the child, typically 10 years of age or older, eventually understands that rules and laws are not permanent, fixed properties of the world but rather are flexible, modifiable entities created by people. The child gradually relies less on parental authority and more on individual and independent morality and learns that intentions, not consequences or the likelihood of punishment, are important in determining the morality of an act. Also called autonomous morality. See moral independence; moral relativism. Compare heteronomous stage; premoral stage.

autonomous states of mind

autonomous states of mind the mental processes exhibited by parents or primary caregivers who are able to discuss coherently their thoughts, feelings, and memories about their own childhood attachment experiences. Such individuals are said to demonstrate an autonomous or secure sense of attachment, characterized by an understanding of the importance of nurturance. In contrast, parents or primary caregivers who are not coherent in discussing their childhood experiences are said to have insecure, “nonautonomous” states of mind, characterized by dismissive or conflicted feelings about attachments. Studies indicate that those with autonomous states of mind are likely to raise children who are securely attached themselves (e.g., who seek a mother’s comfort when upset or hurt), whereas those with nonautonomous states are likely to raise children who are also insecurely attached (e.g., who do not seek a mother’s comfort when distressed). This construct is one of the components of the attachment and biobehavioral catch-up intervention. See also insecure attachment; secure attachment. [described by U.S. psychologist Mary Dozier (1954– )]

autonomous syntax

autonomous syntax the theory that syntax is an autonomous component of language that operates independently of meaning (semantics) and function (pragmatics). Such a view explains how a sentence with no meaningful content or communicative function can nevertheless be recognized as grammatical by native speakers (see grammaticality). It also explains why syntactic rules, such as number agreement between subject and verb, operate regardless of the semantic relationship between the sentence elements. For example, in the two sentences The boy is slamming the doors and The doors are being slammed by the boy, the verb takes different forms to agree with the grammatical subject in each case (boy is; doors are), regardless of the fact that in both cases the boy is the agent of the action, and the doors are its patient. See case grammar. [introduced by Noam Chomsky]

autonomous work groups

autonomous work groups small, self-regulated, employee-centered units within an organization that are given responsibility for developing procedures, organizing the production process, generating the required product, and maintaining quality.

autonomy

autonomy n. 1. a state of independence and self-determination in an individual, a group, or a society. According to some theories, an inordinate focus on self-determination and achievement represents a risk factor for the development of major depressive disorder. See also functional autonomy. Compare heteronomy. 2. in self-determination theory more specifically, the experience of acting from choice, rather than feeling pressured to act. This form of autonomy is considered a fundamental psychological need that predicts well-being.

autonomy versus shame and doubt

autonomy versus shame and doubt the second of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. During this stage, children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overcritical, overprotective, or inconsistent.

autopagnosia

autopagnosia n. see autotopagnosia.

autophagy

autophagy n. 1. the chewing or eating of one’s own flesh. 2. the body’s maintenance of nutrition by consumption of its own tissues, as in times of excessive fasting. Also called autophagia.

autophony

autophony n. the hearing of one’s own voice reverberating inside one’s head. Autophony is usually caused by diseases of the middle ear, such as serous otitis media, a condition called patulous eustachian tube in which the eustachian tube remains open, or superior canal dehiscence. Also called autophonia; autophonic response.

autoplasty

autoplasty n. 1. adaptation to reality by modifying one’s own behavioral patterns, rather than by altering one’s environment. Autoplastic behavior can be negative and psychologically harmful, as in the development of neurotic behavior, or positive and psychologically healthy, as in the tendency toward more adaptive thinking and action following psychotherapeutic intervention. Also called autoplastic development. 2. surgical repair using tissue from another part of the patient’s body. Compare alloplasty. —autoplastic adj.

autopoesis

autopoesis n. a system, often a cognitive architecture, in which the constituent modular components support, nurture, and maintain each other.

autopsy

autopsy n. a procedure in which the body of a dead person is examined in an effort to determine the exact cause and time of death. For legal, religious, and cultural reasons, an autopsy generally cannot be performed without permission of the next of kin or an order of the public authorities. The procedure usually requires a detailed dissection of body tissues, laboratory tests, and other techniques when the death occurs under suspicious circumstances. Also called postmortem examination. See also psychological autopsy.

autopsychic delusion

autopsychic delusion a delusion about one’s personality. It is thus distinguished from an allopsychic delusion, which refers to the outside world, and a somatic delusion, which refers to one’s own body. [defined by German neurologist Karl Wernicke (1848–1905)]

autopsychosis

autopsychosis n. a delusional condition in which the individual maintains distorted ideas about himself or herself, such as being the world’s savior, the devil incarnate, or an unrecognized genius. —autopsychotic adj.

autoradiography

autoradiography n. a histological technique that reveals the distribution of radioactive chemicals in tissues or in analytical media, such as electrophoretic plates. —autoradiographic adj.

autoreceptor

autoreceptor n. a molecule in the membrane of a presynaptic neuron that regulates the synthesis and release of a neurotransmitter by that neuron by monitoring how much transmitter has been released and “telling” the neuron.

autoregression

autoregression n. a pattern of relationship between repeated measures of a variable taken over time, such that the variable as observed at one point in time is predicted by the variable observed at one or more earlier points in time. See time-series analysis.

autoregressive model (AR model)

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autoscope

autoscope n. a device or instrument that records or magnifies small muscular movements.

autoscopophilia

autoscopophilia n. sexual pleasure derived from observing oneself disrobing, being nude, or watching oneself during sexual activity. It may involve viewing videos or pictures of these situations.

autoscopy

autoscopy n. seeing a double of oneself in external space. The image is generally short-lived and hazy, filmy, and colorless. Also called autoscopic phenomenon. See also Doppelganger phenomenon; out-of-body experience.

autosexuality

autosexuality n. any form of sexual arousal or stimulation that occurs without the participation of another individual, for example, masturbation, sexual dreams, or sexual fantasies.

autoshaping

autoshaping n. a form of conditioning in which a subject that has been given reinforcement following a stimulus, regardless of its response to that stimulus, consistently performs an irrelevant behavior. The classic example is a pigeon that receives food after a light goes on, then conditions itself to peck at the light even though the pecking is not necessary to receive the food.

autosomal

autosomal adj. denoting a genetic characteristic located on or transmitted by an autosome.

autosomal aberration

autosomal aberration any disorder of structure, function, or both that is associated with an alteration in the structure or number of any of the pairs of chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes (see autosome). An example of such a disorder is Down syndrome. Also called autosomal abnormality; autosomal anomaly.

autosomal dominant

autosomal dominant see dominant allele.

autosomal recessive

autosomal recessive see recessive allele.

autosomal trisomy of group G

autosomal trisomy of group G the condition in which either of the chromosome pairs 21 or 22 (known as group G) includes an additional autosome. The most common of these two autosome abnormalities is trisomy 21; see Down syndrome.

autosome

autosome n. any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. A human normally has a total of 44 autosomes (arranged in 22 homologous pairs) in the nucleus of each body cell, although irregular numbers may occur through the loss or addition of one or more autosomes. If a homologous pair of autosomes has an extra chromosome, the condition is called trisomy. If one member of a homologous pair is absent, the condition is called monosomy.

autostereogram

autostereogram n. a two-dimensional arrangement of repeated elements that produces a perception of three-dimensional depth when viewed correctly. See random-dot stereogram; stereogram.

autostereotyping

autostereotyping n. incorporating stereotypes about the groups to which one belongs into one’s own self-concept. Also called self-stereotyping. See group identification. —autostereotype vb.

autostimulation theory

autostimulation theory a widely held supposition that REM sleep in newborn infants facilitates early development of the visual system. It is also thought to explain why REM sleep decreases as infants are exposed to more and more interesting visual stimuli while awake.

autosuggestibility

autosuggestibility n. susceptibility to being influenced by one’s own suggestions, as in self-hypnosis.

autosuggestion

autosuggestion n. the process of making positive suggestions to oneself for such purposes as improving morale, inducing relaxation, or promoting recovery from illness. Also called self-suggestion. See also autogenic training; self-affirmation.

autotomy

autotomy n. 1. in animal behavior, the casting off of a body part, as, for example, when a lizard sheds its tail to escape from a predator. 2. self-mutilation or the cutting off by an individual of his or her body parts.

autotopagnosia

autotopagnosia n. a type of agnosia involving loss or impairment of the ability to recognize (i.e., point to) parts of one’s own body. It is generally associated with a left parietal lobe neoplasm. Also called autopagnosia. Compare somatotopagnosia.

auxiliary

auxiliary 1. adj. subsidiary or supporting. 2. n. a person or thing that provides support, usually in a subsidiary capacity. 3. n. see auxiliary verb.

auxiliary ego

auxiliary ego in psychodrama, a group member, other than the therapist, who assumes the role of a significant figure in the protagonist’s life.

auxiliary inversion

auxiliary inversion in grammar, the reversal of the usual order of subject and auxiliary verb in a declarative sentence to create a question so that, for example, The poodle is barking becomes Is the poodle barking? Such constructions are of major interest in generative grammar and psycholinguistics. See interrogative.

auxiliary organ

auxiliary organ see executive organ.

auxiliary therapist

auxiliary therapist a therapist who takes part in cotherapy.

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb a verb that is used to indicate the tense, mood, or voice of another verb, such as have in The ship had sunk, do in Do you pray?, and be in I was met by a friend. Other common auxiliary verbs in English are can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must. Also called auxiliary.

ava

ava n. see kava.

availability

availability n. the presence of information in memory storage. Availability is not the same as and should be distinguished from accessibility, which refers to the ability of a portion of information to be retrieved from memory storage at any given time.

availability heuristic

availability heuristic n. a common strategy for making judgments about likelihood of occurrence in which the individual bases such judgments on the salience of the information held in his or her memory about the particular type of event: The more available and relevant information there is, the more likely the event is judged to be. Use of this strategy may lead to errors of judgment when information that is highly available in memory (e.g., about well-publicized events, such as plane crashes) leads people to believe that those kinds of events are more probable than they actually are, or when the relative unavailability of information (e.g., about less well-publicized causes of death, as from diabetes) leads people to believe that those kinds of events are less probable than they are. The tendency to make such errors is known as the availability bias. Compare representativeness heuristic. [described in 1973 by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman]

available-case analysis

available-case analysis see pairwise deletion.

avalanche conduction

avalanche conduction the spreading of nerve impulses from a receptor to a number of other neurons, resulting in an effect that is disproportionate to the initial stimulus, as occurs in a seizure.

avatar

avatar n. see alter ego.

Aventyl

Aventyl n. a trade name for nortriptyline.

average

average n. see mean.

average child

average child see sociometric status.

average deviation

average deviation see mean deviation.

average error

average error the typical degree to which a series of observations are inaccurate with respect to an absolute criterion (e.g., a standard weight or length) or a relative criterion (e.g., the mean of the observations within a given condition).

average evoked potential (AEP)

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aversion

aversion n. a physiological or emotional response indicating dislike for a stimulus. It is usually accompanied by withdrawal from or avoidance of the objectionable stimulus (an aversion reaction). —aversive adj.

aversion conditioning

aversion conditioning the process by which a noxious or unpleasant stimulus is paired with an undesired behavior. This technique may be used therapeutically, for example, in the treatment of substance abuse, in which case it is called aversion therapy. Also called aversive conditioning.

aversion therapy

aversion therapy a form of behavior therapy in which the client is conditioned to change or eliminate undesirable behavior or symptoms by associating them with noxious or unpleasant experiences, such as a bitter taste (for nail biting) or nausea (for alcoholism). Also called aversive therapy; deterrent therapy.

aversive conditioning

aversive conditioning see aversion conditioning.

aversive control

aversive control the use of an aversive stimulus or consequence, such as punishment or negative reinforcement, to control behavior.

aversive event

aversive event see aversive stimulus.

aversive racism

aversive racism a form of racial prejudice felt by individuals who outwardly endorse egalitarian attitudes and values but nonetheless experience negative emotions in the presence of members of certain racial groups, particularly in ambiguous circumstances. For example, if a White employer who supports equality nonetheless favors White candidates over Black candidates in job interviews when all the individuals’ qualifications for the position are unclear, then he or she is demonstrating aversive racism. See also modern racism.

aversive stimulus

aversive stimulus any stimulus or occurrence that evokes avoidance or escape behavior. Also called aversive event. See also avoidance conditioning.

aversive system

aversive system neuroticism as represented by an individual’s relative sensitivity to negative or punishing (i.e., aversive) cues and stimuli and his or her processes for avoiding them. Compare appetitive system. See also behavioral inhibition system. [proposed by British psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray (1934–2004)]

aversive therapy

aversive therapy see aversion therapy.

Aveyron boy

Aveyron boy see wild boy of Aveyron.

avian influenza

avian influenza a highly contagious viral disease among domestic fowl and other birds, colloquially known as bird flu. It is usually spread by migratory birds, which can carry the virus asymptomatically. Cross-transmission to humans has been rare (requiring close contact with infected birds), but there is potential for mutation, which could lead to increased bird-to-human transmission and human-to-human transmission. In humans, typical symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, eye infections, and pneumonia; it can be fatal.

aviation clinical psychology program

aviation clinical psychology program a program developed at the Aeromedical Research Laboratory at Fort Rucker, Alabama (established in 1962). The Laboratory directs medical research, provides training support to Army aviation and airborne activities, and trains aviation psychologists.

aviation psychology

aviation psychology a specialty in applied psychology that focuses on understanding human behavior, emotions, and mental states as they relate to the operation and control of aviation systems and influence the safety and efficiency of flight.

aviophobia

aviophobia n. see fear of flying.

AVLT

AVLT abbreviation for Auditory Verbal Learning Test. See Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test.

AVM

AVM abbreviation for arteriovenous malformation.

avoidance

avoidance n. the practice or an instance of keeping away from particular situations, environments, individuals, or things because of either (a) the anticipated negative consequence of such an encounter or (b) anxious or painful feelings associated with them. Psychology brings several theoretical perspectives to the study of avoidance: its use as a means of coping; its use as a response to fear or shame; its existence as a personality style or predisposition; and its existence as a component in anxiety disorders. See approach–avoidance conflict.

avoidance behavior

avoidance behavior any act or series of actions that enables an individual to avoid or anticipate unpleasant or painful situations, stimuli, or events, including conditioned aversive stimuli. See avoidance conditioning. Compare escape behavior.

avoidance conditioning

avoidance conditioning the establishment of behavior that prevents or postpones aversive stimulation. In a typical conditioning experiment, a buzzer is sounded, then a shock is applied to the subject (e.g., a dog) until it performs a particular act (e.g., jumping over a fence). After several trials, the dog jumps as soon as the buzzer sounds, avoiding the shock. Also called avoidance learning; avoidance training. See also escape conditioning.

avoidance coping

avoidance coping any strategy for managing a stressful situation in which a person does not address the problem directly but instead disengages from the situation and averts attention from it. In other words, the individual turns away from the processing of threatening information. Examples of avoidance coping include escapism, wishful thinking, self-isolation, undue emotional restraint, and using drugs or alcohol. While generally viewed more unfavorably than the converse approach coping, avoidant strategies may provide some benefit by reducing stress and preventing anxiety from becoming overwhelming. [identified in 1986 by Susan H. Roth (1948– ), U.S. personality psychologist, and Lawrence J. Cohen (1958– ), U.S. clinical psychologist]

avoidance gradient

avoidance gradient the variation in the strength of a drive as a function of the organism’s proximity to an aversive stimulus. For example, a rat’s withdrawal behavior increases in intensity as it nears a feared stimulus (e.g., an electric shock). The avoidance gradient appears steeper than the approach gradient. [originally proposed by Neal E. Miller]

avoidance learning

avoidance learning see avoidance conditioning.

avoidance of intimacy

avoidance of intimacy the tendency of some individuals to shun closeness in interpersonal relations. People who avoid intimacy are reluctant and often fearful to become physically or emotionally close to another person, tend to have superficial relationships, and often report feeling lonely. In attachment theory, avoidance of intimacy is considered the defining characteristic of an avoidant attachment style in adulthood.

avoidance response

avoidance response a response in which an organism anticipates an aversive stimulus and consequently attempts to prevent contact with this stimulus. The avoidance response is a form of abient behavior (see abience). Also called avoidance reaction.

avoidance training

avoidance training see avoidance conditioning.

avoidance without warning signal

avoidance without warning signal see Sidman avoidance schedule.

avoidance–avoidance conflict

avoidance–avoidance conflict a situation involving a choice between two equally objectionable alternatives, for example, when an individual must choose between unemployment and a salary cut. Also called double-avoidance conflict. See also approach–approach conflict; approach–avoidance conflict.

avoidant attachment

avoidant attachment in the Strange Situation, a form of insecure attachment in which infants do not seek proximity to their parent after separation. Instead, the infant does not appear distressed by the separation and avoids the returning parent.

avoidant attachment style

avoidant attachment style see anxious–avoidant attachment.

avoidant marriage

avoidant marriage a long-lasting marriage in which the partners seldom argue because they have “agreed to disagree” and accept their differences of opinions with no apparent rancor.

avoidant paruresis

avoidant paruresis see paruresis.

avoidant personality

avoidant personality a personality trait characterized by feeling uncomfortable when psychologically close to others, resulting in a tendency not to form intimate relations.

avoidant personality disorder

avoidant personality disorder a personality disorder characterized by (a) hypersensitivity to rejection and criticism, (b) a desire for uncritical acceptance, (c) social withdrawal in spite of a desire for affection and acceptance, and (d) low self-esteem. This pattern is long-standing and severe enough to cause objective distress and seriously impair the ability to work and maintain relationships. It is included in both DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5. [first defined in 1969 by Theodore Millon]

avolition

avolition n. failure to engage in goal-directed behavior, occasionally occurring in severe major depressive episodes.

AVP

AVP abbreviation for arginine vasopressin.

awareness

awareness n. perception or knowledge of something. Accurate reportability of something perceived or known is widely used as a behavioral index of conscious awareness. However, it is possible to be aware of something without being explicitly conscious of it (e.g., see blindsight). See also consciousness; self-awareness.

awareness training

awareness training an approach in psychology and education that stresses self-awareness, self-realization, exploration, and interpersonal sensitivity. Awareness training is associated with such writers as German-born U.S. psychiatrist Frederick (Fritz) S. Perls (1893–1970) and U.S. psychologist William C. Schutz (1925–2002).

awe

awe n. the experience of admiration and elevation in response to physical beauty, displays of exceptional ability, or moral goodness. The awe-inspiring stimulus is experienced as “vast” and difficult to comprehend.

awfulize

awfulize vb. see catastrophize. —awfulizing n.

AWOL

AWOL acronym for absence without leave.

Axenfeld–Rieger syndrome

Axenfeld–Rieger syndrome an autosomal dominant, developmental spectrum disorder characterized by cornea and iris defects and glaucoma leading to blindness. Other associated developmental defects commonly involve the teeth and facial bones. Researchers have identified three types of Axenfeld–Rieger syndrome according to genetic cause: Type 1 is caused by mutations in the PITX2 gene, and Type 3 is caused by mutations in the FOXC1 gene. The gene that causes Type 2 has not yet been identified, but it is located on chromosome 13. [initially reported in 1920 by Karl Theodor Paul Polykarpus Axenfeld (1867–1930) and in 1935 by Herwigh Rieger (1898–1986), German ophthalmologists]

axial

axial adj. relating to, along, or otherwise involving an axis, particularly the long axis or central part of the body.

axial gradient

axial gradient the difference in development or metabolic rate of tissues along a body axis. See also anterior–posterior development gradient.

axiom

axiom n. in logic and philosophy, a universally accepted proposition that is not capable of proof or disproof. An axiom can be used as the starting point for a chain of deductive reasoning. Also called postulate. [from Greek axioma, “worthy thing”] —axiomatic adj.

axis

axis n. (pl. axes) 1. in DSM–IV–TR, any of the dimensions that are helpful for describing individual behavior and thus facilitate clinical assessment. DSM–IV–TR (but not DSM–5) uses a multiaxial classification based on five axes: clinical disorders (Axis I), personality disorders and mental retardation (Axis II), general medical conditions (Axis III), psychosocial and environmental problems (Axis IV), and global assessment of functioning (Axis V). 2. an imaginary line that bisects the body or an organ in a particular plane. For example, the long or (cephalocaudal) axis runs in the median plane, dividing the body into right and left halves. 3. the second cervical vertebra, on which the skull rotates. 4. see neural axis. 5. a system made up of interrelated parts, as in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. 6. a fixed reference line in a coordinate system. See also abscissa; ordinate.

axis cylinder

axis cylinder the central core of an axon, consisting of cytoplasm (or axoplasm) surrounded by the plasma membrane (or axolemma).

axo-axonal synapse

axo-axonal synapse a synapse between two nerve cells in which the nerve impulse travels from one axon to the other axon, rather than between axon and dendrite (axodendritic synapse) or axon and cell body (axosomatic synapse).

axolemma

axolemma n. see axis cylinder.

axon

axon n. the long, thin, hollow, cylindrical extension of a neuron that normally carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body. An axon often branches extensively and may be surrounded by a protective myelin sheath. Each branch of an axon ends in a terminal button (also called synaptic bouton or knob, among numerous other synonyms) from which an impulse is transmitted, through discharge of a neurotransmitter, across a synapse to a neighboring neuron. Also called nerve fiber. —axonal adj.

axon collateral

axon collateral a branch of a neuron’s axon.

axon hillock

axon hillock a cone-shaped part of the cell body of a neuron from which the axon originates. Depolarization must reach a critical threshold at the axon hillock for the axon to propagate a nerve impulse.

axon reflex

axon reflex a peripheral nerve reflex, often associated with pain, in which stimulation of nerve fibers causes impulses to pass up these fibers to their endings, where substances are released.

axonal bundle

axonal bundle a group of parallel axons. Also called fasciculus.

axonal myelination

axonal myelination see myelination.

axonal transport

axonal transport the transportation of materials along the axon of a neuron via the flow of the jellylike fluid (axoplasm) it contains. Transport may be directed away from the cell body (anterograde) or back toward the cell body (retrograde). Also called axoplasmic flow; axoplasmic transport.

axonal varicosities

axonal varicosities enlarged areas of an axon that contain synaptic vesicles and release neurotransmitter molecules.

axoplasm

axoplasm n. see axis cylinder; axonal transport. —axoplasmic adj.

axoplasmic flow (axoplasmic transport)

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axosomatic synapse

axosomatic synapse see axo-axonal synapse.

axotomy

axotomy n. the severing of an axon. This type of denervation is often used in experimental studies of neurophysiology or as a model of certain diseases of the nervous system.

ayahuasca

ayahuasca n. a powerful hallucinogenic beverage made from the stems of a tropical South American woody vine, Banisteriopsis caapi, often with leaves from the plant Psychotria viridis. Ayahuasca has been used for centuries by indigenous peoples of the Amazon for religious, spiritual, and medicinal purposes and more recently in the United States and Europe for similar reasons. The pharmacologically active ingredients are harmine and harmaline from B. caapi and dimethyltryptamine (see DMT) from P. viridis. In smaller doses, these ingredients have psychedelic and euphoric effects but in larger doses cause nausea, vomiting, and tinnitus. Also called caapi; yagé.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda n. a holistic Hindu system of traditional healing, originating and practiced primarily in the Indian subcontinent, that has spread to some extent in Western cultures. It includes diet and herbal remedies and emphasizes the use of body, mind, and spirit in disease prevention and treatment.

azapirone

azapirone n. any of a class of nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytics of which the prototype is buspirone. They relieve anxiety by acting as partial agonists at the 5-HT1A serotonin receptor (see serotonin agonist). Azapirones produce less sedation than the benzodiazepines, and they seem to lack the abuse potential of these drugs. However, their onset of action is 2 to 3 weeks, and they cannot therefore be used to manage acute or paroxysmal anxiety. Also called azapirodecanedione.

azathioprine

azathioprine n. a drug used to suppress the immune response. It is the most widely used drug in support of organ transplantation and potentially severe cases of immune reactions. U.S. trade name (among others): Imuran.

azoospermia

azoospermia n. absence of viable sperm in the semen, usually as a failure of spermatogenesis.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'A'