Terms Starting with "P"

2527 terms

p

p symbol for probability. P abbreviation for perceptual speed. See primary ability.

P

p symbol for probability. P abbreviation for perceptual speed. See primary ability.

P factor analysis

P factor analysis see P-technique factor analysis.

p value

p value n. see probability level.

P-cell

P-cell n. any of various small neurons in the four dorsal layers of the six-layered lateral geniculate nucleus. P-cells are the origin of the parvocellular system. The retinal ganglion cells that provide input to the P-cells of the lateral geniculate nucleus are called P-ganglion cells. See also M-cell.

P-O-X triads

P-O-X triads see balance theory.

P-technique factor analysis

P-technique factor analysis a method in exploratory factor analysis for understanding the major underlying dimensions of variables for a given person over time. In this approach, a single individual or unit is measured repeatedly on a broad range of variables, the variables are correlated over the series of occasions sampled, and the correlation factor is analyzed. For example, a set of memory tests may be administered to a person at several points in his or her life; P-technique factor analysis could then be used to identify dimensions of change or patterns of covariation among the variables across occasions. Also called P factor analysis. Compare Q-technique factor analysis; R-technique factor analysis.

p-zombie

p-zombie short for philosophical zombie.

P–P plot

P–P plot abbreviation for probability–probability plot. See probability plot.

p.i. basis

p.i. basis abbreviation for per-inquiry basis. See coupon-return technique.

P1 component

P1 component the first positive component of an event-related potential, occurring approximately 100 ms after stimulus onset. The P1 component is usually larger for attended stimuli than for unattended stimuli, a phenomenon known as the P1 attention effect. Hence, it is thought to reflect the initial sensory and attentional processing of a stimulus by specific areas of the cerebral cortex.

P2 component

P2 component the second positive component of an event-related potential, occurring approximately 200 ms after stimulus onset. An electrophysiological index of attention-related cerebral processing, the P2 component is thought to reflect feature analysis, goal-directed action selection (intention), and other higher order perceptual and motivational processes. It also is involved in a variety of other cognitive activities, including the allocation and modulation of information-processing resources, the evaluation of the emotional significance of stimuli, language processing, and memory (e.g., working memory, recognition). Also called P200.

P200

P200 n. see P2 component.

P3 component

P3 component the third positive component of an event-related potential, which appears approximately 300 ms after stimulus onset. First reported in 1965, the P3 component is thought to reflect attentional resource allocation and memory-updating operations and has become a major focus of research into event-related potentials. Also called P300.

P300

P300 n. see P3 component.

P4P (PFP)

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p53

p53 n. a tumor-suppressor gene that regulates an organism’s cell cycle and protects the cell’s DNA from damage. Mutations in p53 cause cells to become malignant. Germ-line mutations in p53 are responsible for most cases of Li–Fraumeni syndrome, and in families with this syndrome, carriers of p53 mutations have a 90% lifetime risk of developing one or more kinds of cancer.

PA

PA 1. abbreviation for physician assistant. 2. abbreviation for Positive Affect within the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT)

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pacemaker

pacemaker n. a natural or artificial device that helps establish and maintain certain biological rhythms. Unqualified, the term usually refers to a cardiac pacemaker. Natural pacemakers include the sinoatrial node, which regulates heart rhythm, and the thalamic pacemaker.

pachygyria

pachygyria n. see lissencephaly.

Pacinian corpuscle

Pacinian corpuscle a type of cutaneous receptor that is sensitive to contact and vibration. It consists of a nerve-fiber ending surrounded by concentric layers of connective tissue. Pacinian corpuscles are found in the fingers, the hairy skin, the tendons, and the abdominal membrane. Also called Pacinian body; Pacini’s corpuscle; Vater’s corpuscle. [Filippo Pacini (1812–1883), Italian anatomist]

package insert

package insert see labeling.

package testing

package testing a form of product testing that investigates the effects of package design on consumer purchasing decisions. For example, a package-testing study might find that 30% of female purchasers of cosmetics changed brands when a similar product was offered with a better package and that 50% of purchasers said they would be willing to pay a higher price for the original product in a more convenient package.

padded cell

padded cell a room in a psychiatric hospital or ward that is lined with heavy cushioning on the floor and walls to prevent a violent or self-destructive patient from injuring himself or herself or others. In most institutions, padded cells have been replaced by some combination of physical restraints, psychological interventions, and tranquilizing medications.

paedo-

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PAG

PAG abbreviation for periaqueductal gray.

pain

pain n. an unpleasant sensation resulting from damage to nerve tissue, stimulation of free nerve endings, or excessive stimulation (e.g., extremely loud sounds). Physical pain is elicited by stimulation of pain receptors, which occur in groups of myelinated or unmyelinated fibers throughout the body but particularly in surface tissues. Pain that is initiated in surface receptors generally is perceived as sharp, sudden, and localized; pain experienced in internal organs tends to be dull, longer lasting, and less localized. Although pain is generally considered a physical phenomenon, it involves various cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors: It is an unpleasant emotional as well as sensory experience. It may also be a feeling of severe distress and suffering resulting from acute anxiety, loss of a loved one, or other psychological factors (see psychic pain). Because of these various factors, as well as previous experience in pain response, individual reactions vary widely. Psychologists have made important contributions to understanding pain by demonstrating the psychosocial and behavioral factors in the etiology, severity, exacerbation, maintenance, and treatment of both physical and psychic pain. See also chronic pain; gate-control theory.

pain disorder

pain disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a somatoform disorder characterized by severe, prolonged pain that significantly interferes with a person’s ability to function. The pain cannot be accounted for solely by a medical condition, and there is evidence of psychological involvement in its onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance. Although not feigned or produced intentionally (compare factitious disorder; malingering), the pain may serve such psychological ends as avoidance of distasteful activity or gaining extra attention or support from others. Pain disorder was formerly referred to as psychogenic pain disorder or somatoform pain disorder. The diagnosis has been eliminated from DSM–5, although the new term somatic symptom disorder retains mention of such a disorder “with predominant pain.”

pain drawing

pain drawing a diagnostic tool for identifying the amount, severity, and type of pain experianced by an individual. A front and back view of the human body is provided, and the individual is given instructions to identify the location and type of pain using specified symbols.

pain management

pain management the prevention, reduction, or elimination of physical or mental suffering or discomfort, which may be achieved by pharmacotherapy (e.g., administration of opioids or other analgesics), psychological interventions, neurological and anesthesiologic methods (e.g., nerve blocks, self-administered pumps), complementary or alternative methods (e.g., acupuncture, acupressure), or a combination of these. Among psychological interventions, biofeedback and relaxation have been used alone and in conjunction with cognitive techniques to treat chronic headaches and facial pain. Hypnotherapy has been used successfully to treat acute pain and pain associated with burns and metastatic disease. Cognitive and behavioral coping-skills training, training in external attentional focus and in the use of neutral or positive imagery, approaches designed to improve problem-solving and communication skills, and psychotherapeutic approaches have been combined with physical modalities in the treatment of chronic pain syndromes.

pain mechanisms

pain mechanisms neural mechanisms that mediate pain. These extend from peripheral nerve endings to the cerebral cortex, especially the cingulate cortex. Some investigators propose that sharp pain sensations are transmitted by rapidly conducting A fibers and dull pain sensations are transmitted by slowly conducting C fibers. See also gate-control theory.

pain pathway

pain pathway any neural pathway that mediates sensations of pain. Afferent pain pathways include rapidly conducting myelinated A fibers and slowly conducting unmyelinated C fibers, ascending tracts in the anterolateral system, the periaqueductal gray matter, the reticular formation, and many thalamic and cerebral cortical areas, especially the cingulate cortex. There are also efferent pathways that inhibit pain signals at various levels down to spinal synapses, including release of endogenous opioids that inhibit pain.

pain perception

pain perception the perception of physiological pain, usually evoked by stimuli that cause or threaten to cause tissue damage. In some cases, such as phantom limb pain and causalgia, the persistence of pain cannot be explained by stimulation of neural pathways. Pain perception can be measured in terms of its intensity and can be classified according to several categories: These include sharp or dull, focal or general, and chronic or intermittent or transitory. Also called nociception.

pain receptor

pain receptor see nociceptor.

pain scale

pain scale a standardized rating scale for judging the intensity and perception of pain. It may take the form of verbal self-description, numerical ratings, or graphical depictions of expressive faces.

pain sense

pain sense a sense, involving free nerve endings on the body surface and in some internal organs, that yields a specific effect identified as pain, especially when tissue injury occurs.

pain threshold

pain threshold the intensity at which a stimulus is experienced by an individual as hurtful.

painful bruising syndrome

painful bruising syndrome see Gardner–Diamond syndrome.

painful sexual intercourse

painful sexual intercourse discomfort during coitus, which may range from irritation to severe pain. Possible causes in women include insufficient foreplay and lubrication, urinary tract disease, vaginal atrophy during menopause, and vaginal muscle disorders. Although painful sexual intercourse is more common in women, it can occur in men, with possible causes including sexually transmitted diseases, conditions of the penis (e.g., Peyronie’s disease), and dermatitis. See also dyspareunia.

paint sniffing

paint sniffing a type of substance abuse involving the inhalation of the fumes of paint thinners and other volatile solvents. See inhalant abuse.

pair bond

pair bond a relationship between two individuals characterized by close affiliative behavior, emotional reaction to separation or loss, and increased social responsiveness on reunion. Pair bonds are important in species with biparental care, providing the female with increased likelihood of male cooperation in the care of the young and the male with increased certainty of paternity.

PAIR Project

PAIR Project Processes of Adaptation in Intimate Relationships Project: one of the earliest and most influential longitudinal studies of marriage. The PAIR Project followed 168 Pennsylvania couples from their newlywed days to 14 years after marriage. Its initial goal was to examine how social and psychological factors present in courtship would predict adaptation to marriage. Later studies examined these and other factors as predictors of marital deterioration and divorce. See also Early Years of Marriage Project. [begun in 1981 by U.S. psychologist Ted L. Huston]

paired comparison

paired comparison 1. a systematic procedure for comparing a set of stimuli or other items. A pair of stimuli is presented to an individual, who is asked to compare them on a particular dimension, such as size, loudness, or brightness; the process is continued until every item in the set has been compared with every other item. The method is mainly associated with research into psychophysical judgments but has also been used to study preferences between works of art or different personality characteristics. 2. in industrial and occupational settings, a method of employee evaluation in which each worker in a selected group is compared with every other worker on a series of performance measures. Employees are then rated on the basis of the number of favorable comparisons they receive.

paired sample

paired sample any research sample in which each participant is matched on a particular variable to a participant in a second sample. This helps ensure that any differences on an outcome variable are not due to differences between participants on the matching variables. A simple example of a paired sample is a pretest–posttest design, in which a variable is measured before and after an intervention; in this case, the participant is matched to himself or herself. More frequently, paired samples are achieved by matching individuals on personal characteristics, such as age and gender. See matched-pairs design.

paired-associates learning

paired-associates learning a technique used in studying learning in which participants learn syllables, words, or other items in pairs and are later presented with one half of each pair to which they must respond with the matching half. Also called paired-associates method; paired associations. [introduced by Mary W. Calkins]

paired-samples t test

paired-samples t test see matched-pairs t test.

pairing

pairing n. in behavioral studies, the juxtaposing of two events in time. For example, if a tone is presented immediately before a puff of air to the eye, the tone and the puff have been paired.

pairing hypothesis

pairing hypothesis the hypothesis that the crucial feature of classical conditioning is the temporal conjunction (i.e., pairing) between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

pairmate

pairmate n. either of the individuals involved in a pair bond.

pairwise comparison

pairwise comparison in a factorial design with a variable of interest having more than two levels, a procedure in which the data obtained from each level of the variable are compared separately to the data from every other level. For example, if a researcher is assessing the differences in student achievement resulting from three different types of content presentation, statistical tests would be used to evaluate the different outcomes of each pair of content methods (i.e., Method 1 and Method 2, 1 and 3, and 2 and 3). Dunnett’s multiple comparison test, Tukey’s honestly significant difference test, and the Newman–Keuls multiple comparion test all involve pairwise comparisons. See also multiple comparisons.

pairwise deletion

pairwise deletion a method in which data for a variable pertinent to a specific assessment are included, even if values for the same individual on other variables are missing. For example, consider a researcher studying the influence of age, education level, and current salary on the socioeconomic status of a sample of employees. If assessing specifically how education and salary influence socioeconomic status, he or she could include all participants for whom that data had been recorded even if they were missing information on age, as the latter variable is not of interest in the current analysis. Also called available-case analysis. Compare listwise deletion.

palatal lisp

palatal lisp see lisp.

palate

palate n. the roof of the mouth, consisting of an anterior bony portion (see hard palate) and a posterior fibromuscular portion (see soft palate). See also cleft palate.

palatum durum

palatum durum see hard palate.

paleo- (palaeo-)

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paleocerebellum

paleocerebellum n. a phylogenetically old part of the cerebellum, including most of the vermis (central area) and the cerebellar pyramids. It is involved in control of the muscles of the trunk and girdle. Also called spinocerebellum. Compare archicerebellum; neocerebellum. —paleocerebellar adj.

paleocortex

paleocortex n. see allocortex.

paleologic thinking

paleologic thinking prelogical thinking characterized by concrete, dreamlike thought processes, as occurs in children. Mental activity is limited to feeling and perception and excludes logic and reasoning. [defined by Italian-born U.S. psychiatrist Silvano Arieti (1914–1982)]

paleopallium

paleopallium n. see allocortex.

paleopsychology (palaeopsychology)

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paleostriatum

paleostriatum n. see neostriatum.

palilalia

palilalia n. a speech disorder in which words and phrases are needlessly repeated with increasing speed.

palin- (pali-)

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palinopsia

palinopsia n. the persistence or reappearance of a visual image after the stimulus has been removed. Palinopsia is associated with posterior brain injury, drug effects, and seizures. Also called palinopia; paliopsy; visual perseveration. See also afterimage; visual illusion.

palinphrasia

palinphrasia n. involuntary repetition of words or phrases in speaking. Also called paliphrasia. See also palilalia.

palliative care

palliative care 1. terminal care that focuses on symptom control and comfort instead of aggressive, cure-oriented intervention. This is the basis of the hospice approach pioneered by British nurse, social worker, and physician Cicely Saunders (1918–2005). Emphasis is on careful assessment of the dying patient’s condition throughout the end phase of life in order to provide the most effective preventive treatment (e.g., medications) to relieve pain and manage other symptoms (e.g., respiratory distress, nausea, anxiety). 2. care intended to relieve suffering and distress in patients at any stage of a serious illness, regardless of its prognosis.

palliative sedation

palliative sedation see slow euthanasia.

pallidotomy

pallidotomy n. a neurosurgical technique in which electrodes are used to selectively lesion the globus pallidus. Pallidotomy is sometimes used for the management of disorders involving damage to the extrapyramidal tract, as in patients with Parkinson’s disease for whom other treatments (e.g., with levodopa) have proved ineffective.

palmar

palmar adj. 1. in humans, referring to the palms of the hands. 2. in nonhuman primates, referring to the palm of any limb.

palmar conductance

palmar conductance the electrical conductivity of the skin of the palm of the hand. See skin conductance.

palmar reflex

palmar reflex a reflex in which the fingers are flexed when the palm is scratched. See grasp reflex.

palmistry

palmistry n. the scientifically unfounded practice of interpreting lines and other features of the palm of the hand as signs of personality traits or predictions of the individual’s future. Also called chiromancy; chirosophy. —palmist n.

palpebral fissure

palpebral fissure the hypothetical line between the upper and lower eyelids. When the eyelids are open, the palpebral fissure forms an elliptical space.

palpitation

palpitation n. a rapid or irregular heartbeat that may be caused by illness, anxiety, drug use (including caffeine), or physical exertion.

palsy

palsy n. an obsolete name for paralysis, still used in such compound names as cerebral palsy, Bell’s palsy, and progressive supranuclear palsy.

Pamelor

Pamelor n. a trade name for nortriptyline.

PAN

PAN abbreviation for positional alcohol nystagmus.

pan-

PAN abbreviation for positional alcohol nystagmus.

panacea

panacea n. a solution or remedy for everything that is wrong with a given problem or that universally applies to a set of related problems.

panarteritis

panarteritis n. a diffuse inflammation of the walls of the small and medium arteries. Arteries of the muscles, kidneys, heart, and gastrointestinal tract may be involved.

PANAS

PANAS acronym for Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

pancreas

pancreas n. a gland, located near the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity, that is stimulated by secretin to secrete pancreatic juice, which contains various digestive enzymes. In addition, small clusters of cells within the pancreas (see islets of Langerhans) function as an endocrine gland, secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon. —pancreatic adj.

pancreatitis

pancreatitis n. an inflammation of the pancreas, marked by severe abdominal pain and caused by biliary tract disorders (e.g., gallstones), alcoholism, viral infection, or reactions to certain drugs (e.g., some antipsychotic agents).

pandemic

pandemic 1. adj. widespread or universal: affecting significant proportions of many populations over a large area (e.g., several countries), particularly with reference to a disease or disorder. Compare endemic; epidemic. 2. n. a disease or disorder affecting many people over a large area.

panel data

panel data observations on multiple phenomena collected over multiple time periods for the same group of individuals or other units. Repeated observations permit the researcher to study the dynamics of change using techniques such as time-series analysis. Panel data have characteristics of both longitudinal data and cross-sectional data (see cross-sectional analysis). For example, the values of the gross annual income for each of 500 randomly chosen households in New York City collected for each of 10 years would be panel data.

panel study

panel study see longitudinal design; panel data.

panentheism

panentheism n. see pantheism.

panic

panic n. a sudden, uncontrollable fear reaction that may involve terror, confusion, and irrational behavior, precipitated by a perceived threat (e.g., earthquake, fire, being stuck in an elevator).

panic attack

panic attack a sudden onset of intense apprehension and fearfulness in the absence of actual danger, accompanied by the presence of such physical symptoms as heart palpitations, difficulty breathing, chest pain or discomfort, choking or smothering sensations, sweating, and dizziness. The attack occurs in a discrete period of time and often involves fears of going crazy, losing control, or dying. Attacks may occur in the context of any of the anxiety disorders as well as in other mental disorders (e.g., mood disorders, substance-related disorders) and in some general medical conditions (e.g., hyperthyroidism). Also called anxiety attack. See also cued panic attack; situationally predisposed panic attack; uncued panic attack.

panic control treatment

panic control treatment a cognitive behavior therapy for panic disorder focusing on education about panic, training in slow breathing, and graded in vivo exposure to cues associated with panic. [developed by U.S. clinical psychologists Michelle G. Craske (1959– ) and David H. Barlow (1942– )]

panic disorder (PD)

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panpsychism

panpsychism n. the view that all elements of the natural world possess some quality of soul (psyche) or some form of sentience. Some equate this view with hylozoism, which holds that all natural objects possess the quality of life, whereas others distinguish between life and soul or sentience. Also called psychism. See also animism; mind stuff; spiritualism.

pansexualism

pansexualism n. the view that all human behavior is motivated by the sexual drive. Sigmund Freud has been popularly associated with such a view; although he emphasized the power of the sexual instinct, Freud also recognized nonsexual interests, such as the self-preservative drives (e.g., hunger, thirst) and the aggressive drive associated with the death instinct. —pansexual adj.

pantheism

pantheism n. the doctrine that all of reality constitutes a unity and that this unity is divine. Thus, everything is part of God. Modern pantheism was first systematically propounded by Baruch Spinoza, who proposed that God and nature are coequivalent. Such a position is incompatible with traditional theism because it entails a God who is no more than the sum total of his creation. Some thinkers make a distinction between pantheism and panentheism, which maintains that God is everywhere in his creation but not coequivalent with it. —pantheist adj., n.

pantomime

pantomime n. 1. an expression of feelings and attitudes through gestures rather than words. 2. a nonverbal therapeutic technique sometimes employed when verbal expression is blocked.

pantry-check technique

pantry-check technique an inspection of the kitchen shelves or cabinets of households to determine whether the subjects of advertising research actually use the products they claim to prefer. Interviews alone often prove inadequate: Some market-research control studies have shown that as many as 15% of individuals interviewed may claim to use, prefer, or at least be acquainted with a particular product that has never been marketed or advertised. See also recognition technique.

Panum phenomenon

Panum phenomenon a visual illusion produced by binocular fusion of separate images presented to the left and right eyes, with the fused image appearing closer to the eyes than the stimuli. [Peter Ludwig Panum (1820–1885), Danish physiologist]

Panum’s fusional area

Panum’s fusional area the region in space surrounding a horopter in which images that appear at different points on the two retinas appear as single images. If visual targets appear outside this area (either in front of or behind it), they will appear as double images, and the observer will experience double vision. [Peter Ludwig Panum]

papaverine

papaverine n. an opium alkaloid first isolated in the 1840s. It has no psychopharmacological activity but is a potent vasodilator. It is occasionally used to increase blood flow in the cerebral arteries in the treatment of angina pectoris, or—when injected into the corpora cavernosa (see corpus cavernosum) of the penis—to produce erection in the management of impotence. U.S. trade name: Para-Time S.R.

Papez circuit

Papez circuit a circular network of nerve centers and fibers in the brain that is associated with emotion and memory. It includes the hippocampus, fornix, mammillary body, anterior thalamus, cingulate cortex, and parahippocampal gyrus. Damage to any component of this system leads to amnesia. Also called Papez circle. [first described in 1937 by James W. Papez (1883–1958), U.S. neuroanatomist]

Papez–MacLean theory of emotion

Papez–MacLean theory of emotion see MacLean’s theory of emotion.

Papez’s theory of emotion

Papez’s theory of emotion a modification of the Cannon–Bard theory proposing that the Papez circuit is the site of integration and control of emotional experience in the higher brain centers. See also MacLean’s theory of emotion. [James W. Papez]

papilla

papilla n. (pl. papillae) any of the four types of swellings on the tongue. In humans, some 200 fungiform papillae are toward the front of the tongue; 10 to 14 foliate papillae are on the sides; 7 to 11 circumvallate papillae are on the back; and filiform papillae, with no taste function, cover most of the tongue’s surface. Also called lingual papilla.

papilledema

papilledema n. a swelling of the optic disk due to an increase in intracranial pressure. The condition occurs because the meningeal membranes of the brain are continuous with the sheaths of the optic nerve, so that pressure is transmitted to the eyeball. Also called choked disk.

PAQ

PAQ abbreviation for Position Analysis Questionnaire.

para I

para I abbreviation for primipara. See primiparous.

para- (par-)

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Para-Time S.R.

Para-Time S.R. a trade name for papaverine.

parabiosis

parabiosis n. the joining of two individuals so their circulatory systems interconnect, as in the case of some conjoined twins.

parabiotic preparation

parabiotic preparation the surgical connection of two genetically similar animals at some anatomical structure, resulting in a shared circulation of blood. Parabiotic preparations are used for a variety of research purposes.

paracentral scotoma

paracentral scotoma a small island of blindness in the central visual field surrounding, but not including, the fovea centralis. Monocular paracentral scotoma (affecting one eye) results from impairment of the peripheral visual system, such as from glaucoma or optic nerve atrophy; homonymous paracentral scotoma (affecting both eyes) arises from injury to the central visual system posterior to the lateral geniculate nucleus. Patients with homonymous paracentral scotoma typically have difficulties with reading (hemianopic dyslexia). See also scotoma.

paracentral vision

paracentral vision a form of vision that utilizes the retinal area immediately surrounding, but not including, the fovea centralis. Compare central vision; peripheral vision.

paracetamol

paracetamol n. see acetaminophen.

parachlorophenylalanine

parachlorophenylalanine n. a substance that blocks the synthesis of serotonin from tryptophan, resulting in depletion of serotonin from brain cells.

parachromatopsia

parachromatopsia n. partial color blindness. Also called parachromopsia. See also dyschromatopsia.

paracinesia

paracinesia n. see parakinesia.

paracontrast

paracontrast n. a form of forward masking in which the perception of a visible stimulus (the target) is altered by the prior presentation of another visual stimulus (the mask) in a different spatial location. The target is often a small dot, whereas the mask is a ring that surrounds it. Each stimulus is presented very briefly (10–100 ms), at intervals that are varied systematically, and the quality of the target’s percept is measured. Compare metacontrast.

paracrine

paracrine adj. describing or relating to a type of cellular signaling in which a chemical messenger is released from a cell and diffuses to a nearby target cell, on which it exerts its effect through the intervening extracellular space. Compare autocrine; endocrine.

paracusia

paracusia n. 1. partial deafness, especially to low-pitched tones. 2. any abnormality of hearing other than simple deafness, such as paracusia localis, an impairment in determining the direction from which a sound comes.

paracyesis

paracyesis n. see ectopic pregnancy.

paradigm

paradigm n. 1. a model, pattern, or representative example, as of the functions and interrelationships of a process, a behavior under study, or the like. 2. a set of assumptions, attitudes, concepts, values, procedures, and techniques that constitutes a generally accepted theoretical framework within, or a general perspective of, a discipline. 3. an experimental design or plan of the various steps of an experiment. 4. in grammar, the set of all the inflectional forms of a word.

paradigm clash

paradigm clash in science or philosophy, the conflict that occurs when a new set of fundamental assumptions about reality or human knowledge proves incompatible with an established set of such assumptions. For example, the doctrine of organic evolution challenged established thinking about the origin and nature of the living world and ultimately replaced previous theories.

paradigm shift

paradigm shift in the influential 1962 analysis of scientific revolutions by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas S. Kuhn (1922–1996), a substantial and fairly rapid change in the whole pattern of ideas and assumptions defining the nature of a science and determining the methods and procedures used.

paradox

paradox n. a surprising or self-contradictory statement that may nevertheless be true. In philosophy, paradoxes are traditionally classified as logical or semantic. A logical paradox occurs when apparently valid arguments lead to a conclusion that seems contradictory or absurd. For example: God is omnipotent: Omnipotent beings can do anything: Therefore, God can make a stone so big he cannot move it: Therefore, he is not omnipotent. A semantic paradox arises from the words in a proposition. For example: This sentence is not true. The language of paradox is particularly common in poetry and religion, where it may be used to disrupt conventional ways of thinking and perceiving. See also vicious circularity. —paradoxical adj.

paradox of freedom

paradox of freedom a fundamental paradox that arises under assumptions of determinism in human behavior: Although specific behaviors can be attributed to specific antecedent causes, humans almost universally experience a sense of being free to perform or refrain from performing any given behavior at the point of action (see free will). Hard determinism resolves this paradox by insisting that the sense of free choice is illusory, whereas soft determinism argues that such a sense is not in fact incompatible with causal explanations.

paradoxical cold

paradoxical cold an effect produced in thermal nerve endings that are sensitive to both cold and heat. The nerve fibers have double peaks, including one for heat that is above the threshold of pain. Thus, touching a hot object that fires a hot and cold receptor can produce an illusion of cold.

paradoxical directive

paradoxical directive an instruction by a therapist to a client to do precisely the opposite of what common sense would dictate in order to show the absurdity or self-defeating nature of the client’s original intention. See also paradoxical technique.

paradoxical intention

paradoxical intention a psychotherapeutic technique used for anxiety disorders in which the individual is asked to magnify a distressing, unwanted symptom. For example, an individual who is afraid of shaking in a social situation would be instructed to imagine the feared situation and purposely exaggerate the shakiness. The aim is to help such individuals distance themselves from their symptoms, often by appreciating the humorous aspects of their exaggerated responses. In this way, they can learn that the predicted catastrophic consequences attributed to their symptoms are unlikely to occur. [originally developed by Viktor E. Frankl for the treatment of phobias]

paradoxical motion

paradoxical motion the global perception of movement in a motion aftereffect even though the individual elements in the image do not appear to move.

paradoxical reaction

paradoxical reaction in pharmacology, a drug reaction that is contrary to the expected effect. An example is the worsening of anxiety after the administration of an anxiolytic agent.

paradoxical sleep

paradoxical sleep see REM sleep.

paradoxical technique

paradoxical technique a therapeutic technique in which a client is directed by the therapist to continue undesired symptomatic behavior, and even increase it, to show that the client has voluntary control over it. Also called paradoxical intervention. See also paradoxical directive.

paradoxical thinking

paradoxical thinking cognition marked by contradiction of typical logical processes. Although this type of thinking can be associated with distorted thought processes, such as those present in schizoid personality disorder or some forms of schizophrenia, it can be used as a way of reframing problems or negative beliefs in a positive manner. This approach is often embraced to promote creativity and personal, familial, and organizational change.

paradoxical warmth

paradoxical warmth a sensation of warmth produced when a cold object of approximately 30 °C (86 °F) stimulates a cold receptor.

parafovea

parafovea n. the region of the retina immediately surrounding the fovea centralis.

parageusia

parageusia n. 1. a distorted sense of taste. 2. a gustatory hallucination. See also dysgeusia.

paragigantocellular nucleus (PGN)

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paragrammatism

paragrammatism n. a symptom of aphasia consisting of substitutions, reversals, or omissions of sounds or syllables within words or reversals of words within sentences. Paragrammatic speech may be unintelligible if the disturbance is severe. —paragrammatic adj.

paragraph-meaning test

paragraph-meaning test an intelligence test, or a component of one, in which the participant is asked to explain the basic point, gist, or meaning of a paragraph.

paragraphia

paragraphia n. a condition in which writing is distorted by transposition or omission of letters and words or by insertion of incorrect and irrelevant words.

parahippocampal gyrus

parahippocampal gyrus a ridge (gyrus) on the medial (inner) surface of the temporal lobe of cerebral cortex, lying over the hippocampus. It is a component of the limbic system thought to be involved in spatial or topographic memory. A region of it, the parahippocampal place area (PPA), has been shown to have significant activity in response to complex visual scenes (e.g., city streets, rooms, landscapes) and may aid in place recognition. Also called parahippocampal cortex.

parakinesia (paracinesia)

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parakinesis

parakinesis n. 1. in parapsychology, the movement of objects at a rate and trajectory disproportionate to the contact made with them. The phenomenon is closely related to that of psychokinesis, which involves manipulation of objects by thought alone. 2. in medicine, an occasional synonym for parakinesia.

paralalia

paralalia n. 1. a speech disorder or disturbance that involves the substitution of one speech sound for another (e.g., saying “wabbit” for rabbit or “lellow” for yellow). See also lalling. 2. a rarely used term for speech disorders generally.

paralanguage

paralanguage n. the vocal but nonverbal elements of communication by speech. Paralanguage includes not only suprasegmental features of speech, such as tone and stress, but also such factors as volume and speed of delivery, voice quality, hesitations, and nonlinguistic sounds, such as sighs, whistles, or groans. These paralinguistic cues (or paralinguistic features) can be enormously important in shaping the total meaning of an utterance; they can, for example, convey the fact that a speaker is angry or sarcastic when this would not be apparent from the same words written down. In some uses, the term is extended to include gestures, facial expressions, and other aspects of body language.

paraldehyde

paraldehyde n. a sedative and hypnotic drug formerly used in the treatment of agitation or delirium tremens. It was relatively toxic, with a noted side effect of producing a characteristic breath odor, and has been abandoned in favor of safer alternatives. U.S. trade name: Paral.

paralexia

paralexia n. the substitution or transposition of letters, syllables, or words during reading. See also visual dyslexia.

paralinguistic cue (paralinguistic feature)

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parallax

parallax n. an illusion of movement of objects in the visual field when the head is moved from side to side. Objects beyond a point of visual fixation appear to move in the same direction as the head movement; those closer seem to move in the opposite direction. Parallax provides a monocular cue for depth perception.

parallel distributed circuit

parallel distributed circuit an interactive network that encompasses several different circuits at the same time to process the same stimuli. It is a relatively recent development in computers but an ancient property of nervous systems.

parallel distributed processing (PDP)

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parallel fiber

parallel fiber any of the axons of the granule cells that form the outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex.

parallel form

parallel form see alternate form.

parallel play

parallel play see social play.

parallel processing

parallel processing information processing in which two or more sequences of operations are carried out simultaneously by independent processors. A capacity for parallel processing in the human brain would account for people’s apparent ability to carry on different cognitive functions at the same time, such as driving a car while also listening to music and having a conversation. The term is usually reserved for processing at a higher, symbolic level, as opposed to the level of individual neural units described in models of parallel distributed processing. Also called simultaneous processing. Compare serial processing.

parallel search

parallel search in a search task, the process of searching for many items at the same time, with no decrease in efficiency. Compare serial search.

parallel-forms reliability

parallel-forms reliability see alternate-forms reliability.

parallel-groups design

parallel-groups design a research design that compares two conditions or treatments (e.g., relaxation training vs. no training) such that both groups of participants are studied simultaneously and each participant receives one treatment only. A parallel-groups design thus contrasts with a crossover design, in which each individual participates in each condition.

parallelism

parallelism n. 1. in general, the quality or condition of being parallel, being structurally similar, or having corresponding features. 2. in philosophy, the proposition that, although mind and body constitute separate realities, they function in parallel such that their responses seem holistic and the two realms seem to assert causal control over each other. See mind–body problem. See also occasionalism; preestablished harmony. 3. in anthropology, see cultural parallelism.

paralogia

paralogia n. insistently illogical or delusional thinking and verbal expression, sometimes observed in schizophrenia. Eugen Bleuler cited the example of a patient who justified his insistence that he was Switzerland by saying “Switzerland loves freedom. I love freedom. I am Switzerland.” Also called paralogical thinking; perverted logic; perverted thinking. See also evasion.

paralogism

paralogism n. a fallacy or invalid argument, especially one that is unintentional and difficult to detect.

paralysis

paralysis n. loss of function of voluntary muscles. A common cause is a lesion of the nervous or muscular system due to injury, disease, or congenital factors. The lesion may involve the central nervous system, as in a stroke or spinal cord injury, or the peripheral nervous system, as in Guillain–Barré syndrome. See also flaccid paralysis; spastic paralysis. —paralytic adj.

paralysis agitans

paralysis agitans an archaic name for Parkinson’s disease.

paralytic dementia

paralytic dementia see general paresis.

paramedic

paramedic n. a health care professional who is specially trained and certified to assist medical professionals and, especially, to provide a wide range of emergency services prior to and during transportation to a hospital.

parameter

parameter n. 1. a characteristic of a population, such as the mean or standard deviation, that is described or estimated by a statistic obtained from sample data. For example, the mean score on a national exam for a sample of colleges provides an estimate of this parameter in the population of colleges. 2. any of the variables in a statistical model that is studied or used to explain an outcome or relationship. 3. an argument of a function.

parameter space

parameter space the set of experimental variables that are used as input into a model and serve as the basis for estimation of parameters in a population.

parametric

parametric adj. describing any analytic method that makes assumptions about the data of interest. Compare nonparametric.

parametric statistics

parametric statistics statistical procedures that are based on assumptions about the distribution of the attributes in the population being tested (e.g., that there is a normal distribution of values). Compare nonparametric statistics.

parametric test

parametric test a hypothesis test that involves one or more assumptions about the underlying arrangement of values in the population from which the sample is drawn. Common parametric tests include analysis of variance, regression analysis, chi-square tests, t tests, and z tests. Also called parametric hypothesis test. Compare nonparametric test.

paramimia

paramimia n. the use of gestures inappropriate to or incongruent with one’s underlying feelings.

paramnesia

paramnesia n. see false memory.

paranoia

paranoia n. 1. a paranoid state. 2. a former diagnosis for a relatively rare disorder, distinct from paranoid schizophrenia, in which the person reasons rightly from a wrong premise and develops a persistent, well-systematized, and logically constructed set of persecutory delusions, such as being conspired against, poisoned, or maligned. It is equivalent to persecutory-type delusional disorder. 3. historically, any psychiatric disorder characterized by persistent delusions. See also classical paranoia. 4. in ancient times, any mental disorder or delirium. —paranoiac n., adj.

paranoia querulans

paranoia querulans see litigious paranoia.

paranoid

paranoid adj. 1. relating to or exhibiting extreme distrust or suspiciousness. See also paranoid personality disorder. 2. relating to or characterized by delusions. See also delusional disorder; paranoid schizophrenia.

paranoid condition

paranoid condition see paranoid state.

paranoid delusion

paranoid delusion loosely, any of a variety of false personal beliefs tenaciously sustained even in the face of incontrovertible evidence to the contrary. These include delusions of grandeur, delusional jealousy, or, most frequently, delusions of persecution.

paranoid disorder

paranoid disorder see delusional disorder.

paranoid ideation

paranoid ideation thought processes involving persistent suspiciousness and beliefs of being persecuted, harassed, or treated unfairly by others.

paranoid litigious state

paranoid litigious state see litigious paranoia.

paranoid personality disorder

paranoid personality disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a personality disorder characterized by (a) pervasive, unwarranted suspiciousness and distrust (e.g., expectation of trickery or harm, overconcern with hidden motives and meanings); (b) hypersensitivity (e.g., being easily slighted or offended, readiness to counterattack); and (c) restricted affectivity (e.g., emotional coldness, no true sense of humor). The diagnosis has been retained in DSM–5.

paranoid pseudocommunity

paranoid pseudocommunity see pseudocommunity.

paranoid psychosis

paranoid psychosis a psychotic condition characterized by persecutory delusions without personality disorganization or deterioration. See delusional disorder; paranoid state.

paranoid schizophrenia

paranoid schizophrenia in DSM–IV–TR, a subtype of schizophrenia, often with a later onset than other types, characterized by prominent delusions or auditory hallucinations. Delusions are typically persecutory, grandiose, or both; hallucinations are typically related to the content of the delusional theme. Cognitive functioning and mood are affected to a much lesser degree than in other types of schizophrenia. This subtype has been eliminated from DSM–5.

paranoid state

paranoid state a condition characterized by delusions of persecution or grandiosity that are not as systematized and elaborate as in a delusional disorder or as bizarre as in paranoid schizophrenia. Also called paranoid condition.

paranoid-schizoid position

paranoid-schizoid position in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, the period from birth to the 6th month of life during which infants perceive the world in terms of part-objects and develop a fear of annihilation and persecutory anxiety due to the power of their death instinct. Infants use various primitive defense mechanisms against these fears, including (a) the projection of aggression onto an external object; (b) directing their own aggression against the imagined persecutory object; and (c) introjection and splitting of the breast into a good object and a bad object (see bad breast; good breast). The paranoid-schizoid position is a lifelong possibility, manifested in later life by an inability to accept that anyone can be both bad and good and certain pathologies (e.g., paranoia, psychosis) that are believed to be marked by a chronic tendency to be stuck in this position. Compare depressive position.

paranormal

paranormal adj. denoting any purported phenomenon involving the transfer of information or energy that cannot be explained by existing scientific knowledge. See also extrasensory perception; occult; parapsychology; preternatural; supernatural.

paranormal cognition

paranormal cognition see extrasensory perception.

paranosic gain

paranosic gain see primary gain.

paraphasia

paraphasia n. a speech disturbance characterized by the use of incorrect, distorted, or inappropriate words or sounds, which in some cases resemble the correct word in sound or meaning and in other cases are irrelevant or nonsensical. For example, a wheelchair may be called a “spinning wheel,” and a hypodermic needle might be called a “tie pin.” The disorder occurs in a variety of forms (e.g., literal paraphasia, semantic paraphasia) and is seen most commonly in neurological disorders (e.g., Pick’s disease). Also called paraphrasia. —paraphasic adj.

paraphemia

paraphemia n. a speech disorder marked by the habitual introduction of inappropriate words or by the meaningless combination of words.

paraphilia

paraphilia n. in DSM–IV–TR, any of a group of disorders in which unusual or bizarre fantasies or behavior are necessary for sexual excitement. The fantasies or acts persist over a period of at least 6 months and may take several forms: preference for a nonhuman object, such as animals or clothes of the opposite sex; repetitive sexual activity involving real or simulated suffering or humiliation, as in whipping or bondage; or repetitive sexual activity with nonconsenting partners. Paraphilias include such specific types as fetishism, frotteurism, pedophilia, exhibitionism, voyeurism, sexual masochism, sexual sadism, and necrophilia. In DSM–5, a paraphilia is considered a paraphilic disorder only if it causes distress or impairment to the individual or if its practice has harmed or risked harming others. —paraphiliac adj.

paraphonia

paraphonia n. an abnormal change in voice quality.

paraphrase

paraphrase vb. to express the meaning of a text or utterance in different words, often for the sake of clarity or brevity. See also interpret.

paraphrasia

paraphrasia n. see paraphasia. —paraphrasic adj.

paraphrasic error

paraphrasic error an error that results in incoherent speech, most often from combining existing words, eliminating syllables from words, or creating new words.

paraphrenia

paraphrenia n. 1. a late-onset psychotic condition that is marked by delusions and hallucinations but is distinct from schizophrenia by virtue of the absence of generalized intellectual impairment and distinct from degenerative dementias by virtue of the absence of a progressively deteriorating course. See also late paraphrenia. [first described by Emil Kraepelin] 2. any of various mental disorders that are associated with transitional periods of life (e.g., adolescence, old age). [defined in 1863 by German physician Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828–1899)] 3. loosely, any of a variety of conditions, such as late-onset schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia, or certain paranoid states.

paraplegia

paraplegia n. paralysis of the legs and lower part of the trunk. See also spastic paraplegia. —paraplegic adj.

parapraxis

parapraxis n. an error that is believed to express unconscious wishes, attitudes, or impulses. Examples of such errors include slips of the pen, slips of the tongue and other forms of verbal leakage, forgetting significant events, mislaying objects with unpleasant associations, unintentional puns, and motivated accidents. Also called parapraxia. See also Freudian slip; symptomatic act.

paraprofessional

paraprofessional n. a trained but not professionally credentialed worker who assists in the treatment of patients in both hospital and community settings.

parapsychology

parapsychology n. the systematic study of alleged psychological phenomena involving the transfer of information or energy that cannot be explained in terms of presently known scientific data or laws. Such study has focused largely on the various forms of extrasensory perception, such as telepathy and clairvoyance, but also encompasses such phenomena as poltergeist activity and the claims of mediums. Although parapsychologists are committed to scientific methods and procedures, the field is still regarded with suspicion by most scientists, including most psychologists. This can perhaps be attributed to three main reasons: (a) Admitting even one instance of paranormal causation would potentially lead to the reexamination and reframing of numerous established laws and principles of science; (b) even the best-documented positive findings in this area have proved impossible to replicate; and (c) some researchers have been duped by charlatans. —parapsychological adj. —parapsychologist n.

parareaction

parareaction n. an abnormal or exaggerated reaction to a relatively minor incident (e.g., tripping), which may become the basis for a delusion.

parasite

parasite n. a species that depends on another for survival but generally does not kill it. There are many intestinal parasites that are of value in the digestion of food for their hosts. Some parasites induce illness or debilitation but do not weaken the host so severely that it (and therefore the parasite) will die. Others will survive only if they can find an alternative host before the death of their current host; some of these parasites can alter the behavior of their hosts to make transfer to another host more likely. —parasitic adj.

parasitism

parasitism n. 1. in biology, an interspecies interaction in which one organism (the parasite) lives on or in an organism of another species (the host). The arrangement is beneficial to the parasite but often harmful to the host. Compare commensalism; mutualism. 2. by analogy, a social relationship in which one individual habitually benefits from the generosity of another without making any useful return.

parasomnia

parasomnia n. a sleep disorder characterized by abnormal behavior or physiological events during sleep or during the transitional state between sleep and waking. Examples include nightmare disorder, sleep terror disorder, sleepwalking disorder, restless-legs syndrome (see Ekbom’s syndrome), and confusional arousal, among others. The parasomnias recognized in DSM–IV–TR form one of two broad groups of primary sleep disorders, the other being dyssomnias. Those recognized in DSM–5 are part of a larger category of sleep–wake disorders. See also dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals.

parasuicide

parasuicide n. a range of behaviors involving deliberate self-harm that may or may not be intended to result in death. Passive suicide is an example.

parasympathetic drug

parasympathetic drug see cholinergic drug.

parasympathetic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system one of two branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the other being the sympathetic nervous system. Anatomically it comprises the portion of the ANS whose preganglionic fibers leave the central nervous system from the brainstem via the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves and from the spinal cord via three sacral nerves (see spinal nerve). It is defined functionally as the system controlling rest, repair, enjoyment, eating, sleeping, sexual activity, and social dominance, among other functions. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates salivary secretions and digestive secretions in the stomach and produces pupillary constriction, decreases in heart rate, and increased blood flow to the genitalia during sexual excitement. Also called parasympathetic division.

parasympatholytic drug

parasympatholytic drug see anticholinergic drug.

parasympathomimetic drug

parasympathomimetic drug see cholinergic drug.

parataxic distortion

parataxic distortion in psychoanalytic theory, a distorted perception or judgment of others on the basis of past experiences or of the unconscious. Also called transference distortion. [introduced by Harry Stack Sullivan]

parataxis

parataxis n. 1. broadly, a lack of integration among components of personality, cognitive style, or emotions. The term is now infrequently used. 2. in language, joining syntactic units (e.g., words, phrases) without the use of conjunctions, as in I came; I saw; I conquered.

parathyroid gland

parathyroid gland a small, paired endocrine gland found in the area of the thyroid gland. It secretes parathyroid hormone, which takes part in the control of calcium and phosphate metabolism.

parathyroid hormone

parathyroid hormone a hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands when blood-calcium levels are low. It promotes dissolution of bone tissue and absorption of calcium by the intestine, thereby increasing the concentration of calcium (and phosphate) in the blood. Thus, together with calcitonin, it participates in calcium regulation. Also called parathyrin.

paratype

paratype n. the totality of environmental influences that act on an organism to produce individual expression of a genetic trait or character. See also genotype; phenotype.

paratypic

paratypic adj. referring to the acquired properties (as opposed to genetic endowments) of an organism that result from exposure to environmental forces.

paraventricular nucleus (PVN)

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paraverbal therapy

paraverbal therapy a method of psychotherapy, introduced in the 1970s, for children who have difficulty communicating verbally (e.g., due to trauma, hyperactivity, autism, withdrawal, language disturbances). Assuming that these children would feel more intrigued and less threatened by a nonverbal approach, the therapy uses various expressive media, including the components of music (tempo and pitch), mime, movement, and art to help the children express themselves. [developed by child psychotherapist Evelyn P. Heimlich]

paraworld

paraworld n. a hypothetical world of ideal conditions that serves as a basis for formulating a model of some system or process believed to be true in the actual world. Such model building can be an important strategy in science.

paregoric

paregoric n. a medication containing a tincture of opium that is administered to control severe cases of diarrhea. It relieves pain and discomfort and reduces intestinal motility. It is also used to treat opioid withdrawal in neonates and may be used as well with children and adults. Besides opium, paregoric contains camphor, benzoic acid, glycerin, anise oil, and alcohol. It was developed in the early 18th century. Also called camphorated tincture of opium.

parenchyma

parenchyma n. the functioning tissues of an organ or gland, as distinguished from supporting or connecting tissues. —parenchymatous adj.

parens patriae

parens patriae a doctrine promoting the power and interest of the government (Latin, “parent of the country”) in caring for and protecting minors and individuals who are unable to care for themselves or to provide for their own basic needs, even if implementing this doctrine necessitates restricting their rights. In the United States, this power and interest is vested with the individual states.

parent effectiveness training (PET)

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parent management training (PMT)

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parent teachers association (PTA)

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parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT)

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parent–child psychotherapy

parent–child psychotherapy a psychodynamically informed, attachment-based intervention for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers whose behavior and emotions have been adversely affected by negative relationships with their parents or primary caregivers. Common difficulties in these young children include oppositional behavior or aggression, frequent tantrums, eating problems, and sleeping disturbances. In this approach, the therapist offers guidance to help parents recognize and understand how their own recurring perceptions, attributions, affects, and behavioral responses influence the child and contribute to current relationship difficulties. In achieving this understanding, parents theoretically become better able to grasp what the young child is experiencing, to respond more sensitively to his or her needs, and to forge a healthier, more loving relationship with the child that will improve his or her socioemotional functioning. Parent–child psychotherapy is an extension of parent–infant psychotherapy, developed in the 1970s by U.S. clinical social worker Selma H. Fraiberg (1918–1981). [created by Paraguayan-born U.S. developmental psychologist Alicia F. Lieberman (1947– )]

parent–offspring conflict

parent–offspring conflict in animal behavior, a conflict that arises when parents cease providing care for current offspring and invest in producing the next set of offspring. The parents will benefit in terms of reproductive success by breeding again as soon as the current offspring have a high probability of surviving independently. The offspring, however, will gain more by continued investment from their parents, creating the conflict. Parent–offspring conflict is manifested through regressive behavior, including tantrums, by the older offspring and through sibling rivalry.

parental alienation syndrome (PAS)

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parental alliance

parental alliance see coparenting.

parental behavior

parental behavior in nonhuman animals, the process of preparing for the birth of offspring (often through nest building) and the actions of one or both parents that contribute to the survival or well-being of their young after birth. The latter include (a) nursing or otherwise provisioning the young with food, (b) retrieving behavior or carrying young in species that do not build permanent nests, and (c) weaning the offspring so that they can become independent. Many hormonal controls of parental behavior have been identified in females (as well as in males of those species in which males participate in care of young). Among human beings and other primates, parental behavior is less dependent on hormonal changes and more dependent on sociocultural and experiential factors than among other animals, although hormonal changes do still occur. See also maternal behavior; paternal behavior.

parental investment

parental investment the amount of energy a parent expends in parental care. Because female mammals go through gestation and subsequent lactation, it is often assumed that they have greater parental investment than do males. However, there is considerable male parental investment in cooperative-breeding species, such as marmoset and tamarin monkeys, in which males can lose up to 10% of body weight during the period when offspring must be carried constantly. Male parental investment may also be high in species in which males defend the young from predators or attacks from other members of the same species.

parental investment theory

parental investment theory the proposition that many sex differences in sexually reproducing species (including humans) can be understood in terms of the amount of time, energy, and risk to their own survival that males and females put into parenting versus mating (including the seeking, attaining, and maintaining of a mate). Differences in parenting and mating investment between males and females vary among species and as a function of environmental conditions. [proposed in 1972 by U.S. sociobiologist Robert L. Trivers (1943– )]

parental leave

parental leave see family leave.

parental perplexity

parental perplexity a parent–child relationship marked by a lack of parental spontaneity, extreme indecisiveness, and an inability to sense and satisfy the child’s needs. Such primary relationships may result in psychological problems (e.g., overdependency) during childhood and have further consequences throughout development.

parental rejection

parental rejection persistent denial of approval, affection, or care of a child by one or both parents, sometimes concealed beneath a cover of overindulgence or overprotection. The frequent results are corrosion of the child’s self-esteem and self-confidence, a poor self-image, inability to form attachments to others, tantrums, generalized hostility, and development of psychophysical and emotional disturbances. See child neglect.

parental separation

parental separation see marital separation.

parenting

parenting n. all actions related to the raising of offspring. Researchers have described different human parenting styles—ways in which parents interact with their children—with most classifications varying on the dimensions of emotional warmth (warm vs. cold) and control (high in control vs. low in control). One of the most influential of these classifications is that of U.S. developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind (1927– ), involving four types of styles: authoritarian parenting, in which the parent or caregiver stresses obedience, deemphasizes collaboration and dialogue, and employs strong forms of punishment; authoritative parenting, in which the parent or caregiver encourages a child’s autonomy yet still places certain limitations on behavior; permissive parenting, in which the parent or caregiver is accepting and affirmative, makes few demands, and avoids exercising control; and rejecting–neglecting parenting, in which the parent or caregiver is unsupportive, fails to monitor or limit behavior, and is more attentive to his or her needs than those of the child.

Parenting Stress Index (PSI)

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parenting style

parenting style see parenting.

parenting training

parenting training any program that instructs parents and other caregivers in techniques for effectively dealing with problem behavior in their children. Also called parent training. See also family intervention.

Parents Anonymous

Parents Anonymous a peer-led, professionally facilitated group for parents who would like to learn more effective methods of childrearing, thus strengthening families and providing a means of preventing child abuse.

Parents Without Partners

Parents Without Partners an international organization providing mutual social support, educational programs, and activities for single parents and their children.

parergasia

parergasia n. 1. a symptom of schizophrenia in which the individual performs an action that is not intended, such as opening the mouth when asked to close the eyes. [defined by Emil Kraepelin] 2. a former name for schizophrenia, introduced by Adolf Meyer to replace dementia praecox, since he believed this disorder is best described in terms of disorganized behavior and distorted thought processes.

paresis

paresis n. partial or incomplete paralysis.

paresthesia

paresthesia n. an abnormal skin sensation, such as tingling, tickling, burning, itching, or pricking, in the absence of external stimulation. Paresthesia may be temporary, as in the “pins and needles” feeling experienced after having sat with one’s legs crossed too long, or chronic and due to such factors as neurological disorder or drug side effects. —paresthetic adj.

paretic

paretic adj. relating to or experiencing paresis.

paretic psychosis

paretic psychosis see general paresis.

Pareto principle

Pareto principle 1. in economics, the principle that 80% of the wealth in any society will be owned by 20% of the population. 2. more generally, the rule of thumb that 80% of any given output is produced by 20% of input. For example, in any retail organization, 80% of the sales will be accounted for by 20% of the customers. Also called 80:20 rule. [Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), Italian economist and sociologist]

parica

parica n. see epena.

parietal cortex

parietal cortex the cerebral cortex of the parietal lobe.

parietal drift

parietal drift see postural arm drift.

parietal lobe

parietal lobe one of the four main subdivisions of each cerebral hemisphere. It occupies the upper central area of each hemisphere, behind the frontal lobe, ahead of the occipital lobe, and above the temporal lobe. Parts of the parietal lobe participate in somatosensory activities, such as the discrimination of size, shape, and texture of objects; visual activities, such as visually guided actions; and auditory activities, such as speech perception.

parieto-occipital sulcus

parieto-occipital sulcus a groove (sulcus) that runs upward along the medial (inner) side of each cerebral hemisphere, extending from a junction with the calcarine fissure at a point posterior to the splenium, and forming the border between the cuneus and precuneus regions.

Paris Medical School

Paris Medical School a group of doctors and students at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris who advanced the hypotheses and research of Jean-Martin Charcot, particularly with regard to his neurological studies of a posited relation between hysteria and hypnotism. Sigmund Freud, who studied through a fellowship under Charcot, was greatly influenced by the Paris Medical School in his early studies and in the direction of his future work.

Parkes–Weber syndrome

Parkes–Weber syndrome see Sturge–Weber syndrome.

Parkinson’s disease (PD)

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parkinsonian

parkinsonian adj. of or relating to Parkinson’s disease or parkinsonism.

parkinsonian tremor

parkinsonian tremor see resting tremor.

parkinsonism

parkinsonism n. any disorder whose symptoms resemble those of Parkinson’s disease, with or without the actual presence of the disease. Antipsychotic agents with strong dopamine-blocking activity, particularly the high-potency antipsychotics (e.g., haloperidol), may cause the usually reversible syndrome known as drug-induced parkinsonism (pseudoparkinsonism).

Parlodel

Parlodel n. a trade name for bromocriptine.

parole

parole n. 1. in psychology and psychiatry, a method of maintaining supervision of a patient whose treatment is mandated by the court and who has not been discharged but who is away from the confines of a restrictive setting, such as a mental institution or halfway house. A patient on parole may be returned to confinement at any time without formal action by a court. 2. supervised release from confinement in a correctional facility.

parorexia

parorexia n. a pathological compulsion to consume unusual foods or nonnutritive substances. See also cissa; pica.

parosmia

parosmia n. a disorder of the sense of smell in which a person is unable to distinguish odors correctly. For example, when presented with an odor of beer, the person might say it smells of bleach. Also called parosphresia. See also dysosmia; troposmia.

paroxetine

paroxetine n. an antidepressant of the SSRI class. Like other SSRIs, it is used to treat depression, panic disorder, social phobia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. It differs from other SSRIs in that most patients find it to be sedating rather than activating and thus better taken in the evening rather than on rising. It should not be taken by patients who are already taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Paroxetine is available in immediate- and controlled-release preparations. U.S. trade name: Paxil.

paroxysm

paroxysm n. 1. the sudden intensification or recurrence of a disease or an emotional state. 2. a convulsion, spasm, or seizure. —paroxysmal adj.

paroxysmal sleep

paroxysmal sleep see narcolepsy.

parse

parse vb. 1. in vision, to deconstruct a complex stimulus into its component features and attributes. 2. in linguistics, to analyze a sentence into its constituent parts, such as subject, verb, object, and the like, in order to map its syntactic structure.

parsimony

parsimony n. see law of parsimony.

part correlation

part correlation the association between two variables, x and y, with the influence of a third variable, z, removed from one (but only one) of the two variables. This can help a researcher to get a clearer understanding of the relationship between x and y. Also called semipartial correlation. Compare partial correlation; zero-order correlation.

part method of learning

part method of learning a learning technique in which the material is divided into sections, each to be mastered separately in a successive order. Compare whole method of learning.

part-list cuing inhibition

part-list cuing inhibition in a recall test, impairment of the capacity to recall individual items if some of the other items in the list studied are provided as retrieval cues. That is, studying some of the items in a list may impair retrieval of other, nonstudied items in the same list. Also called part-set cuing effect.

part-object

part-object n. 1. in psychoanalytic theory, an object toward which a component instinct is directed. Such an object is usually a part of the body rather than a whole person. 2. in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, an early object representation that derives from splitting the object into parts containing negative and positive qualities. It is held that such objects constitute the infant’s first experience of the world, being perceived as a good object or a bad object according to whether they are gratifying or frustrating. Internalization of part-objects is further posited to represent the beginning of the inner world of objects whose relationships create the infant’s personality. See also depressive position; paranoid-schizoid position.

part-set cuing effect

part-set cuing effect see part-list cuing inhibition.

part–whole problem

part–whole problem 1. the controversy over whether to approach an issue, particularly a psychological one, from an atomistic or a holistic perspective; that is, whether to view some phenomenon as a structured set of components or as an integrated functioning totality. 2. the issue of whether to learn something by memorizing its constituent parts or by attempting to commit its totality to memory.

parthenogenesis

parthenogenesis n. literally, virgin birth: the production of offspring without fertilization of the egg cells by sperm. It is the usual means of reproduction in some species. —parthenogenetic adj.

partial

partial n. any frequency component in a complex tone. A partial is not necessarily a harmonic.

partial agonist

partial agonist a substance that binds to a receptor but fails to produce the same degree of response as a full agonist at the same receptor site or exerts only part of the action exerted by the endogenous neurotransmitter that it mimics. Partial agonists may exhibit the same affinity for the receptor site as do full agonists and may act as competitive inhibitors of full agonists. Minor variations in the chemical structure of either the receptor or the binding substance may dictate whether the substance acts as a full or partial agonist at any particular receptor site.

partial agraphia

partial agraphia an older, less common name for agraphia.

partial correlation

partial correlation the association between two variables, x and y, with the influence of one or more other variables (z1, z2) statistically removed, controlled, or held constant; the effect of the z variable is removed from both x and y. For example, the partial correlation between salary and education level can be examined after the effects of age on each are removed. It is often of interest to learn whether a correlation is significantly reduced in magnitude once a third variable is removed. Also called higher order correlation; higher order partial correlation. Compare part correlation; zero-order correlation.

partial decussation

partial decussation see optic chiasm.

partial hospitalization

partial hospitalization hospital treatment of patients on a part-time basis (i.e., less than 24 hours per day). See day hospital; night hospital; weekend hospitalization.

partial insanity

partial insanity a borderline condition in which mental impairment is present but is not sufficiently severe to render the individual completely irresponsible for his or her acts. In legal proceedings, a conclusion of partial insanity may arise when there is evidence that a mental disorder was probably a contributing cause to a defendant’s criminal actions or that the disorder rendered the individual incapable of deliberation, premeditation, malice, or another mental state usually requisite for first-degree offenses; in such circumstances, it may lead to conviction for a lesser offense. See also diminished responsibility; insanity; M’Naghten rule.

partial instinct

partial instinct see component instinct.

partial least squares regression

partial least squares regression a statistical procedure that generalizes and combines features from principal components analysis and multiple regression. It is used when a researcher wants to estimate the outcomes on a set of dependent variables from a (very) large set of predictors, especially when these predictors have a high degree of multicollinearity or exceed the number of obtained observations.

partial lipodystrophy

partial lipodystrophy a form of lipodystrophy marked by the loss of adipose tissue from the face, extremities, or other parts of the body. See also total lipodystrophy.

partial reinforcement

partial reinforcement see intermittent reinforcement.

partial reinforcement effect (PRE)

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partial replication

partial replication a replication of an empirical study in which only a subset of the study’s design and methodology are repeated. Often, a researcher will choose to conduct a partial replication to show that the general findings of a study remain the same, despite the methodological changes.

partial report

partial report a method of testing memory in which only some of the total information presented is to be recalled. For example, if several rows of letters are shown to the participant, a cue given afterward may prompt recall of only one particular row. Partial report methods are used to minimize output interference in studies of iconic memory. Compare whole report.

partial schedule of reinforcement

partial schedule of reinforcement see intermittent reinforcement.

partial seizure

partial seizure a seizure that begins in a localized area of the brain, although it may subsequently progress to a generalized seizure. Simple partial seizures produce no alteration of consciousness despite clinical manifestations, which may include sensory, motor, or autonomic activity. Complex partial seizures may produce similar sensory, motor, or autonomic symptoms but are also characterized by some impairment or alteration of consciousness during the event. Partial seizures of both types are most commonly focused in the temporal lobe. Also called focal seizure.

partial sight

partial sight see low vision.

partial-interval recording

partial-interval recording a method for measuring or coding instances of behavior within particular time periods of observation. For frequently occurring behaviors or behaviors with a long duration, a researcher can identify time intervals in advance of the coding and have judges indicate whether a particular behavior occurs (or not) within each period. For example, in videos of mock job interviews, the method could be used to record whether the candidate had eye contact with the interviewer during different periods of the interview. See also whole-interval recording.

partialing

partialing n. an approach to the statistical control of the influence of a variable or set of variables on other variables of interest (typically, the dependent and independent variables). Partialing helps clarify a specific relationship by excluding the effects of other variables that may also be associated. In a multiple regression model, for example, a researcher may want to remove the effects of a set of covariates before examining the final regression coefficients of interest. Also called partialing out.

partialism

partialism n. a type of paraphilia in which a person obtains sexual satisfaction from contact with a partner’s body part other than the usual erotic areas such as lips, breasts, and genitals (e.g., a leg). Partialism is distinguished from fetishism in which an object, such as a shoe, replaces the sexual partner.

partially ordered scale

partially ordered scale a scale that falls partway between a nominal scale and an ordinal scale, in that the scaling units can be ranked from lowest to highest in most but not all cases.

participant

participant n. a person who takes part in an investigation, study, or experiment, such as by performing tasks set by the experimenter or by answering questions set by a researcher. In an experimental design, the person may be further identified as an experimental participant (see experimental group) or a control participant (see control group). Participants may also be referred to as subjects, particularly by those who wish to avoid the implication that experimentees are involved in the construction, design, conduct, and analysis of the experiment. See also respondent.

participant modeling

participant modeling a procedure for changing behavior in which effective styles of behavior (e.g., of coping) are demonstrated step-by-step and analyzed by a therapist for an individual, who then practices the modeled behavior. Various aids are introduced to help the individual master the behavior, such as videotaped enactments of effective and ineffective behavioral responses to prototypical situations in a variety of social contexts (e.g., at school or work). By contrast, symbolic modeling is a procedure in which the individual only observes, but does not also practice, a modeled behavior as enacted in film, videotape, or other media. [developed by Albert Bandura]

participant observation

participant observation a quasi-experimental research method in which a trained investigator studies a preexisting group by joining it as a member, while avoiding a conspicuous role that would alter the group processes and bias the data. The researcher’s role may be known or unknown to the other members of the group. Cultural anthropologists become participant observers when they enter the life of a given culture to study its structure and processes. Also called participative research; participatory research.

participants’ rights

participants’ rights in a study approved by an institutional review board, a set of conditions relating to participants in the study and their role in the research. Participants normally should be informed about the purpose of the study (but see deception research), its procedures (i.e., what specifically is expected to occur) and the associated costs and benefits; that their data from the study will be kept confidential; whom they can contact if they have any concerns about the study; and that they can leave the study at any time without penalty. Also called subjects’ rights. See also informed consent; research ethics.

participation

participation n. 1. taking part in an activity, usually one that involves others in a joint endeavor. 2. the interaction of two or more systems that mutually influence each other. 3. in Piagetian theory, the tendency of children to confuse their wishes, fantasies, or dreams with reality. —participate vb.

participative decision making (PDM)

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participative leadership

participative leadership a leadership style in which followers are allowed to become involved in decision making and are given autonomy in performing their tasks.

participative management

participative management a style of management that allows employees to be involved in the governance, management, or decision-making processes of an organization.

participative research

participative research see participant observation.

participatory action research

participatory action research a form of action research that emphasizes collaboration between researchers and members of the disadvantaged community of interest.

participatory design

participatory design in ergonomics, design practice that supports direct input from end users during the development cycle.

participatory ergonomics

participatory ergonomics a process in which employees at all levels within an organization are directly and actively involved in developing or enhancing ergonomic practices to improve worker health and safety.

participatory evaluation

participatory evaluation a type of program evaluation in which the individuals who provide a service (e.g., professional staff) take a direct role in evaluating the service or program; clients of the service provided may also be involved. The official evaluator facilitates proceedings rather than actually conducting the appraisal. Also called collaborative evaluation; empowerment evaluation.

participatory research

participatory research see participant observation.

particularism

particularism n. 1. in philosophy, a solution to the so-called criterion problem, which states that one cannot know whether one has knowledge because to recognize particular bits of knowledge one would need to know the criteria by which they are judged to be knowledge, and in order to know the criteria, one would already have to be able to recognize bits of knowledge. Particularism resolves this problem by stating that no general criteria are necessary to determine particular bits of knowledge. 2. in ethics, the doctrine that there are no general moral principles and that judgments of moral behavior cannot be made on the basis of such principles. Moral judgments must instead take account of many particular factors in a person’s background and current situation. This position tends toward moral relativism. See also moral nihilism; subjectivism. —particularist adj.

partition

partition 1. vb. in statistics and measurement, to divide variance observed in the dependent variable into component elements on the basis of its nature and origin. 2. n. a specific component of the observed variance (e.g., variance due to a treatment effect and variance due to random error).

partner abuse

partner abuse see domestic violence; intimate partner violence.

partner swapping

partner swapping a form of group sex in which two or more couples mutually agree to exchange partners or spouses for the purpose of sexual intercourse. The practice may also include watching one’s partner participate in sexual intercourse with another person’s partner. Also called mate swapping; wife swapping. See also swinging.

parturition

parturition n. the act or process of giving birth to a child (or children, in the case of a multiple birth).

paruresis

paruresis n. a fear of urinating, resulting in an inability to urinate where others may be present (e.g., in public rest rooms). Considered a social phobia, paruresis leads one to restrict social activities to avoid the possibility of having to use a rest room in a public venue. Also called avoidant paruresis; bashful bladder syndrome; shy bladder syndrome.

parvocellular system

parvocellular system the part of the visual system that projects to or originates from small neurons in the four dorsal layers (the parvocellular layers) of the lateral geniculate nucleus. It allows the perception of fine details, colors, and large changes in brightness. The parvocellular system is expanded in primates compared to that in other animals; it conducts information relatively slowly because of its small cells and slender axons. See also P-cell. Compare magnocellular system.

PAS

PAS 1. abbreviation for parental alienation syndrome. 2. abbreviation for precategorical acoustic storage.

PASAT

PASAT abbreviation for Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test.

pascal

pascal n. see sound pressure.

pasmo

pasmo n. see susto.

PASS model

PASS model a model of intelligence based on the theory of Alexander Luria, according to which intelligence comprises separate abilities for simultaneous and successive processing. The four elements of the model are planning, attention, simultaneous processing, and successive processing. [developed by Canadian psychologist Jagannath Prasad (J.P.) Das (1931– ) and U.S. psychologist Jack A. Naglieri (1950– )]

passband

passband n. see filter.

passion

passion n. 1. an intense, driving, or overwhelming feeling or conviction. Passion is often contrasted with emotion, in that passion affects a person unwillingly. 2. intense sexual desire. 3. a strong enthusiasm for or devotion to an activity, object, concept, or the like. —passionate adj.

passionate love

passionate love a type of love in which emotional arousal and usually sexual passion are prominent features; along with companionate love, it is one of the two main types of love identified by social psychologists. Passionate lovers typically are greatly preoccupied with each other, want their feelings to be reciprocated, and are usually greatly distressed when the relationship seems awry. See also limerence; romantic love; triangular theory of love.

passionflower

passionflower n. a climbing herb, Passiflora incarnata, indigenous to the southeastern United States and other subtropical areas but also cultivated as an ornamental plant. Parts of the plant have been used both externally and internally for a variety of medicinal purposes, ranging from treatment of burns and hemorrhoids to the alleviation of neuralgia and spasms or seizures. Passionflower tea has long been a folk remedy for the relief of nervous tension. Although some studies suggest passionflower has sedative properties and it has been approved in Germany for treatment of insomnia and anxiety, definitive clinical evidence of this effect has not been established. Adverse reactions are rare but may include nausea, vomiting, and rapid heart rate.

passive

passive adj. 1. acted upon rather than acting. 2. describing a personality pattern that is submissive, compliant, easily influenced by external forces, and dependent on others. See also dependent personality disorder. 3. in grammar, denoting the passive voice of a verb.

passive attention

passive attention see primary attention.

passive avoidance

passive avoidance a type of operant conditioning in which the individual must refrain from an explicit act or response that will produce an aversive stimulus. Compare active avoidance.

passive coping

passive coping a stress-management strategy in which a person absolves himself or herself of responsibility for managing a stressor and instead relinquishes control over its resolution to external resources, such as other people and environmental factors. Individuals who cope passively often withdraw from interpersonal relationships and instead engage in such activities as hoping, praying, or avoiding the stressor. This type of coping strategy generally is considered maladaptive, having been associated with increased depression, poorer psychological adjustment, and other adverse consequences. It is similar to the earlier conceptualization of emotion-focused coping but distinguished by its focus on external factors and abdication of personal responsibility. Compare active coping. [identified in 1987 by Gregory K. Brown and Perry M. Nicassio (1947– ), U.S. clinical psychologists]

passive deception

passive deception the withholding of certain information from research participants, such as not informing them of the true focus of the study. As long as certain conditions are met (e.g., debriefing), this approach is generally considered acceptable, because researchers may not want to reveal their hypotheses to study participants in case this leads them—consciously or nonconsciously—to adjust their behavior. Compare active deception.

passive euthanasia

passive euthanasia the intentional withholding of treatment that might prolong the life of a person who is approaching death. It is distinguished from active euthanasia, in which direct action (e.g., a lethal injection) is taken to end the life. Courts have ruled that physicians do not have to try every possible intervention to prolong life, but opinions differ on where the line should be drawn. There is also controversy regarding the significance of the passive–active distinction, since both approaches result in shortening the life.

passive joy

passive joy see joy.

passive learning

passive learning 1. learning that may occur without the intention to learn, through exposure to information or behavior. See incidental learning. 2. learning that occurs without active mnemonic involvement, as in drill and rote learning.

passive listening

passive listening in psychotherapy and counseling, attentive listening by the therapist or counselor without intruding upon or interrupting the client in any way. See also active listening.

passive management by exception

passive management by exception a style of management in which the manager intervenes and takes charge only if subordinates fail to meet work standards.

passive negativism

passive negativism see negativism.

passive noise protection

passive noise protection see active noise protection.

passive recreation

passive recreation a form of recreational therapy in which the emphasis is on an individual’s amusement or entertainment, such as attending a musical concert. Compare active recreation.

passive rehearsal

passive rehearsal a strategy for retaining information in short-term memory in which a person includes few (usually one) unique items per rehearsal set. Compare cumulative rehearsal.

passive resistance

passive resistance resistance to a government, policy, or law through nonviolent means, such as fasting, demonstrating, or civil disobedience.

passive suicide

passive suicide ambiguous behavior that tends to be self-destructive, but not actively so, and is sometimes thought to reflect suicidal intentions. Examples of this behavior include failing to feed oneself or to engage in rudimentary self-care.

passive touch

passive touch a form of touch characterized by sensory experiences that occur when the observer does not move. In passive touch, stimulation is imposed on the skin of the individual. Compare active touch.

passive transport

passive transport the movement of substances across a cell membrane without expenditure of energy by the cell. It includes simple diffusion of ions through ion channels and facilitated diffusion of larger molecules assisted by transport proteins. Compare active transport.

passive vocabulary

passive vocabulary see receptive vocabulary.

passive voice

passive voice in linguistics, the category of a verb used when the patient of the action appears as the grammatical subject of the clause or sentence and the agent appears as the grammatical object. The passive voice, which is much less common than the standard active voice, is illustrated by the sentence The purse was stolen by the thief, as opposed to The thief stole the purse.

passive-aggressive

passive-aggressive adj. characteristic of behavior that is seemingly innocuous, accidental, or neutral but that indirectly displays an unconscious aggressive motive. For example, a person who constantly keeps people waiting and then is baffled at why they resent this behavior is passive-aggressively disavowing an unconscious wish to be special and to provoke those who fail to acknowledge the specialness.

passive-aggressive personality disorder

passive-aggressive personality disorder a personality disorder of long standing in which ambivalence toward the self and others is expressed by such means as procrastination, dawdling, stubbornness, intentional inefficiency, “forgetting” appointments, or misplacing important materials. These maneuvers are interpreted as passive expressions of underlying negativism. The pattern persists even when more adaptive behavior is clearly possible; it frequently interferes with occupational, domestic, and academic success. This disorder was classified in the appendix of DSM–IV–TR and given an alternative name, negativistic personality disorder, in accordance with the theoretical proposals of Theodore Millon. Its mention has been retained in DSM–5.

passive-avoidance learning

passive-avoidance learning a commonly used misnomer for punishment. It is usually used in situations in which the behavior that is punished occurs without specific training, as when a mouse on a platform learns to avoid stepping down onto an electrified grid after receiving a shock from it.

passive-dependent personality

passive-dependent personality see dependent personality disorder.

passivism

passivism n. an attitude of submissiveness, especially in sexual relations (e.g., male passivism).

passivity

passivity n. a form of adaptation, or maladaptation, in which the individual adopts a pattern of submissiveness, dependence, and retreat into inaction.

passivity phenomena

passivity phenomena phenomena in which individuals feel that some aspect of themselves is under the control of others. These aspects can include acts, impulses, movements, emotions, or thoughts; patients typically report feeling that they are being made to do or think things by someone else or that they are experiencing the behaviors or emotions of someone else.

past-life regression

past-life regression a highly controversial hypnotic regression technique in which a person is encouraged to move back in time to reexperience a supposed previous existence. Therapists who conduct past-life regression believe that the psychological and physical problems (e.g., phobias, insomnia) individuals currently have can be understood and resolved by discovering their origins in the experiences (e.g., traumas, unresolved conflicts, mistakes) of previous lives. Most hypnotherapists are skeptical of the practice and do not recognize it as a legitimate therapeutic tool. They claim that individuals’ memories of past lives are the product of fantasy, imaginative role playing, the expectations and suggestions implicitly conveyed to them by the hypnotist, or unconsciously produced confabulations constructed from personal knowledge, familiar places, events, television shows, novels, and other sources. Although the idea of reincarnation is accepted in numerous cultures, clinicians generally consider actual past-life enactments to be manifestations of psychopathology. Also called past-life regression therapy; past-life therapy. See also age regression.

past-pointing

past-pointing n. see pointing.

pastoral counseling

pastoral counseling a form of counseling or psychotherapy in which insights and principles derived from theology and the behavioral sciences are used to help individuals, couples, families, and groups achieve healing and growth. Pastoral counseling is centered in theory and research on the interaction of religion and science, spirituality and health, and spiritual direction and psychotherapy. A pastoral counselor receives advanced training in one or several of the behavioral sciences (often psychology specifically) in addition to religious training, theological training, or both. Also called pastoral psychotherapy.

PAT

PAT acronym for Progressive Achievement Tests.

Patau syndrome

Patau syndrome see trisomy 13. [German-born U.S. geneticist Klaus Patau (1908–1975)]

patch-clamp technique

patch-clamp technique the use of very fine-bore pipette microelectrodes, clamped by suction onto tiny patches of the plasma membrane of a neuron, to record the electrical activity of a single square micrometer of the membrane, including single ion channels. [devised in the 1980s by German neuroscientists Erwin Neher (1944– ) and Bert Sakmann (1942– )]

patellar reflex

patellar reflex a reflex in which tapping the tendon beneath the knee causes an upward kick of the leg. Also called knee-jerk reflex.

paternal attitudes

paternal attitudes attitudes of a father toward his children, particularly those attitudes that play an important role in his children’s health, character formation, emotional adjustment, and self-image, as well as in his own self-perception as a father.

paternal behavior

paternal behavior actions by males, especially among nonhuman animals, that are directed toward care of their young. Direct paternal behavior consists of such actions as feeding, carrying, or otherwise nurturing the offspring; it is thought to be rare, given that many males lack certainty of paternity. Indirect paternal behavior consists of acquiring resources or defending the group from harm, which indirectly leads to increased survival of the young. Males of species with biparental care undergo some hormonal changes similar to those in females: increased secretion of prolactin and estrogen. Early experience with young offspring is important for competent paternal behavior in many species. See also maternal behavior; parental behavior.

paternalism

paternalism n. a policy or attitude in which those having authority over others extend this authority into areas usually left to individual choice or conscience (e.g., smoking, sexual behavior), usually on the grounds that this is necessary for the welfare or protection of the individuals concerned. —paternalist n. —paternalistic adj.

path analysis

path analysis a type of structural equation modeling used to examine a set of simultaneous linear relationships between variables. Results are displayed using a figure in which boxes denote measured variables, bidirectional arrows show correlations, directional arrows show causal or predictive relations, and arrows coming from nowhere show error associated with the prediction model. Each variable is expressed as a linear function of the preceding variable as well as by a unique latent variable; the weights and standard errors for each coefficient provide information about the size of the parameter. Goodness of fit is tested by comparing models with more pathways to models with fewer pathways. Also called path modeling. See path diagram.

path coefficient

path coefficient in path analysis, any of a set of weights that reflect the strength of the different facets of the relationships among manifest variables in a system. For example, if the model indicates that A→B→C, there would be a path coefficient for the relationship between A and B and another for the relationship between B and C; these would be direct effects, whereas the relationship between A and C would be an indirect effect, working through the impact of B.

path constraint

path constraint any restriction on how one may proceed in solving a problem. For example, in the Tower of Hanoi puzzle, two path constraints are that the solver must move one disk at a time and may not place a larger disk on a smaller one.

path diagram

path diagram a figure describing the hypothesized relations tested in an analysis of simultaneous linear relationships among measured or manifest variables; the object is to identify the causal relationships or logical ordering among variables. Each measured variable is designated by a box, and latent variables are represented by ovals. Covariances or correlations between exogenous variables and between errors are represented by curved lines with arrowheads at both ends. Paths are represented by straight lines with an arrowhead pointing from the independent variable toward the dependent variable. Associated with each path is either an asterisk or a number. The asterisks indicate free parameters, whose values will be estimated from the data, whereas the numbers indicate fixed parameters, whose values do not change as a function of the data. Also called path model. See also path analysis.

path modeling

path modeling see path analysis.

path–goal theory of leadership

path–goal theory of leadership a leadership theory stating that leaders will be effective insofar as they make it clear to followers how they can achieve goals and obtain rewards. By doing so, leaders enhance their followers’ expectancy that hard work will lead to task success and that task success will lead to valued rewards. The four basic leadership styles proposed in this theory are instrumental (directive), supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented leadership. Each of these styles can be effective or ineffective, depending on the nature of the work environment and the characteristics of subordinates. See also valence–instrumentality–expectancy theory.

patho- (path-)

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pathoclisis

pathoclisis n. 1. sensitivity to particular toxins. 2. the tendency of particular toxins to target certain organs or systems of organs.

pathogen

pathogen n. any agent (e.g., bacterium, virus) that contributes to disease or otherwise induces unhealthy structural or functional changes. —pathogenicity n.

pathogenesis

pathogenesis n. the origin and development of a mental or physical disease or disorder. Also called nosogenesis; pathogeny. —pathogenetic adj.

pathogenic family pattern

pathogenic family pattern negative or harmful family attitudes, standards, and behavior that lay the groundwork for mental and behavioral disorder. Examples are parental rejection; triangulation of the child into the marital relationship between the parents; and excessively harsh, excessively lenient, or inconsistent discipline.

pathogeny

pathogeny n. see pathogenesis.

pathognomonic

pathognomonic adj. describing a sign, symptom, or a group of signs or symptoms that is indicative of a specific physical or mental disorder and not associated with other disorders.

pathognomy

pathognomy n. the recognition of feelings, emotions, and character traits, particularly when they are signs or symptoms of disease.

pathological aggression

pathological aggression 1. aggression that is violent, explicitly directed against individuals or property, and either part of a longstanding repertoire of destructive or hurtful behavior or a sudden, paroxysmal reaction to a real or perceived provocation. It may be a manifestation of psychiatric disorder (e.g., psychosis, posttraumatic stress disorder, antisocial personality disorder, some impulse-control disorders); neurological disease or injury; substance abuse (e.g., of alcohol); and some sexual behaviors (e.g., sexual sadism). 2. felonious assault with intent to harm or kill.

pathological aging

pathological aging changes that occur because of age-related disease, as distinct from changes associated with normal healthy aging.

pathological doubt

pathological doubt 1. abnormal concern about having failed to perform a particular action, such as locking the door upon leaving the house. It is a common feature of obsessive-compulsive disorder. 2. a negative belief about one’s ability or future that often results in the inhibition of behavior and is commonly associated with a major depressive episode.

pathological fallacy

pathological fallacy an overgeneralization in which the pathological or abnormal characteristics of an individual or small group are attributed to the general population.

pathological gambling

pathological gambling in DSM–IV–TR, an impulse-control disorder characterized by chronic, maladaptive wagering, leading to significant interpersonal, professional, or financial difficulties. DSM–5 characterizes this behavioral pathology as a nonsubstance-related addiction and refers to it as gambling disorder. Also called compulsive gambling.

pathological grief

pathological grief see complicated grief.

pathological inertia

pathological inertia 1. the inability to switch sets or show flexibility due to a brain injury or psychological condition. 2. severely impaired initiative, drive, or motivation sometimes associated with brain damage, particularly to the frontal lobes. See abulia.

pathological intoxication

pathological intoxication see idiosyncratic intoxication.

pathological jealousy

pathological jealousy see delusional jealousy.

pathological lying

pathological lying a persistent, compulsive tendency to tell lies out of proportion to any apparent advantage that can be achieved. This often occurs among people with alcohol dependence or brain damage, but it is most common among individuals with antisocial personality disorder, who in some cases do not seem to understand the nature of a falsehood. See also pseudologia fantastica.

pathology

pathology n. 1. the scientific study of functional and structural changes involved in physical and mental disorders and diseases. 2. more broadly, any departure from what is considered healthy or adaptive. —pathological adj. —pathologist n.

pathomimicry

pathomimicry n. conscious or unconscious mimicking, production, or feigning of symptoms of disease or disorder. Also called pathomimesis. See factitious disorder; Lasthénie de Ferjol syndrome; malingering.

pathomiosis

pathomiosis n. a patient’s minimization or denial of illness.

pathomorphism

pathomorphism n. any abnormal or extreme body build. —pathomorphic adj.

pathophysiology

pathophysiology n. the functional alterations that appear in an individual or organ as a result of disease or disorder, as distinguished from structural alterations. —pathophysiological adj.

pathway

pathway n. a route or circuit along which something moves. Also called path. See neural pathway.

patient

patient n. 1. a person receiving health care from a licensed health professional. See inpatient; outpatient. See also patient–client issue. 2. in linguistics, the entity that is affected by or undergoes the main action described in a clause or sentence, such as door in James opened the door or James knocked on the door. The patient is usually the grammatical object and is easiest to identify when this is the case; however, door is both subject and patient in such constructions as The door was opened by James (see passive voice), The door swung open, and (in some analyses) The door is open. In case grammar, the term experiencer is sometimes used for a patient who is a sentient being, such as Angus in Angus felt threatened or Angus saw it all. Compare agent; instrumental.

patient abuse

patient abuse harm caused by treatment providers to those in their care by exploiting their patients’ vulnerability and their own position of influence and trust to engage in inappropriate, unprofessional behavior. Such abuse, which sometimes takes the form of sexual involvement with a patient, is usually grounds for legal and professional action against the practitioner. Also called client abuse. See also professional ethics; professional standards.

patient history

patient history 1. in therapy and counseling, a systematic account of an individual’s development from birth to the present, including meaningful aspects of his or her emotional, social, and intellectual development. The account is taken by the therapist or counselor directly from the individual and may additionally be derived from autobiographical material or reports from family members. See anamnesis. 2. see case history.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)

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patient variable

patient variable any characteristic of an individual in treatment, such as gender, age, personality, attitude, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religious background, and cognitive status (e.g., intellectual disability), that may influence the process and outcome of treatment. Also called patient characteristic.

patient violence

patient violence intentional physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, or injury by a patient against a mental health provider, staff member, another patient, or himself or herself. In the United States, mental health practitioners have a duty to protect third parties from a patient’s intended act of violence. See also duty to warn; Tarasoff decision.

patient-centered medical home

patient-centered medical home see health home.

patient–client issue

patient–client issue the dilemma of how to identify the recipient of psychological services or intervention (i.e., the nomenclature used for the recipient). Psychiatrists, many clinical psychologists, and some other mental health providers tend to follow the traditional language of the medical model and refer to the people seeking their services as patients. Counseling psychologists, some clinical psychologists, social workers, and counselors tend to avoid the word patient, which is associated with illness and dysfunction, and instead use the word client to refer to the person seeking their services.

patients’ rights

patients’ rights any statement, listing, summary, or the like that articulates the rights that health care providers (e.g., physicians, medical facilities) ethically ought to provide to those receiving their services. These rights include (a) the provision of adequate information regarding treatment benefits, risks, costs, and alternatives; (b) fair treatment (e.g., respect, responsiveness, timely attention to health issues); (c) autonomy over medical decisions (e.g., obtaining full consent for medical interventions); and (d) confidentiality.

patriarchy

patriarchy n. 1. a society in which descent and inheritance is patrilineal, that is, traced through the male only. See unilateral descent. See also descent group. 2. more loosely, a family, group, or society in which men are dominant. Compare matriarchy. —patriarchal adj.

patricide

patricide n. 1. the murder of one’s own father. 2. a person who murders his or her own father. Compare matricide. —patricidal adj.

patrilineal

patrilineal adj. see patriarchy.

patrilocal

patrilocal adj. denoting an arrangement in which a married couple resides with or in proximity to the husband’s father or relatives, or a culture in which this is the norm. Also called virilocal. Compare matrilocal; neolocal.

pattern

pattern n. a spatial or temporal arrangement of separate elements to make a complex whole.

pattern analysis

pattern analysis a class of methods (e.g., cluster analysis, factor analysis, discriminant analysis) used by researchers to recognize and find systematic regularity within a much larger data set. Often, these methods use computer modeling and simulation approaches and involve data mining, image processing, and the study of networks.

pattern coding

pattern coding the coding of information in sensory systems based on the temporal pattern of action potentials.

pattern discrimination

pattern discrimination the ability of humans and other animals to distinguish differences in patterns of visual, auditory, or other types of stimuli. See also pattern recognition.

pattern recognition

pattern recognition 1. the ability to recognize and identify a complex whole composed of, or embedded in, many separate elements. Pattern recognition is not only a visual ability; in audition, it refers to (a) the recognition of temporal patterns of sounds or (b) the recognition of patterns of excitation of the basilar membrane, such as that which occurs during the perception of vowels in speech. 2. the identification and classification of meaningful patterns of data input by computers, based on the extraction and comparison of the characteristic properties or features of the data.

pattern theory

pattern theory a theory maintaining that the nerve impulse pattern for pain is produced by intense stimulation of nonspecific receptors, since there are no specific fibers or endings exclusively for the experience of pain. According to this theory, the nerves involved in detecting and reporting pain are shared with other senses, such as touch, and the most important feature of pain is the amount of stimulation involved. Also called nonspecificity theory. Compare gate-control theory; specificity theory.

pattern theory of taste coding

pattern theory of taste coding a theory postulating that each gustatory stimulus evokes a unique pattern of neural activity from the taste-cell population and that this pattern serves as the neural representation of the evoking stimulus. Taste quality is coded in the shape of the evoked pattern, whereas intensity is represented by the total discharge rate. Compare labeled-line theory of taste coding.

pattern vision

pattern vision the ability to discriminate between shapes, sizes, and other features of objects in the environment by visual patterns. Pattern vision is lost following a lesion or excision of the striate cortex, where many of the elements of visual patterns are processed.

patterned interview

patterned interview a type of interview, often used in personnel selection, that is designed to cover certain specific areas (e.g., work history, education, home situation) but at the same time to give the interviewer the chance to steer the dialogue into side channels and ask questions on points that need to be clarified. Also called semistructured interview. Compare structured interview; unstructured interview.

patterning

patterning n. 1. the establishment of a system or pattern of responses to stimuli. 2. an arrangement of stimuli that will evoke a new or different set of responses.

patulous eustachian tube

patulous eustachian tube see autophony.

pause

pause n. in linguistics, a rest or delay in speech. Short (often barely distinguishable) pauses are used to mark the juncture between linguistic units, such as syllables, words, and sentences, whereas longer pauses may be used for deliberate effect or may indicate psychological activity in the speaker. The analysis of the location of pauses in speech is an active area of research. —pausal adj.

Pavlovian conditioning

Pavlovian conditioning see classical conditioning. [Ivan Pavlov]

pavor

pavor n. a frightening dream characterized by its realism and residual feelings of terror on waking. Pavor nocturnus occurs during the night (see sleep terror disorder); pavor diurnus may occur in young children during a daytime nap. See also nightmare.

Paxil

Paxil n. a trade name for paroxetine.

Paxipam

Paxipam n. a trade name for halazepam.

pay equity

pay equity see comparable worth.

pay-for-performance (P4P; PFP)

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Payne v. Tennessee

Payne v. Tennessee a case resulting in a 1991 U.S. Supreme Court decision establishing that the admissibility in court of victim impact statements must be considered on a case-by-case basis and that such statements are not per se excluded from all sentencing proceedings.

payoff evaluation

payoff evaluation see outcome evaluation.

payoff matrix

payoff matrix a schedule or table that lists the costs and benefits arising from every possible course of action that could be chosen by an individual—for example, by a player in a game or a business manager developing a new product. Ideally, the individual will show shifts in decision criteria that maximize the payoff.

PBA

PBA abbreviation for pseudobulbar affect.

PCA

PCA abbreviation for principal components analysis.

PCC

PCC abbreviation for posterior cingulate cortex.

PChE

PChE abbreviation for pseudocholinesterase. See cholinesterase.

PCIT

PCIT abbreviation for parent–child interaction therapy.

PCP

PCP 1. n. 1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)piperidine (phencyclidine): a hallucinogenic drug sometimes referred to as a “psychedelic anesthetic” because it was originally developed as an amnestic analgesic for use in surgical contexts and was later found to produce a psychedelic or dissociative reaction. Its medical use was discontinued because of adverse reactions, including agitation, delirium, disorientation, and hallucinations. High doses may induce stupor or coma. PCP has a complex mechanism of action. It binds as an antagonist to the NMDA receptor; it also acts as a dopamine-receptor agonist and blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, among other actions. Because intoxication with PCP can produce symptoms resembling both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, some consider it to be a useful drug model of that disorder. PCP became common as an illicit drug in the 1970s. It can be smoked (often in combination with marijuana or tobacco), insufflated (inhaled nasally), or taken orally or intravenously (see angel dust). Despite speculation about its potential to damage nerve tissue, PCP remains a popular illicit drug. It is still used in veterinary medicine, primarily as an immobilizing anesthetic during surgical procedures. See also hallucinogen. 2. abbreviation for primary care provider.

PCR

PCR abbreviation for polymerase chain reaction.

Pcs

Pcs abbreviation for preconscious.

PD

PD 1. abbreviation for panic disorder. 2. abbreviation for Parkinson’s disease. 3. abbreviation for personality disorder. 4. abbreviation for psychological debriefing.

PDAT

PDAT abbreviation for presenile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type.

PDE

PDE abbreviation for principle of double effect.

PDF

PDF abbreviation for probability density function.

PDM

PDM 1. abbreviation for participative decision making. 2. abbreviation for Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual.

PDP

PDP 1. abbreviation for parallel distributed processing. 2. abbreviation for process-dissociation procedure.

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)

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peak clipping

peak clipping the elimination of high-amplitude portions of speech waves by electronic means, causing some loss of quality but little, if any, loss of intelligibility. Peak clipping makes it possible to reduce high-intensity noise and enable a hearing aid or public address system to make the best use of its available power.

peak experience

peak experience in the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow, a moment of awe, ecstasy, or sudden insight into life as a powerful unity transcending space, time, and the self. Peak experience may at times occur for individuals in their pursuit of self-actualization. See also being cognition; timeless moment; transpersonal psychology.

peak performance

peak performance performance of a task at the optimum level of an individual’s physical abilities, mental capabilities or both.

peak procedure

peak procedure a procedure, used in behavioral studies, in which repetitions of a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement are interspersed with periods, usually two or three times as long as the fixed interval, in which reinforcement is omitted.

peak shift

peak shift 1. a phenomenon in stimulus generalization that occurs after discrimination training involving two stimuli along a common dimension (e.g., brightness). The peak of the response gradient (i.e., the point at which the organism shows maximum response) is shifted in a direction away from the less favorable stimulus (e.g., a dim light) to a point beyond the value of the stimulus associated with reinforcement (e.g., beyond the value of a bright light to that of a very bright light). 2. in aesthetics, the phenomenon in which a supernormal stimulus is preferred over the normal form of that stimulus.

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient see product-moment correlation coefficient. [Karl Pearson]

Pearson’s r

Pearson’s r see product-moment correlation coefficient. [Karl Pearson]

pecking order

pecking order regular patterns of dominance (pecking, threatening, chasing, fighting, avoiding, crouching, and vocalizing) in chickens and other animals. This term has been extended to denote any (usually linear) sequence of authority, status, and privilege that prevails in some organizations and social groups. See also dominance hierarchy.

pectus carinatum

pectus carinatum a malformation of the chest wall in which the sternum (breastbone) protrudes prominently. The condition may be a symptom of such disorders as rickets and Marfan’s syndrome. Also called pigeon breast.

ped-

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pedagogy

pedagogy n. the activity or profession of imparting knowledge or instruction. —pedagogical adj.

pederasty

pederasty n. sex, usually anal intercourse, between an adult male (pederast) and a boy or young man (see catamite).

pedestrian movement

pedestrian movement the generally regular and predictable flow of pedestrian traffic in a public area, such as a shopping mall, plaza, or street intersection. Despite apparently random patterns of foot traffic, pedestrians usually follow the most direct route to a destination, which may or may not conform to the pathways planned and constructed for pedestrian movement.

pediatric

pediatric adj. pertaining to the health and medical care of children or to child development. Pediatrics is the medical specialty dealing with wellness care and treatment of disease in infants, children, and adolescents.

pediatric neuropsychology

pediatric neuropsychology a specialty that studies the behavior and cognitive abilities of children in terms of the neural mechanisms that underlie brain activity, especially in cases of brain damage or other neurological disorder. Clinical pediatric neuropsychology is the application of such study to the assessment and treatment of children with autism, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, language or learning difficulties, problems in motor skills development, and similar challenges. Age-appropriate tests of ability are used to draw conclusions relating specifically to the brain–behavior relationship in these individuals. See also clinical neuropsychology; school neuropsychology.

pediatric psychology

pediatric psychology an interdisciplinary field of research and practice that addresses physical, behavioral, and emotional development as it interacts with health and illness in children, adolescents, and families. Related to the larger field of health psychology, pediatric psychology focuses on the child in the contexts of the family, school, and health care settings. It tends to take a normative developmental view of adaptation based on physical conditions, medical treatment, and psychosocial interactions with family and peers, rather than a psychopathological view of adjustment to disease and disorders.

pediatric psychopharmacology

pediatric psychopharmacology the branch of pharmacology that involves the study of drugs used to treat mental and behavioral disorders of childhood and adolescence. It helps determine the choice of drug according to the age of the child, the diagnosis, the duration and severity of the disorder, and the availability of the patient for behavioral and laboratory monitoring of drug effects.

pediatric therapy

pediatric therapy services such as occupational therapy, physical therapy, and speech therapy that are provided to children with sensory integration dysfunction or other neurological deficits.

pedigree

pedigree n. 1. in medical genetics, a pictorial representation of the history of an illness in a family. It depicts the relationship of family members and—for each member—current status (alive or not), the date of diagnosis, kind of relevant illness, age at diagnosis, and other data. By reviewing this pedigree, geneticists can often estimate other family members’ likelihood of developing the illness. 2. family lineage or ancestry, especially when this is regarded as distinguished or notable. 3. the line of descent of a purebred animal, or a record of such descent.

pedigree method

pedigree method the study of family history and genealogy as a means of tracing traits that might be inherited. The method was applied by Francis Galton in his studies of genius and by Henry Herbert Goddard in his studies of intellectual disability.

pedo- (ped-; paedo-; paed-)

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pedology

pedology n. an early 20th-century educational movement in Europe whose stated purpose was the scientific study of the physical and mental development of children. Interest in pedology manifested itself especially within the emerging Soviet psychology of the 1920s, and Lev Vygotsky was among its supporters. Because of its emphasis on ability testing and examination of individual differences, however, it was banned by the Soviets as a “false science” in 1936.

pedomorphism

pedomorphism n. the attribution of childish behavior characteristics to adults. Compare adultomorphism. —pedomorphic adj.

pedomorphosis

pedomorphosis n. the retention of juvenile characteristics in adult organisms.

pedophilia

pedophilia n. a paraphilia in which sexual acts or fantasies involving prepubertal children are the persistently preferred or exclusive method of achieving sexual excitement. The children are usually many years younger than the pedophile (or pedophiliac). Sexual activity may consist of looking and touching but may include intercourse, even with very young children. Pedophilia is rarely seen in women. —pedophilic adj.

peduncle

peduncle n. a stalklike bundle of nerve fibers, such as the cerebellar peduncle or the cerebral peduncle. —peduncular adj.

peduncular hallucinosis

peduncular hallucinosis recurrent visual hallucinations caused by pathological processes in the upper brainstem, which indirectly affect the central visual system. The hallucinations are usually recognized as such by the patient, and they may be long-lasting, vivid, and scenic, involving a panorama of people and events from the patient’s past life. They are often accompanied by agitation and sleep disturbances and may be mixed with nonhallucinatory perceptions.

peeping Tom

peeping Tom slang for a voyeur (see voyeurism), derived from the name of a tailor who, according to the 11th-century legend, peeked at Lady Godiva as she was riding naked through the streets of Coventry, England.

peer

peer n. an individual who shares a feature or function (e.g., age, sex, occupation, social group membership) with one or more other individuals. In developmental psychology, a peer is typically an age mate with whom a child or adolescent interacts.

peer counseling

peer counseling counseling by an individual who has a status equal to that of the client, such as a college student trained to counsel other students or an employee trained to counsel coworkers.

peer facilitation

peer facilitation the use of a peer counseling model, generally within a group setting, to pursue educational or problem-solving goals. For example, peer facilitation has been used with elementary school children to mediate conflict and in college-level distance learning to increase student participation in online discussions.

peer group

peer group a group of individuals who share one or more characteristics, such as age, social status, economic status, occupation, or education. Members of a peer group typically interact with each other on a level of equality and exert influence on each other’s attitudes, emotions, and behavior (see peer pressure). Although children begin to interact before the age of 2, genuine peer groups based on shared age typically do not develop until the age of 5 years or later.

peer pressure

peer pressure the influence exerted by a peer group on its individual members to fit in with or conform to the group’s norms and expectations. Peer pressure may have positive socialization value but may also have negative consequences for mental or physical health. Also called peer-group pressure.

peer rating

peer rating the evaluation of an individual’s behavior by his or her associates (e.g., a physician peer review). In child development research, peer ratings are sometimes obtained from members of a child’s peer group (e.g., school class members).

peer review

peer review the evaluation of scientific or academic work, such as research or articles submitted to journals for publication, by other qualified professionals practicing in the same field.

peer tutoring

peer tutoring the teaching of one student by another who has displayed sufficient competency in a subject to help a fellow student learn a skill or concept. Peer tutors often receive minimal training or guidance by the teacher.

peg-word mnemonic system

peg-word mnemonic system a mnemonic strategy used to remember lists whereby each item is associated in imagination with a number–word pair (the peg). For example, if the pegs are the rhyming pairs “one is a bun, two is a shoe,” the first item to be remembered would be associated with a bun, the second with a shoe.

pegboard test

pegboard test a test of manual dexterity and fine motor speed in which the participant—first with the dominant hand, then with the nondominant hand, and finally with both hands—inserts pegs in a series of holes as rapidly as possible. One of the best known examples is the Purdue Pegboard Test (developed at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana).

Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease

Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease a rare, progressive degenerative disorder of the central nervous system marked by involuntary, rapid eye movements (see nystagmus), muscular incoordination (see ataxia), and spasticity. It is caused by a mutation in the gene that controls the production of a specific myelin protein. Severity and onset vary widely, depending on the type of mutation, and extend from the mild, adult-onset, spastic paraplegia form to the severe form with onset at infancy and death in early childhood. [Friedrich Pelizaeus (1850–1917), German neurologist; Ludwig Merzbacher (1875–1942), German physician]

pellagra

pellagra n. deficiency of the B vitamin nicotinic acid (niacin), marked by weakness, gastrointestinal disturbances, skin disorders, and neurological symptoms, such as apathy, confusion, disorientation, and neuritis. Also called nicotinic acid deficiency.

pemoline

pemoline n. a nonamphetamine CNS stimulant used for the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Its effects resemble those of the amphetamines and methylphenidate, and its mechanism of action includes blockade of dopamine reuptake. Pemoline has been associated with rare but occasionally fatal liver failure and with the development of Tourette’s disorder. Safety concerns led to its withdrawal from the Canadian market in 1999 and the U.S. market in 2005. Former U.S. trade name (among others): Cylert.

PEN

PEN acronym for psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism. See Eysenck’s dimensions.

penalty function

penalty function a weight applied to a statistic or index that lowers its value because of some undesired characteristic. In structural equation modeling, for example, several indices used to assess goodness of fit include such a mechanism to downweight the index when a researcher’s model exhibits a high level of complexity.

pendular knee jerk

pendular knee jerk an abnormal patellar reflex observed in patients with a lesion of the cerebellum, in which the leg continues to move several times after the initial reflex.

pendulum problem

pendulum problem a Piagetian task used to assess cognitive development. The participant is asked to work out what governs the speed of an object swinging on a piece of string. The ability to systematically examine the variables (length, weight, force of drop, height of drop) generally appears in early adolescence and is evidence of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which marks the formal operational stage of development.

penetrance

penetrance n. in genetics, the extent to which the effects of an allele are manifest in the individuals possessing it, expressed as the fraction or percentage of individuals carrying that allele who manifest the trait associated with it. If all persons who possess a particular dominant allele develop the associated trait, the allele is said to show complete penetrance (100%). In contrast, incomplete penetrance occurs when some individuals with a particular allele do not develop the associated trait.

penetrating head injury

penetrating head injury see open head injury.

penetration

penetration n. the entry of the penis into the vagina. In the United States, legal definitions in cases of rape or illicit intercourse vary from state to state, but penetration is generally considered to have occurred if the glans penis passes beyond the labia majora. In some states, if penetration has not occurred during sexual assault, there cannot be a charge of rape. In such cases, the crime is some variety of felonious sexual assault, which usually has lower penalties than rape.

penile plethysmograph

penile plethysmograph see plethysmography.

penile prosthesis

penile prosthesis an implanted device that is used to restore male sexual potency. Such devices typically are made of malleable material or are inflatable, and their insertion requires surgery.

penis

penis n. the male organ for urination and for intromission, during which it enters the female’s vagina to deliver semen. The urethra runs through the penis, which is composed largely of erectile tissue (see corpus cavernosum; corpus spongiosum) and has a mushroom-shaped cap (glans penis). —penile adj.

penis envy

penis envy in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the hypothesized desire of girls and women to possess the male genital organ. Freud believed that it originated in the phallic stage, between ages 3 and 6, when the girl discovers that she lacks this organ, and he further posited that the girl feels “handicapped and ill-treated,” blames her mother for the loss, and wants to have her penis back. Karen D. Horney, among others, later argued that penis envy is not an envy of the biological organ itself but represents women’s envy of men’s superior social status. In any sense, the concept has been actively disputed from the beginning and is rarely considered seriously in current psychology. See also castration complex.

Pennhurst Consent Decree

Pennhurst Consent Decree a judicial decree ordering the closure of the Pennhurst State School and Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the movement of its residents with intellectual disability to least restrictive environments within the community. The decree further ordered team planning for individual movement to the community, provision of case management, and establishment of individual habilitation plans. The decree was based on the court’s determination that conditions at the facility were dangerous to the well-being of residents and violated the due process and equal protection clauses of the U.S. Constitution and other federal and state legislation. The Pennhurst facility closed in 1987. See also Youngberg v. Romeoyoungberg-v-romeo.

penology

penology n. 1. the scientific study of the management of correctional facilities and the rehabilitation of criminals. 2. in older writings, the branch of criminology concerned with the theory and practice of the punishment of crime.

Penrose staircase

Penrose staircase see staircase illusion. [Lionel S. Penrose (1898–1972), British geneticist and mathematician, and Roger Penrose (1931– ), British physicist]

Penrose triangle

Penrose triangle a three-dimensional impossible figure composed of three bars, each at 90° to the adjacent bar, that appear to make a twisted triangle. The figure is more accurately called a tribar, since true triangles have three angles that add up to 180° rather than the 270° of the Penrose triangle. [Roger Penrose]

pentazocine

pentazocine n. see opioid antagonist.

pentobarbital

pentobarbital n. a short- to intermediate-acting barbiturate formerly in common use as a sedative and hypnotic drug. At one time, it was also used in psychotherapy to make clients less inhibited and therefore able to express themselves more effectively, but this practice was subsequently discredited. Pentobarbital is still used in the induction of anesthesia and very rarely in the treatment of a specific epileptic condition, but it has no mental health applications today. Like all barbiturates, it has been supplanted by safer agents, such as the benzodiazepines. U.S. trade name: Nembutal.

Pentothal

Pentothal n. a trade name for thiopental.

people-first language

people-first language syntactical rules recommended for describing individuals who have a disability: that is, the arrangement of words in a sentence so that it identifies the individuals first and their disability second and describes what they have rather than equating them with their disability. Examples of the use of such language include “a child with a learning disability” (rather than “a learning-disabled child”), “a child with Down syndrome” (rather than “a Down child”), and “a person who uses a wheelchair” (rather than “a wheelchair-bound person”).

pepsinogen

pepsinogen n. the precursor of pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme necessary for the breakdown of proteins. It is secreted by the gastric glands of the stomach and is converted to pepsin in the presence of gastric acid, also secreted by glands of the stomach.

peptic ulcer

peptic ulcer see ulcer.

peptide

peptide n. a short chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Peptides are usually identified by the number of amino acids in the chain. For example, dipeptides have two amino acids, tripeptides three, tetrapeptides four, and so on. See also polypeptide; protein.

peptide hormone

peptide hormone any hormone that is classed chemically as a peptide. Peptide hormones include corticotropin-releasing factor, corticotropin, oxytocin, vasopressin, and cholecystokinin.

per se exclusion rule

per se exclusion rule see State v. Mackstate-v-mack.

per-comparison error rate

per-comparison error rate see testwise error rate.

perceive

perceive vb. 1. to be conscious of or recognize through the senses. See perception. 2. to understand or grasp the meaning of something.

perceived behavioral control

perceived behavioral control the extent to which a person believes a behavior is under his or her active control. See theory of planned behavior.

perceived competence

perceived competence an individual’s belief in his or her ability to learn and execute skills.

Perceived Fraudulence Scale (PFS)

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perceived reality

perceived reality a person’s subjective experience of reality, in contrast to objective, external reality.

perceived risk

perceived risk see risk perception.

perceived self

perceived self the subjective appraisal of personal qualities that one ascribes to oneself.

perceived self-efficacy

perceived self-efficacy see self-efficacy.

perceived simultaneity

perceived simultaneity the integration of stimuli into a single, conscious percept despite discrepancies in their actual time of arrival, so that they are perceived as occurring simultaneously.

perceived susceptibility

perceived susceptibility a subjective estimate of the likelihood of personally contracting a disease. Also called perceived vulnerability.

percentage reinforcement

percentage reinforcement in operant conditioning, a procedure in which a fixed percentage of scheduled reinforcers is omitted.

percentile

percentile n. the location of a score in a distribution expressed as the percentage of cases in the data set with scores equal to or below the score in question. Thus, if a score is said to be in the 90th percentile, this means that 90% of the scores in the distribution are equal to or lower than that score.

percentile reinforcement

percentile reinforcement in operant conditioning, a procedure in which the likelihood that a response will be reinforced depends on the response exceeding (or being less than) a value based on a distribution from previous responses. Usually, the distribution is based on some set of the most recent responses, and it is updated with each response. For example, the current response might be eligible for reinforcement if its peak force falls above the 90th percentile of the distribution of forces from the previous 50 responses. The most recent force then replaces the earliest one in the distribution so that the distribution remains based on 50 entries.

percept

percept n. the product of perception: the stimulus object or event as experienced by the individual.

perception

perception n. the process or result of becoming aware of objects, relationships, and events by means of the senses, which includes such activities as recognizing, observing, and discriminating. These activities enable organisms to organize and interpret the stimuli received into meaningful knowledge and to act in a coordinated manner.

perception deafness

perception deafness the inability to analyze or perceive sounds normally, due to some impairment of the inner ear or auditory nerve pathways leading to the brain.

perception of spatial relations

perception of spatial relations an awareness of the static or dynamic spatial properties of an object, such as its extent or shape, and the relative location and orientation of stationary or moving objects in space.

perceptive

perceptive adj. describing an individual who is sensitive and discriminating, especially in the judgment of people, works of art, and so forth. —perceptiveness or perceptivity n.

perceptron

perceptron n. a connected network of input and output nodes that acts as a useful model of associative neural networks. A simple (single-layer) perceptron might stand for two connected neurons, whereas more complicated perceptrons have additional hidden layers between input and output. The connections between the inputs and outputs can be weighted to model the desired output. The goal is to develop a theoretical understanding of the way neural connections process signals and form associations (memories). Back-propagation (backprop) algorithms describe the most common process by which the weightings between input and output are adjusted. The output is compared to a desired endpoint, and changes needed in the strengths of the connections are transmitted back through the perceptron.

perceptual

perceptual adj. relating to the awareness of sensory stimuli.

perceptual aftereffect

perceptual aftereffect see aftereffect.

perceptual anchoring

perceptual anchoring 1. the process in which the qualities of a stimulus are perceived relative to another, reference stimulus. 2. see symbol grounding.

perceptual classification

perceptual classification in classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their perceptual characteristics. Compare complementary classification; conceptual classification; idiosyncratic classification.

perceptual closure

perceptual closure the process by which an incomplete stimulus (e.g., a drawing of a circle with a segment missing) is perceived to be complete (e.g., an entire circle).

perceptual constancy

perceptual constancy the phenomenon in which an object or its properties (e.g., size, shape, color) appear unchanged despite variations in the stimulus itself or in the external conditions of observation, such as object orientation or level of illumination. Examples of perceptual constancy include brightness constancy, color constancy, shape constancy, and size constancy.

perceptual cues

perceptual cues 1. features of a stimulus that are perceived and used by an organism in a particular situation or setting to identify and make judgments about that stimulus and its properties. 2. features of a situation that indicate the expected behavior. See demand characteristics.

perceptual cycle hypothesis

perceptual cycle hypothesis the theory that cognition affects perceptual exploration but is in turn modified by real-world experience, creating a cycle of cognition, attention, perception, and the real world in which each influences the others. Thus, sensory experience is neither totally internal nor totally external. [proposed in 1976 by Ulric Neisser]

perceptual defense

perceptual defense in psychoanalytic theory, a misperception that occurs when anxiety-arousing stimuli are unconsciously distorted. If taboo words are rapidly presented, they may be misinterpreted; for example, if the stimulus word anal is presented, individuals may report seeing the innocuous canal.

perceptual deficit

perceptual deficit an impaired ability to organize and interpret sensory experience, causing difficulty in observing, recognizing, and understanding people, situations, words, numbers, concepts, or images. Also called perceptual defect.

perceptual development

perceptual development the acquisition of skills that enable a person to organize sensory stimuli into meaningful entities during the course of physical and psychological development.

perceptual distortion

perceptual distortion skewed perceptual experience. Examples include the distorted images produced by dreams or hallucinogenic drugs, geometric illusions (e.g., the Müller-Lyer illusion), visions occurring in states of sensory deprivation or dehydration, and distortions produced by modifying auditory stimuli. Perceptual distortion may also occur as a consequence of acquired brain injury. See also metamorphopsia.

perceptual disturbance

perceptual disturbance a disorder of perception, such as (a) recognizing letters but not words, (b) inability to judge size or direction, (c) confusing background with foreground, (d) inability to filter out irrelevant sounds or sights, (e) a body-image distortion, or (f) difficulty with spatial relationships (e.g., misperceiving the difference between a straight line and a curved line). Also called perceptual disorder.

perceptual expansion

perceptual expansion 1. the development of the ability to recognize, interpret, and organize intellectual, emotional, and sensory data in a meaningful way. 2. the enriched understanding of experience that takes place in psychotherapy when greater insight is achieved through the therapeutic process and dynamic.

perceptual extinction

perceptual extinction an effect of lesions in the parieto-occipital region of the brain in which a stimulus, usually tactual or visual, is not detected. If a single stimulus is presented on either side of the midline, it is detected; however, when two stimuli are presented at the same time, one on each side of the midline, the stimulus on the side of the body opposite the location of the lesion is not detected. This phenomenon is utilized in neuropsychological research on attention mechanisms. Also called sensory extinction; sensory inattention.

perceptual field

perceptual field in Gestalt psychology, the totality of the environment that an individual perceives at a particular time; that is, all of the aspects of the environment of which the person is aware at a given time.

perceptual filtering

perceptual filtering the process of focusing attention on a selected subset of the large number of stimuli that are present at any one time. Perceptual filtering is necessary because the cognitive and physical capacity of an individual to process and respond to multiple sources of information is limited. See also bottleneck model.

perceptual fluency

perceptual fluency the ease with which a visual target is processed. The perceptual fluency theory of visual attention holds that the repeated presentation of a given target between presentations of distractors in successive trials increases the perceptual fluency for that target, thus making it easier to distinguish from the distractors.

perceptual learning

perceptual learning learning to perceive the relationships between stimuli and objects in the environment or the differences among stimuli.

perceptual maintenance

perceptual maintenance in environmental design, the construction of an environment to facilitate sensory functions (e.g., seeing, hearing) and to provide an appropriate level of perceptual stimulation for the activity carried out (e.g., the lighting and soundproofing of a recording studio).

perceptual masking

perceptual masking see masking.

perceptual measure

perceptual measure any test to evaluate sensory responses to stimuli. Examples include the Stroop Color–Word Interference Test and the Rod-and-Frame Test.

perceptual neglect

perceptual neglect see sensory neglect.

perceptual organization

perceptual organization the process by which the elements of visual and other sensory information are structured into a coherent whole. According to traditional Gestalt psychology, the parts of a group are organized to form whole figures that constitute more than the parts separately (see gestalt principles of organization). Later research more precisely defined the properties that enable such organized tasks. Artists have traditionally used the principles of perceptual organization to create desired moods or feelings and to challenge viewers’ expectations.

perceptual organizational deficit

perceptual organizational deficit a phenomenon in which a subset of people with schizophrenia have particular difficulty visually integrating the parts of an object and seeing them as an ensemble. For example, if looking at a watch, they will perceive the hands, the dial, and the numbers as separate forms but will have difficulty processing the watch face as a whole. [coined by U.S. psychologist Steven M. Silverstein (1962– )]

perceptual representation system (PRS)

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perceptual restructuring

perceptual restructuring the process of modifying a perception to accommodate new information.

perceptual rivalry

perceptual rivalry the incompatibility of different perceptions of the same object. When an ambiguous figure that allows two different perceptual interpretations is viewed, only one perceptual diagnosis can be made at any one time, so that perception alternates between the two rival interpretations. This switching between percepts is primarily involuntary.

perceptual schema

perceptual schema a mental model that provides a frame for interpreting information entering the mind through the senses or for activating an expectation of how a particular perceptual scene may look. See schema.

perceptual segregation

perceptual segregation the separation of one part of a perceptual field from the whole by physical boundaries or attention-diverting methods. See figure–ground.

perceptual sensitization

perceptual sensitization the lowering of an individual’s sensory thresholds for events that are emotionally sensitive or threatening.

perceptual set

perceptual set 1. a temporary readiness to perceive certain objects or events rather than others. For example, a person driving a car has a perceptual set to identify anything in the car or on the road that might affect his or her safety. See selective perception. 2. a schema or frame that influences the way in which a person perceives objects, events, or people. For example, an on-duty police officer and a painter might regard a crowded street scene with very different perceptual sets.

perceptual speed

perceptual speed see primary ability.

perceptual style

perceptual style the characteristic way in which an individual attends to, selects, alters, and interprets sensory stimuli.

perceptual synthesis

perceptual synthesis 1. the integration of experience from all the senses to establish knowledge of the external world and one’s interactions with it and to eliminate unessential information about both. 2. in auditory perception, a phenomenon in which people perceive missing sounds or faint sounds when the gap created by them is filled with white noise.

perceptual test

perceptual test a memory test that involves processing the surface features of a stimulus. Perceptual tests can be used to measure implicit memory, as in word-stem completion in which participants are given sets of introductory letters and asked to form complete words using the first words that come to mind. Such tests can also be used to measure explicit memory, as in the graphemic cued-recall test in which participants are given cues that are similar in physical appearance to the target item but differ in meaning (e.g., fickle as a cue for freckle). Compare conceptual test.

perceptual training

perceptual training a method of enhancing an individual’s ability to interpret perceived objects or events in concrete terms. For example, the ability of a child to recognize letters of the alphabet may be enhanced when he or she traces the outlines of the letters.

perceptual transformation

perceptual transformation 1. any modification in a percept produced by (a) an addition to, deletion from, or alteration in a physical stimulus or (b) a novel interpretation of the stimulus, a change in a set or attitude, or a sudden insight concerning the material. 2. a change in the way a problem, event, or person is perceived by the inclusion of new information or a different perspective.

perceptual user interface

perceptual user interface an interface that enables a computer system to “perceive,” interpret, and respond appropriately to the facial expressions, speech, gestures or movements, and other perceptually based patterns of communication typical of users. The intent is to provide realistic, interactive encounters similar to those experienced among people in the real world. Compare graphical user interface; tangible user interface.

perceptual–motor coordination

perceptual–motor coordination the use of perceptually derived information (e.g., from vision, touch) in the control of ongoing movements.

perceptual–motor learning

perceptual–motor learning the learning of a skill that requires linking the perceptual discrimination of important stimuli with appropriate motor responses (e.g., hitting a ball, driving an automobile).

perceptual–motor match

perceptual–motor match the ability to correlate perceptual data with a previously learned set of motor responses. An individual with brain damage may have to touch everything he or she sees because of an inability to make the perceptual–motor match automatically.

perceptualization

perceptualization n. in schizophrenia, the transformation of abstract concepts into specific perceptions. For example, an individual who thinks poorly of himself or herself may later experience hallucinations that bad odors are emanating from his or her body; the rotten personality becomes the rotten body that smells. Perceptualization is the most advanced level of active concretization. [defined by Italian-born U.S. psychiatrist Silvano Arieti (1914–1982)]

percipient

percipient 1. adj. capable of perception. 2. n. in parapsychology, the alleged recipient of telepathic communications or other extrasensory impressions. Compare agent. See also receiver.

percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling (PUBS)

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perdida del alma

perdida del alma see susto.

peregrination

peregrination n. excessive traveling from place to place. Peregrination is one of the essential features of Münchausen syndrome: The individual feels impelled to travel from town to town or from hospital to hospital in order to find a new audience every time the false nature of the illness is discovered. Also called itinerancy.

peremptory challenge

peremptory challenge a request made to the judge during voir dire that a prospective juror be replaced without indicating a specific reason. In criminal trials, each side is allowed a particular number of peremptory challenges. Compare challenge for cause.

perfect correlation

perfect correlation a relationship between two variables, x and y, in which the change in value of one variable is exactly proportional to the change in value of the other. That is, knowing the value of one variable exactly predicts the value of the other variable (i.e., rxy = 1.0). When graphed, a perfect correlation forms a perfectly straight line. If the variables change in the same direction (i.e., they both increase or both decrease), the correlation is perfect positive, whereas if the variables change in opposite directions (i.e., one increases as the other decreases or vice versa), the correlation is perfect negative. It is uncommon to observe this type of relationship in actual data. See also correlation coefficient.

perfect pitch

perfect pitch see absolute pitch.

perfectionism

perfectionism n. the tendency to demand of others or of oneself an extremely high or even flawless level of performance, in excess of what is required by the situation. It is associated with depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and other mental health problems. —perfectionist adj., n.

perforant path

perforant path the route of axons that perforate the subiculum to provide the main inputs to the hippocampus.

performance

performance n. 1. any activity or collection of responses that leads to a result or has an effect on the environment. 2. the behavior of an organism (the performer) when faced with a specific task. 3. in linguistics, see competence.

performance anxiety

performance anxiety apprehension and fear of the consequences of being unable to perform a task or of performing it at a level that will raise expectations of even better task achievement. Test anxiety is a common example of performance anxiety. Other examples include fear of public speaking, participating in classes or meetings, playing a musical instrument in public, and eating in public. If the fear associated with performance anxiety is focused on negative evaluation by others, embarrassment, or humiliation, the anxiety may be classified as a social phobia.

performance appraisal

performance appraisal see performance review.

performance assessment

performance assessment 1. see performance review. 2. an appraisal of growth or deterioration in learning, memory, or both during performance on ability and achievement tests.

performance contract

performance contract a formal agreement between an employer and an employee regarding the work outcomes expected of the employee and the compensation and other rewards provided for these outcomes.

performance enhancement

performance enhancement the act or process of increasing one’s level of achievement at a task or activity by building one’s physical and mental capacity or endurance for it through exercise, positive self-talk, the use of imagery, and other means. See performance enhancing drug.

performance enhancing drug

performance enhancing drug a substance taken inappropriately or illegally (i.e., without a prescription) to build muscle, boost stamina, and increase speed for the purpose of achieving a heightened level of performance in competitive sports or to improve concentration for the purpose of achieving better performance in activities requiring sustained attention (e.g., studying, taking tests, conducting research, long-haul truck driving). The substances most often identified as performance enhancing drugs are anabolic-androgenic steroids (for enhanced physical functioning) and stimulant medications such as Adderall and Ritalin (for enhanced mental functioning), the latter used off-label from their prescribed purpose in treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy. Anabolic-androgenic steroids and similar substances are specifically called appearance and performance enhancing drugs when used to improve one’s body image or fitness or to alter one’s appearance in order to succeed in professions where performance is based on appearance (e.g., bouncers). Also called performance enhancement drug.

performance evaluation

performance evaluation 1. see performance review. 2. generally, any process of comparing the expected, planned, or ideal level of accomplishment or outcome for a particular activity or goal with the actual level of accomplishment or outcome.

performance goal

performance goal 1. in the motivational theory of U.S. personality psychologist Carol S. Dweck (1946– ), the goal of demonstrating to others who may be evaluating one’s performance that one possesses a particular ability or other attribute. This is in contrast to a learning goal, in which one aims to develop an ability or attribute. 2. a goal that is set in terms of a specific level of achievement, such as running a mile in 5 minutes 30 seconds. See also goal setting.

performance imagery

performance imagery 1. the use of imagery to cognitively recreate all the sensations of a performance. See mental rehearsal. 2. the use of imagery during a performance as a cue to tell the body what to do, such as imaging an explosion under the foot at the moment of takeoff for a high jump.

performance intensity

performance intensity see intensity.

performance IQ

performance IQ see IQ.

performance management

performance management a system for improving individual, work team, and organizational results. It relies on a continuous process that provides formal goal setting, timely and structured feedback, regular performance review, and opportunities for employee development and training. [developed in the 1970s by U.S. clinical psychologist Aubrey C. Daniels (1935— )]

performance review

performance review a formal appraisal of an employee’s job performance, typically conducted by his or her supervisor at least once a year. The review may be in the form of a quantitative rating or a more subjective appraisal and usually involves feedback to the employee. Also called performance appraisal; performance assessment; performance evaluation. See also employee evaluation; evaluation interview; job criterion.

performance routine

performance routine a predetermined set of physical and mental behaviors followed during a performance that allows an individual (e.g., an actor, a musician, an athlete) to maintain focus, energy levels, confidence, and control.

performance test

performance test any test of ability requiring primarily motor, rather than verbal, responses, such as a test requiring manipulation of different objects or completion of a task that involves physical movement.

performance-operating characteristic (POC)

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performative

performative adj. denoting an utterance whose very delivery accomplishes the stated intention of the speaker, as in I apologize, I promise, and I declare this mall open. The nature of performative speech acts received much attention in 20th-century linguistic philosophy. See also illocutionary act.

peri-

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Periactin

Periactin n. a trade name for cyproheptadine.

periamygdaloid cortex

periamygdaloid cortex an ill-defined region surrounding the amygdala of the brain that is associated with the sense of smell. The proportion of the brain that it occupies in a particular species seems to depend on the importance of the sense of smell for survival: the greater the importance, the larger the proportion. Dogs, for example, have a larger proportion of olfactory nerve tissue than do human beings. See also pyriform area.

periaqueductal gray (PAG)

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perikaryon

perikaryon n. see cell body.

perilymph

perilymph n. the fluid that fills the space between the membranous labyrinth and the walls of the bony labyrinth in the inner ear. —perilymphatic adj.

perimenopause

perimenopause n. see climacteric. —perimenopausal adj.

perimeter

perimeter n. a hemispherical instrument used to plot the limits of the visual field. An individual is seated within the hemisphere and is asked to fixate a central spot of light. The visual field is then probed with small flashes of light, which the participant is asked to detect. The size and brightness of the flashes can be varied to assess visual sensitivity at many points within the field.

perimetry

perimetry n. the measurement of the extent of the visual field. See perimeter.

perinatal herpes-virus infection

perinatal herpes-virus infection a herpes simplex Type 2 infection that is transmitted from a pregnant woman to her fetus. The fetal infection may develop into a severe blood disorder and can also result in a fatal form of encephalitis. The complication is most likely to develop in late pregnancy. See herpes infection.

period

period n. 1. the interval of time between the same point in successive cycles, such as sunset to sunset. 2. see frequency. 3. see menstruation.

period effect

period effect any outcome associated with living during a particular time period or era, regardless of how old one was at the time. Certain historical events, such as war, the introduction of social media, or the events occurring on September 11, 2001, may affect responses of participants in research studies. Period effects may be difficult to distinguish from age effects and cohort effects in research.

period prevalence

period prevalence see prevalence.

periodic reinforcement

periodic reinforcement see fixed-interval schedule.

periodicity

periodicity n. the state of recurring more or less regularly (i.e., at intervals). Phenomena that exhibit periodicity include the cycle of the seasons, human circadian rhythms, and consumer spending.

periodicity pitch

periodicity pitch see virtual pitch.

periodicity theory

periodicity theory the theory that pitch is encoded in the temporal structure of the neural responses to sounds, specifically in the timing of neural discharges (“spikes”). For periodic sounds, the discharges of auditory nerve fibers tend to occur at integer multiples of the period of the sound. See phase locking. Compare place theory.

peripheral

peripheral adj. 1. in the nervous system, located or taking place outside the brain and spinal cord. Compare central. 2. in vision, toward the margins of the visual field, rather than close to the center. The onset of a peripheral stimulus tends to draw attention to that location. 3. situated on the surface of a body. 4. situated away from a center and toward the outside edge. 5. incidental or superficial.

peripheral anticholinergic syndrome

peripheral anticholinergic syndrome see anticholinergic syndrome.

peripheral auditory system

peripheral auditory system see auditory system.

peripheral cue

peripheral cue a factor that is external to the merits of an argument and that can be used to provide a relatively low-effort basis for determining whether an attitude object should be positively or negatively evaluated. See also elaboration-likelihood model; peripheral route to persuasion.

peripheral dysarthria

peripheral dysarthria see dysarthria.

peripheral dyslexia

peripheral dyslexia see visual word-form dyslexia.

peripheral dysostosis with nasal hypoplasia

peripheral dysostosis with nasal hypoplasia a congenital abnormality characterized by short, wide hands and feet and a short, flat nose with nostrils bent forward. Most affected individuals show some degree of intellectual disability and learning difficulties. Because of foot anomalies, learning to walk may be delayed. Also called acrodysostosis.

peripheral nerve fiber classification

peripheral nerve fiber classification the classification of peripheral nerve fibers (axons) according to their diameters, speeds of conduction, and locations. They fall into three main classes. A fibers vary from 1 to 20 μm in diameter; they are myelinated fibers and conduct rapidly. B fibers occur in the preganglionic autonomic nervous system; they are myelinated but of relatively small diameter, and they conduct more slowly than A fibers. C fibers vary from 0.2 to 1.5 μm in diameter; they are unmyelinated and conduct slowly. See also velocity of conduction.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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peripheral neuropathy

peripheral neuropathy a neuromuscular disorder of the extremities caused by damage to the peripheral nervous system and usually characterized by weakness, numbness, clumsiness, and sensory loss. Causes are numerous and include diabetes, nutritional deficiencies, injury or trauma, and exposure to toxic substances (see alcoholic neuropathy).

peripheral route to persuasion

peripheral route to persuasion the process by which attitudes are formed or changed as a result of using peripheral cues rather than carefully scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information. See also elaboration; elaboration-likelihood model. Compare central route to persuasion.

peripheral vision

peripheral vision vision provided by retinal stimulation outside the fovea centralis. Compare central vision; paracentral vision.

peripheralism

peripheralism n. the view of some behaviorists that emphasizes events at the periphery of an organism, such as the skeletal and laryngeal muscles and sex organs, rather than the functions of the central nervous system. For example, John B. Watson believed (falsely) that thinking was not a function taking place in the brain but involved minute movements of the vocal apparatus (subvocal speech) and thus was an objective behavior. Also called peripheralistic psychology. Compare centralism.

periphery

periphery n. in vision, the part of the visual field outside the fovea centralis.

perirhinal cortex

perirhinal cortex a structure in the medial temporal lobe adjacent to the hippocampus that plays an important role as an interface between visual perception and memory.

perisylvian language zone

perisylvian language zone the area of the brain that is responsible for language. It consists of the region around the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) of the left hemisphere and includes Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. Damage to the zone causes various forms of aphasia. Also called perisylvian area; perisylvian language area.

peritraumatic dissociation

peritraumatic dissociation a transient dissociative experience (see dissociation) that occurs at or around the time of a traumatic event. Affected individuals may feel as if they are watching the trauma occur to someone else, as if in a movie, or they may feel “spaced out” and disoriented after the trauma. The occurrence of peritraumatic dissociation is a predictor for the later development of posttraumatic stress disorder.

periventricular white matter

periventricular white matter tissue consisting largely of myelinated nerve fibers (i.e., white matter) that surrounds the lateral cerebral ventricles.

Perky effect

Perky effect the tendency for an imagined stimulus to interfere with seeing an actual target stimulus when the imagined form is close to that of the target. In one study, for example, a participant was positioned in front of a blank screen and asked to imagine a leaf, while simultaneously, without the participant’s knowledge, a blurry picture of a leaf was projected onto the screen, gradually becoming brighter; the intensity of the picture was well above the threshold for detection before the participant reported seeing it. [described in 1910 by Cheves West Perky (1874–1940), U.S. psychologist]

perlocutionary act

perlocutionary act see illocutionary act.

permanency planning

permanency planning a time-limited, goal-oriented process in which plans are developed for placing abused or neglected children in a permanent, safe, and stable home, whether with their families of origin (including nonparent relatives) or through adoption.

permanent vegetative state

permanent vegetative state see vegetative state.

permastore

permastore n. long-term or permanent memory that develops after extensive learning, training, or experience. Details of foreign languages or algebra learned years ago in school, and even the names of classmates, are said to be retained in permastore. See also semantic memory. [first described by Austrian-born U.S. cognitive psychologist Harry P. Bahrick (1924– )]

permeability

permeability n. the state of being permeable to gases, liquids, or dissolved substances, such as by having fine pores through which substances can pass. A perfect membrane has no permeability, but most biological membranes are selectively permeable (or semipermeable), permitting the passage of certain substances (e.g., nutrients into a cell). See also osmotic pressure. —permeable adj.

permeable family

permeable family a more fluid and flexible version of the nuclear family that some sociologists regard as an emerging norm in contemporary Western society. The permeable family differs from the stereotypical nuclear family in five main areas: It is characterized by (a) a greater variety of family structures produced by divorce, remarriage, and the acceptance of cohabitation and single-parent families; (b) a looser sense of family boundaries, so that the offspring of former relationships may be regarded as part of the family unit for some purposes but not for others (see boundary ambiguity); (c) the erosion of traditional sex roles within the family as a result of feminism and the greater role played by women in the workforce; (d) the erosion of a sense of hierarchy and deference within the family, so that children and teenagers expect greater freedom and respect for their views and preferences; and (e) the tendency for all members of the family to expect greater autonomy, so that individual activities sometimes take precedence over shared pursuits and rituals (e.g., family meals). See also stepfamily.

permissible exposure level

permissible exposure level the point at which an employer must use engineering controls or administrative controls to reduce employees’ exposure to certain hazards, such as noise. See noise dose.

permission schema

permission schema see pragmatic reasoning schema theory.

permissive parenting

permissive parenting see parenting.

permissiveness

permissiveness n. an interpersonal style or approach that involves giving a wide range of freedom and autonomy to those with whom one has dealings or over whom one has authority. For example, it refers to a particular parenting style in which the child is given wide latitude in expressing his or her feelings and opinions and in which artificial restrictions and punishment are avoided as much as possible. —permissive adj.

permutation

permutation n. an ordered arrangement of elements from a set. A permutation is similar to a combination but distinguished by its emphasis on order. For example, if there are three colored objects—red (R), white (W), and blue (B)—there are six possible permutations of these objects: RWB, RBW, WBR, WRB, BRW, and BWR.

permutation test

permutation test see randomization test.

peroneal muscular atrophy

peroneal muscular atrophy see Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease.

perphenazine

perphenazine n. a conventional antipsychotic agent of the piperazine phenothiazine class. It is used for the treatment of schizophrenia, and its efficacy and side effects are similar to those of other phenothiazines. As with all phenothiazines, long-term use may be associated with the production of tardive dyskinesia or other neuromuscular deficits. U.S. trade name: Trilafon.

persecution delusional disorder

persecution delusional disorder a type of delusional disorder in which the central delusion is persecutory (e.g., that one is being plotted against).

persecutory delusion

persecutory delusion see delusion of persecution.

perseverance

perseverance n. see persistence.

perseverance effect

perseverance effect the phenomenon in which people’s beliefs about themselves and others persist despite a lack of supporting evidence or even a contradiction of supporting evidence.

perseveration

perseveration n. 1. in general, persistence in doing something to an exceptional level or beyond an appropriate point. 2. in neuropsychology, the inappropriate repetition of behavior that is often associated with damage to the frontal lobe of the brain. 3. an inability to interrupt a task or to shift from one strategy or procedure to another. Perseveration may be observed, for example, in workers under extreme task demands or environmental conditions (mainly heat stress). 4. according to the perseveration–consolidation hypothesis, the repetition, after a learning experience, of neural processes that are responsible for memory formation, which is necessary for the consolidation of long-term memory. 5. in speech and language, the abnormal or inappropriate repetition of a sound, word, or phrase, as occurs in stuttering. 6. the persistence or prolongation of a speech mode beyond the particular developmental stage at which it is typical or accepted, such as baby talk continuing into later childhood or adulthood. —perseverate vb.

perseveration–consolidation hypothesis

perseveration–consolidation hypothesis the hypothesis that information passes through two stages in memory formation. During the first stage, the memory is held by perseveration (repetition) of neural activity and is easily disrupted. During the second stage, the memory becomes fixed, or consolidated, and is no longer easily disrupted. The perseveration–consolidation hypothesis guides much contemporary research on the biological basis of long-term learning and memory. Also called consolidation hypothesis; consolidation–perseveration hypothesis. See also dual trace hypothesis. [originally proposed in 1900 by German psychologists Georg Elias Müller and Alfons Pilzecker (1865–1949)]

perseverative error

perseverative error the continuing recurrence of an error, such as continuing to call a square a circle even after feedback that the name is wrong, or repeating the same answer to a series of different questions.

persistence

persistence n. 1. continuance or repetition of a particular behavior, process, or activity despite cessation of the initiating stimulus. 2. the quality or state of maintaining a course of action or keeping at a task and finishing it despite the obstacles (such as opposition or discouragement) or the effort involved. Also called perseverance. See Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality; Temperament and Character Inventory. 3. continuance of existence, especially for longer than is usual or expected. —persistent adj.

persistence of an attitude

persistence of an attitude the extent to which an attitude is stable over time and remains constant in the absence of a direct challenge. See also attitude strength.

persistence of vision

persistence of vision see visual persistence.

persistent complex bereavement disorder

persistent complex bereavement disorder in DSM–5, a proposed diagnosis labeled “for further study” and based on a combination of symptoms, such as preoccupation with the deceased, marked difficulty accepting the death of a loved one, a desire to die to be with the deceased, difficulty trusting other individuals since the death, and clinically significant distress or impairment; for this diagnosis, at least 12 months (adults) or 6 months (children) must have passed since the death.

persistent depressive disorder

persistent depressive disorder see dysthymic disorder.

persistent noncognitive state

persistent noncognitive state see vegetative state.

persistent puberism

persistent puberism a condition in which secondary sexual characteristics become arrested in development and individuals remain, in effect, pubescent for the duration of their lives.

persistent vegetative state (PVS)

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person in the patient

person in the patient in the psychosomatic approach to therapy, the role of the patient’s personality, character, and emotions as causative agents.

person perception

person perception the processes by which people think about, appraise, and evaluate other people. An important aspect of person perception is the attribution of motives for action (see attribution theory).

person-centered planning

person-centered planning a process that, in the planning of services for an individual, focuses on his or her particular strengths, preferences, achievements, and unique circumstances. In the case of a person with a developmental disability, for example, emphasis is placed on the person, his or her family members, and the supports needed to enable the person to make choices, participate in the community, and achieve dignity. The process requires an extended commitment from participants and the development of an action-oriented plan.

person-centered team

person-centered team a group of people who meet periodically to develop plans for supports and services to enhance the lifestyle and self-determination of an individual with a disability (e.g., an intellectual or developmental disability). The team uses methods based on principles of person-centered planning. Team participants are invited by the person with the disability or his or her advocate, rather than by a service organization or agency, and they need not be trained professionals in human services.

person-centered therapy

person-centered therapy see client-centered therapy.

person-needs analysis

person-needs analysis in industrial and organizational settings, a component of needs assessment in which data are collected to determine whether employees need training, which employees need training, and whether they are ready for training.

person-years

person-years pl. n. the sum of the number of years that each individual in a population has been affected by an event, occurrence, or condition (e.g., a particular disorder or disease, a certain treatment protocol).

person–environment interaction

person–environment interaction the relationship between a person’s psychological and physical capacities and the demands placed on those capacities by the person’s social and physical environment. Quality of life is influenced by person–environment congruence: Too few or too many environmental demands can lead to poorer quality of life. See also environmental press–competence model.

person–machine system

person–machine system see human–machine system.

persona

persona n. in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, the public face an individual presents to the outside world, in contrast to more deeply rooted and authentic personality characteristics. This sense has now passed into popular usage. The term is taken from the mask worn by actors in Roman antiquity.

personal adjustment

personal adjustment 1. adaptation by an individual to conditions in his or her family and community, especially in social interactions with those with whom regular personal contact is necessary. 2. the degree to which a person is able to cope with the demands of life.

personal attribution

personal attribution see dispositional attribution.

personal audit

personal audit an oral or written interview or questionnaire designed to encourage individuals to assess their own personal strengths and weaknesses.

personal commitment

personal commitment 1. an individual’s adherence to a cause, attitude, or belief. Personal commitment does not necessarily reflect cultural values, attitudes, or beliefs. See also postconventional level. 2. in U.S. sociologist Michael P. Johnson’s tripartite model of marital commitment, a form of commitment based on the desire to continue a relationship because it is satisfying, enjoyable, or personally rewarding. It is considered the strongest type of commitment because it is based on the individual’s personal wishes and is experienced as voluntary. Compare moral commitment; structural commitment.

personal construct

personal construct in personality theory, one of the concepts by which an individual perceives, understands, predicts, and attempts to control the world. See repertory grid. [formulated by George A. Kelly]

personal construct therapy

personal construct therapy a therapy based on the concept of the personal construct. The essence of the approach is to help individuals test the usefulness and validity of their constructs and to revise and elaborate them as necessary to enhance their positive interpretations of and interactions with the world. [developed in the 1950s by George A. Kelly]

personal data sheet

personal data sheet a questionnaire used by organizations to obtain biographical facts about current or potential employees, including their date of birth, sex, education, occupational history, interests, and health history.

personal disjunction

personal disjunction an individual’s feeling or perception of dissimilarity or discrepancy between what is or might be and the objective reality or likelihood.

personal disposition

personal disposition Gordon W. Allport’s term for a personality trait: any of a number of enduring characteristics that describe or determine an individual’s behavior across a variety of situations and that are peculiar to and uniquely expressed by that individual. Personal dispositions are divided into three categories according to their degree of influence on the behavior of the person possessing them. Cardinal dispositions (or cardinal traits), such as a thirst for power, are so pervasive that they influence virtually every behavior of that person; central dispositions (or central traits), such as friendliness, are less pervasive but nonetheless generally influential and easy to identify; and secondary dispositions (or secondary traits), such as a tendency to keep a neat desk, are much more narrowly expressed and situation specific. Compare common trait.

personal distance zone

personal distance zone the distance zone adopted by those interacting with friends and personal acquaintances. The personal distance zone is defined as the area 0.5 to 1.5 m (1.5 to 4 ft) from a person. Compare intimate zone; public distance zone; social zone. See also proxemics.

personal documents

personal documents writings (diaries, letters, essays, etc.), recordings, and similar material produced by a person that, when examined in personal-document analysis, may provide insights into that person’s personality, values, attitudes, beliefs, fears, and so forth.

personal equation

personal equation 1. the difference in performance attributed to individual differences. 2. historically, a difference in reaction time between two observers.

personal fable

personal fable a belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of adolescent egocentrism and may extend further into the lifespan. Also called invincibility fable. [first described by U.S. developmental psychologist David Elkind (1931– )]

personal identity

personal identity see identity.

personal involvement

personal involvement see ego involvement.

Personal Orientation Inventory (POI)

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personal plan

personal plan 1. a conception of one’s future that includes goals to be achieved. 2. in psychotherapy, a written plan of intervention developed for a client with the participation of all parties concerned. Usually compiled with reference to diagnostic and other data relevant to the client’s situation, it identifies a continuum of treatment by outlining progressive steps to be achieved by the client.

personal probability

personal probability see subjective probability.

personal projects

personal projects the aims of an individual that involve an organized set of activities of personal relevance over an extended period. [analyzed by Canadian personality psychologist Brian R. Little]

personal protective equipment

personal protective equipment gear, such as gloves, face masks, or hearing protection, that acts as a barrier to reduce or eliminate an individual’s exposure to a hazard (e.g., dangerous chemicals, high levels of noise). See also administrative controls; engineering controls.

personal space

personal space an area of defended space around an individual. Personal space differs from other types of defended space (e.g., territory) by being a surrounding “bubble” that moves with the individual (see bubble concept of personal space). It may have been used by various species throughout evolutionary history to protect the individual organism against intraspecies aggression and threats to personal autonomy. Because human use of personal space varies among cultures, it is a learned behavior, at least in part. See proxemics.

personal space invasion

personal space invasion the intrusion by one person into the personal space of another. The intruder inappropriately and uncomfortably crowds the other person. See proxemics.

personal strivings

personal strivings personal goal systems that involve multiple interrelated aims, some of which may support one another whereas others may be in conflict. [analyzed by U.S. personality psychologist Robert A. Emmons (1958– )]

personal unconscious

personal unconscious in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, the portion of each individual’s unconscious that contains the elements of his or her own experience as opposed to the collective unconscious, which contains the archetypes universal to humankind. The personal unconscious consists of everything subliminal, forgotten, and repressed in an individual’s life. Some of these contents may be recalled to consciousness, as in Sigmund Freud’s notion of the preconscious, but others cannot and are truly unconscious. The personal unconscious also contains complexes based on the individual’s personal experience. In Jung’s view, the personal unconscious must be integrated into the conscious ego for individuation to occur.

personal-care attendant

personal-care attendant a person hired by an individual with a disability to provide assistance with activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, eating).

personal-growth group

personal-growth group a small group of individuals that uses “encounter” methods, such as games, confrontation, and reenactment, for self-discovery and the development of the members’ potential. See also encounter group; human-potential movement.

personal-growth laboratory

personal-growth laboratory a sensitivity training course that seeks to develop the participants’ capabilities for constructive relationships, creative effort, leadership, and understanding of others. This is achieved by various methods, such as art activities, intellectual discussions, sensory stimulation, and emotional interactions.

personal-history questionnaire

personal-history questionnaire a questionnaire that records information about a person’s special abilities, interests, extracurricular activities, family life, and any medical, emotional, or other problems relating to performance of activities or social adjustment.

personalism

personalism n. 1. the philosophical position that human personality is the sole means through which reality can be understood or interpreted. At the core of this perspective is the concept of the person as a unique living whole, irreducible in value or worth, who is striving toward goals and is simultaneously self-contained yet open to the surrounding world. Personalism reorients the material of psychology around an experiencing individual as a systematic focal point. Thus, the findings of psychology can be organized only by reference to such a unique, living individual as the originator, carrier, and regulator of all psychological states and processes. This position reflects that of the school of personalistic psychology. 2. a tendency to believe that another person’s actions are directed at oneself rather than being an expression of that individual’s characteristics.

personalistic psychology

personalistic psychology a school of psychology that emphasizes personality as the core of the field (see personalism), the uniqueness of every human being, and the study of an individual’s traits (and organization of traits) as the key to personal understanding and adjustment to the environment. Personalistic psychology originated with German psychologists Eduard Spranger (1882–1963) and William Stern, as well as other Europeans, and was developed in the United States by Gordon W. Allport.

personality

personality n. the enduring configuration of characteristics and behavior that comprises an individual’s unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns. Personality is generally viewed as a complex, dynamic integration or totality shaped by many forces, including hereditary and constitutional tendencies; physical maturation; early training; identification with significant individuals and groups; culturally conditioned values and roles; and critical experiences and relationships. Various theories explain the structure and development of personality in different ways, but all agree that personality helps determine behavior. See also personality development; personality psychology; personality structure.

personality assessment

personality assessment the evaluation of such factors as intelligence, skills, interests, aptitudes, creative abilities, attitudes, and facets of psychological development by a variety of methods and techniques. These include (a) observational methods that use behavior sampling, interviews, and rating scales; (b) personality inventories, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; and (c) projective techniques, such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test. The uses of personality assessment are numerous, including in the clinical evaluation of children and adults; in educational and vocational counseling; in industry and other organizational settings; and in rehabilitation.

personality change

personality change a modification of psychological functioning in relation to personality, such as a change in the degree to which one is shy versus socially open or a shift in the way one views events and behavior as internally controlled versus externally determined.

personality correlates

personality correlates 1. personality traits that are associated with a particular condition, illness, or disorder. For example, personality correlates of stress sensitivity may include introversion, obsession, and dependency. 2. variables that correlate with measures of personality. Correlations between personality traits and observed behaviors, for example, provide evidence for the validity of measures of such traits.

personality cult

personality cult see cult of personality.

personality deterioration

personality deterioration a progressive decline in an individual’s sense of personal identity, self-worth, motivational forces, and emotional life to the point at which he or she appears to be a changed person or even a “nonperson.”

personality development

personality development the gradual development of personality in terms of characteristic emotional responses or temperament, a recognizable style of life, personal roles and role behaviors, a set of values and goals, typical patterns of adjustment, characteristic interpersonal relations and sexual relationships, characteristic traits, and a relatively fixed self-image.

personality disintegration

personality disintegration fragmentation of the personality to such an extent that the individual no longer presents a unified, predictable set of beliefs, attitudes, traits, and behavioral responses. The most extreme examples of disintegrated, disorganized personality are found in the schizophrenias.

personality disorder (PD)

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personality dysfunction

personality dysfunction any manner in which a personality operates maladaptively. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for personality disorder.

personality inventory

personality inventory a personality assessment device that usually consists of a series of statements covering various characteristics and behavioral patterns to which the participant responds by choosing among fixed answers, such as true, false, always, often, seldom, or never, as applied to himself or herself. The scoring of such tests is objective, and the results are interpreted according to standardized norms. An example is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

personality processes

personality processes the dynamics of personality functioning that change over time and across situations as the individual interacts with different people and events in the environment. Personality processes are usually contrasted with personality structure, or the stable, enduring elements of an individual’s personality.

personality profile

personality profile 1. a graphic presentation of results from psychological testing that provides a summary of a person’s traits or other unique attributes and tendencies. Because various scores appear in one display, a researcher can see the pattern of high and low scale scores for a given person. For example, a profile of an individual’s test results from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory would display his or her scores on measures of depression, hysteria, masculinity/femininity, paranoia, social introversion, and other attributes. 2. a summary of traits and behavioral tendencies that are believed to be typical of a particular group or category of individuals (e.g., people with a particular disorder, people employed in a particular profession).

personality psychology

personality psychology the branch of psychology that systematically investigates the nature and definition of personality as well as its development, its structure and trait constructs, its dynamic processes, its variations (with emphasis on enduring and stable individual differences), and its maladaptive forms (i.e., personality disorders). The field rests on a long history of theoretical formulation (e.g., trait theories, psychoanalytic theories, role theories, learning theories, type theories) that has aimed to synthesize cognitive, emotional, motivational, developmental, and social elements of human individuality into integrative frameworks for making sense of the individual human life. It has also developed numerous tests and assessments to measure and understand aspects of personality.

personality structure

personality structure the organization of the personality in terms of its basic, enduring components and their relationship to each other. Structural theories vary widely according to their key concepts and include, for example, the personal dispositions proposed by Gordon W. Allport; the surface traits and source traits in Cattell’s personality trait theory; the id, ego, and superego in Sigmund Freud’s theory; the individual style of life posited by Alfred Adler; and the needs and motivations in Maslow’s motivational hierarchy.

personality study

personality study the study of the dynamic structure and processes that determine individuals’ emotional and behavioral adjustments to their environment. Such research has focused on the structure of major trait constructs, on how traits affect actions and selection of social settings, and on the stability of traits throughout the lifespan. For example, a researcher might be interested in understanding how conscientiousness manifests itself from adolescence to late adulthood.

personality test

personality test any instrument used to help evaluate personality or measure personality traits. Personality tests may collect self-report data, in which participants answer questions about their personality or select items that describe themselves, or they may take the form of projective tests (see projective technique) to measure both the conscious and unconscious aspects of a participant’s personality.

personality trait

personality trait a relatively stable, consistent, and enduring internal characteristic that is inferred from a pattern of behaviors, attitudes, feelings, and habits in the individual. The study of personality traits can be useful in summarizing, predicting, and explaining an individual’s conduct, and a variety of personality trait theories exist, among them Allport’s personality trait theory and Cattell’s personality trait theory. However, because such theories do not explain the proximal causes of behavior or provide a developmental account, they must be supplemented by dynamic and processing concepts, such as those involving motives, schemas, plans, and life stories.

personality type

personality type any of the specific categories into which human beings may be classified on the basis of personality traits, attitudes, behavior patterns, physique (see constitutional type), or other outstanding characteristics. Examples are Carl Jung’s introversion–extraversion distinction and functional types and Erich Fromm’s character types, such as the exploitative orientation and marketing orientation.

personality-based integrity test

personality-based integrity test see integrity testing.

personality-guided therapy

personality-guided therapy a therapeutic framework that considers an understanding of each individual’s unique cognitive, affective, and behavioral traits to be essential for effective clinical treatment. According to this approach, psychopathology emerges from poorly functioning personality systems. Thus, to best facilitate a client’s long-term recovery and return to healthy functioning, the approach does not address symptoms per se but rather focuses on changing the underlying ways of thinking, feeling, perceiving, and relating that are associated with the pathology. Once a practitioner becomes familiar with the whole person, he or she may then selectively apply various therapeutic techniques and perspectives (cognitive behavioral, humanistic, psychodynamic, etc.) if and when appropriate to a given personality system. For example, a nurturing, supportive approach to treating depression would be appropriate for clients with dependent personalities (who feel helpless and fear abandonment) but not for those with antisocial personalities (who are exploitative and impulsive). [introduced in 1999 by Theodore Millon]

Personalized Implicit Association Test

Personalized Implicit Association Test an implicit attitude measure designed to eliminate the potential influence of extrapersonal associations on responses. In this procedure, the relatively normative category labels of pleasant and unpleasant are typically replaced with the more personalized category labels of I like and I don’t like, and no feedback is given regarding classification errors. It is a variation of the Implicit Association Test. [developed by U.S. psychologists Michael A. Olson and Russell H. Fazio (1952– )]

personalized instruction

personalized instruction 1. teaching focused on the exact level of students’ needs in a subject, regardless of curriculum or grade designations. 2. a process of imparting knowledge that emphasizes a one-on-one relationship between student and instructor. This process enables a student to ask in-depth questions and to gain a clear understanding of concepts introduced by the instructor.

personification

personification n. 1. in the approach of Harry Stack Sullivan, the pattern of feelings and attitudes toward another person that arises out of interpersonal relations with him or her. 2. a figure of speech in which personal or human characteristics are attributed to an object or abstraction, as in saying Fortune smiled on her. 3. a person viewed as representing or embodying some quality, thing, or idea. —personify vb.

personnel

personnel n. see human resources.

personnel data

personnel data 1. information on newly hired employees derived from application forms, interviews, employment tests, physical examinations, and letters of reference, to be used in matching individuals and jobs. See also biographical data. 2. information on employees held by a personnel or human resources department. This will usually include personal details, posts held within the organization, salary and other benefits, performance reviews, and employee evaluations.

personnel placement

personnel placement see job placement.

personnel psychology

personnel psychology the branch of industrial and organizational psychology that deals with the selection, placement, training, promotion, evaluation, and counseling of employees.

personnel selection

personnel selection the process of selecting employees best suited for particular jobs by using such procedures as the assembly and analysis of biographical data, employment interviews, and employment tests.

personnel specification

personnel specification a list of certain precisely defined attributes that will be required in the successful candidate for a particular job, including educational or other qualifications, training, work experience, physical characteristics (e.g., strength, fitness), and specific work-related abilities. More general criteria, such as interests and personality traits, may also be included in the specification. Because these attributes are considered to be predictors of successful job performance, they will be emphasized in publicity and may be tested during personnel selection. Also called job specification. See job dimensions; job requirements; knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics. See also bona fide occupational qualification.

personnel test

personnel test any test used in personnel selection, in the placement of newly hired or existing employees, or in employee evaluation. Such tests include (a) aptitude tests, which measure basic abilities and skills; (b) achievement tests, which measure job-specific abilities such as typing skill; and (c) personality and interest inventories, which are used as predictors of job performance. See employment test; occupational test.

personnel training

personnel training in industrial and organizational settings, a program designed to achieve such goals as orientation of new employees, development of knowledge and skills, or modification of supervisor or employee attitudes. The learning procedures used in personnel training may include classes or lectures (see lecture method), use of audiovisual aids or simulator devices (see simulation training), role play, laboratory training, case discussions (see case method), behavioral modeling, business games, or programmed instruction. The training may be provided outside or inside the usual work setting (see off-the-job training; on-the-job training; vestibule training). Also called employee training. See also executive coaching; management development.

personology

personology n. 1. the study of personality from the holistic point of view, based on the theory that an individual’s actions and reactions, thoughts and feelings, and personal and social functioning can be understood only in terms of the whole person. 2. the theory of personality as a set of enduring tendencies that enable individuals to adapt to life, proposed by Henry Alexander Murray. According to Murray, personality is also a mediator between the individual’s fundamental needs and the demands of the environment.

perspective

perspective n. 1. the ability to view objects, events, and ideas in realistic proportions and relationships. 2. the ability to interpret relative position, size, and distance of objects in a plane surface as if they were three-dimensional. 3. the capacity of an individual to take into account and potentially understand the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviors of himself or herself and of other individuals. 4. a particular way of looking at events or situations: a stance or philosophical position.

perspective taking

perspective taking looking at a situation from a viewpoint that is different from one’s usual viewpoint. This may involve adopting the perspective of another person or that associated with a particular social role, as in role play exercises. The term is synonymous with role taking. See also empathy.

perspective theory

perspective theory a theory postulating that self-reports of attitudes on rating scales depend on the content and perspective of a person’s attitude. Content refers to the evaluative responses that a person actually associates with an attitude object. Perspective refers to the range of possible evaluative responses that a person considers when rating an attitude object. A self-report of an attitude can change as a result of a change in content or perspective, that is, an actual change in the attitude or in what a person defines as an extremely positive or negative attitude. [originally proposed by U.S. psychologists Harry S. Upshaw (1926–2012) and Thomas M. Ostrom (1936–1994)]

perspectivism

perspectivism n. a philosophical position in which it is assumed that there is no objective, context-independent truth. Perspectivism is sometimes applied to psychotherapy. [derived from the work of Friedrich Nietzsche]

perspiration

perspiration n. see sweating.

persuasion

persuasion n. an active attempt by one person to change another person’s attitudes, beliefs, or emotions associated with some issue, person, concept, or object. See also dual process model of persuasion. —persuasive adj.

persuasion therapy

persuasion therapy a type of supportive psychotherapy in which the therapist attempts to induce the client to modify faulty attitudes and behavior patterns by appealing to the client’s powers of reasoning, will, and self-criticism. The technique was advocated by Alfred Adler and others, notably Swiss-born French physicians Paul-Charles Dubois (1848–1918) and Joseph Jules Déjerine (1849–1917), as a briefer alternative to reconstructive psychotherapy.

persuasive arguments theory

persuasive arguments theory an analysis of group polarization that assumes that the opinions of group members discussing an issue or choice will tend to become more extreme when a majority of the members favor a particular position, because the group will generate more arguments favoring the majority position. See also choice shift.

persuasive communication

persuasive communication information that is intended to change or bolster a person’s attitude or course of action and is presented in written, audio, visual, or audiovisual form.

pertinence model

pertinence model 1. a model of attention in which various stimuli or sources of information are weighted in terms of their relevance. 2. a model of perception according to which a stimulus that is highly relevant can attract attention even if it is weak.

perturbation

perturbation n. 1. an anxious or distressed mental state. In the context of an attempted or completed suicide, it is a measure of the extent to which a person is (or was) upset or disturbed. 2. an influence or activity that causes an interruption or interference in a mental or physical phenomenon or system.

pertussis

pertussis n. see whooping cough.

pervasive developmental disorder

pervasive developmental disorder in DSM–IV–TR, any of a class of disorders characterized by severe and widespread impairment in social interaction and verbal or nonverbal communication or by the presence of stereotyped behavior, interests, and activities. These disorders are frequently apparent from an early age; they include Asperger’s disorder, autism, childhood disintegrative disorder, and Rett syndrome. In DSM–5, these disorders have been subsumed under autism spectrum disorder.

perversion

perversion n. a culturally unacceptable or prohibited form of behavior, particularly sexual behavior. See sexual perversion.

perverted logic (perverted thinking)

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pessimism

pessimism n. the attitude that things will go wrong and that people’s wishes or aims are unlikely to be fulfilled. Pessimists are people who expect bad things to happen to them and to others or who are otherwise doubtful or hesitant about positive outcomes. Most individuals lie somewhere on the spectrum between the two polar opposites of pure optimism and pure pessimism but tend to demonstrate relatively stable situational tendencies in one direction or the other. See also expectancy-value model. —pessimistic adj.

PET

PET 1. acronym for parent effectiveness training. 2. acronym for positron emission tomography.

pet therapy

pet therapy see animal-assisted therapy.

pet-assisted therapy

pet-assisted therapy see animal-assisted therapy.

petechial hemorrhage

petechial hemorrhage a minute hemorrhage, often of pinpoint size.

Peter principle

Peter principle the theory that people in an organization will rise to their level of incompetence; that is, employees will continue to receive promotions and additional responsibilities until they can no longer successfully perform their work. [proposed in 1969 in a book of the same title by Lawrence J. Peter (1919–1990), Canadian-born U.S. educationalist]

pethidine

pethidine n. see meperidine.

petit mal seizure

petit mal seizure see absence seizure.

petrification

petrification n. see fossil.

petting behavior

petting behavior sexual activity that may not continue to orgasm or may be foreplay engaged in prior to orgasm. Petting behavior may include kissing, caressing the breasts and genitals, oral sex, and placing the genitals in apposition.

peyote

peyote n. a small, spineless cactus, Lophophora williamsii, that grows wild in Mexico and southern Texas. The name is derived from the Aztec word peyotl, which describes the plant as resembling a caterpillar’s cocoon. The principal active ingredient is the hallucinogen mescaline, found on the crown of the plant in discoid protuberances called mescal buttons. These buttons are cut from the roots and dried, then chewed or soaked in water to produce an intoxicating liquid. From earliest recorded time, peyote has been used by indigenous peoples of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States as a part of their religious ceremonies; it is still incorporated into the rituals of the Native American Church. Both peyote and mescaline are classified by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration as Schedule I controlled substances (see scheduled drug). Peyote’s future is threatened by overharvesting for use as a recreational drug.

Pfaundler–Hurler syndrome

Pfaundler–Hurler syndrome see Hurler syndrome.

Pfeiffer’s syndrome

Pfeiffer’s syndrome an inherited disorder marked by premature fusion of the cranial bones, causing a skull deformity (see craniosynostosis syndrome). Individuals also have facial deformities with protruding, widely spaced eyes (which often show signs of strabismus), large thumbs, and large great toes. Some affected individuals have below average intelligence. The syndrome is inherited as a dominant trait (see acrocephalosyndactyly). Also called acrocephalosyndactyly Type V. [Emil Pfeiffer (1846–1921), German physician]

PFS

PFS abbreviation for Perceived Fraudulence Scale. See impostor phenomenon.

PG

PG abbreviation for prostaglandin.

PGN

PGN abbreviation for paragigantocellular nucleus.

PGO spikes

PGO spikes pontine–geniculo–occipital spikes: voltage peaks, recorded via implanted or scalp electrodes during sleep, that occur in the pons, lateral geniculate nucleus, and occipital cortex and are associated with REM sleep.

PGR

PGR abbreviation for psychogalvanic reflex (or response). See galvanic skin response.

pH

pH n. see hydrogen-ion concentration.

phacomatosis

phacomatosis n. see phakomatosis.

Phaedra complex

Phaedra complex the incestuous love of a stepmother for her stepson. The name derives from the Greek myth of Phaedra, wife of Theseus. When her stepson, Hippolytus, rejected her love, Phaedra accused him of violating her and hanged herself.

phago- (phag-)

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phagocytosis

phagocytosis n. the process by which bacteria, viruses, nutrients, other cells, and cell debris are engulfed by cells called phagocytes. The substances are first surrounded by a membrane, forming a vacuole within the phagocyte. The vacuole then fuses with a lysosome, an organelle containing enzymes that digest the engulfed contents. Certain white blood cells act as phagocytes as part of the immune response.

phagomania

phagomania n. an insatiable hunger or morbid desire to consume food.

phakomatosis (phacomatosis)

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phakoscope (phacoscope)

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phallic

phallic adj. of, relating to, or resembling the penis.

phallic character

phallic character see phallic personality.

phallic mother

phallic mother in classical psychoanalytic theory, the fantasy that the mother has a penis, or symbolically, the experience of a mother with masculine personality traits.

phallic personality

phallic personality in classical psychoanalytic theory, a pattern of narcissistic behavior exemplified by boastfulness, excessive self-assurance, vanity, compulsive sexual behavior, and in some cases competitive, aggressive, or exhibitionistic behavior. Also called phallic character; phallic-narcissistic character (or personality).

phallic phase

phallic phase see phallic stage.

phallic pride

phallic pride in classical psychoanalytic theory, the sense of superiority and power experienced by boys when they discover that they have a penis and girls do not. These feelings are believed to help master intense castration anxiety.

phallic sadism

phallic sadism in classical psychoanalytic theory, aggression that is associated with the child’s phallic stage of psychosexual development. The child interprets sexual intercourse as a violent, aggressive activity on the part of the man and particularly on the part of the penis. See also primal scene; sadism.

phallic stage

phallic stage in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the third stage of psychosexual development beginning around age 3, when the libido is focused on the genital area (penis or clitoris) and discovery and manipulation of the body become a major source of pleasure. During this period, boys are posited to experience castration anxiety, girls to experience penis envy, and both to experience the Oedipus complex. Also called phallic phase.

phallic symbol

phallic symbol any object that resembles or might be taken as a representation of the penis, such as a cigar, pencil, tree, skyscraper, snake, or hammer.

phallicism

phallicism n. reverence for the male genitalia, especially when regarded as symbolizing the creative forces of nature. Also called phallism; phallus worship. See also phallocentric.

phallism

phallism n. see phallicism.

phallocentric

phallocentric adj. 1. denoting a culture or belief system in which the phallus (penis) is regarded as a sacred giver of life, source of power, or symbol of fertility and which consequently privileges men and masculinity. See phallicism; priapism. See also androcentric. 2. more generally, focused or fixated on the penis as a symbol of male potency. —phallocentrism n.

phallus

phallus n. (pl. phalli) the penis or an object that resembles the form of the penis. As a symbolic object, the phallus often represents fertility or potency.

phallus worship

phallus worship see phallicism.

phanerothyme

phanerothyme adj. a term coined by British writer Aldous Huxley (1894–1964) to describe the effect of mind-altering drugs, such as LSD (from Greek phanein, “to reveal,” and thymos, “mind, soul”). He first used the term in a letter (1956) to his friend Humphry Osmond (1917–2004), who counterproposed the term psychedelic, which has the same etymological sense of “mind-revealing.” See also hallucinogen.

phantasm

phantasm n. an illusion or apparition, often of an absent person appearing in the form of a spirit or ghost. The observer may recognize it as being imaginary or illusory, unlike a true hallucination, which is associated with lack of insight on the part of the observer.

phantasmagoria

phantasmagoria n. a shifting series of confused or deceptive images, as in a dream or hallucination. [from the name of a 19th-century theatrical show, in which magic lantern effects were used to create images of ghosts and specters] —phantasmagoric adj.

phantasticum

phantasticum n. (pl. phantastica) a category of drugs identified in the 1920s as capable of producing hallucinatory experiences. These drugs are now known as hallucinogens. [named by German toxicologist Louis Lewin (1850–1929)]

phantasy

phantasy n. in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, one of the unconscious constructions, wishes, or impulses that are presumed to underlie all thought and feeling. The ph spelling is used to distinguish this from the everyday form of fantasy, which can include conscious daydreaming.

phantom

phantom n. 1. an illusion without material substance. 2. the feeling that an amputated body part (e.g., a limb or breast) is still present. See breast-phantom phenomenon; phantom limb; pseudoesthesia.

phantom breast

phantom breast see breast-phantom phenomenon.

phantom color

phantom color a color perceived during stimulation with a black and white pattern, such as a Benham’s top.

phantom limb

phantom limb the feeling that an amputated limb is still present, often manifested as a tingling or, occasionally, painful sensation in the area of the missing limb (phantom limb pain). It is thought that the brain’s cortical representation of the limb remains intact and continues to signal the presence of the amputated limb in the absence of normal somesthetic stimulation. See also breast-phantom phenomenon.

phantom-lover syndrome

phantom-lover syndrome a type of erotic delusion elaborated around a person who in fact does not exist. [defined in 1978 by Canadian psychiatrist Mary V. Seeman]

phantosmia

phantosmia n. perception of an odor when no smell stimulus is present (i.e., an olfactory hallucination). See also dysosmia.

pharmacodynamic tolerance

pharmacodynamic tolerance a form of drug tolerance in which the chemistry of the brain becomes adjusted to the presence of the drug, which in turn loses its capacity for modifying brain activity. Neurons adapt to continued drug presence by reducing the number or sensitivity of receptors available to the drug (i.e., down-regulation). This cellular-adaptive tolerance is associated with the use of many drugs, including sedative-hypnotics and psychostimulants, and may be followed by withdrawal symptoms when regular doses of the drug are interrupted. Pharmacodynamic tolerance may be contrasted with metabolic tolerance, in which the body reacts to continued presence of the drug by metabolizing it at an increased rate. Both forms of tolerance lead to higher doses of the drug being needed to produce the same effects.

pharmacodynamics

pharmacodynamics n. the study of the effects of drugs on the body and their mechanisms of action. Basic studies investigate the activity of drugs at the receptor sites to which the drugs attach as well as the changes in cell function and behavior that result. —pharmacodynamic adj.

pharmacogenetics

pharmacogenetics n. the study of genetic factors that influence the response of individuals to different drugs and to different dosages of drugs. Inherited variations in enzymes or other metabolic components can affect the efficacy of a drug or cause adverse reactions to normal doses. For example, some 40% to 70% of Caucasians have an enzyme variant that causes them to metabolize the antituberculosis drug isoniazid very slowly. They require only a fraction of the standard dose. Also, there are genetic variants of various cytochrome P450 enzymes that can predict rapid or poor drug metabolism. See also pharmacogenomics.

pharmacogenomics

pharmacogenomics n. the study of how gene variations influence an individual’s response to medications. This study as applied to psychotropic medications is called psychiatric pharmacogenomics. Clinically, pharmacogenomic information offers a means of individualizing drug treatment through genetic testing to predict an individual’s response to various drugs and thereby to prescribe medication that is the most appropriate, with the fewest side effects, for that individual. Pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics are increasingly used synonymously.

pharmacokinetics

pharmacokinetics n. the study of how pharmacological agents are processed within a biological system, in vivo or in vitro, including factors that influence the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of a substance or its metabolic products. The study of this process in infants and children is called developmental pharmacokinetics.

pharmacological antagonism

pharmacological antagonism see antagonist.

pharmacology

pharmacology n. the branch of science that involves the study of substances that interact with living organisms to alter some biological process affecting the homeostasis of an organism. Therapeutic (or medical) pharmacology deals with the administration of substances to correct a state of disease or to enhance well-being. —pharmacological or pharmacologic adj.

pharmacopeia (pharmacopoeia)

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pharmacotherapeutic regimen

pharmacotherapeutic regimen a plan for the treatment of a condition through the use of medication, outlining, for example, the type of drug or drugs to be used, dosage requirements, schedule of administration, and expected duration of use.

pharmacotherapy

pharmacotherapy n. the treatment of a disorder by the administration of drugs, as opposed to such means as surgery, psychotherapy, or complementary and alternative methods. Also called drug therapy. See psychopharmacotherapy.

pharynx

pharynx n. the muscular and membranous tube running from the mouth and nostrils to the entrance to the esophagus (gullet) that acts as the passage for food and respiratory gases. It consists of three major sections: the lower laryngopharynx, the middle oropharynx, and the upper nasopharynx. —pharyngeal adj.

phase

phase n. 1. a stage in the development of life, such as puberty or adulthood. 2. a recurrent state of any cyclical process.

phase locking

phase locking the tendency for a neural action potential to occur at a certain phase of a pure-tone stimulus. Typically, an action potential will not occur on every cycle, but when it is generated, it tends to occur at the same point or phase in the stimulus. More generally, phase locking refers to the ability of a neuron to synchronize or follow the temporal structure of a sound. In the auditory nerve, fibers can phase lock to frequencies below 4 to 5 kHz. Phase locking underlies the ability to localize sounds based on interaural phase differences or interaural time differences (see binaural cue). Its role in monaural hearing is uncertain, but it has been proposed as a mechanism for the coding of pitch.

phase modulation

phase modulation see modulation.

phase shift

phase shift 1. a disruption of the normal sleep–wake cycle, with the result that the individual is alert during a usual sleeping period and sleepy when he or she should be alert. See circadian rhythm sleep disorder; disorders of the sleep–wake cycle schedule. 2. a change in the diurnal or circadian rhythm brought about, for example, by changes in daylight exposure or changing time zones.

phase spectrum

phase spectrum see sound spectrum.

phasic activation

phasic activation a pattern of brain activation, associated with attention mechanisms, that is related to the diffuse thalamic projection system and is transitory rather than prolonged or persistent in nature. Compare tonic activation.

phasic receptor

phasic receptor a receptor cell that shows a rapid fall in the frequency of discharge of nerve impulses as stimulation is maintained. Compare tonic receptor.

phatic communication

phatic communication spoken or written communication that is intended primarily to establish or maintain social relationships rather than to convey information.

phencyclidine

phencyclidine n. see PCP.

phencyclidine intoxication

phencyclidine intoxication in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome due to the recent ingestion of phencycline (PCP) or a similar substance. It includes clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., belligerence, assaultiveness, impulsiveness, unpredictability, psychomotor agitation, impaired judgment, impaired social or occupational functioning), as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement (e.g., vertical or horizontal nystagmus, hypertension or tachycardia, numbness or diminished responsiveness to pain, unsteady gait, unclear speech, muscle rigidity, seizures, coma). See also substance intoxication.

phencyclidine intoxication delirium

phencyclidine intoxication delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that develops over a short period of time (usually hours to days) following heavy consumption of phencycline (PCP) or a similar substance. It includes disturbances of consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention) accompanied by other changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with phencyclidine intoxication. See also substance intoxication delirium.

phenelzine

phenelzine n. a monoamine oxidase inhibitor that exerts its antidepressant effects by irreversibly binding to monoamine oxidase, thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters. As with other drugs in its class, phenelzine has been supplanted by safer drugs without the associated toxicities, dietary restrictions, and drug interactions. U.S. trade name: Nardil.

Phenergan

Phenergan n. a trade name for promethazine.

phenobarbital

phenobarbital n. an anticonvulsant barbiturate used for treatment of generalized tonic–clonic or partial seizures. At one time widely used as a sedative and hypnotic, it has been largely supplanted for these purposes by safer medications lacking the toxicity and adverse effects associated with barbiturates. Phenobarbital is also sometimes used in the management of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal. U.S. trade name: Luminal.

phenocopy

phenocopy n. an imitation of a phenotype resulting from the interaction of an environmental factor and a genotype. An example is the effect of sunlight on skin or hair, resulting in variations that mimic the natural coloring or texture of other phenotypes.

phenomena

phenomena pl. n. see phenomenon.

phenomenal absolutism

phenomenal absolutism see naive realism.

phenomenal field

phenomenal field see phenomenal space.

phenomenal motion

phenomenal motion motion that may not be real but is perceived or experienced as being real. See apparent movement. See also phenomenal space.

phenomenal self

phenomenal self the self as experienced by the individual at a particular time. Only a small portion of self-knowledge is active in working memory or consciousness at any time. The same person might have a very different phenomenal self at different times, without any change in actual self-knowledge stored in long-term memory, simply because different views are brought into awareness by events. Also called working self-concept.

phenomenal space

phenomenal space the environment as experienced by an individual at a given time. The term refers not to objective reality but to personal and subjective reality, including everything within one’s field of awareness. In the phenomenological personality theory of Carl Rogers, it is also known as the phenomenological field. Also called phenomenal field.

phenomenalism

phenomenalism n. the doctrine that access to, and thus knowledge of, the external world is always through sensory experience of phenomena. Propositions about physical objects are therefore to be analyzed in terms of actual or possible sensory experiences. The position is compatible with certain forms of idealism, in that physical entities are defined in terms of mental experience, but also with empiricism and positivism. —phenomenalist adj.

phenomenistic causality

phenomenistic causality in Piagetian theory, an inference of causality between events, drawn only on the basis of spatial or temporal contiguity. Such inferences are typical of the thought processes of a young child. For example: It is dark outside because I am sleepy.

phenomenological analysis

phenomenological analysis an approach to psychology in which mental experiences are described and studied without theoretical presuppositions or speculation as to their causes or consequences. In general, such an approach will favor observation and description over interpretation; it will also attempt to understand a person’s experience from the point of view of that person, rather than from some abstract theoretical perspective. See also phenomenology.

phenomenological death

phenomenological death the subjective sense that one has become inert, insensitive, and unresponsive. Phenomenological death occurs in some psychotic conditions. Individuals may speak of themselves as dead and behave (although inconsistently) in accord with that belief. Phenomenological death is conceived as the extreme point on a continuum of self-assessment; it is not necessarily a condition that is permanent.

phenomenological field

phenomenological field see phenomenal space.

phenomenological theory

phenomenological theory an approach to personality theory that places questions of individuals’ current experiences of themselves and their world at the center of analyses of personality functioning and change. See also personal construct. [proposed by George A. Kelly]

phenomenological therapy

phenomenological therapy any form of therapy, perhaps best exemplified by client-centered therapy, in which the emphasis is on the client’s process of self-discovery rather than on the therapist’s interpretation of the individual’s underlying psychodynamics, as occurs in psychoanalysis.

phenomenology

phenomenology n. a movement in European philosophy initiated by German philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). In his writings of the 1910s and 1920s, Husserl argued for a new approach to human knowledge in which both the traditional concerns of philosophy (such as metaphysics and epistemology) and the modern concern with scientific causation would be set aside in favor of a careful attention to the nature of immediate conscious experience. Mental events should be studied and described in their own terms, rather than in terms of their relationship to events in the body or in the external world. However, phenomenology should be distinguished from introspection as it is concerned with the relationship between acts of consciousness and the objects of such acts (see intentionality). Husserl’s approach proved widely influential in psychology (especially Gestalt psychology) and the social sciences; it also inspired the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), whose existential phenomenology provided the basis for existentialism and existential psychology. —phenomenological adj. —phenomenologist n.

phenomenon

phenomenon n. (pl. phenomena) 1. an observable event or physical occurrence. 2. in philosophy, something perceived by the senses. In Greek philosophy, most notably that of Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), phenomena are the sensible things that constitute the world of experience, as contrasted with the transcendent realities that are known only through reason. Immanuel Kant used the term phenomena to refer to things as they appear to the senses and are interpreted by the categories of human understanding. For Kant, knowledge of phenomena is the kind of knowledge available to human beings; in contrast, knowledge of noumena, or things in themselves, remains beyond human experience or reason. 3. an occurrence or entity that defies explanation. —phenomenal adj.

phenothiazine

phenothiazine n. any of a group of chemically related compounds that are mostly used as antipsychotic drugs, having been originally developed as such in the 1950s. Divided into three subgroups—aliphatic, piperazine, and piperidine—the drugs in this class of conventional antipsychotics were the first effective antipsychotic medications and at one time were the most widely used agents for the treatment of schizophrenia. They are also used for the treatment of acute mania, psychotic agitation, and nausea and vomiting, as well as for preanesthesia sedation. It is commonly assumed that their therapeutic effects are produced by blockade of dopamine D2 receptors (see dopamine-receptor antagonist); they also block acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine receptors. A variety of adverse side effects is associated with their use, including extrapyramidal symptoms, tardive dyskinesia, sedation, and anticholinergic effects.

phenotype

phenotype n. the observable characteristics of an individual, such as morphological or biochemical features and the presence or absence of a particular disease or condition. Phenotype is determined by the expression of the individual’s genotype coupled with the effects of environmental factors (e.g., nutritional status, climate). See also paratype. —phenotypic adj.

phentermine

phentermine n. an appetite suppressant with a mechanism of action similar to the amphetamines. Like other appetite suppressants, it is effective only for short-term weight loss; long-term results require concurrent adherence to effective behavioral weight-loss strategies. Phentermine was previously marketed in combination with fenfluramine or dexfenfluramine—a combination known as “phen-fen”—which was taken off the market after cases of pulmonary hypertension and heart-valve disease were reported in users. These serious side effects may also occur with the use of phentermine alone. It should not be given in combination with monoamine oxidase inhibitors and should be used with caution in individuals taking SSRI antidepressants. U.S. trade names: Adipex; Ionamin.

phentolamine

phentolamine n. an alpha-adrenergic blocking agent with direct action on heart and smooth muscle. It is a potent vasodilator used in the management of severe hypertension associated with catecholamine excess, as in patients with pheochromocytomas. It is in infrequent clinical use. U.S. trade name: Regitine.

phenylalkylamine

phenylalkylamine n. any of a group of natural and synthetic drugs that can produce hallucinogenic effects. They include the phenylethylamines, such as mescaline, and the phenylisopropylamines (substituted phenylethylamines), such as MDMA.

phenylcyclohexyl derivative

phenylcyclohexyl derivative any in a category of drugs introduced in 1960 as general anesthetics but discontinued because they caused serious psychological disturbances in patients. The prototype drug, PCP, produces sensory deprivation effects similar to those observed in some cases of schizophrenia. Drugs of this series are considered to be hallucinogens but may be used as anesthetics and analgesics in veterinary medicine.

phenylethylamine

phenylethylamine n. any of a group of drugs with hallucinogenic effects and a common basic chemical structure. The prototype is mescaline, an alkaloid first isolated from the peyote cactus in 1896. Mescaline is one of the least potent of the hallucinogens, but potency is increased by adding methyl groups to the basic molecule, thereby creating substituted phenylethylamines. The latter include the amphetamine derivatives DOM, MDA, and MDMA. See also phenylalkylamine.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

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phenylpyruvic acid

phenylpyruvic acid an intermediate product of the metabolism of phenylalanine. In patients with phenylketonuria, phenylalanine is not converted to the normal end-product, tyrosine, but only to phenylpyruvic acid, which is excreted in their urine.

phenytoin

phenytoin n. an anticonvulsant drug: the prototype of the hydantoins. Phenytoin is prescribed mainly for the management of partial and tonic–clonic seizures but is also used in the treatment of some cases of migraine and neuralgia. It is occasionally used to manage behavioral disturbances in children. U.S. trade name (among others): Dilantin.

pheochromocytoma

pheochromocytoma n. a small tumor that usually develops in the adrenal medulla but may occur in tissues of the sympathetic paraganglia. Because it is composed of adrenal tissue, it can secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, producing excessive levels of these catecholamines. Effects include hypertension with headaches, tachycardia, visual blurring, and other symptoms. It is believed to be an inherited disorder.

pheromone

pheromone n. a chemical signal that is released outside the body by members of a species and that influences the behavior of other members of the same species. For example, it may serve to attract a mate or to act as an alarm. In nonhuman animals, sensitivity to pheromones occurs via the vomeronasal system. The existence of true pheromones in humans is controversial, although scents (e.g., perfumes, body odors) may play a role in sexual attraction and arousal. Pheromones have also been suggested as a cause of menstrual synchrony. Also called ectohormone. Compare allomone.

phi coefficient

phi coefficient (symbol: φ) a measure of association for two dichotomous or binary random variables. The phi coefficient is the product-moment correlation coefficient when both variables are coded (0, 1). For example, the phi coefficient could be used to examine the relationship between gender (male [0] and female [1]) and left- (0) or right-handedness (1). A table could be constructed to record the frequency of people with a 0 on both variables (i.e., left-handed males), a 1 on both variables (i.e., right-handed females), a 0 on the first variable and a 1 on the other (i.e., right-handed males), and vice versa (i.e., left-handed females). The pairs of responses on the variables could then be analyzed and a phi coefficient calculated to determine whether any relationship exists. See also Cramér’s V; tetrachoric correlation coefficient.

phi phenomenon

phi phenomenon 1. an illusion of apparent movement seen when two lights flash on and off about 150 m apart. The light appears to move from one location to the other. The phi phenomenon is a form of beta movement. 2. a sensation of pure movement independent of any other attributes of the stimulus, such as its form.

phi–gamma function

phi–gamma function (symbol: φ(γ)) for the method of constant stimuli, a plot of response probability based on stimulus magnitude that takes the ogival (S-shaped) form of the cumulative normal distribution.

Phillips Rating Scale of Premorbid Adjustment in Schizophrenia

Phillips Rating Scale of Premorbid Adjustment in Schizophrenia a method of analyzing the premorbid adjustment of patients with schizophrenia as part of a determination of their prognosis. It is based on questions derived by a researcher from case-history information. Also called Phillips Scale; Phillips Scale of Premorbid Adjustment. [developed in 1953 by psychopharmacologist Leslie Phillips]

philo- (phil-)

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philology

philology n. 1. the study of the history of languages and of their relationships with one another, usually with a focus on the analysis of textual records. See also comparative linguistics; diachronic linguistics; genetic linguistics. 2. originally, love of learning or literature. —philological adj.

philopatry

philopatry n. attachment to the place where an individual was born or hatched. In species with sex-biased dispersal, the nondispersing sex is said to show philopatry. If males typically leave the natal group to join other groups, the species shows female philopatry.

philosophical psychology

philosophical psychology the branch of psychology that studies the philosophical issues relevant to the discipline and the philosophical assumptions that underlie its theories and methods. It approaches psychology from a wide perspective informed by a knowledge of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, the history of ideas, the philosophy of science, and the tools of formal philosophical analysis. Philosophical psychologists tend to concentrate on the larger issues arising from the field rather than on model building and data gathering. See also rational psychology.

philosophical psychotherapy

philosophical psychotherapy psychotherapy based on philosophical principles relating to cognition, emotion, and behavior or based on the principles of a particular philosophical perspective (e.g., existential psychotherapy). Training in philosophy without appropriate training in the mental health field, however, is deemed inadequate for offering psychotherapy or counseling services.

philosophical zombie (p-zombie)

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philosophy

philosophy n. the intellectual discipline that uses careful reasoned argument to elucidate fundamental questions, notably those concerning the nature of reality (metaphysics), the nature of knowledge (epistemology), and the nature of moral judgments (ethics). As such, it provides an intellectual foundation for many other disciplines, including psychology. Psychology as a scientific discipline has its roots in the epistemological preoccupations of 18th- and 19th-century philosophy and continues to be influenced by philosophical ideas. See philosophical psychology. —philosopher n. —philosophical adj.

philosophy of mind

philosophy of mind the branch of philosophy concerned with questions about the nature and functioning of mind and consciousness and the relationship of mind and mental activity to brain and body and to the external world (see mind–body problem). It is deeply concerned with the relationships among language, thought, and action.

philosophy of science

philosophy of science the branch of philosophy devoted to the study and understanding of science and its development. It is concerned with such matters as the methods of science, the nature of scientific knowledge and scientific explanation, and the meaning of the scientific enterprise.

phimosis

phimosis n. a condition, congenital or acquired, in which the foreskin of the penis cannot be retracted over the glans. Phimosis may be corrected by circumcision. The acquired form of phimosis is usually due to an infection (sexually transmitted or otherwise) or edema.

Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage (1823–1860) an individual, often featured in introductory psychology textbooks, who was made famous when an explosion caused a metal rod to pass through and damage anterior parts of the frontal lobes of his brain. He exhibited no apparent cognitive deficits but later showed changes in behavior and personality. Sources differ about the extent and chronicity of these changes: Some report that the changes were severe and permanent, whereas others indicate that Gage recovered from his injury or at least adapted well to its effects.

phlebotomy

phlebotomy n. removal of blood from the body for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. This is ordinarily achieved by inserting a needle or catheter into a vein and then applying negative pressure. Through the early and mid-19th century, this practice was known as bloodletting and involved the removal of considerable quantities of blood as a means of curing or preventing disease. Also called venesection.

phlegmatic type

phlegmatic type one of the original constitutional body types based on the four humors associated with Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 377 bce) and described by Galen, who attributed the apathetic character of the phlegmatic type to the dominance of phlegma, or mucus, over other body fluids, or humors. See Carus typology; humoral theory.

PHO

PHO abbreviation for physician–hospital organization.

phobia

phobia n. a persistent and irrational fear of a specific situation, object, or activity (e.g., heights, dogs, water, blood, driving, flying), which is consequently either strenuously avoided or endured with marked distress. See specific phobia. See also social phobia. —phobic adj.

phobic anxiety

phobic anxiety anxiety that focuses on or is directed toward objects or situations (e.g., insects, telephone booths, open areas) that represent the real fear but pose little if any actual danger themselves.

phobic attitude

phobic attitude a behavior pattern apparently characterized by disruptions in the awareness of and attention to experience in the present. An example is engaging in a fantasy of the future to escape a painful present reality. [defined by German-born U.S. psychiatrist Frederick (Fritz) S. Perls (1893–1970)]

phobic avoidance

phobic avoidance the active evasion of feared objects or situations by individuals with phobias.

phobic character

phobic character in psychoanalytic theory, an individual who tends to deal with anxiety by extreme or fearful avoidance. [first used in 1945 by Austrian psychoanalyst Otto Fenichel (1897–1946)]

phocomelia

phocomelia n. congenital absence of the proximal portion of a limb or limbs, the hands or feet being attached to the trunk by a small, irregularly shaped bone.

Phoenix House

Phoenix House an organization devoted to the treatment and prevention of substance abuse in adolescents and adults. Phoenix House offers both residential and outpatient programs, as well as other services related to or in support of the treatment process. See also therapeutic community.

phon

phon n. see loudness.

phon-

phon n. see loudness.

phonasthenia

phonasthenia n. 1. voice fatigue, which may be attributable to overuse, general weakness, or old age. 2. see breathy voice.

phonation

phonation n. the production of voiced sounds by means of vibrations of the vocal cords.

phone

phone n. a single speech sound.

phoneme

phoneme n. in linguistics, a speech sound that plays a meaningful role in a language and cannot be analyzed into smaller meaningful sounds, conventionally indicated by slash symbols: /b/. A speech sound is held to be meaningful in a given language if its contrast with other sounds is used to mark distinctions of meaning. In English, for example, /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because they distinguish between [pan] and [ban] and other such pairs (see minimal pair). —phonemic adj.

phoneme–grapheme correspondence

phoneme–grapheme correspondence the relationship between phonemes and their graphic representation (see grapheme) in a particular language. A high level of regularity in this correspondence is thought to facilitate early reading.

phonemic awareness

phonemic awareness the ability to recognize and distinguish between the different phonemes in spoken words. It is a subcategory of phonological awareness.

phonemic disorder

phonemic disorder a disturbance involving phonemes, the speech sounds that distinguish words from one another.

phonemic restoration effect

phonemic restoration effect a psycholinguistic phenomenon whereby a person listening to speech recordings in which phonemes have been replaced by white noise or have otherwise been made inaudible does not notice the interruption. It is assumed that the listener’s perceptual mechanism must have restored the missing phonemes. This is considered strong evidence for an active process of speech perception.

phonemics

phonemics n. the branch of linguistics concerned with the classification and analysis of the phonemes in a language. Whereas phonetics tries to characterize all possible sounds represented in human language, phonemics identifies which of the phonetic distinctions are considered meaningful within a given language. See emic–etic distinction.

phonetic symbolism

phonetic symbolism the hypothesis that there is a correspondence of some kind between the sounds of words and their referents, as opposed to an arbitrary relationship. Most schools of modern linguistics are based on the premise that words are essentially arbitrary symbols, the only exceptions being a small number of onomatopoeic coinages (see onomatopoeia). However, it is an observable fact that most languages contain clusters of words (mainly monosyllables) in which a similarity of sound seems to reflect a similarity of reference; an example in English would be the large cluster track, trail, train, traipse, tramp, travel, trawl, tread, trek, trip, trot, truck, trudge, and so on. Believers in phonetic symbolism would argue that for English speakers (at least), the sound [tr] and the physical actions involved in articulating it must have a deep psychological correspondence with the ideas of travel and laborious movement. Others would dismiss such speculations entirely, arguing that these word clusters can be explained by shared etymology, simple association of ideas, and coincidence. Also called sound symbolism.

phonetics

phonetics n. the branch of linguistics that studies the physical properties of speech sounds and the physiological means by which these are produced and perceived (placing the tongue or lip in contact with the teeth, directing the airstream against the hard palate, etc.). See emic–etic distinction.

phonics

phonics n. 1. a method of teaching reading, popularly known as sounding out, that concentrates on the sounds of the letters or letter combinations in a word rather than on the word as a unit. The speaker or reader thus tries to match graphemes and phonemes. Also called phonic method. Compare whole-word method. 2. a former name for acoustics.

phonism

phonism n. a form of synesthesia in which a sensation of hearing is effected through another sense—that is, by something that is seen, smelled, tasted, or felt.

phono- (phon-)

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phonogram

phonogram n. a graphic or symbolic representation of a phoneme, syllable, or word.

phonological awareness

phonological awareness the ability to recognize and distinguish between the sounds used in spoken language, including syllables, rhymes, and phonemes. See also phonemic awareness.

phonological buffer

phonological buffer see phonological loop.

phonological disorder

phonological disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a communication disorder characterized by failure to develop and consistently use speech sounds that are appropriate for the child’s age. It most commonly involves misarticulation of the later acquired speech sounds, such as [l], [r], [s], [z], [ch], [sh], or [th] (see lalling; lisp), but it may also include substitution of sounds (e.g., [t] for [k]) or omission of sounds (e.g., final consonants). These problems are not due to, or are in excess of those normally associated with, hearing loss, structural deficits in the mechanism of speech production (e.g., cleft palate), or a neurological disorder. In DSM–5, phonological disorder is termed speech sound disorder. Formerly called developmental articulation disorder.

phonological dysgraphia

phonological dysgraphia an impaired ability or an inability to sound out words or write them phonetically.

phonological dyslexia

phonological dyslexia a form of acquired dyslexia characterized primarily by difficulties in reading pronounceable nonwords. Semantic errors are not seen in this type of dyslexia, a feature that distinguishes it from deep dyslexia. Phonological dyslexia manifested as a form of developmental dyslexia has also been described. See also surface dyslexia. [first described in 1979 by Marie-France Beauvois and Jacqueline Derouesné]

phonological loop

phonological loop in the model of working memory proposed in 1974 by British cognitive psychologists Alan D. Baddeley (1934– ) and Graham J. Hitch (1946– ), a component that holds and manipulates auditory information over short intervals of time. For example, if one tried to remember a telephone number by repeating it over and over in the few moments before dialing, this effort would take place in the phonological loop. It comprises a phonological store or phonological buffer (or acoustic or articulatory store) within which memory traces fade after 2 seconds unless an articulatory control process (or articulatory rehearsal system) refreshes them by subvocal rehearsal. The phonological store thus acts as an “inner ear” by remembering speech sounds in their temporal order, whereas the articulatory control process acts as an “inner voice” by repeating the series of words on a loop to prevent them from decay. Additionally, it has been suggested that the phonological loop is important to reading comprehension and may in fact function primarily as a language learning device, rather than a mechanism for the memorization of familiar words. Other components of the Baddeley and Hitch working memory model include the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the more recently introduced episodic buffer. Also called articulatory loop.

phonological paraphasia

phonological paraphasia see literal paraphasia.

phonological recoding

phonological recoding the use of reading skills to translate written symbols into sounds and words.

phonological store

phonological store see phonological loop.

phonology

phonology n. the branch of linguistics that studies the system of speech sounds in a language or in language generally. The term is less specific than either phonemics or phonetics. —phonological adj.

phonopathy

phonopathy n. an obsolescent name for any voice disorder.

phonopsia

phonopsia n. see chromatic audition.

phonosurgery

phonosurgery n. surgical intervention to maintain or improve the voice or the ease with which phonation occurs, such as the removal of polyps from the vocal cords or thyroplasty.

phoria

phoria n. the position of the two eyes when a target is viewed binocularly and appears as a single image. The term is most commonly used as part of compound words to describe changes in eye position that occur when images from the two eyes cannot be fused, such as esophoria and exophoria.

phosphene

phosphene n. a sensation of a light flash (as in “seeing stars”) in the absence of actual light stimulation to the eye. It may occur with the eyes closed and can be caused by mechanical stimulation of the retina, by rubbing the eyes, or by direct stimulation of the visual cortex. Also called visual phosphene. See also photopsia.

phosphoinositide

phosphoinositide n. any of a class of second messengers that are common in postsynaptic cells. See inositol phosphates.

phosphorylation

phosphorylation n. the addition of one or more phosphate groups (PO4) to a molecule (e.g., a protein). See also kinase.

photic driving

photic driving the effect in which the electrical activity of cortical neurons, as measured via electroencephalography, is altered by rhythmically presented light stimuli, such that the frequency of the activity becomes synchronized with the flashing or pulsing of the photic stimulation. See also rhythmic stimulation.

photism

photism n. 1. a false perception or hallucination of light. See photopsia. 2. a form of synesthesia in which light or color sensations occur in response to stimulation of other senses (e.g., hearing).

photo- (phot-)

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photoaging

photoaging n. the cumulative effect during a person’s life of exposure of the skin to sunlight, which can manifest as wrinkling or skin damage caused by ultraviolet radiation.

photobiology

photobiology n. the study of the effects of light on organisms, including the more specific study of the effects of color on mood, cognition, physiology, and behavior and the use of color in treating a variety of disorders (chromotherapy). —photobiological adj. —photobiologist n.

photocoagulation

photocoagulation n. the use of radiant energy, usually in the form of a laser or xenon-arc beam, to condense protein material in a tissue. Photocoagulation is used in the treatment of detached retina after surgery, benign skin tumors, and degeneration of peripheral tissues.

photocounseling

photocounseling n. the use of photographs or other images (e.g., DVDs) depicting aspects of a client’s life to obtain insight into his or her behavior and needs and also to increase the rapport between the client and the therapist.

photogenic epilepsy

photogenic epilepsy a form of reflex epilepsy in which seizures are precipitated by a particular kind of visual aberration, such as a flickering light.

photographic memory

photographic memory exceptionally detailed and highly accurate recollection of information or visual experiences. Photographic memory is widely but mistakenly considered synonymous with an eidetic image.

photoma

photoma n. a visual hallucination in which sparks or light flashes are seen in the absence of external stimuli. See also phosphene; photopsia.

photomania

photomania n. 1. an abnormal craving for light, particularly sunlight. See also seasonal affective disorder. 2. the practice of sun worship.

photometer

photometer n. a device that measures the intensity of light, taking into account the sensitivity of the human visual system to light of different wavelengths. This measurement is different from that of the amount of energy produced by a light source.

photometry

photometry n. the measurement of the intensity of light.

photon

photon n. 1. an individual quantum of electromagnetic radiation (e.g., visible light). 2. a former name for troland.

photoperiodism

photoperiodism n. the behavioral and physiological reactions of nonhuman animals and plants to changes in the length of days or in the intensity of light in the environment. Photoperiodism in animals is involved in the timing of seasonal migration behavior, reproductive cycles, changes in plumage or pelage, and hibernation. The shedding of leaves in autumn and winter dormancy are signs of photoperiodism in plants. Behavior affected by photoperiodism is usually in response to the direction of change in day length (i.e., increasing or decreasing) rather than absolute day length.

photophobia

photophobia n. an extreme and often painful sensitivity to light. It may be associated with migraine headaches or with certain types of brain trauma. —photophobic adj.

photopic

photopic adj. relating to vision in conditions of bright illumination, especially daylight.

photopic luminosity

photopic luminosity the relative effectiveness of various wavelengths of light for visual acuity under light-adapted conditions.

photopic stimulation

photopic stimulation visual stimulation under daylight conditions.

photopic vision

photopic vision the type of vision associated with light levels during daylight. Photopic vision is mediated by retinal cones, whereas vision at twilight and at night is mediated by retinal rods. Also called daylight vision. Compare scotopic vision.

photopic-sensitivity curve

photopic-sensitivity curve a graph of visual threshold as a function of wavelength under light-adapted conditions. The peak of the human photopic-sensitivity curve falls at approximately 555 nm, which means that less stimulus energy is needed for detection at this wavelength than at any other wavelength under daylight conditions. See photopic vision.

photopigment

photopigment n. a substance in a retinal rod or retinal cone that interacts with light to initiate a chemical cascade resulting in the conversion of light energy into an electrical signal. All rods contain the photopigment rhodopsin, whereas cones have one of three different photopigments (iodopsins), each with a different wavelength sensitivity (see long-wavelength pigment; medium-wavelength pigment; short-wavelength pigment). Photopigment is located in disks of membrane in the outer segment of a rod or cone. Also called visual pigment.

photopsia

photopsia n. visual sensations in the absence of external visual stimuli, which can be unstructured (see phosphene) or structured. Structured photopsia consists of regular achromatic or chromatic visual patterns (e.g., circles, squares, diamonds) and is caused by pathological activation of prestriate cortical neurons. See also visual hallucination. Also called photopsy.

photopsin

photopsin n. any of three different proteins found, in combination with 11-cis retinal, in retinal cones. See iodopsin.

photoreceptor

photoreceptor n. a visual receptor: a retinal rod or a retinal cone.

photosensitivity

photosensitivity n. sensitivity to light, especially sunlight, as occurs in albinism and photogenic epilepsy. Conditions marked by increased sensitivity to the effects of sunlight on the skin include systemic lupus erythematosus and xeroderma pigmentosum. Photosensitivity may occur as an adverse reaction to certain drugs, such as the phenothiazines (e.g., chlorpromazine), carbamazepine, St. John’s wort, thiazides, sulfonamides, hallucinogens, and tetracyclines. In such cases, it often takes the form of a rash or other skin reaction. Photosensitivity may also be an immune reaction in some individuals who manifest allergy symptoms after exposure to intense light. —photosensitive adj.

phototaxis

phototaxis n. movement toward or away from a light source. Positive phototaxis is movement toward light; negative phototaxis is movement away from light. Some insects display a relationship between muscular activity and light orientation. When the left eye of a fly or bee is shaded or blinded, the legs on the left side of the body work to keep the body turned toward the light that can be seen only with the right eye. See also taxis.

phototherapy

phototherapy n. exposure to ultraviolet or infrared light used for treating certain medical conditions (e.g., jaundice, psoriasis), depression, and other disorders. For example, in phototherapy for seasonal affective disorder, a specially designed lamp that delivers 5,000 to 10,000 lx of light is shone on the retina, and a signal is transmitted via the optic nerve to the pineal gland, which secretes melatonin in response to darkness. Inhibition of melatonin release by bright light relieves the symptoms of SAD. Also called bright light therapy.

phototropism

phototropism n. an orienting response, especially of a plant, either toward (positive phototropism) or away from (negative phototropism) light. It is distinct from phototaxis, which is active movement of an organism in response to light. See also tropism. —phototropic adj.

PHR

PHR abbreviation for point–hour ratio.

phrase

phrase n. a constituent of a sentence that is larger than a word but smaller than a clause. Phrases can be classified as noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, and so on, according to their function within the clause. —phrasal adj.

phrase marker

phrase marker see branching.

phrase-structure grammar (PSG)

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phratry

phratry n. a social unit with common kinship bonds, typically composed of multiple clans claiming unilateral descent. See descent group.

phrenic nerve

phrenic nerve a nerve that originates in the cervical plexus of the neck and sends sensory and motor branches to the heart, diaphragm, and other parts of the chest and abdomen.

phreno- (phren-)

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phrenology

phrenology n. a theory of personality formulated in the 18th and 19th centuries by German physician Franz Josef Gall (1757–1828) and Austrian philosopher and anatomist Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832). It stated that specific abilities or personality traits are represented by specific areas of the brain: The size of these brain areas determines the degree of the corresponding skill or trait. Proponents of the theory argued that the size of such locations could be indicated by bumps and hollows on the skull surface, based on the observation that the contours of the brain follow the skull contours. Although wrong in most respects, the theory suggested the idea of localization of function. Also called craniology. See also physiognomy. —phrenological adj. —phrenologist n.

phthalate

phthalate n. a chemical compound that is used to soften plastics and that may be found in medications, foods, toys, cosmetics, paints, inks, lubricants, and many other products. Exposure to phthalates has been associated with premature births, reduced sex and thyroid hormones, and decreased sperm quality. Due to health concerns, the use of certain phthalates has been banned from toys in the United States. See also endocrine disruptor.

phthinoid

phthinoid adj. denoting a variety of the asthenic constitutional body type in Kretschmer typology in which the physique is underdeveloped and usually characterized by a flat, narrow chest.

phthisic type

phthisic type a body type characterized as slender and flat-chested, as from a wasting disease such as tuberculosis (which was formerly called phthisis). See Carus typology.

phylogenetic principle

phylogenetic principle the now disproven theory that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny in the development of an organism: In humans, this supposes that human life, across development from embryo to adult, repeats the stages of organic and social evolution.

phylogeny

phylogeny n. 1. the evolutionary origin and development of a particular group of organisms. Also called phylogenesis. Compare ontogeny. 2. a diagram that shows genetic linkages between ancestors and descendants. Also called phylogenetic tree. —phylogenetic adj.

phylum

phylum n. (pl. phyla) in biological taxonomy, a main subdivision of a kingdom, containing a group of similar, related classes.

physiatrics (physiatry)

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physical abilities

physical abilities personal characteristics such as strength, speed, and agility that are associated with one’s physique or bodily attributes.

physical abuse

physical abuse deliberately aggressive or violent behavior by one person toward another that results in bodily injury. Physical abuse may involve such actions as punching, kicking, biting, choking, burning, shaking, and beating, which may at times be severe enough to result in permanent damage (e.g., traumatic brain injury) or death. It is most frequently observed in relationships of trust, particularly between parents and children or between intimate partners (e.g., in a marriage); indeed, violence against women and children in these types of relationships is recognized as a major public health problem, although few effective interventions to reduce its occurrence have yet been developed. Individuals who experience physical abuse often feel helpless and isolated and are prone to the subsequent development of numerous pathological conditions, including depression, eating disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, and substance use problems. There is significant controversy over whether certain common forms of physical discipline (e.g., spanking) that are neither malicious nor meant to inflict harm could be construed as overly harsh and thus considered to be physical abuse. See also battered-child syndrome; battered-woman syndrome; domestic violence; intimate partner violence.

physical activity

physical activity any bodily movement produced by contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above the basal level.

physical age

physical age see anatomical age.

physical anthropology

physical anthropology see anthropology.

physical dependence

physical dependence the state of an individual who has repeatedly taken a drug and experiences unpleasant physiological symptoms (see substance withdrawal) if he or she stops taking it. Also called physiological dependence. Compare psychological dependence.

physical determinism

physical determinism the type of determinism presumed to operate among physical objects in the natural world. In psychology, physical determinism is the assumption that psychological events and behaviors have physical causes and can be described in terms of models and theories borrowed from the physical sciences. See hard determinism; psychological determinism. See also statistical determinism.

physical disorder

physical disorder a synonym for organic disorder. See also somatic disorder.

physical examination

physical examination an assessment of the body and its specific functions, generally by a physician or other health care professional, using inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation. It also frequently includes laboratory tests and other forms of screening for various physiological abnormalities, malfunctions, and diseases.

physical extension device

physical extension device a piece of equipment or mechanism that extends the reach of an individual with a disability. See headstick; mouthstick.

physical map

physical map a type of chromosome map that depicts the actual physical location of genes and genetic markers on the chromosome, with distances measured in base pairs, kilobases, or similar units. Various techniques are used in constructing physical maps, including positional cloning and DNA sequencing. The Human Genome Project has provided a complete physical map of all human chromosomes. See also gene mapping.

physical medicine and rehabilitation

physical medicine and rehabilitation the branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of physical impairments and disability and that emphasizes the use of therapeutic exercise, massage, pain management, and medical devices such as prostheses, braces, or other daily living aids to improve patient functioning. Also called physiatrics; physiatry; rehabilitation medicine.

physical modality

physical modality a therapeutic intervention that involves the use of a physical agent, such as heat or ice, to treat bodily injury or pain.

physical symbol system hypothesis

physical symbol system hypothesis a proposition asserting that a necessary and sufficient condition for a computational system to exhibit general intelligent action is that it be a physical symbol system. “Necessary” means that any physical system that exhibits general intelligence will be an instance of a physical symbol system. “Sufficient” means that any physical symbol system can be organized further to exhibit general intelligent action. This hypothesis has been a driving factor for much research in artificial intelligence and cognitive science. [proposed in 1976 by U.S. cognitive and computer scientist Allen Newell (1927–1992) and Herbert A. Simon]

physical therapy (PT)

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physicalism

physicalism n. 1. the doctrine that reality is composed of matter and that mind is therefore reducible to matter. See identity theory; materialism; mind–body problem. 2. the view that all meaningful propositions can be stated in the language of the physical sciences and in operational definitions. See logical positivism; positivism. —physicalist adj.

physician assistant (PA)

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physician-assisted suicide

physician-assisted suicide see assisted death.

physician–hospital organization (PHO)

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physiogenic

physiogenic adj. pertaining to a disorder that is physiological in origin.

physiognomic perception

physiognomic perception the tendency to see expressive properties in objects, such that, for example, dark objects may be perceived as gloomy or bright ones may be perceived as happy. Initially described by Heinz Werner in children, this perceptual tendency has since been investigated by others in adults.

physiognomy

physiognomy n. 1. the form of a person’s physical features, especially the face. 2. the attempt to read personality from facial features and expression, assuming, for example, that a person with a receding chin is weak or one with a high forehead is bright. The idea dates back to Aristotle and was later developed into a pseudoscientific system by Johann Lavater and subsequently by Italian criminologist and psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909). Also called physiognomics. See also characterology; criminal anthropology; phrenology.

physiologic nonepileptic seizure

physiologic nonepileptic seizure see nonepileptic seizure.

physiological age

physiological age a measurement of the level of development, health, or deterioration of an individual in terms of functional norms for various body systems.

physiological antagonism

physiological antagonism see antagonist.

physiological arousal

physiological arousal aspects of arousal shown by physiological responses, such as increases in blood pressure and rate of respiration and decreased activity of the gastrointestinal system. Such primary arousal responses are largely governed by the sympathetic nervous system, but responses of the parasympathetic nervous system may compensate or even overcompensate for the sympathetic activity. Physiological arousal includes but is not limited to sexual arousal. See also autonomic nervous system.

physiological assessment

physiological assessment evaluation of the function of the body, a tissue, or an organ, including physical and chemical factors and processes.

physiological correlate

physiological correlate an association between a physiological measure and a behavioral measure. The existence of a physiological correlate may suggest a causal relation, but it does not establish a cause.

physiological cycle

physiological cycle a series of regularly recurring changes in body activities, such as the sleep–wake cycle. See also biological rhythm.

physiological dependence

physiological dependence see physical dependence.

physiological factors

physiological factors factors pertaining to the functions of a living organism and its parts as well as to the chemical and physical processes involved in this functioning.

physiological measure

physiological measure any of a set of instruments that convey precise information about an individual’s bodily functions, such as heart rate, skin conductance, skin temperature, cortisol level, palmar sweat, and eye tracking. Studies using these tools typically obtain measurements before and after the introduction of a stimulus condition as a way to document an individual’s response to that stimulus.

physiological motive

physiological motive a motive resulting from a basic physiological need, such as the need for food. See also deficiency motive.

physiological need

physiological need any of the requirements for survival, such as food, water, oxygen, and sleep. Physiological needs make up the lowest level of Maslow’s motivational hierarchy. Also called basic need; fundamental need. Compare psychological need. See also primary need.

physiological nystagmus

physiological nystagmus the normal small, rapid movement of the eyes that permits sustained viewing of a scene. Compare vestibular nystagmus.

physiological paradigm

physiological paradigm the concept that mental disorders are caused by abnormalities in neurological structures and processes. This perspective, which underlies the field and practice of psychiatry, holds that mental disorders can be treated with drugs, surgery, or other techniques ordinarily used to correct malfunctioning of the body.

physiological psychology

physiological psychology a term used interchangeably with biological psychology or psychophysiology.

physiological response specificity

physiological response specificity the principle that an individual’s physiological responses to a range of different stimuli will be of the same type. For example, one individual may tend to respond to many different stimuli with increases in heart rate, whereas another individual may respond to the same stimuli with breathing changes. [proposed by U.S. psychophysiologist John I. Lacey (1915–2004)]

physiological saline

physiological saline a mixture of water and salt (sodium chloride) in which the concentration of salt is 0.9% w/v, approximately equal in osmolarity to mammalian extracellular fluid. Also called normal saline.

physiological zero

physiological zero the temperature at which an object in contact with the skin feels neither warm nor cold. Physiological zero is about 32 °C (90 °F) for an object in contact with the hands or feet.

physiology

physiology n. 1. the science of the functions of organisms, including the chemical and physical processes involved and the activities of the cells, tissues, and organs, as opposed to static anatomical or structural factors. 2. the processes and functions characteristic of or identifiable in a particular organism. —physiological adj. —physiologist n.

physiopathology

physiopathology n. the study of pathophysiology.

physiotherapy

physiotherapy n. see physical therapy. —physiotherapist n.

physique type

physique type the basic physical structure, build, and body type of an individual, particularly as related to his or her constitutional type.

physostigmine

physostigmine n. a cholinergic drug—an alkaloid derived from the dried seed of an African vine—used in the treatment of glaucoma and to cause the pupil of the eye to contract. It is also employed as a cholinesterase inhibitor to reverse the toxic effects on the central nervous system of overdoses of anticholinergic drugs. U.S. trade names: Antilirium; Isopto Eserine.

phytoestrogen

phytoestrogen n. see estrogen.

PI

PI 1. abbreviation for prescribing information. See labeling. 2. abbreviation for proactive interference. 3. abbreviation for progressive interval. See progressive-interval schedule.

pia mater

pia mater a delicate membrane that covers the surface of the brain and spinal cord; it is the innermost layer of the three meninges. The cranial portion of the pia mater is richly supplied with blood vessels and closely follows the contours of the cerebral cortex, extending into the fissures and sulci.

pia-arachnoid

pia-arachnoid n. the inner two coverings of the brain and spinal cord—the pia mater and arachnoid mater—considered as a single structure. See meninges.

Piagetian task

Piagetian task any of a variety of tasks developed by Jean piaget to assess the cognitive abilities of infants, children, or adolescents. Examples include, in infancy, object permanence tasks and deferred imitation; in childhood, conservation, tests of perceptual perspective taking (e.g., the three-mountains test), and class inclusion; and in adolescence, the pendulum problem.

Piagetian theory

Piagetian theory the theory proposed by Jean Piaget that a child’s cognitive development occurs in four major stages. In the sensorimotor stage (roughly 0–2 years of age), the child develops from a newborn capable only of basic reflexes (e.g., sucking, eye movements) to an infant with increasingly complex repetitive behavior (circular reaction) that eventually becomes goal directed; between 8 and 18 months of age, the child gradually develops the ability to recognize object permanence, and at around 18 months, the child begins to engage in problem solving and other forms of mental combination. During the preoperational stage (roughly 2–7 years), the child is both egocentric, showing little awareness of the perspective of others, and single-minded (see centration); language and rudimentary number-system abilities develop as the child becomes able to understand symbols and to represent experience symbolically through speech, movement, or other means (see symbolic function). The concrete operational stage (roughly 7–12 years) is characterized by the development of more logically and conceptually based thinking and by a move away from egocentrism toward a decentered understanding of others’ perceptions and of multiple aspects of a problem or situation (see decentration); children in this stage become capable of such mental operations as reversibility, categorization, and conservation. Finally, in the formal operational stage (roughly 12 years and beyond), abstract logical reasoning (i.e., hypothetico-deductive reasoning) and moral reasoning develop. According to this theory, each stage builds on the preceding one. Piaget held that although the age of onset for each stage might vary because of cultural and historical factors, the order of the stages (décalage) is the same for all cultures. He did not believe it was feasible to hurry children through the unfolding of these stages. Passage through them is facilitated by a balance of two processes: assimilation, in which new information is incorporated into an already existing cognitive structure (schema or scheme); and accommodation, in which already existing structures are changed to accommodate new information. Piaget also proposed a stage theory of moral development (see autonomous stage; heteronomous stage; premoral stage).

piblokto

piblokto n. a culture-bound syndrome observed primarily in female Inuit and other arctic populations. Individuals experience a sudden dissociative period of extreme excitement in which they often tear off clothes, run naked through the snow, scream, throw things, and perform other wild behaviors. This typically ends with convulsive seizures, followed by an acute coma and amnesia for the event. Also called arctic hysteria; pibloktoq.

pica

pica n. a rare eating disorder marked by a persistent craving for unnatural, nonnutritive substances, such as plaster, paint, hair, starch, or dirt. In DSM–IV–TR, it is classified with the feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood; in DSM–5, it falls within a broader category of feeding and eating disorders that can affect individuals at any age. Onset of the disorder does, however, most commonly occur in children, and it can have serious consequences, depending on the substance ingested. For example, lead pica, often found in children living in older housing with lead paint, can result in irreversible mental impairment. Studies on rats and monkeys have also demonstrated that lead pica can be induced by calcium deficiency. Animals with normal nutrition learn that lead ingestion is aversive, but calcium-deficient animals do not learn aversions to lead.

Pick’s disease

Pick’s disease a type of frontotemporal dementia marked by progressive degeneration of the frontal and temporal areas of the brain and by the presence of particles called Pick bodies in the cytoplasm of the neurons. The disease is characterized by personality changes and deterioration of social skills and complex thinking; symptoms include problems with new situations and abstractions, difficulty in concentrating, loss of memory, lack of spontaneity, gradual emotional dullness, loss of moral judgment, and disturbances of language. [described in 1892 by Arnold Pick (1851–1924), Czech psychiatrist and neuroanatomist]

Pickwickian syndrome

Pickwickian syndrome a syndrome in people with morbid obesity that is associated with sleep apnea, cyanosis, congestive heart failure, and muscle twitching and is thought to result from the physical pressure of extreme weight on the respiratory system. The name of the syndrome is derived from the character of Joe the Fat Boy, who constantly falls asleep in Charles Dickens’s Pickwick Papers (1836–1837).

picrotoxin

picrotoxin n. a CNS stimulant derived from the berries of a southeast Asian shrub, Anamirta cocculus. Originally used as a fish poison, picrotoxin was introduced in the 1930s as a therapy for barbiturate overdose. It is a convulsant agent and acts as a GABA antagonist by binding to a specific site on the GABAA receptor complex, blocking the effects of GABA agonists (e.g., the benzodiazepines). Picrotoxin has no modern clinical applications but may be used to induce seizures in nonhuman animals for research purposes.

pictophilia

pictophilia n. sexual interest in and arousal by viewing erotic pictures or films, alone or with a partner.

pictorial imagery

pictorial imagery see visual imagery.

pictorial realism

pictorial realism a design principle holding that images on a visual display should match the mental model of the viewer. For example, in machine design, a fluid-level indicator that communicates changing levels by moving a fluid-level image up and down has pictorial realism; the viewer knows exactly what the image is communicating. In contrast, a fluid-level indicator that moves left to right is not designed on this basis and is likely to be less effective.

picture superiority effect

picture superiority effect the tendency for a picture or drawing to be remembered better than the name of the pictured object. For example, people are more likely to remember “dog” if they see a drawing of a dog than if they see the word dog.

picture-anomalies test

picture-anomalies test a type of nonverbal test in which the task is to detect absurdities in cartoon pictures. It is used to assess visual-perception deficits caused by temporal lobe damage.

picture-arrangement test

picture-arrangement test a subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, in which the participant is required to arrange in proper order a series of sketches that tell a brief story.

picture-completion test

picture-completion test a type of test consisting of drawings of familiar objects with features missing. The task is to recognize and specify the missing parts. See also incomplete-pictures test.

picture-interpretation test

picture-interpretation test a test in which the participant is asked to interpret a visual image (e.g., drawing, photograph, painting). This type of test may aid in the assessment of intelligence or personality traits.

picture-world test

picture-world test a projective technique for children in which the participant composes a story about realistic scenes, adding objects or figures as he or she wishes. The child is instructed to picture either a world that actually exists or one that he or she would like to exist.

pidgin

pidgin n. an improvised contact language incorporating elements of two or more languages, often devised for purposes of basic commerce, such as trading. Pidgins are characterized by simple rules and limited vocabulary. Compare creole.

pie chart

pie chart a graphic display in which a circle is cut into wedges, with the area of each wedge being proportional to the percentage of cases in the category represented by that wedge. For example, a researcher might use a pie chart to present the results of a survey on the sources of psychology-related literature used by the general public, with each wedge representing the percentage of respondents citing a particular source, such as an advice column, the Internet, a self-help book, a popular magazine, and academic literature. A pie chart generally works best when there are not many categories (with thin wedges) being shown. A downside of the graphic is that it is not very efficient because it uses significant space to show the frequencies of a single variable.

piecewise regression

piecewise regression a variant on ordinary least squares regression in which a regression line consisting of several different lines is fitted to the data. The several pieces have different slopes and meet at nodal points to form a continuous line. This approach is very useful for identifying abrupt changes or discontinuities in a process. For example, piecewise regression might be appropriate when a researcher is studying a group of participants before treatment, during treatment, and after treatment. Also called segmented regression.

piecework

piecework n. work for which employees are paid per unit of productivity. In a differential piece-rate system, the rate of compensation for each unit produced increases once the employee has surpassed the level of productivity that work studies determine to be the standard. See scientific management.

Pierre Robin sequence

Pierre Robin sequence a congenital condition present at birth that is characterized by micrognathia (abnormally small jaw) and a tongue that falls backward into the pharynx (glossoptosis), interfering with breathing and feeding. The condition may occur alone or with a variety of other symptoms, most commonly cleft palate, hearing loss, and language delays. Also called Pierre Robin malformation; Pierre Robin syndrome. [initially reported in 1923 by Pierre Robin (1867–1950), French pediatrician]

pigeon breast

pigeon breast see pectus carinatum.

pigment bleaching

pigment bleaching the change in the photopigment rhodopsin that occurs when it absorbs photons. The color of the pigment changes from purple (visual purple) to a transparent light yellow (visual yellow). See also visual cycle.

pigment epithelium

pigment epithelium the single layer of pigmented cells that abuts the tips of the photoreceptors in the retina. The pigment in the cells reduces light scatter by absorbing photons that elude the photopigments in the photoreceptors. The pigment epithelium is also critical for the health of the photoreceptors because it phagocytoses (engulfs) discarded disks of membrane that are continually shed by the photoreceptors. Also called retinal pigment epithelium (RPE).

pigment regeneration

pigment regeneration the reconstitution of functional rhodopsin following pigment bleaching after visual stimulation. See also visual cycle.

Pike’s Peak model

Pike’s Peak model a competencies-based approach to training professionals in the delivery of psychological services to older adults. The model provides nonmandatory guidelines that allow individuals from the doctoral to the postlicensure level of training to obtain professional development in this domain. [delineated during the 2006 National Conference on Training in Professional Geropsychology in Colorado Springs, Colorado]

pilocarpine

pilocarpine n. an alkaloid derived from several tropical American plants but mainly from Pilocarpus jaborandi. Pilocarpine is a powerful parasympathomimetic agent, affecting postganglionic cholinergic receptors (see cholinergic drug). It is used in the treatment of glaucoma and to contract the pupil of the eye. U.S. trade names (among others): Isopto Carpine; Pilocar; Pilostat.

pilocytic astrocytoma

pilocytic astrocytoma see glioma.

piloerection

piloerection n. a temporary raising of the hairs covering the surface of the skin caused by contraction of the piloerector muscles, which are attached to the individual follicles from which each hair arises. Piloerection is involuntary, being directed by the sympathetic nervous system, and elicited by cold, fear, or a startling stimulus. In mammals with a thick, visible covering of hair (e.g., cats), piloerection serves a protective function: The resulting “fluffed up” appearance makes the animal seem larger and may deter attack by others. In humans, whose skin has only a sparse covering of hair, piloerection creates a temporary roughness as the muscles pucker the surrounding skin, giving rise to such colloquial names for the effect as goose bumps, goose flesh, and goose pimples. Also called pilomotor response (or effect).

pilot selection

pilot selection the assessment of a candidate to determine whether he or she possesses the aptitudes, dexterity, and psychomotor skills needed to become an aircraft pilot.

pilot study

pilot study a small, preliminary study designed to evaluate procedures and measurements in preparation for a subsequent, more detailed research project. Although pilot studies are conducted to reveal information about the viability of a proposed project and to implement necessary modifications, they may also provide useful initial data on the topic of study and suggest avenues or offer implications for future research.

Piltz’s reflex

Piltz’s reflex an automatic and involuntary increase in the size of the pupil when attending to an object or event. [Jan Piltz (1870–1931), Polish neurologist]

pimozide

pimozide n. a conventional antipsychotic of the diphenylbutylpiperidine class. Like other conventional antipsychotics, it blocks of postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptors. In the United States, it is officially approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration only for the management of vocal and motor tics associated with Tourette’s disorder, although it is widely used as an antipsychotic drug in Europe and South America. Pimozide has been associated with potentially lethal disturbances of heart rhythm, and it should not be used in patients with histories of arrhythmias or in doses exceeding 10 mg/day. Because pimozide has no apparent special advantages over similar antipsychotics that are less damaging to the heart (e.g., haloperidol), it should be used to treat Tourette’s disorder only if other medications have failed to produce the desired response. U.S. trade name: Orap.

pincer grip

pincer grip the manner of grasping an object between the thumb and forefinger. See also power grip; precision grip.

pineal gland

pineal gland a small, cone-shaped gland attached by a stalk to the posterior wall of the third ventricle of the brain; it is part of the epithalamus. In amphibians and reptiles, the gland appears to function as a part of the visual system. In mammals, it secretes the hormone melatonin and is an important component of the circadian system regulating biological rhythms. Because it is an unpaired organ located in the middle of the brain, René Descartes believed it was the seat of the rational soul and the connection between mind and body. Also called pineal body.

Pinel’s system

Pinel’s system a classification of mental disorders and symptoms outlined in the 18th century. The four major categories were melancholias, manias with delirium, manias without delirium, and dementia or mental deterioration. [Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), French psychiatrist]

pink noise

pink noise see noise.

pink-collar worker

pink-collar worker an employee who does what is traditionally considered women’s work, such as being a teacher, secretary, nurse, day care worker, florist, or maid. Pink-collar jobs are often low in status, pay, and opportunities for advancement and are seen as echoing domestic responsibilities, thus reinforcing a sexual division of labor. Compare blue-collar worker; white-collar worker.

pinna

pinna n. (pl. pinnae) the funnel-shaped part of the external ear that projects beyond the head. Consisting of cartilage, it collects and focuses sounds toward the external auditory meatus (auditory canal). Also called auricle.

Piper’s law

Piper’s law the principle that for a uniformly stimulated retinal area peripheral to the fovea, the threshold for luminance is inversely proportional to the square root of the area stimulated. Compare Ricco’s law. [Hans Edmund Piper (1877–1915), German physiologist]

piperidinedione

piperidinedione n. any of a class of chemically related drugs formerly used for daytime sedation or the management of insomnia but no longer in common clinical use. Their mechanism of action and toxicity are similar to the barbiturates. The prototype of the class is glutethimide.

piriform area

piriform area see pyriform area.

pitch

pitch n. the subjective attribute that permits sounds to be ordered on a musical scale. The primary theories concerning the basis for pitch perception are the place theory and the periodicity theory. The mel has been proposed as a quantitative measure of the extent of pitch perception.

pitch discrimination

pitch discrimination see auditory discrimination.

pithiatism

pithiatism n. a name (from Greek pithanotes, “persuasiveness”) proposed in 1918 by French neurologist Joseph F. Babinski (1857–1932) as a substitute for hysteria. It was based on the theory that some hysterical symptoms are produced by suggestion and can therefore be eliminated by suggestion.

Pitres’ rule

Pitres’ rule a generalization stating that when a multilingual person recovers from aphasia caused by a stroke or cerebral injury, the language recovered first is usually the one most used by the person prior to the onset of the aphasia. Other languages are reestablished in a slower and often less complete manner. Also called Pitres’ law. Compare Ribot’s law. [proposed in 1895 by Jean Albert Pitres (1848–1927), French neurologist]

pituitarism

pituitarism n. disordered functioning of the pituitary gland, which may be overactive (hyperpituitarism) or underactive (hypopituitarism).

pituitary adenoma

pituitary adenoma see adenoma.

pituitary cachexia

pituitary cachexia see hypophyseal cachexia.

pituitary gland

pituitary gland a gland, pea-sized in humans, that lies at the base of the brain and is connected by a stalk (the infundibulum) to the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is divided into an anterior and a posterior lobe, which differ in function. The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) produces and secretes tropic hormones (i.e., thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, corticotropin, and luteinizing hormone), growth hormone, prolactin, and melanocyte-stimulating hormone in response to releasing hormones from the hypothalamus. The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) secretes two hormones, vasopressin and oxytocin, which are synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported down axons in the infundibulum to the neurohypophysis in response to direct neural stimulation. The pituitary’s role particularly in secreting tropic hormones, which regulate the production of other hormones, has resulted in its designation as the “master gland of the endocrine system.” Also called hypophysis; hypophysis cerebri.

pituitectomy

pituitectomy n. see hypophysectomy.

pituri

pituri n. an Australian shrub, Duboisia hopwoodii, whose leaves have traditionally been used for their stimulant, analgesic, and hallucinogenic effects by members of Aboriginal tribes. The primary active ingredient is nicotine. Although some indigenous peoples still use pituri, it was most popular during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The leaves were cured, powdered, and then rolled into a quid to be chewed or smoked.

pity

pity n. a feeling of sorrow and compassion for people who are unhappy, suffering, or otherwise unfortunate or in distress.

pivot grammar

pivot grammar a type of simple grammar displayed in the early stages of language development (especially the two-word stage). Pivot grammar is characterized by two-word utterances in which one word (the pivot word) is typically a function word, such as a determiner or preposition, and the other (the open word) is a content word, such as a noun or verb. A small child has relatively few pivot words in his or her vocabulary but uses them often and always in the same position relative to the open word. Open words are used less frequently, but the child learns more of them and can use them anywhere in a phrase. More juice, light off, and all gone are typical examples of pivot grammar: More, off, and all are pivot words; juice, light, and gone are open words.

pivotal variable

pivotal variable a quantity that is a function of a statistic (e.g., sample mean, sample size) and a parameter (e.g., population mean, variance) and that is used in inferential tests based on a normal distribution. The z score, t score, and F ratio are all examples of pivotal variables.

PK

PK abbreviation for psychokinesis.

PKU

PKU abbreviation for phenylketonuria.

place attachment

place attachment feelings of connection or affiliation with a geographic location that provides security and comfort and contributes to identity. Individually and collectively, people become attached to certain places, such as their homes or their neighborhoods. See also territoriality.

place cell

place cell a neuron in the hippocampus that fires selectively when an animal is in a particular spatial location or moving toward that location. Place cells were first discovered in 1971.

place conditioning

place conditioning see conditioned place preference.

place learning

place learning 1. the learning of locations or physical positions of goals (e.g., where food can be found). Compare response learning. [defined by Edward C. Tolman] 2. in conditioning, learning an association between a place and an unconditioned stimulus, such as food or poison. See conditioned place preference.

place theory

place theory the theory that (a) sounds of different frequencies stimulate different places along the basilar membrane and (b) pitch is coded by the place of maximal stimulation. The first proposition is strongly supported by experimental evidence and stems from the fact that the mammalian auditory system shows tonotopic organization. The second hypothesis remains controversial. See Helmholtz theory. Compare periodicity theory.

placebo

placebo n. (pl. placebos) 1. a pharmacologically inert substance, such as a sugar pill, that is often administered as a control in testing new drugs. Placebos used in double-blind trials may be dummies or active placebos. Formerly, placebos were occasionally used as diagnostic or psychotherapeutic agents, for example, in relieving pain or inducing sleep by suggestion, but the ethical implications of deceiving patients in such fashion makes this practice problematic. 2. any medical or psychological intervention or treatment that is believed to be “inert,” thus making it valuable as a control condition against which to compare the intervention or treatment of interest. See placebo effect.

placebo control group

placebo control group a group of participants in a study who receive an inert substance (placebo) instead of the active drug under investigation, thus functioning as a control group against which to make comparisons regarding the effects of the active drug. See also placebo effect.

placebo controlled trial

placebo controlled trial a clinical research design that incorporates a placebo control group. Compare active control trial.

placebo effect

placebo effect a clinically significant response to a therapeutically inert substance or nonspecific treatment (placebo), deriving from the recipient’s expectations or beliefs regarding the intervention. It is now recognized that placebo effects accompany the administration of any drug (active or inert) and contribute to the therapeutic effectiveness of a specific treatment. For example, patients given a placebo to relieve headaches may report statistically significant reductions in headaches in studies that compare them with patients who receive no treatment at all. This term is also used more generally in nonclinical studies to indicate any effect arising from participants’ expectations regarding the study.

placebo group

placebo group see placebo control group.

placement counseling

placement counseling 1. services designed to advise and assist individuals to find suitable or optimal employment. Placement counseling may include coaching or training for job interviews, procedures for filling out applications, and assistance with other activities relevant to obtaining a job. These services may be offered as part of the vocational rehabilitation of people with disabilities, or they may be provided to anyone in the general public who is searching for a job (e.g., recent college graduates, the long-term unemployed). 2. in education, a service that provides guidance to students in deciding upon an appropriate educational program, class, or level of instruction. 3. in foster care, services provided to help children and their adoptive parents adjust to adoptive placement.

placement test

placement test a test used by educational institutions to place students in classes appropriate to their abilities, achievements, and interests.

placenta

placenta n. the specialized organ produced by the mammalian embryo that attaches to the wall of the uterus to permit removal of waste products and to provide nutrients, energy, and gas exchange for the fetus via the maternal circulation. —placental adj.

Placidyl

Placidyl n. a trade name for ethchlorvynol.

placing

placing n. a reflex movement in which a baby lifts his or her foot onto a surface, which occurs during the first 3 months of life.

plain English law

plain English law 1. in some states in the United States, a law requiring attorneys to use less arcane, more comprehensible language in drafting documents. 2. a law written in a way that strives for simplicity of expression. Plain English laws reduce reliance on legal jargon, enabling them to be more easily understood by the general public.

plan

plan n. in cognitive psychology, a mental representation of an intended action, such as an utterance or a complex movement, that is presumed to guide the individual in carrying it out. See preparation. PLAN acronym for Program for Learning in Accordance With Needs.

PLAN

plan-continuation bias

plan-continuation bias the tendency of people to continue with an original course of action that is no longer viable. An example would be an airline pilot who unexpectedly encounters bad weather at the scheduled destination but decides to land anyway rather than divert to another location. Plan-continuation bias appears to be particularly strong toward the end of the activity and has been theorized to result from the interaction of such factors as cognitive load, task demands, and social influences. See also entrapment.

Planck’s principle

Planck’s principle the notion that new scientific theories do not gain acceptance by a systematic process of validation that convinces opponents of their truth. Instead, as opponents of a new theory grow old and die, they are replaced by a new generation of scientists, who were exposed to the theory early in their careers and have come to accept it. This notion is a direct challenge to both verification and falsificationism. [Max Planck (1858–1947), German physicist]

plane symmetry

plane symmetry see symmetry.

planned behavior

planned behavior behavior that is under the organism’s direct control, as opposed to reflexive behavior. See theory of planned behavior.

planned comparison

planned comparison see a priori comparison.

planned group

planned group see formal group.

planned obsolescence theory

planned obsolescence theory see genetic programming theory.

Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA)

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planning fallacy

planning fallacy the tendency to underestimate the amount of time needed to complete a future task, due in part to the reliance on overly optimistic performance scenarios. [identified by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman]

plantar reflex

plantar reflex the involuntary flexing of the toes of a healthy child when the sole of the foot is stroked. The plantar reflex appears around age 2 and replaces the earlier Babinski reflex.

planum temporale

planum temporale a region of the superior temporal cortex of the brain, adjacent to the primary auditory cortex, that includes part of Wernicke’s area. In most people, it is larger in the left cerebral hemisphere than in the right hemisphere.

plaque

plaque n. a small patch of abnormal tissue on or within a bodily structure, formed as the result of an accumulation of substances or as the result of localized damage. Examples of the former type include the amyloid plaques of Alzheimer’s disease, arising from clumps of beta-amyloid protein, and the atheromatous plaques of atherosclerosis, consisting of lipid deposits on the lining of arterial walls. Examples of the latter type include the demyelination plaques on the protective nerve sheaths of individuals with multiple sclerosis.

plastic surgery

plastic surgery a branch of surgery that specializes in the restoration, reconstruction, and repair of damaged or diseased tissue to improve the form or function of a body structure or area. Plastic surgery is commonly used in reconstruction of the female breast (e.g., after surgical removal for cancer), facial features (e.g., the nose, a cleft lip or palate), and genital features (e.g., the vagina or penis in sex-reversal surgery). See also cosmetic surgery; postreconstructive surgery; reconstructive surgery.

plastic tonus

plastic tonus a state of voluntary muscles such that a limb can be passively moved into positions that are retained, sometimes for hours. It is characteristic of catatonia.

plasticity

plasticity n. flexibility and adaptability. Plasticity of the nervous or hormonal systems makes it possible to learn and register new experiences. Early experiences can also modify and shape gene expression to induce long-lasting changes in neurons or endocrine organs. See also functional plasticity; neural plasticity. Compare rigidity.

plateau

plateau n. a period in learning when the learning curve flattens because the rate of increase has stopped temporarily, often because of fatigue, boredom, loss of motivation, or a change in the level of skill required.

plateau phase

plateau phase see sexual-response cycle.

Plateau’s spiral

Plateau’s spiral a stimulus used to create a vivid motion aftereffect, consisting of a black and white spiral rotated around its central point. Depending on the direction of rotation, the spiral will appear to expand or contract when steadily viewed while it is rotating. However, when the spiral is stopped, it will appear to move in the opposite direction, producing a perception of expansion or contraction. Moreover, the illusory expansion or contraction will apply to any other stationary object viewed immediately after stopping the spiral. [Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau (1801–1883), Belgian physicist]

Platonic idealism

Platonic idealism a general philosophical position deriving both directly and indirectly from the writings of Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), which holds that the phenomena of our world are to be truly known by contemplating them in their ideal forms or abstract essences. Such knowledge is to be achieved by the rational intellect or nous, rather than the senses or the understanding. In The Republic, Plato developed a philosophical system around the central notion that the things of this world are shadows or reflections of their ideal forms existing in a transcendent realm outside time and space (see analogy of the cave). This realm is the “real” world because the forms that comprise it are perfect and eternal, not being subject to change, decay, or limitation like the things of our world. Platonic idealism is essentially a misnomer, as Plato’s doctrine of ideas is actually a form of realism and not of idealism. This doctrine, the theory of forms, is partly an attempt to solve the logical and other problems involved in relating particulars to universals (e.g., relating blue things to the term blue or good things to the concept goodness); however, it also had a metaphysical or religious dimension, which was later emphasized and extended by Neoplatonism.

Platonic love

Platonic love a type of love in which there is no overt sexual behavior or desire. The term derives from a misunderstanding of the teachings of Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), in which sexual desire is not absent but rather leads to a love for spiritual things.

platycephaly

platycephaly n. a condition in which the crown of the head is abnormally flat. —platycephalic adj.

platykurtic

platykurtic adj. describing a distribution of scores that is flatter than a normal distribution, having more scores at the extremes and fewer in the center. See also mesokurtic; leptokurtic.

play

play n. activities that appear to be freely sought and pursued solely for the sake of individual or group enjoyment. Play is a cultural universal and typically regarded as an important mechanism in children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. Research on the topic abounds: Various types of play have been described—with locomotor play, object play, and social play generally considered to be the three basic forms—and numerous theories about the specific functions of play have been proposed. Advocates of the practice theory of play, for example, propose that play prepares children for activities or roles they will encounter as adults, whereas others suggest that it serves a more immediate function, such as exercise, establishing social relations among peers, or—according to the surplus energy theory—using up excess energy. Other theories include those of Sigmund Freud, who claimed that play is a means for children to deal with anxiety-producing events; Jean Piaget, who believed that play promotes cognitive competence by helping children incorporate new information into existing cognitive structures; Erik Erikson, who viewed play sequences as models by which children relive aspects of the past, represent aspects of the present, and anticipate aspects of the future; and Lev Vygotsky, who conceived of play as facilitating symbolic processes by providing children with opportunities to establish meaning. Although the preponderance of research on play focuses on the activities of children, the play behavior of nonhuman animals is also actively studied. Often including components of courtship, aggression, predation, and sexual behavior in contexts where these do not seem appropriate, animal play appears to serve several important developmental functions. These include fostering the acquisition of social skills and the formation of social relationships, enhancing confidence (e.g., by teaching a young animal the flexibility to respond to unexpected events such as being knocked off balance), and strengthening sensorimotor systems.

play group psychotherapy

play group psychotherapy a form of analytic group psychotherapy for children 3 to 5 years old (i.e., those in preschool and early elementary school). The therapist provides a variety of play materials (e.g., clay, toys, blocks, figurines) that foster both interaction among group members and the nonverbal expression of impulses, feelings, and thoughts by individuals. During the process, the therapist may request factual information, offer encouragement, or clarify observations. The goal is to enhance the child’s sense of mastery and self-control through appropriate communication and socialization. [introduced in 1943 by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

play therapy

play therapy the use of play activities and materials (e.g., clay, water, blocks, dolls, puppets, finger paint) in child psychotherapy. Play-therapy techniques are based on the theory that such activities mirror the child’s emotional life and fantasies, enabling the child to “play out” feelings and problems and to test out new approaches and understand relationships in action rather than words. This form of psychotherapy, which focuses on a child’s internal conflicts in addition to his or her daily life and current relationships, may be directive or nondirective. See directive play therapy; nondirective play therapy. See also projective play.

playacting

playacting n. dramatic play in which children, adolescents, or adults (including group-therapy participants) take different roles. In the process, the participants test out relationships, rehearse different ways of dealing with situations, identify with significant figures, and play out any of a broad range of affective states and behaviors within the safe realm of make-believe. See also psychodrama.

playfulness

playfulness n. the tendency to see the light or bright side of life, to joke with others, and not to take matters too seriously. Playfulness is considered to be a foundation of humor. —playful adj.

playground design

playground design the design of recreational areas for children, which can influence their play behavior. For example, more complex levels of play are seen in adventure playgrounds than in traditional or contemporary playgrounds.

playing possum

playing possum see death feigning.

pleasantness

pleasantness n. a hedonic state, typically deemed highly desirable, that is experienced when an event is congruent with one’s goals or is associated with pleasure. See also dimensional theory of emotion. —pleasant adj.

pleasure

pleasure n. the emotion or sensation induced by the enjoyment or anticipation of what is felt or viewed as good or desirable.

pleasure center

pleasure center any of various areas of the brain (including areas of the hypothalamus and limbic system) that, upon intracranial self-stimulation (see intracranial stimulation), have been implicated in producing pleasure. The existence of pure pleasure centers has not been definitively established, particularly because the self-stimulation response rate varies according to such factors as the duration and strength of the electrical stimulation. Also called reward center. [proposed by James Olds]

pleasure principle

pleasure principle the view that human beings are governed by the desire for gratification, or pleasure, and for the discharge of tension that builds up as pain or “unpleasure” when gratification is lacking. In the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the pleasure principle is the psychic force that motivates people to seek immediate gratification of instinctual, or libidinal, impulses, such as sex, hunger, thirst, and elimination. It dominates the id and operates most strongly during childhood. Later, in adulthood, it is opposed by the reality principle of the ego. Also called pleasure–pain principle.

pleniloquence

pleniloquence n. a compulsion to talk incessantly. —pleniloquent adj.

pleonasm

pleonasm n. a form of verbal redundancy in which an excess of words is used to express an idea, as in a great big giant.

pleonexia

pleonexia n. 1. an abnormal greediness or desire for the acquisition of objects. 2. an abnormal intake of oxygen.

plethysmography

plethysmography n. the process of recording and measuring volume or volume changes in organs or body tissues, such as the blood supply flowing through an organ. The instrument used in this process is called a plethysmograph. Examples include the penile plethysmograph, which records changes in the size of the penis and thus measures blood flow and erection, and the vaginal plethysmograph, which records changes in the amount of blood in the walls of the vagina and thus measures sexual arousal.

plexiform layer

plexiform layer one of the two synaptic layers in the retina. See inner plexiform layer; outer plexiform layer.

plexiform molecular layer

plexiform molecular layer see cortical layers.

plexus

plexus n. a network of similar structures (e.g., nerves, blood vessels) that are functionally or anatomically interconnected, such as the brachial plexus, cervical plexus, or celiac plexus.

PLISSIT

PLISSIT n. acronym for a model that is used in counseling clients about sexual problems. The model offers successive levels of communication or intervention: (a) Permission, in which the client is told it is acceptable to talk openly about a given sexual problem; (b) Limited Information, in which the client is given information limited to that directly relevant to his or her concern; (c) Specific Suggestions, in which actions to treat the problem are specified; and (d) Intensive Therapy, which may be required if the client has a complex problem (usually involving referral to another therapist). [developed in 1976 by U.S. psychologist Jack S. Annon (1929–2005)]

plosive

plosive 1. adj. denoting a speech sound in which the airstream is partially or totally obstructed and suddenly released. A plosive sound may be voiced (e.g., [b], [d], [g]) or unvoiced (e.g., [p], [t], [k]). 2. n. a plosive speech sound. Also called obstruent; stop.

Plummer’s disease

Plummer’s disease see thyrotoxicosis. [Henry Stanley Plummer (1874–1936), U.S. surgeon]

plural marriage

plural marriage polygamy, especially in the form associated with the Mormon community. See also group marriage.

pluralism

pluralism n. 1. the idea that any entity has many aspects and that it may have a variety of causes and meanings. 2. in philosophy, the belief that ultimate reality is composed of more than one substance or fundamental kind of entity. Compare dualism; monism. 3. the existence in a society of people having different religions, ethnic origins, and cultural backgrounds. —pluralist adj.

pluralistic ignorance

pluralistic ignorance the state of affairs in which virtually every member of a group privately disagrees with what are considered to be the prevailing attitudes and beliefs of the group as a whole. It has been suggested that apparently sudden changes in social mores (e.g., with regard to sexual behavior) can be explained by the gradual recognition by many individuals that others in the group think the same as themselves. [proposed in the 1920s by Floyd H. Allport]

plus maze

plus maze a cross-shaped apparatus to assess learning and memory in rodents and other nonhuman animals. It has four arms radiating at right angles to one another from a central point. The animal is required to use visual cues to perform a particular task within the maze, such as identifying and entering a specific arm to obtain a food reward. See also elevated plus maze.

plutomania

plutomania n. an inordinate striving for money and possessions.

PM

PM abbreviation for primary memory.

PMS

PMS abbreviation for premenstrual syndrome.

PMT

PMT abbreviation for parent management training.

PNC

PNC abbreviation for preferred noise criterion.

PNES

PNES abbreviation for psychogenic nonepileptic seizure.

pneumo-

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pneumoencephalography

pneumoencephalography n. a diagnostic technique used from 1918 until the mid-1980s to examine the cerebral ventricles and subarachnoid space of the brain by injecting air into the cerebrospinal fluid. Because of the difference in opacity between the air and brain tissues, the air appears as a dark shadow on the resulting radiographic image (X-ray), which is known as a pneumoencephalogram. The development of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging has eliminated the need for this test.

pneumogastric nerve

pneumogastric nerve see vagus nerve.

pneumograph

pneumograph n. an instrument that records the movements or volume change of the lungs. The record is produced either by electric monitoring of the rate and extent of respiratory movements or by X-ray imaging of the lungs after they have been injected with a gas to improve the visual contrast between tissue areas. Also called pneumatograph; stethograph.

PNS

PNS abbreviation for peripheral nervous system.

POC

POC abbreviation for performance-operating characteristic.

POE

POE abbreviation for postoccupancy evaluation.

poetry therapy

poetry therapy a form of bibliotherapy that uses the reading or writing of poetry to facilitate emotional expression in an individual and foster healing and personal growth.

Poetzl phenomenon

Poetzl phenomenon see Pötzl phenomenon.

Poggendorf illusion

Poggendorf illusion a visual illusion in which the two ends of a straight diagonal line seem to be offset from one another when the line appears to pass behind a figure with parallel vertical borders, such as a bar. [Johann Christian Poggendorf (1796–1877), German physicist]

POI

POI abbreviation for Personal Orientation Inventory.

poikilotherm

poikilotherm n. see ectotherm. —poikilothermic adj. —poikilothermy n.

point biserial correlation coefficient

point biserial correlation coefficient (symbol: rpbis; rpb) a numerical index reflecting the degree of relationship between two random variables, one continuous and one dichotomous (binary). An example is the association between the propensity to experience an emotion (measured using a scale) and gender (male or female). Also called point biserial; point biserial r. Compare rank biserial correlation coefficient.

point estimate

point estimate a single estimated numerical value, determined from a sample, of a given population parameter. Point estimates can often be tested for statistical significance if their standard errors are also known. Compare interval estimate.

point localization

point localization the ability to locate a point on the skin that is stimulated. The point-localization test is a somatosensory test in which a skin area, usually on the hand, is touched twice with an intervening period of 1 second. The participant is required to determine whether the points touched were in the same place. Also called tactual localization.

point method

point method a method of evaluating jobs for the purpose of setting wage or salary levels in which a number of compensable job factors are identified, each factor is divided into degrees or levels, and points are assigned to each level; jobs can then be rated according to their total point score. The technique, which is essentially a development of the factor-comparison method, is now the most widely used form of job evaluation. Also called point factor method. Compare classification method; Hay method; job-component method; ranking method.

point mutation

point mutation see mutation.

point of subjective equality (PSE)

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point prevalence

point prevalence see prevalence.

point scale

point scale any scale for measuring some construct or attribute in which participants’ responses to a series of multiple-choice questions are given numerical values (points). The final score is the total points earned. See also Likert scale; semantic differential.

point-light display

point-light display a display used in studies of biological motion perception and consisting of a dozen or so small lights attached to various joints and other parts of the body of an individual, with the body itself not visible. The movement of just the small lights (or a computer reproduction thereof) produces a compelling impression of the individual in motion. However, without movement, the lights are perceived as random and not as the individual. [devised in the 1970s by Swedish psychologist Gunnar Johansson (1911–1998)]

point–hour ratio (PHR)

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pointing

pointing n. a test in which the participant, with the eyes open, extends a forefinger and touches the forefingers of the examiner. Knowing the location of the examiner’s fingers, the participant should then be able to touch them with eyes closed. Failure to do so is called past-pointing.

Poisson distribution

Poisson distribution a discrete distribution that generates the probability of occurrence of rare events that are randomly distributed in time or space. It is a type of theoretical distribution. Count variables, such as the number of aggressive acts observed on a playground or the number of times a person attempts to stop smoking, take this form. When a variable is distributed in this way, a researcher needs to consider specialized statistical models. [Siméon D. Poisson (1781–1840), French mathematician]

Poisson regression

Poisson regression an analytic model that has as its dependent variable a count variable and any of a number of predictor variables; in other words, it is used when the outcome variable has a Poisson distribution. For example, a researcher may hypothesize that dyadic adjustment, number of years as a couple, and personality characteristics predict the number of times that one member of a couple interrupts the other during a problem-solving task. [Siméon D. Poisson]

polar body

polar body see oogenesis.

polar continuum

polar continuum a series of values or elements whose end points are opposites, such as hot–cold.

polarization

polarization n. 1. a difference in electric potential between two surfaces or two sides of one surface because of chemical activity. Polarization occurs normally in living cells, such as neurons and muscle cells, which maintain a positive charge on one side of the plasma membrane and a negative charge on the other. See polarized membrane. 2. a condition in which light waves travel in parallel paths along one plane.

polarized membrane

polarized membrane a membrane with a positive electrical charge on one surface and a negative charge on the other surface. All living cells maintain a potential difference across their plasma membrane—the membrane potential. In the resting condition, the outside of the membrane is positive in relation to the inside. See resting potential.

polarized thinking

polarized thinking see dichotomous thinking.

police psychology

police psychology a branch of psychology that provides specialized assistance to law enforcement. Typical duties of a police psychologist may involve the screening and selection of recruits, fitness for duty evaluations, and counseling.

police-assisted suicide

police-assisted suicide see suicide by cop.

policy analysis

policy analysis a collection of techniques for synthesizing information (a) to specify alternative policy and program choices in cost–benefit terms, (b) to assess organizational goals in terms of input and outcome, and (c) to guide decision making. Policy analysis is a useful approach for examining the implications of different potential scenarios. For example, an organization considering a flexible time policy for its employees might choose to analyze the costs and benefits of the policy before implementing it.

policy research

policy research empirical studies conducted to guide the formulation of corporate, organizational, or public policies. For example, a nonprofit organization might investigate how to help students from lower income urban areas gain access to higher education.

polio

polio n. see poliomyelitis.

polioencephalitis

polioencephalitis n. inflammation of the gray matter of the brain, due to an infectious disease.

poliomyelitis

poliomyelitis n. an inflammatory process due to viral infection. In minor cases, it is characterized by fever, headache, sore throat, and vomiting that typically disappear within 72 hours. In major cases, the inflammation affects the gray matter of the spinal cord and may lead to muscular weakness and paralysis, which can affect the muscles controlled by autonomic nerves, as well as skeletal muscles, so that breathing, swallowing, or similar functions are disrupted. Cognitive problems may arise as a secondary result of breathing difficulties. Also called infantile paralysis; polio.

politeness

politeness n. the process by which a speaker attempts to avoid harm to a listener’s public image or private self-concept through the use of nonthreatening or face-saving forms of speech. Politeness involves steering clear of content or forms of language that might embarrass listeners, make them feel uncomfortable, or lessen their self-respect. It also involves actively using language that maintains or enhances the listener’s dignity, prestige, and autonomy. For example, a speaker might preface the request for a favor by saying, “I’m sorry to bother you, and feel free to say no, but I wonder if you would. . . .” Politeness is one aspect of facework.

political correctness

political correctness advocacy of or conformity to the belief that anything, particularly language, that may be offensive to or discriminate against anyone on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, disability, or physical appearance should be avoided. The term is usually used disparagingly to connote dogmatism on the one hand and excessive sensitivity on the other.

political genetics

political genetics any of various attempts to derive political theories or practices from the science of genetics. Most such attempts have been repugnant, ranging from the policies of selective breeding and population control advocated by social Darwinism to Nazi conceptions of a master race. See also beyondism.

political psychology

political psychology 1. the study of political issues, processes, and dynamics, at both the individual and group levels, from the perspective of psychological principles. 2. the application of psychological principles and knowledge to the formation of public policy, particularly as related to mental health and associated issues. See also public service psychology.

political science

political science the study of governments, particularly at the national level. Incorporating aspects of economics, philosophy, psychology, and sociology, political science has several focal subareas, including policymaking, international relations, voting behavior, and public opinion.

political socialization

political socialization the transmission of political norms through social agents, such as schools, parents, peers, or the mass media. See social transmission.

political sociology

political sociology an interdisciplinary field that examines the social basis of and social influences on political institutions, political movements, political power, and public policy.

pollution

pollution n. the presence of toxins or contaminants in the environment. See air-pollution adaptation.

poltergeist

poltergeist n. an alleged paranormal phenomenon in which an unseen “presence” disturbs a household by noisy and destructive pranks, such as slamming doors, rapping on walls, upsetting furniture, and breaking crockery. Parapsychologists often approach such manifestations with the idea that they may be caused by conscious or nonconscious psychokinesis rather than being independent phenomena. [German, “noisy ghost”]

poly-

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polyandry

polyandry n. 1. among nonhuman animals, a mating system in which a female mates with more than one male but a male mates with only one female. The female mates with and forms a social relationship with multiple males during one reproductive cycle. Cooperative-breeding tamarins are thought to exhibit facultative polyandry, in which a female mates with multiple males who share in care of young when a new social group is formed, but once the group is established and has many helpers, the same female will become monogamous with one of the males. 2. marriage of a woman to more than one husband at the same time, which is an accepted custom in certain cultures. Compare monogamy; polygamy; polygynandry; polygyny. —polyandrous adj.

polychoric correlation coefficient

polychoric correlation coefficient an index showing the degree of association between two variables that are scored as ordered categories but assumed to be manifestations of underlying continuous random variables. It is an alternative to the product-moment correlation coefficient that is applied to ordered polychotomous variables. For example, a researcher might use a polychoric correlation coefficient to assess the relationship between teacher ratings of student interest in a topic (none, moderate, substantial) and student self-reports of interest.

polychotomous variable

polychotomous variable a variable having more than two possible categories, either ordered or unordered. For example, college matriculation could be described as a polychotomous variable: freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior. Also called polytomous variable. See also dichotomous variable.

polydipsia

polydipsia n. extreme thirst, manifest as excessive drinking. It commonly results from diabetes and can be an important diagnostic sign of the condition, or—in the case of psychogenic polydipsia—it may be related to psychological factors (e.g., psychogenic nocturnal polydipsia). It may also be induced by conditioning procedures (schedule-induced polydipsia). Compare adipsia.

polydrug abuse

polydrug abuse substance abuse involving more than one drug.

polydrug dependence

polydrug dependence dependence (physical, psychological, or both) on more than one drug of abuse. Also called polysubstance dependence. See substance dependence.

polyestrous

polyestrous adj. see estrous cycle.

polyethism

polyethism n. the division of labor, especially among colonies of social insects, in which each individual has a specific job, such as care of larvae, foraging for food, defense of the colony, or nest construction. In some species, there is an age-biased polyethism such that individuals progress through several tasks as they become older.

polygamy

polygamy n. marriage to more than one spouse at the same time, which is an accepted custom in certain cultures. See also bigamy; group marriage; plural marriage; polyandry; polygyny. Compare monogamy. —polygamous adj. —polygamist n.

polygenic

polygenic adj. relating to two or more genes.

polygenic inheritance

polygenic inheritance see multifactorial inheritance.

polygenic trait

polygenic trait an attribute that is determined by numerous genes rather than only one. An example is a person’s height. Also called polygenetic trait. See multifactorial inheritance.

polyglot

polyglot n. see linguist.

polyglot reaction

polyglot reaction recovery from aphasia in which a multilingual person first regains use of a language other than his or her native language. See also Pitres’ rule; Ribot’s law.

polygraph

polygraph n. a device that measures and records several physiological indicators of stress, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin response. The instrument has been widely used in the interrogation of criminal suspects and in employee screening to measure marked physiological reactions to questions about such issues as theft, sexual deviation, or untruthfulness. It has been colloquially referred to as a lie detector, although no one has ever documented a close relation between physiological patterns and deceptive behavior. The accuracy of polygraph examinations is controversial, and the results are not accepted as evidence in many U.S. courts of law. [invented in 1917 by U.S. experimental psychologist William Marston (1893–1947)]

polygynandry

polygynandry n. a mating system in which females mate with multiple males and males mate with multiple females. Compare monogamy; polyandry; polygyny.

polygyny

polygyny n. 1. among nonhuman animals, a mating system in which a male mates with more than one female but a female mates with only one male. See also harem; resource defense polygyny. 2. marriage of a man to more than one wife at the same time, which is an accepted custom in certain cultures. Compare monogamy; polyandry; polygamy; polygynandry. —polygynous adj.

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

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polymicrogyria

polymicrogyria n. see lissencephaly.

polymodal

polymodal adj. involving several sensory modalities.

polymorphic fusiform layer

polymorphic fusiform layer see cortical layers.

polymorphic layer

polymorphic layer see dentate gyrus.

polymorphism

polymorphism n. 1. in biology, the condition of having multiple behavioral or physical types within a species or population. In some fish species, there are two distinct sizes of males: Larger males defend territory and attract females to mate with them; much smaller males, often with the physical appearance of females, stay close to the large male and inseminate some of the eggs. Peppered moths in England exist as black morphs (forms) in polluted areas and white morphs in nonpolluted areas. 2. in genetics, the presence in a population of two or more variants of a gene (i.e., alleles) at a given genetic locus. For example, the variety of human blood groups is due to polymorphism of particular genes governing the characteristics of red blood cells. See also single-nucleotide polymorphism. —polymorphic adj.

polymorphous perversity

polymorphous perversity in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the response of the human infant to many kinds of everyday activities posited to provide sexual excitation, such as touching, smelling, sucking, viewing, exhibiting, rocking, defecating, urinating, hurting, and being hurt.

polyneuritis

polyneuritis n. inflammation of several nerves at the same time, usually involving peripheral nerves as a result of infection. Symptoms include intense pain, muscle atrophy, and paralysis.

polyneuropathy

polyneuropathy n. any disorder that affects many or all of the peripheral nerves. See peripheral neuropathy.

polynomial

polynomial n. a mathematical expression consisting of multiple terms, each of which is the product of a constant (a) and a variable (x) raised to a whole number exponent: a0xn + a1xn– … + an–1x + an

polynomial contrast

polynomial contrast a comparison of mean values for more than two different levels or time points of an independent variable to determine whether they follow a particular mathematical pattern, such as linear, quadratic, cubic, or quartic. For example, a researcher might have a specific prediction about how clients’ average degree of motivation to attend therapy will differ over the course of treatment (e.g., will decrease, then increase, and then decrease again), and he or she could use a polynomial contrast to determine whether this is indeed the case. See also repeated contrast.

polynomial regression

polynomial regression a type of linear regression analysis in which the relationship between an explanatory or independent variable and an outcome or dependent variable is modeled as a polynomial. Polynomial regression is appropriate for expressing higher order nonlinear effects among variables (via quadratic or cubic functions such as yi = β0 + β1xi + β2xi2 + β3xi3 + …) while retaining all other aspects of linear approaches.

polyopia

polyopia n. the formation of multiple images of one object on the retina due to a refractive error of the eye, brain injury (see palinopsia), fatigue, or psychogenic disorder. See visual illusion.

polyorchidism

polyorchidism n. the condition of having three or more testicles. —polyorchid adj., n.

polypeptide

polypeptide n. a molecule consisting of numerous (usually more than 10–20) amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The synthesis of polypeptides in living cells takes place at ribosomes according to the genetic instructions encoded in the cell’s DNA. Polypeptides are assembled by the cell into proteins.

polyphagia

polyphagia n. an abnormal compulsion to eat excessive quantities of food.

polypharmacy

polypharmacy n. the simultaneous use of a variety of drugs of the same or different classes with the intent of producing a more robust therapeutic response. Polypharmacy for mental disorders may, for example, involve the administration of two or more antidepressants in the hope that agents with different mechanisms of action will produce greater clinical improvement than that seen with any one drug alone. Polypharmacy is often criticized because of the lack of well-controlled studies supporting its use and the greater likelihood of adverse drug interactions when two or more drugs are used simultaneously. However, for those individuals unsuccessfully treated with several trials of monotherapy, or for whom monotherapy achieves suboptimal results, polypharmacy may be therapeutically indicated and appropriately managed.

polyphasic activity

polyphasic activity see Type A personality.

polyphasic sleep

polyphasic sleep a pattern in which sleep occurs in relatively short naps throughout a 24-hour period. A human infant may begin life with a polyphasic sleep rhythm that consists of half a dozen sleep periods. The rhythm becomes monophasic, with one long, daily sleep period, by about school age. Biphasic sleep patterns, which include one daytime nap period in addition to the long, typically nocturnal, period of sleep, are seen in a variety of cultures (e.g., the siesta) and in older adults. Compare monophasic sleep. See also segmented sleep; sleep–wake cycle.

polysemy

polysemy n. the condition in which a word has more than one meaning, as in dear meaning “loved” or “expensive.” Psycholinguistic experiments to probe the structure of the mental lexicon frequently make use of polysemy. See also ambiguity; homonym; pun. —polysemic adj.

polysensory unit

polysensory unit a neuron in the central nervous system or a sensory receptor that normally responds to more than one type of stimulus, such as cutaneous sensory receptors that mediate prick-pain impulses and also produce sensations of itching.

polysomnography

polysomnography n. the recording of various physiological processes (e.g., eye movements, brain waves, heart rate, respiration) throughout the night for the diagnosis of sleep-related disorders. —polysomnograph n.

polysubstance dependence

polysubstance dependence see polydrug dependence.

polysurgical addiction

polysurgical addiction a compulsive drive to undergo one surgical procedure after another even when organic pathology cannot be found. The condition may be a manifestation of factitious disorder with predominantly physical signs and symptoms, somatization disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, or hypochondriasis.

polysynaptic arc

polysynaptic arc a neural arc involving several synapses, such as when one or more sensory neurons are connected to one or more motor neurons via one or several interneurons. Also called multisynaptic arc. Compare monosynaptic arc.

polysynaptic reflex

polysynaptic reflex any reflex whose pathway involves more than a single synapse.

polytomous variable

polytomous variable see polychotomous variable.

POMC

POMC abbreviation for proopiomelanocortin.

POMR

POMR abbreviation for problem-oriented medical record. See problem-oriented record.

POMS

POMS acronym for Profile of Mood States.

pons

pons n. a part of the brainstem lying between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata, appearing as a swelling on the ventral surface of the brainstem. It consists of bundles of transverse, ascending, and descending nerve fibers and nuclei, including facial nerve nuclei. It serves primarily as a bridge, or transmission structure, between different areas of the nervous system. It also works with the cerebellum in controlling equilibrium and with the cerebral cortex in smoothing and coordinating voluntary movements. With the cerebellum, it forms the region called the metencephalon. —pontine adj.

pontine nucleus

pontine nucleus any of several nuclei in the basal pons. They receive fibers from the cerebral cortex and send fibers to the cerebellum via the middle cerebellar peduncles.

pontine sleep

pontine sleep sleep characterized by the presence of PGO spikes.

pontine–geniculo–occipital spikes

pontine–geniculo–occipital spikes see PGO spikes.

pontocerebellar pathway

pontocerebellar pathway a neural pathway in the brain consisting of nerve fibers that run from the pontine nuclei to the cerebellum. The latter uses this information to coordinate and refine muscular activity initiated by the cerebral cortex.

Ponzo illusion

Ponzo illusion a visual illusion in which the upper of two parallel horizontal lines of equal length appears to be longer than the bottom of the two lines when they are flanked by oblique lines that are closer together at the top than they are at the bottom. Also called railway lines illusion. [Mario Ponzo (1882–1960), Italian psychologist]

pooled estimate

pooled estimate a single estimated value for a population parameter (e.g., a mean) obtained by averaging several independent estimates of that parameter.

pooled interdependence

pooled interdependence a task condition in which the task is split among a number of individuals, units, or groups, each of which performs independently with no flow of work between them and little if any contact or coordination required. The output of each individual, unit, or group is eventually pooled and contributes to the overall goals of the organization as a whole. For example, each member of a particular organization’s sales department works independently throughout the day to sell a particular product, and at the end of the day, the number of sales across all members is combined to yield a sales figure for the organization. Pooled interdependence means that the results achieved by each individual or group will depend very little on the accomplishments of the other individuals or groups.

pooling

pooling n. a procedure in which several independent estimated values of a population characteristic are averaged, with or without weights, to obtain a single value. For example, the pooled variance is a single value for a variable’s dispersion produced by combining several independent estimates of that dispersion. Consider a researcher who uses multiple imputation to fill in missing data when examining correlations between children’s educational performance and maternal depression. He or she could calculate the value of the variance using the data set that exists at each stage of the imputation procedure and then average each of those individual variances to obtain a single overall value.

poor premorbid schizophrenia

poor premorbid schizophrenia see process schizophrenia.

pop-out

pop-out n. in visual search tasks, a target that is different from the distractors. One or more basic features will mark the pop-out as distinct from the other stimuli, hence allowing the target to be easily detected and identified regardless of the number of distractors.

popular child

popular child see sociometric status.

popular psychology

popular psychology 1. psychological knowledge as understood by members of the general public, which may be oversimplified, misinterpreted, and out of date. See also commonsense psychology; folk psychology. 2. psychological information intended specifically for use by the general public, such as self-help books and television and radio advice programs.

population

population n. 1. the total number of individuals (humans or other organisms) in a given geographical area. 2. in statistics, a theoretically defined, complete group of objects (people, nonhuman animals, institutions) from which a sample is drawn to obtain empirical observations and to which results can be generalized. Also called universe.

population correlation coefficient

population correlation coefficient (symbol: ρ) an index expressing the degree of association between two continuously measured variables for a complete population of interest. For example, a researcher could obtain income and education information for all families in a town and calculate a population correlation coefficient for the entire town. In contrast, the sample correlation coefficient indexes the association for a specific subset of those cases (e.g., every fourth family from a list of all those in the town).

population density

population density the number of people or other organisms per unit of space.

population distribution

population distribution the arrangement of scores or responses on a variable for a complete population of interest. For example, a researcher could graph the income distribution of all families in a town; in contrast, the sample distribution would show the incomes of only a specific subset of families.

population mean

population mean (symbol: μ) the average (mean) value on a variable for a complete population of interest. In many research settings, this value is estimated using the sample mean, but in situations when information is known for all the units of interest, it can be calculated directly. For example, the mean household income for an entire town may be determined by averaging the responses from a survey returned by all of the households in the town.

population psychology

population psychology a subfield of psychology that studies the relationships between the characteristics and dynamics of human populations and the attitudes and behavior of individuals and groups. Representing an interface between psychology and demography, population psychology is particularly concerned with family planning and fertility regulation (i.e., reproductive behavior), high population density, and public policy development. Additional research topics include family formation and structure, migration, urbanization, mortality, and population education. Population psychology also encompasses the conceptualization of specific theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches for the study of population.

population research

population research the study of the numbers, and changes in the numbers, of people and other organisms, focusing on the reasons for growth and decline, the migration patterns and spatial distribution of the organisms, and related issues. Also called demographic research. See also demography.

population standard deviation

population standard deviation (symbol: σ) a value indicating the dispersion of scores in a complete population of interest, that is, how narrowly or broadly the scores deviate from the mean. In many research settings, the population standard deviation is estimated from the sample standard deviation, but when information about the full set of units is known, it can be calculated directly. See also population variance.

population stereotype

population stereotype in ergonomics, generalizations about the perceptual, cognitive, or physical characteristics of a group of users, such as a cultural group, that are relevant to the design of systems or products for that group. For example, in the United States, users have a right bias (a tendency to move right, select doors on the right, etc.) and see the color red as carrying connotations of “stop,” “danger,” or “turn off.” See cultural ergonomics.

population validity

population validity the degree to which study results from a sample can be generalized to a larger target group of interest (the population). For example, consider an educational researcher wishing to characterize the academic motivation of students. If he or she conducts a study of only urban students, then the investigator would need to demonstrate that the findings apply beyond the sample used in the study to the broader set of all students as a whole. Population validity is a type of external validity.

population variance

population variance (symbol: σ2) the square of the population standard deviation. It is a measure reflecting the spread (dispersion) of scores in a complete population of interest (e.g., the test scores of all students at a school).

population vector

population vector the mechanism used in the motor cortex to encode the direction of an intended movement. The activity in each neuron increases when the intended movement is close to its preferred direction. The direction of the intended movement is derived from the activity across the population of neurons.

POR

POR abbreviation for problem-oriented record.

porencephaly

porencephaly n. see cerebral dysplasia.

poriomania

poriomania n. an irresistible impulse to run away or wander off, either consciously or in a state of amnesia. The condition may occur in some types of epilepsy and dementia. Also called poriomanic fugue. See also fugue; nomadism.

pornographomania

pornographomania n. 1. a morbid impulse to write obscene letters. 2. sexual arousal associated with writing obscenities.

pornography

pornography n. writings or images (e.g., illustrations, films) with blunt, often exploitative sexual content designed solely to arouse a sexual response and to satisfy the sexual urges of the beholder. Although legal interpretations of pornography vary, they tend to focus on it as a violation of community standards, with no redeeming artistic value. See also erotica. —pornographic adj. [from Greek pornographos, literally: “writing about prostitutes”]

pornolagnia

pornolagnia n. an obscure term for attraction to prostitutes as sexual partners, in preference to partners who choose to have sex out of mutual interest.

porphyria

porphyria n. a metabolic disorder involving the excretion of excessive or abnormal porphyrins (breakdown products of hemoglobin) in the urine. The acute intermittent form is characterized by abdominal pain, nausea, weakness or paralysis of the extremities, and psychiatric symptoms, such as irritability, depression, agitation, and delirium.

PORT

PORT acronym for Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team.

port-wine stain

port-wine stain a permanent birthmark consisting of a bluish red discoloration. A diffuse port-wine stain on the face may be a symptom of Sturge–Weber syndrome.

portal-systemic encephalopathy

portal-systemic encephalopathy see hepatic encephalopathy.

Porter–Lawler model of motivation

Porter–Lawler model of motivation a model of work motivation that integrates the valence–instrumentality–expectancy theory with other theoretical perspectives, including existence, relatedness, and growth theory, equity theory, and theories of intrinsic motivation. [Lyman W. Porter (1930– ) and Edward E. Lawler III (1938– ), U.S. management theorists]

Porter’s law

Porter’s law the principle that the critical flicker frequency increases with the logarithm of the brightness of the stimulus, independent of the stimulus wavelength. Also called Ferry–Porter law. [Thomas Cunningham Porter (1860–1933), British scientist; Edwin Sidney Ferry (1868–1956), U.S. physicist]

Porteus Maze Test

Porteus Maze Test one of the original paper-and-pencil intelligence tests, devised in 1913 to assess the ability to plan ahead and apply reasoning to the solution of a problem. In its various forms, the Porteus Maze Test consists of a complex set of straight pathways that turn abruptly at right angles and run into numerous blind alleys. Only one pathway leads directly through the maze. [Stanley D. Porteus (1883–1972), Australian-born U.S. psychologist]

Portman Clinic

Portman Clinic a major British clinic set up in 1933 in Portman Square, London, by three psychoanalysts to assess, diagnose, and research delinquency. This led to the study and treatment of all mental and behavioral abnormalities and disorders. The clinic joined the Tavistock Clinic in the Tavistock and Portman National Health Service Trust in 1994. The trust provides a range of clinical mental health services as well as professional education and training.

portmanteau neologism

portmanteau neologism a new word formed by combining parts of existing words, such as stagflation, from stagnation and inflation. See blending; neologism.

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

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position effect

position effect 1. the difference a gene’s position on a chromosome makes to that gene’s expression. 2. in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, an effect in which the position of the target in a temporal series or a spatial array appears to influence the accuracy of the participant’s “calls” or guesses. See also decline effect; differential effect; focusing effect; preferential effect; sheep–goat effect.

position power

position power a capacity to influence others based on their acceptance that the influencer occupies a formal position in the organization or group that gives him or her the right to make decisions and to demand compliance. In other words, the power is associated with the position itself and is not dependent on the person in that position. See legitimate power.

positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN)

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positional cloning

positional cloning a technique to locate a gene that causes a disease, utilized when little is known about the biochemical basis of the disease.

positive acceleration

positive acceleration a situation in which the successive gains as a result of learning or practice increase across trials. See learning curve. Compare negative acceleration.

positive addiction

positive addiction a concept that some activities in which a person feels a need or urge to participate, such as meditation or exercising, are positive even though they may possibly become a form of addiction. Positive addictions are considered healthy therapeutic alternatives relative to negative addictions, such as drug abuse, alcohol dependence, or cigarette smoking. [developed by U.S. psychiatrist William Glasser (1925–2013)]

positive affect

positive affect the internal feeling state (affect) that occurs when a goal has been attained, a source of threat has been avoided, or the individual is satisfied with the present state of affairs. The tendency to experience such states is called positive affectivity.

Positive Affect Scale

Positive Affect Scale see Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

positive afterimage

positive afterimage see afterimage.

positive afterpotential

positive afterpotential a small, positive membrane potential (hypopolarization) shown by a neuron or muscle cell during recovery from an action potential. The nerve or muscle is more excitable during the positive afterpotential. See also afterpotential.

Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)

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positive attitude

positive attitude in psychotherapy and counseling, the client’s feelings of acceptance and approval of the therapist or counselor, of the therapeutic or counseling process, of another person, or of himself or herself. Compare negative attitude.

positive contingency

positive contingency see contingency.

positive contrast

positive contrast see behavioral contrast.

positive correlation

positive correlation a relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together. For example, one would expect to find a positive correlation between study hours and test performance. Also called direct correlation. Compare negative correlation.

positive discrimination

positive discrimination see reverse discrimination.

positive discriminative stimulus

positive discriminative stimulus (symbol: S+) a stimulus associated with a contingency of positive reinforcement.

positive emotion

positive emotion an emotional reaction designed to express a positive affect, such as happiness when one attains a goal, relief when a danger has been avoided, or contentment when one is satisfied with the present state of affairs. Compare negative emotion.

positive eugenics

positive eugenics see eugenics.

positive exercise addiction

positive exercise addiction an inordinate attraction to habitual physical exercise that brings about an enhanced sense of physical and psychological well-being. Compare negative exercise addiction.

positive family history

positive family history a family history with disease characteristics sufficient enough to consider that the family has a genetic syndrome or inherited disorder. A family history of colon cancer, for example, is evaluated according to the Amsterdam criteria to determine whether the family has hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).

positive feedback

positive feedback 1. an arrangement whereby some of the output of a system, whether mechanical or biological, is fed back to increase the effect of input signals. Positive feedback is rare in biological systems. See feedback system. 2. acceptance, approval, affirmation, or praise received by a person in response to his or her performance. Compare negative feedback.

positive hallucination

positive hallucination a false perceptual experience characterized by perception of something that is not there. In general, positive hallucinations are exaggerations of normal perception. Although they are a hallmark of psychotic disturbances, such as schizophrenia, these perceptual experiences can also be generated by hypnosis. Compare negative hallucination.

positive hit rate

positive hit rate 1. the number of instances in which the choice of a particular alternative proved correct divided by the total number of instances in which that alternative was chosen. 2. in personnel selection, the proportion of people hired who actually succeed on the job.

positive illusion

positive illusion a belief about oneself that is pleasant or positive and that is held regardless of its truth. The most common positive illusions involve exaggerating one’s good traits (see beneffectance), overestimating one’s degree of control over personally important events (see illusion of control), and sustaining unrealistic optimism (see repressive coping style).

positive incentive

positive incentive an object or condition that constitutes a desired goal and may result in goal-directed behavior. Compare negative incentive.

positive motivation

positive motivation the impulse to engage in behaviors that result in desired outcomes, such as wanting to work hard in order to obtain praise or promotion from an employer.

positive practice

positive practice see overcorrection.

positive psychology

positive psychology a field of psychological theory and research that focuses on the psychological states (e.g., contentment, joy), individual traits or character strengths (e.g., intimacy, integrity, altruism, wisdom), and social institutions that enhance subjective well-being and make life most worth living. A manual, Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification, serves this perspective in a manner parallel to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders for the categorization of mental illness. [term coined by Abraham Maslow and adapted by U.S. psychologist Martin E. P. Seligman (1942– )]

positive punishment

positive punishment punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is presented as a consequence of a response. For example, if a response results in presentation of a loud noise and the response becomes less likely as a result of this experience, then positive punishment has occurred. Compare negative punishment.

positive regard

positive regard feelings of warmth, caring, acceptance, and importance expressed by someone toward another. Positive regard is considered necessary for psychological health and the development of a consistent sense of self-worth and is also a cornerstone of certain therapeutic approaches, particularly that of Carl Rogers. See also conditional positive regard; unconditional positive regard.

positive reinforcement

positive reinforcement 1. an increase in the probability of occurrence of some activity because that activity results in the presentation of a stimulus or of some circumstance. 2. the procedure of presenting a positive reinforcer after a response. Compare negative reinforcement.

positive relationship

positive relationship see direct relationship.

positive reward theory

positive reward theory see reward theory.

positive schizophrenia

positive schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia in which positive symptoms predominate, as evidenced in bizarre behavior, illogical speech or writing, or expression of hallucinations and delusions. Although more dramatically evident than negative schizophrenia, the positive aspect is usually less challenging to treat. [defined in 1982 by U.S. psychiatrists Nancy C. Andreasen and Scott A. Olsen]

positive self-talk

positive self-talk see self-talk.

positive skew

positive skew see skewness.

positive stereotype

positive stereotype a stereotype that purports to describe the admirable, desirable, or beneficial qualities and characteristics of the members of a particular group or social category. Although stereotypes about other groups are often negative, generalizations about one’s own groups tend to be positive. Compare negative stereotype.

positive symptom

positive symptom a symptom of schizophrenia that represents an excess or distortion of normal function, as distinct from a deficiency in or lack of normal function (compare negative symptom). Positive symptoms include delusions or hallucinations, disorganized behavior, and manifest conceptual disorganization. They are more dramatic and less distinctive of schizophrenia than are negative symptoms: Eugen Bleuler regarded them as secondary symptoms. See positive schizophrenia.

positive transfer

positive transfer 1. the improvement or enhancement of present learning by previous learning. For instance, learning to drive a car could facilitate learning to drive a truck. See also transfer of training. Compare negative transfer. 2. see language transfer.

positive transference

positive transference in psychoanalysis, a patient’s transfer onto the analyst or therapist of those feelings of attachment, love, idealization, or other positive emotions that the patient originally experienced toward parents or other significant individuals during childhood. Compare negative transference.

positive tropism

positive tropism the orientation of an organism toward a source of stimulation. An example is the turning of a flower to face the sun. See tropism.

positive–negative asymmetry

positive–negative asymmetry the tendency of people to give disproportionate weight and consideration to negative information and events in decision making and perception. For example, voters are more inclined to reject a candidate on the basis of the negative information they receive about that person than they are inclined to accept a candidate on the basis of the positive information they receive. The effect can be cognitive, influencing thinking and judgment, or affective, influencing emotions. In either case, negative information requires more processing and the recipient typically demands more justification and input than he or she would from positive information. See also bad is stronger than good. [first described in 1971 by Belgian psychologist Guido Peeters]

positivism

positivism n. a family of philosophical positions holding that all meaningful propositions must be reducible to sensory experience and observation and thus that all genuine knowledge is to be built on strict adherence to empirical methods of verification. Positivism first became an explicit position in the work of French thinkers Auguste Comte and Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825), although it is implicit to varying degrees in most earlier forms of empiricism. Its effect is to establish science as the model for all forms of valid inquiry and to dismiss the truth claims of religion, metaphysics, and speculative philosophy. Positivism, particularly logical positivism, was extremely influential in the early development of psychology and helped to form its commitment to empirical methods. It continues to be a major force in contemporary psychology. See also Machian positivism. —positivist adj.

positivist criminology

positivist criminology an approach that seeks to explain criminal behavior not as an exercise of free will or choice (as is the case in classical criminology) but rather as a consequence of various internal factors (e.g., biological, psychological) and external factors (e.g., cultural, social) that affect human behavior. See also criminal anthropology.

positivity effect

positivity effect an increasing tendency for older adults, compared to younger people, to attend to, recall, and process positive information to a greater degree than they do negative information. [first proposed in the 1990s by U.S. psychologist Laura L. Carstensen]

positron emission tomography (PET)

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possession

possession n. see demonic possession.

possession trance

possession trance see dissociative trance disorder.

possessiveness

possessiveness n. 1. in general, excessive striving to claim possession or ownership. 2. an abnormal tendency to control or dominate others, generally involving the restriction of their social relationships. In its most extreme form, this pattern of behavior is often associated with abusive relationships.

possible self

possible self a mental representation of what one could become. Possible selves are cognitive manifestations of enduring goals, aspirations, fears, and threats that provide plans and strategies for the future. They may be positive, providing an image of something to strive for, or negative, providing an image of something to be avoided. An individual is free to create any variety of selves, yet the pool of possible selves derives from the categories made salient by the individual’s particular sociocultural and historical context and from the models, images, and symbols provided by the media and by the individual’s immediate social experiences. [proposed in 1985 by U.S. social psychologist Hazel Rose Markus]

post hoc comparison

post hoc comparison any examination in which two or more quantities are compared after data have been collected and without prior plans to carry out the particular comparison. For example, after obtaining a significant F ratio for a data set, a researcher may perform post hoc comparisons to follow up on and help explain the initial findings. Different statistical tests are required for post hoc comparisons than for a priori comparisons. Also called a posteriori comparison (or contrast); post hoc contrast; unplanned comparison (or contrast).

post hoc test

post hoc test a statistical procedure conducted on the basis of the findings obtained from previous analyses. Most commonly, the phrase refers to comparisons of the mean values obtained on a variable by different study groups, with these comparisons made only after an overall analysis of variance has revealed a significant F ratio, indicating that there is some effect or difference across the groups that should be examined further. Also called follow-up test. See post hoc comparison.

postcaptivity health problems

postcaptivity health problems health problems that develop after a period of captivity, especially in prisoners of war, and that may include injuries, posttraumatic stress reactions, affective reactions, or a combination of these. Many former captives may show posttraumatic stress disorder in the years following release, sometimes with a delayed onset.

postcentral area

postcentral area a sensory region of the parietal lobe of the brain, posterior to the central sulcus, that has neurons involved in the perception of touch, proprioception, kinesthesis, and taste.

postcentral gyrus

postcentral gyrus a ridge in the parietal lobe of the brain, just behind the central sulcus, that is the site of the primary somatosensory area.

postchiasmatic visual deficit

postchiasmatic visual deficit a visual impairment caused by damage to visual processing areas posterior to (i.e., beyond) the optic chiasm, such as the optic radiations or striate cortex. Postchiasmatic injury or disease affects vision in both eyes (see homonymous hemianopia). Also called retrochiasmatic visual deficit.

postcognition

postcognition n. see retrocognition. —postcognitive adj.

postcolonialism

postcolonialism n. the multidisciplinary (e.g., historical, linguistic, political, philosophical) study or analysis of the experience and the local and global effects of colonization. Whereas historical colonialism emphasized the differences between the colonizers and the colonized, usually marginalizing the latter, postcolonialism represents an attempt to bring the two cultures together, such as when indigenous writers of previously colonized lands explain aspects and values of their traditional cultural identity in the language of the colonizers.

postcompetition anxiety

postcompetition anxiety the apprehension created after a competition as a result of not meeting goals during the competition, the perceived reaction of others to the performance or outcome, or the perceived expectations of others and oneself because of the performance or outcome.

postconcussion syndrome

postconcussion syndrome persistent and pervasive changes in cognitive abilities and emotional functioning that occur as a result of diffuse trauma to the brain during concussion. An individual with this syndrome may appear to be within normal limits neurologically but experiences persistent depression, fatigue, impulse-control problems, and difficulties with concentration and memory. Postconcussion syndrome is frequently seen in individuals who have been repeatedly beaten on the head and face, such as children or women who have been abused (see battered-child syndrome; battered-woman syndrome).

postconventional level

postconventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the third and highest level of moral reasoning, characterized by an individual’s commitment to moral principles sustained independently of any identification with family, group, or country. This level is divided into two stages: the earlier social contract orientation (Stage 5 in Kohlberg’s overall theory), in which moral behavior is that which demonstrates an understanding of social mutuality, balancing general individual rights with public welfare and democratically agreed upon societal rights; and the later ethical principle orientation (Stage 6), in which moral behavior is based upon self-chosen, abstract ethical standards. Also called postconventional morality. See also conventional level; preconventional level.

postcopulatory behavior

postcopulatory behavior among nonhuman animals, activity that immediately follows copulation. Male rats, for example, are inactive but produce an ultrasonic vocalization after ejaculation. In many species, males remain alert and guard their mate to prevent other males from attempting to copulate with her. In some species, females can eject or remove sperm or keep it, engaging in postcopulatory mate selection.

postcreolization continuum

postcreolization continuum see decreolization.

postdictive validity

postdictive validity see retrospective validity.

postemployment services

postemployment services 1. in vocational rehabilitation, follow-up assistance or programs designed to help recently employed individuals with disabilities adjust to their new job situation. Examples include counseling, financial support, and continuing medical treatment and care. 2. services provided to help individuals who are economically disadvantaged (e.g., those receiving public assistance in the form of welfare) develop various work-related skills essential to sustained long-term employment and enhance their potential for wage increases and career advancement. Services may provide access to and assistance with child care and transportation; on-the-job training; continuing education classes; and mentoring programs designed to help newly hired individuals adjust to the workplace.

postencephalitic amnesia

postencephalitic amnesia a memory disorder that occurs in some patients who have recovered from viral encephalitis. The symptoms include a gross defect of recent memory and partial amnesia for events preceding the encephalitis; intelligence, however, is unimpaired.

postencephalitis syndrome

postencephalitis syndrome a pathological condition that occurs following or as a result of encephalitis. An example is postencephalitic parkinsonism, which developed in patients who recovered from the 1915–1926 epidemic of encephalitis lethargica. The onset of symptoms in some cases was not observed until 10 years after recovery from the disease.

posterior

posterior adj. in back of or toward the back. In reference to two-legged upright animals, this term sometimes is used interchangeably with dorsal to mean toward the back surface of the body. Compare anterior.

posterior cerebral artery

posterior cerebral artery an artery of the brain that arises from the terminal bifurcation of the basilar artery and passes above the oculomotor nerve to curve around the midbrain above the level of the tentorium cerebelli. Its branches supply blood to the region of the third ventricle, including the thalamus and choroid plexus, the occipital lobe and the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, and the lingual, fusiform, and inferior temporal gyri.

posterior chamber

posterior chamber see eye.

posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)

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posterior commissure

posterior commissure see commissure.

posterior communicating artery

posterior communicating artery an artery that arises from the internal carotid artery and passes just ventral to the optic tract to merge with the posterior cerebral artery, thus completing the circle of Willis at the base of the brain. Branches of the posterior communicating artery supply the optic tract and part of the optic chiasm, the genu of the corpus callosum, the posterior hypothalamus, parts of the internal capsule, the third ventricle, and anterior and ventral nuclei of the thalamus.

posterior cortex

posterior cortex the occipital cortex of mammals, including the striate cortex (Brodmann area 17) and prestriate cortex (area 18).

posterior cranial fossa

posterior cranial fossa see fossa.

posterior distribution

posterior distribution in Bayesian approaches, an estimated arrangement of values for a population characteristic of interest that is obtained by combining empirical data with prior expectations based on existing knowledge or opinion (the prior distribution).

posterior horn

posterior horn 1. the backmost division of each lateral ventricle in the brain. 2. see dorsal horn.

posterior nucleus

posterior nucleus see lateral posterior nucleus.

posterior pituitary

posterior pituitary the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

posterior probability

posterior probability the probability that a certain event will occur given that other related events have been observed. For example, assume that Basket A contains 10 white cards and 20 red cards, while Basket B contains 20 white cards and 10 red cards. If one selects a card from a basket at random, without noting the color, the probability that it will be from Basket A is .5, since the only possibilities are A or B. If, however, the color of the card is noted, then one must take this additional information into account in determining the probability that the card came from Basket A. For example, the probability that a white card will be pulled from Basket A would be revised downward from .5 according to Bayes theorem: Since there are fewer white cards in A, a white card is more likely to be drawn from B instead. See also prior probability.

posterior rhizotomy

posterior rhizotomy see rhizotomy.

posterior root

posterior root see dorsal root.

postfigurative culture

postfigurative culture a society or culture in which the young learn chiefly from their parents, grandparents, and other adults. Compare cofigurative culture; prefigurative culture. [coined by U.S. anthropologist Margaret Mead (1901–1978)]

postformal thought

postformal thought the complex ways in which adults structure their thinking based on the complicated nature of adult life. It is an extension of Jean Piaget’s concept of formal operations (see formal operational stage), which are developed in adolescence, to adult cognition and includes an understanding of the relative, nonabsolute nature of knowledge; an acceptance of contradiction as a basic aspect of reality; the ability to synthesize contradictory thoughts, feelings, and experiences into more coherent, all-encompassing wholes; and the ability to resolve both ill- and well-defined problems.

postganglionic autonomic neuron

postganglionic autonomic neuron any neuron of the sympathetic nervous system whose cell body lies in a ganglion of the sympathetic chain. Such neurons innervate certain target organs, such as the kidneys, ovaries, and salivary glands. Compare preganglionic autonomic neuron.

postherpetic neuralgia

postherpetic neuralgia see herpetic neuralgia.

posthypnotic amnesia

posthypnotic amnesia an individual’s inability to remember what transpired during a period of hypnosis. Typically, this is induced by instruction of the hypnotist.

posthypnotic suggestion

posthypnotic suggestion a suggestion made to a person during hypnosis that he or she acts out after the hypnotic trance. The suggested act may be carried out in response to a prearranged cue, and the person may not know why he or she is performing the action.

postictal

postictal adj. following a sudden attack, especially a seizure or a stroke. During the postictal period of seizure, the individual may be confused, disoriented, and unable to form new memories. The length of the postictal period may vary from less than a second to many hours and depends on the type of seizure.

postlingually deafened

postlingually deafened becoming deaf after the acquisition of language.

postmodernism

postmodernism n. 1. a number of related philosophical tendencies that developed in reaction to classical modernism during the late 20th century. Most postmodern positions reject traditional metaphysics for its pursuit of a reality independent of the world of lived experience, traditional epistemology for its pursuit of certain knowledge and objectivity, and traditional ethical theories because of their reliance on metaphysics and epistemology. More specifically, they see the ideal of objective truth that has been a guiding principle in the sciences and most other disciplines since the 17th century as basically flawed: There can be no such truth, only a plurality of “narratives” and “perspectives.” Postmodernism emphasizes the construction of knowledge and truth through discourse and lived experience, the similar construction of the self, and relativism in all questions of value. It is therefore a form of radical skepticism. See also poststructuralism. 2. in the arts, a general movement away from the tenets and practices of modernism that became apparent in the late 20th century. Postmodern culture is often held to be characterized by a free merging of genres and styles, a spirit of irony and pastiche, and a recognition of the importance of pop culture and the mass media. —postmodern adj.

postmortem examination

postmortem examination see autopsy.

postnatal period

postnatal period see postpartum period.

postoccupancy evaluation (POE)

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postpartum blues

postpartum blues see baby blues.

postpartum depression

postpartum depression a major depressive episode or, less commonly, minor depressive disorder that affects some women within 4 weeks to 6 months after childbirth. Compare baby blues.

postpartum period

postpartum period the period of about 6 weeks following childbirth during which the mother’s reproductive system gradually returns to its prepregnant state. Also called postnatal period; puerperium.

postpartum psychosis

postpartum psychosis delusions, hallucinations, or other symptoms of impaired reality testing that occur in some women shortly after childbirth, often associated with postpartum depression.

postpositivism

postpositivism n. 1. the general position of U.S. psychology since the mid-20th century, when it ceased to be dominated by logical positivism, hypothetico-deductive methods, and operationalism. Postpositivistic psychology is a broader and more human endeavor, influenced by such philosophers of science as Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996) and by such developments as social constructionism and the Continental tradition of phenomenology and existentialism. 2. more generally, any approach to science and the philosophy of science that has moved away from a position of strict positivism. —postpositivist adj., n. —postpositivistic adj.

postreconstructive surgery

postreconstructive surgery surgery performed after reconstructive surgery. It is often required to achieve optimum functioning and may involve the transfer of muscle or tendon fibers between body areas or the redirection of nerve fibers. See also cosmetic surgery; plastic surgery.

postreinforcement pause

postreinforcement pause in operant conditioning, the period of time that elapses from the end of reinforcement until the occurrence of the next response from the class that is being reinforced.

postrotational nystagmus

postrotational nystagmus the involuntary, rapid eye movements (see nystagmus) that occur when rapid rotation of the body ceases.

postschizophrenic depression

postschizophrenic depression a depressive episode that may follow an acute schizophrenic episode. Postschizophrenic depression is viewed variously as a routine event in recovery from schizophrenic decompensation, as a mood disturbance that existed previously and was masked by the schizophrenic episode, or as a side effect to drug treatment for schizophrenia.

poststructuralism

poststructuralism n. a broad intellectual movement that developed from French structuralism in the late 1960s and 1970s. It is represented by the work of Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) in philosophy and criticism, Jacques Lacan (1901–1981) in philosophy and psychoanalysis, Michel Foucault (1926–1984) in the history of ideas, and Hélène Cixous (1937– ) and Julia Kristeva (1941– ) in feminist theory, among others. Although these thinkers are diverse, they share a starting point in the structuralist account of language given by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), which holds that linguistic signs acquire meaning only through structural relationships with other signs in the same language system. Poststructuralism endorses the arbitrariness of the sign, but from this basis it proceeds to question the whole idea of fixed and determinate meaning. In the deconstruction of Derrida, structures and systems of meaning are found to be unstable, contradictory, and endlessly self-subverting. This skepticism extends to the idea of personal identity itself; according to Derrida, the self is merely another “text” to be deconstructed. In psychology, poststructuralism is mainly significant because of its influence on the radical psychoanalytical theories of the 1960s and 1970s. Lacan, who trained and practiced as a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, rejected the idea of a stable autonomous ego and reinterpreted the Freudian unconscious in terms of Saussure’s structural linguistics. His unconventional ideas and methods led to his exclusion from the International Society of Psychoanalysts in 1963. Both Kristeva (another practicing psychoanalyst) and Cixous were deeply influenced by Lacan’s ideas of sexuality, consciousness, and language, which are given a radical feminist twist in their writings. The best known work of Foucault, who worked in a psychiatric hospital as a young man, is his Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l’âge classique (1961; translated as Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, 1965), which gives a tendentious history of Western attitudes to insanity, arguing that the categories of madness and reason are themselves oppressive. —poststructuralist adj.

postsynaptic

postsynaptic adj. 1. of or relating to the region of a neuron within a synapse that receives and responds to a neurotransmitter. 2. of or relating to a neuron that receives a signal via a synapse. Compare presynaptic.

postsynaptic potential (PSP)

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postsynaptic receptor

postsynaptic receptor any receptor that is located on the cell membrane or in the interior of a postsynaptic neuron. Interaction with an effector substance (e.g., a neurotransmitter), released either by the presynaptic neuron or from another site, initiates a chain of biochemical events contributing, for example, to excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic neuron.

posttest

posttest 1. n. an assessment carried out after the application of some intervention, treatment, or other condition to measure any changes that have occurred. Posttests often are used in research contexts, in conjunction with pretests, to isolate the effects of a variable of interest. For example, in a study examining whether a new therapy helps to alleviate depression, participants might receive the therapy and then complete a short symptom inventory, the results of which would be compared to those from an inventory taken prior to the treatment. 2. vb. to administer a posttest.

posttest counseling

posttest counseling a type of genetic counseling that occurs following disclosure of genetic test results. Posttest counseling focuses on the individual’s understanding of the meaning of the test results and of the options for screening. Considerable attention is given to the psychological status of the individual and to assessing whether he or she needs further medicalj or psychological services. Compare pretest counseling.

posttest-only control-group design

posttest-only control-group design a research design in which an experimental group and a control group are compared on a posttest measure only. It is assumed that participants’ results on any pretest administered before the introduction of the experimental manipulation would be essentially equivalent across the groups due to the random assignment of individuals to conditions. A posttest-only control-group design is distinct from a posttest-only design, in which all groups receive some treatment and there is no neutral comparison.

posttetanic potentiation (PTP)

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posttraumatic amnesia (PTA)

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posttraumatic disorders

posttraumatic disorders emotional or other disturbances whose symptoms appear after an individual has endured a traumatic experience. Common posttraumatic disorders include posttraumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, the dissociative disorders, and some types of phobias and anxiety disorders, as well as depressive disorder and situational psychosis.

posttraumatic epilepsy

posttraumatic epilepsy epileptic seizures that occur as a complication of traumatic brain injury. The seizures may occur either soon after the injury or, in some cases, months or years later.

posttraumatic personality disorder

posttraumatic personality disorder a personality disorder occasionally observed after a severe head injury. Some individuals become indifferent and withdrawn, but most are irritable, impulsive, petulant, extremely selfish, and irresponsible. Older individuals and those with frontal-lobe damage may show impaired memory with confabulation.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

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posttreatment follow-up

posttreatment follow-up a periodic check on the progress of people who have received some form of psychotherapeutic or medical treatment. In research studies, posttreatment follow-up is used to see if the effects of treatment are maintained or if relapse occurs. If the effects of treatment are maintained, it is inferred that the treatment has lasting rather than temporary effects.

postulate

postulate n. see axiom.

postural aftereffect

postural aftereffect a change in posture that arises as an aftereffect of prior stimulation. For example, when viewing a moving scene, a person typically leans in the direction of the motion. When viewing ends, body posture returns to a vertical position and then, briefly, leans in the opposite direction.

postural arm drift

postural arm drift the drift of the arms from their original position when an individual is required to hold them outstretched and in a static position, with the eyes closed. The drift, if it occurs, is usually toward the midline and may be an indication of a parietal lesion. Also called parietal drift.

postural control

postural control the ability to control the position of one’s body. The first landmark in the development of postural control occurs at about 3 weeks of age, when a prone infant is first able to lift the head and raise the chin. Within a few weeks, further steps in postural control are achieved, such as holding the head erect and turning it and sitting with and then without support.

postural hypotension

postural hypotension see orthostatic hypotension.

postural mirroring

postural mirroring the mimicking of another individual’s stance, gestures, or other nonverbal behaviors, whether fully or partially. For example, if one person crosses his or her arms during a conversation and the other person subsequently does the same, then postural mirroring has occurred. The phenomenon tends to be nonconscious and may even induce affective similarities in participants (e.g., a person mirroring the posture of someone who is anxious may then feel anxious, too). Also called postural echo. See mirror neuron.

postural reflex

postural reflex any of a variety of automatic movements that serve to maintain body posture. See also stance reflex.

postural set

postural set a body position, characterized by increased muscle tone, that is adopted in preparation for a response, such as a baseball batter’s stance before a pitch.

postural tremor

postural tremor see action tremor.

posture

posture n. 1. the position or bearing of the body. Types of posture include erect (upright), recumbent (reclining), prone (lying face down), and supine (lying face up). Movement typically involves coordinated changes in posture (e.g., to maintain balance or distribute forces). 2. a rationalized mental position or attitude. —postural adj.

posturing

posturing n. the assumption of a bizarre or inappropriate body position or attitude for an extended period of time. It is commonly observed in catatonia.

postvention

postvention n. support services offered to the bereaved survivors (e.g., family, friends, classmates, coworkers) of those who have died by suicide or as a result of trauma. [defined by Edwin S. Shneidman]

postventral nucleus

postventral nucleus see ventroposterior nucleus.

postvoluntary attention

postvoluntary attention attention that has been captured by an absorbing and meaningful activity and that can be sustained enjoyably and productively for long periods of time. Such attention differs from involuntary attention in not being passive and from voluntary attention in not being experienced as effortful. See also effortless attention; flow.

pot

pot n. slang for marijuana. See cannabis.

potassium channel

potassium channel see ion channel.

potency

potency n. 1. the ability of a male to perform sexual intercourse, that is, to maintain an erection and achieve ejaculation. Compare impotence. 2. in pharmacology, see dose–response relationship. —potent adj.

potential

potential n. 1. the capacity to develop or come into existence. 2. electric potential, measured in volts: a property of an electric field equal to the energy needed to bring one unit of electric charge from infinity to a given point. The potential difference between two points is the driving force that causes a current to flow. Because messages in the nervous system are conveyed by electrochemical potentials, many kinds of potential are of importance in neuroscience and biological psychology, including the action potential, afterpotential, graded potential, local potential, membrane potential, postsynaptic potential, and resting potential. 3. in philosophy, see actual.

potential-stress score

potential-stress score see life-change unit.

potentiation

potentiation n. a form of drug interaction in which the addition of a second drug intensifies certain properties of the first drug administered. It often refers to the ability of a nontoxic drug to render more severe the effects of a toxic drug than when the toxic agent is administered singly.

potlatch

potlatch n. a ceremony among some Native Americans of the northwestern United States that involves a feast and the giving of gifts for the redistribution and reciprocity of wealth. The status of families is established not by what they have but by what they share.

Pötzl phenomenon (Poetzl phenomenon)

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Pötzl’s syndrome

Pötzl’s syndrome a form of pure alexia associated with visual field defects and disturbances of the color sense. The syndrome is believed to be the result of a lesion in the medullary layer of the lingual gyrus of the dominant hemisphere of the brain, with damage to the corpus callosum. [Otto Pötzl]

poverty of content of speech

poverty of content of speech speech that is adequate in quantity but too vague, repetitious, and lacking in content to be qualitatively adequate. It is frequently observed in schizophrenia and is distinct from poverty of speech, in which the quantity of speech is diminished.

poverty of ideas

poverty of ideas a thought disturbance, often associated with schizophrenia, dementia, and severe depression, in which there is reduced spontaneity and productivity of thought as evidenced by speech that is vague or full of simple or meaningless repetitions or stereotyped phrases. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with intellectual impoverishment.

poverty of speech

poverty of speech excessively brief speech with few elaborations that occurs in schizophrenia or occasionally in a major depressive episode. It is distinct from poverty of content of speech, in which the quality of speech is diminished.

POW

POW abbreviation for prisoner of war.

power

power n. 1. the capacity to influence others, even when they try to resist this influence. Social power derives from a number of sources: control over rewards (reward power) and punishments or other force (coercive power); a right to require and demand obedience (legitimate power); others’ identification with, attraction to, or respect for the powerholder (referent power); others’ belief that the powerholder possesses superior skills and abilities (expert power); and the powerholder’s access to and use of informational resources (informational power). 2. a measure of how effective a statistical procedure is at identifying real differences between populations: It is the probability that use of the procedure will lead to the null hypothesis of no effect being rejected when the alternative hypothesis is true. For example, if a given statistical test has a power of .70, then there is a 70% probability that its use will result in the null hypothesis correctly being rejected as false, with a corresponding 30% chance that its use will lead to a Type II error. Power ranges from 0 to 1, with values of .80 or above generally considered acceptable. 3. a mathematical notation that indicates the number of times a quantity is multiplied by itself.

power analysis

power analysis the process of determining the number of cases or observations that a study would need to achieve a desired level of power with a certain effect size and a certain significance level. This information is particularly important because it enables a researcher to plan what resources will be needed to enroll or select the desired number of individuals.

power base

power base the interpersonal origin of one individual’s capacity to influence other individuals. For example, reward power is based on the influencer’s control over valued resources, and legitimate power is based on a licit right to require and demand compliance. [proposed in 1959 by U.S. social psychologists John R. P. French Jr. (1922–2006) and Bertram Raven (1926– )]

power distance

power distance the degree to which a culture accepts an unequal distribution of power in organizations, institutions, or society at large. Individuals in high power distance cultures are more accepting of large power differentials than are those in low power distance cultures. [introduced by Dutch cultural psychologist Geert Hofstede (1928– )]

power elite

power elite the concept of a small number of powerful individuals, especially corporate, political, religious, or military leaders, who hold the highest positions of authority in their respective institutions and share a common outlook and values. This elite not only controls vast economic resources but also is thought to shape the agendas of government, business, education, and the media through its actions and attitudes. Most sociologists reject the idea of a single power elite, arguing that developed societies have a complex of overlapping elites, which often have competing values and interests. However, it is in the interests of the various groups of elites to consolidate power by building consensus among themselves. [coined by U.S. sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916–1962)]

power function

power function 1. a relationship in which the values for one variable vary according to the values of another variable raised to a power. In mathematics, it is expressed by the equation y = axb, where x and y are the variables and a and b are numerical constants. Power functions have been used to characterize the scales relating perceived and physical intensity, for example, as well as to characterize the relationship between response speed and practice. 2. a formula relating different factors, such as sample size, effect size, and significance level, to the likelihood that use of a particular statistical procedure will lead to rejection of the null hypothesis when it is in fact false (see power). For example, a researcher may plan to use a specific statistical test to detect a medium-sized effect, evaluate the effect at the .001 significance level, and reach a desired statistical power level of .80. Using a power function, the researcher could determine the sample size needed under those conditions. Power functions may be presented in tabular form or shown graphically as power curves.

power grip

power grip the manner of grasping an object between the pads of the fingers and the palm (e.g., when using a hammer). See also pincer grip; precision grip.

power law

power law 1. see Stevens law. 2. a generalization demonstrated by a learning curve in which each increment in the performance variable (e.g., learning, memory) corresponds with a logarithmic increase in the practice variable. For instance, if the successive units of practice are 1 trial, 10 trials, and 100 trials, the resulting learning curve is a straight line.

power of the situation

power of the situation a basic premise of social psychology that assumes people’s thoughts, actions, and emotions are influenced substantially by the social setting. For example, the responses of participants in the behavioral study of obedience are attributed to the power of the social situation created by researcher Stanley Milgram rather than to the dispositional characteristics of the participants. See also Stanford prison study.

power play

power play an aggressive technique or strategy used to achieve an end, often through the coercion of others.

power spectral density

power spectral density see spectrum level.

power spectrum

power spectrum see sound spectrum.

power test

power test a type of test intended to calculate the participant’s level of mastery of a particular topic under conditions of little or no time pressure. The test is designed so that items become progressively more difficult. Compare speed test.

power transformation

power transformation a class of transformations used to make the distribution of values on a variable more closely resemble that of a normal distribution and have more stable variance. In this approach, the obtained values are raised to some exponential quantity (e.g., squared), which preserves their original order. The Box–Cox transformation is an example of a power transformation.

power-coercive strategy

power-coercive strategy in social psychology, a tactic based on the uses of economic, social, and political power to effect societal change, usually through nonviolent measures (e.g., organized boycotts, strikes, sit-ins, demonstrations, registration drives, lobbying). See also empirical-rational strategy; normative-reeducative strategy.

powerlessness

powerlessness n. a state in which individuals either lack or believe that they lack control or influence over factors or events that affect their health (mental or physical), personal lives, or the society in which they live.

PPA

PPA 1. abbreviation for parahippocampal place area. See parahippocampal gyrus. 2. abbreviation for preferred provider arrangement.

PPACA

PPACA abbreviation for Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.

PPFA

PPFA abbreviation for Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

PPO

PPO preferred provider organization: a formally organized entity created by contractual arrangements among hospitals, physicians, employers, insurance companies, or third-party administrators to provide health care services to subscribers at a negotiated, often discounted price.

PPVT

PPVT abbreviation for Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.

PQ4R

PQ4R n. a set of study methods developed on the basis of research in cognitive psychology. The set represents six steps required for acquiring information: preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review.

PR

PR abbreviation for progressive ratio. See progressive-ratio schedule.

practical intelligence

practical intelligence the ability to apply one’s intelligence in practical, everyday situations. In the triarchic theory of intelligence, it is the aspect of intelligence that requires adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of new environments. Compare analytical intelligence; creative intelligence.

practical intelligence task

practical intelligence task a task requiring the display of practical know-how, such as consulting a map to find a location or using arithmetic to compute the prices of tickets to an athletic event. Such tasks also may require tacit knowledge that typically is not explicitly taught and that often is not even verbalized—that is, knowledge about adapting to, shaping, or selecting an environment. Compare academic intelligence task.

practical significance

practical significance the extent to which a study result has meaningful applications in real-world settings. An experimental result may lack statistical significance or show a small effect size and yet potentially be important nonetheless. For example, consider a study showing that the consumption of baby aspirin helps prevent heart attacks. Even if the effect is small, the finding may be of practical significance if it saves lives over time. Also called substantive significance. See also clinical significance; psychological significance.

practice

practice n. repetition of an act, behavior, or series of activities, often to improve performance or acquire a skill. For example, members of sports teams may engage in a preplanned series of activities organized for such purposes as learning a pattern of play or increasing physical fitness. See also distributed practice; massed practice.

practice effect

practice effect any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities. The practice effect is of particular concern in experimentation involving within-subjects designs, as participants’ performance on the variable of interest may improve simply from repeating the activity rather than from any study manipulation imposed by the researcher.

practice guidelines

practice guidelines criteria and strategies designed to assist health and mental health care providers in the recognition and treatment of specific disorders and diseases, as well as to outline ethical practice. Such guidelines are often based on the latest and best available scientific research or the considered judgment of expert committees representing specific professions or subdisciplines. See also clinical practice guidelines.

practice theory of play

practice theory of play see play.

practice trial

practice trial the first of a series of opportunities to respond to a test or an experimental setting, which is given to participants to acquaint them with the procedures used and is therefore not scored. The use of practice trials is believed to ensure that the initial measurements of the study proper will provide more accurate assessments of participants’ performance.

practicum

practicum n. supervised clinical experience offered as part of a course of study for the purpose of on-site, in-person professional training. In clinical psychology, graduate students generally complete a practicum prior to entering a full-time supervised internship program. Practicums may occur in inpatient, correctional, or residential settings or in outpatient settings such as private practices, mental health centers, and social service agencies. See also field work.

Prader–Willi syndrome (PWS)

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pragmatic aphasia

pragmatic aphasia a group of disorders caused by damage to the right hemisphere of the brain that particularly affect an individual’s ability to communicate appropriately in specific contexts or situations.

pragmatic language

pragmatic language language that is used appropriately in a specific context or situation.

pragmatic reasoning schema theory

pragmatic reasoning schema theorya model of conditional reasoning stating that people use generalized sets of context-specific, goal-dependent rules to make inferences about situations or problems. Each set of rules is abstracted from past experience and defined in terms of a specific type of pragmatic reasoning schema. For example, the obligation schema is a set of inference rules for situations in which the occurrence of a condition necessitates an action (e.g., if a miner gets lung cancer, then the company must pay compensation), whereas the permission schema applies to situations in which a precondition must be satisfied before a desired action is taken (e.g., if a customer is drinking an alcoholic beverage, then he or she must be over 21 years of age). According to the theory, the inference being tested is mapped onto different pragmatic schemata depending on the characteristics of the situation; the applicable schema then becomes the basis for reasoning, such that different schemata encourage different conclusions and different patterns of behavior. See also Wason selection task. [introduced in 1985 by Hong Kong-born U.S. cognitive psychologist Patricia W. Cheng (1952– ) and Canadian-born U.S. cognitive psychologist Keith J. Holyoak (1950– )]

pragmatics

pragmatics n. in linguistics, the analysis of language in terms of its functional communicative properties (rather than its formal and structural properties, as in phonology, semantics, and grammar) and in terms of the intentions and perspectives of its users. See also form–function distinction; functional grammar.

pragmatism

pragmatism n. a philosophical position holding that the truth value of a proposition or a theory is to be found in its practical consequences: If, for example, the hypothesis of God makes people virtuous and happy, then it may be considered true. Although some forms of pragmatism emphasize only the material consequences of an idea, more sophisticated positions, including that of William James, recognize conceptual and moral consequences. Arguably, all forms of pragmatism tend toward relativism, because they can provide no absolute grounds—only empirical grounds—for determining truth, and no basis for judging whether the consequences in question are to be considered good or bad. See also instrumentalism. [coined by Charles S. Peirce] —pragmatist adj., n.

Prägnanz

Prägnanz n. one of the Gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive forms as the simplest and most meaningful, stable, and complete structures that conditions permit. Also called law (or principle) of Prägnanz. [German: “terseness”]

prana

prana n. see chi.

prandial drinking

prandial drinking intake of fluids that is stimulated by eating.

praxiology

praxiology n. 1. the study of human conduct, or the science of efficient action (from Greek praxis, “to do”). 2. psychology as the study of human actions and overt behavior, to the exclusion of consciousness and metaphysical concepts. [employed by Knight Dunlap]

praxis

praxis n. 1. a medical name for motor planning. Inadequate praxis is apraxia. 2. practice, as opposed to theory. Aristotle contrasted praxis, or practical activity, with theoretical or rational activity. The term is sometimes used to denote knowledge derived from and expressed chiefly in practical or productive activity, as opposed to theoretical or conceptual knowledge.

prayer

prayer n. communication (voiced or contemplative) with a deity or other such entity, generally for the purposes of praise, thanksgiving, supplication, or self-examination or to seek forgiveness, guidance, or serenity. The behavior has been studied periodically at least since William James (see psychology of religion), with varied results. For instance, researchers and practitioners have noted, on the one hand, that prayer can be used as a defense or escape from the exploration of painful issues and as a form of magical thinking and, on the other hand, that it can be both cognitively meaningful and therapeutically beneficial in some conditions for those with specific religious beliefs or spirituality. Much work has been done, since the late 1970s, by a growing body of researchers to integrate religious values and practices with psychotherapy. In appropriate circumstances, prayer may be explicitly used by some therapists as a component of intervention and treatment. The therapist and client may pray individually or together for such goals as personal or interpersonal healing, forgiveness, and the ability to examine problems freely and with discernment.

PRE

PRE abbreviation for partial reinforcement effect.

pre–post design

pre–post design see pretest–posttest design.

preadolescence

preadolescence n. the period of childhood preceding adolescence, comprising approximately the 2 years preceding the onset of puberty. Also called prepubertal stage; prepuberty; prepubescence. —preadolescent adj., n.

preafference

preafference n. a central brain process in which the somatosensory area is primed to expect the particular sensory inputs (sights, sounds, etc.) that are predicted as the consequence of an intended motor action. It is the means by which, for example, a person turning his or her head understands immediately that the motion perceived is in the body and not in the external world. Preafference has also been proposed as a neural basis for what is experienced subjectively as attention or expectancy. Compare reafference. See also brain comparator; corollary discharge; reafference principle. [described by U.S. neuroscientist Walter J. Freeman III (1927– )]

preattentive processing

preattentive processing cognitive processing of a stimulus that occurs nonconsciously before attention has focused on this particular stimulus from among the array of those present in a given environment. Preattentive processing is thought to identify basic stimulus features in parallel, with high capacity. Also called preattentive analysis; preperceptual processing. See also parallel processing.

preaversive stimulus

preaversive stimulus in conditioning, a stimulus that precedes the presentation of an aversive stimulus. See conditioned suppression.

precategorical acoustic storage (PAS)

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precausal thinking

precausal thinking the tendency of a young child (under the age of 8) to perceive natural phenomena, such as rain, wind, and clouds, in terms of intentions and willful acts, that is, in anthropomorphic rather than mechanical terms. See also animism. [first described by Jean Piaget]

precedence effect

precedence effect 1. a phenomenon in which perception of the source of a sound precludes or inteferes with attention to reflections of this sound from different locations. For example, if a sound is produced by a particular source and is then reflected off the walls, the listener only perceives the first source, provided that the sound from the second source arrives within a short period of time (less than 70 ms). 2. the tendency for global features of a stimulus to dominate local features in performance tasks.

precentral gyrus

precentral gyrus a ridge in the frontal lobe of the brain, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial for motor control, being the site of the motor area.

prechiasmatic visual deficit

prechiasmatic visual deficit a visual impairment caused by damage to the part of the visual system anterior to (i.e., earlier in visual processing than) the optic chiasm. This can affect one eye (e.g., in cases of disease or injury to the eye or optic nerve) or both eyes (e.g., in cases involving the optic chiasm itself). See also heteronymous hemianopia; chiasmal syndrome.

precipitating cause

precipitating cause the particular factor, sometimes a traumatic or stressful experience, that is the immediate cause of a mental or physical disorder. A single precipitating event may turn a latent condition into the manifest form of the disorder. Compare predisposing cause.

precision

precision n. a measure of accuracy. In statistics, an estimate with a small standard error is regarded as having a high degree of precision. —precise adj.

precision grip

precision grip the manner of grasping an object between the opposed tactile pads of the thumb and fingertips (e.g., when using a pen). See also pincer grip; power grip.

precision of process

precision of process (symbol: h) an index of proximity of a series of psychophysical measures to the mean. It is the reciprocal of the variance, that is, h = 1/σ2.

preclinical psychopharmacology

preclinical psychopharmacology investigation that precedes the actual clinical application of a new psychotropic drug on an individual patient or patient population. It usually includes laboratory studies of the pharmacological mechanisms of the drug, extrapolation of research data into human-use terms, and evaluation of possible interactions with current drugs or in patients with various medical conditions.

precocial

precocial adj. describing nonhuman animals that show a high degree of behavior development at birth or hatching. For example, young geese can follow their mother and forage for food a day after hatching, whereas other birds must be provisioned for several weeks before they leave the nest. In mammals, ungulates (e.g., cattle, sheep) are much more behaviorally advanced at birth than primates. Compare altricial.

precocious puberty

precocious puberty abnormally early sexual maturity, usually before the age of 8 years in a girl and 9 years in a boy. True precocious puberty is marked by mature gonads capable of ovulation or spermatogenesis, adult levels of female or male sex hormones, and secondary sexual characteristics. Pseudoprecocious puberty is a condition usually caused by an endocrine tumor that results only in premature development of secondary sex characteristics. Also called pubertas praecox.

precocity

precocity n. very early, often premature, development of physical or mental functions and characteristics. —precocious adj.

precognition

precognition n. in parapsychology, the purported ability to see or experience future events through some form of extrasensory perception. In a test of precognition, the participant would be asked to predict the outcome of a future set of trials involving Zener cards or similar stimulus materials. Compare retrocognition. See also forward displacement. —precognitive adj.

precompetition anxiety

precompetition anxiety increased cognitive and physiological arousal before a competition. Precompetition anxiety may facilitate or inhibit performance, depending on the performer’s perception of readiness or apprehension. See debilitative anxiety; facilitative anxiety.

precompetition imagery

precompetition imagery the use of imagery before a competition for the mental rehearsal of performance segments or to assist in achieving an ideal performance state.

preconception

preconception n. a belief or expectation related to some attitude object that is held before substantial information about the object is gained.

preconscious (Pcs)

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preconscious thinking

preconscious thinking 1. the pictorial, magical, fantasy thinking of children that precedes the development of logical thinking. [introduced in 1938 by Austrian psychoanalyst Otto Fenichel (1897–1946)] 2. in psychoanalytic theory, thinking that takes place at the level of the preconscious. Preconscious thinking has sometimes been cited to explain apparently unconscious, intuitive thought processes, as well as certain kinds of creative leaps and insights.

preconventional level

preconventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the first level of moral reasoning, characterized by the child’s evaluation of actions in terms of material consequences. This level is divided into two stages: the earlier punishment and obedience orientation (Stage 1 in Kohlberg’s overall theory), in which moral behavior is that which avoids punishment; and the later naive hedonism (or instrumental relativist orientation; Stage 2), in which moral behavior is that which obtains reward or serves one’s needs. Also called preconventional morality. See also conventional level; postconventional level.

precue

precue n. a piece of advance information available from the environment, both in real-life and experimental situations, giving partial details that can be used to constrain planning for an upcoming movement. Studies of how precues reduce the time necessary for motor planning once the full movement specification is made available have been an important tool in discerning the structure of motor plans.

precuneus

precuneus n. an area on the medial (inner) surface of the parietal lobe of each cerebral hemisphere in the brain. Located between the parieto-occipital sulcus and the cingulate sulcus, it is involved in a variety of cognitive functions. Immediately behind the precuneus is the wedge-shaped cuneus. —precuneate adj.

precursor

precursor n. in biochemistry, a compound from which another is formed by a chemical reaction. For example, tyrosine is a precursor of the catecholamine neurotransmitters (e.g., norepinephrine, dopamine).

predation

predation n. the act or practice in which one nonhuman animal (the predator) stalks, captures, and kills another animal (the prey) for food. Prey choice can be broad or highly specific, and some species store captured prey for future use or share it with young or other group members. Prey possess numerous defenses, however, some of which are restricted to a few populations (e.g., physical features such as the quills of porcupine) whereas others are seen in multiple populations (e.g., vigilance, death feigning). Predation is an important mechanism of natural selection, as both predators and prey continuously adapt to more effectively attack and evade one another, respectively. —predator n. —predatory adj.

predator

predator n. 1. a nonhuman animal that naturally preys on others to obtain its food. 2. a person or organization whose behavior is rapacious or exploitative. —predatory adj.

predator pressure

predator pressure the influence of predators on their prey, affecting both current numbers of prey and their survival for reproduction.

predatory aggression

predatory aggression aggression directed toward the capture of prey. Predatory aggression is more properly considered a form of foraging than aggression per se.

predatory paraphilia

predatory paraphilia sexual interest and arousal focused on an activity that involves an unwilling individual rather than a consenting partner. Examples include exhibitionism and frotteurism.

predecisional negative shift

predecisional negative shift that component of the readiness potential that precedes any conscious awareness of a wish to act. Investigations with electroencephalography suggest that it can be detected some 350 ms before the individual reports a decision to make a movement and some 550 ms before the movement occurs. The finding is controversial because it implies that behavior is instigated nonconsciously and hence that free will is illusory; the ecological validity of such experiments has also been questioned. [reported by U.S. physiologist Benjamin Libet (1916–2007)]

predestination

predestination n. in Christian theology, the belief or doctrine that God has foreordained salvation for certain chosen individuals, not for any merit of their own but purely according to his grace. This doctrine was taught systematically by early Church father Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and revived by 16th-century reformers Martin Luther (1483–1546) and John Calvin (1509–1564). Calvin’s system is sometimes described as one of double predestination, as it maintains that God also foreordained a portion of humankind to damnation, an idea that raises particular moral difficulties. Predestination is a form of theological determinism, as it effectively denies human free will and moral responsibility. The concept has always been the subject of intense debate and is now rejected by most mainstream Christian thinkers. See Calvinism.

predicate

predicate n. 1. in linguistics, the part of a sentence or clause that is not the subject but asserts a property, action, or condition of the subject. The predicate of a sentence may range from a single intransitive verb (as in She smiled) to a long and complex construction. See also complement. 2. in logic, a property or characteristic that is attributed to the subject of a proposition. In Aristotelian and Scholastic logic (see Scholasticism), a predicate is a second term that is stated to have a particular relation to the subject of a proposition, as, for example, man in Edward is a man or mortal in Man is mortal. —predicative adj.

predicate analysis

predicate analysis the system of symbolic logic that is concerned with the relationships between the elements within individual propositions, as well as with the relationships between propositions as wholes. Also called predicate calculus. Compare propositional analysis.

predicate thinking

predicate thinking a thought process in which objects are considered similar or even identical because they share a particular attribute. Jean Piaget considered such thinking to be typical of the preoperational stage of early cognitive development. Psychoanalysis associates it with the primary process thinking that manifests itself in dreams and fantasies and dominates the id.

prediction

prediction n. 1. an attempt to foretell what will happen in a particular case, generally on the basis of past instances or accepted principles. A theoretical prediction gives the expected results of an experiment or controlled observation in accordance with the logic of a particular theory. In science, the use of prediction and observation to test hypotheses is a cornerstone of the empirical method (see falsifiability; falsificationism; risky prediction). By their very nature, the theories, constructs, and explanatory models current in psychology are not always open to direct validation or falsification in this way; however, in psychological assessment, personality tests and other psychometric instruments can often predict participants’ behaviors or other characteristics with an impressive level of accuracy. See also probabilism; pseudoscience. 2. in parapsychology and the occult arts, see divination; precognition. —predict vb. —predictable adj. —predictive adj.

predictive discriminant analysis

predictive discriminant analysis a multivariate procedure that distinguishes between two or more categories of a future outcome on the basis of several current assessments of predictor or explanatory variables. More specifically, the technique combines variables measured at one point in time to produce the highest possible association with different levels or categories of an outcome measured at a subsequent point in time. For example, a researcher might measure daily levels of exercise, cholesterol, and average stress and use this information to predict which individuals will have a diagnosis of serious, mild, or no heart disease 6 months later. Compare descriptive discriminant analysis.

predictive efficiency

predictive efficiency 1. the number or proportion of correct predictions that can be made from a particular test or model. 2. the gain in utility (explanatory information) obtained by adding more predictor or independent variables to a regression equation. For example, the accuracy of a student’s predicted college grade-point average may be increased if one considers high school grade-point average in addition to Scholastic Assessment Test score.

predictive research

predictive research empirical research concerned with forecasting future events or behavior: the assessment of variables at one point in time so as to predict a phenomenon assessed at a later point in time. For example, a researcher might collect high school data, such as grades, extracurricular activities, teacher evaluations, advanced courses taken, and standardized test scores, in order to predict such college success measures as grade-point average at graduation, awards received, and likelihood of pursuing further education. Compare explanatory research.

predictive testing

predictive testing see predisposition.

predictive validity

predictive validity evidence that a test score or other measurement correlates with a variable that can only be assessed at some point after the test has been administered or the measurement made. For example, the predictive validity of a test designed to predict the onset of a disease would be strong if high test scores were associated with individuals who later developed that disease. It is one of three types of criterion validity. Also called predictive criterion-related validity; prospective validity. See also concurrent validity; retrospective validity.

predictive value

predictive value 1. the ability of a test or scale to correctly classify items into mutually exclusive categories or states. Predictive value often is determined using decision theory methods, such as receiver-operating characteristic curves. 2. the percentage of times that the obtained value on a given test is the true value. Also called predictive power.

predictor variable

predictor variable a variable used to estimate, forecast, or project future events or circumstances. In personnel selection, for example, predictors such as qualifications, relevant work experience, and job-specific skills (e.g., computer proficiency, ability to speak a particular language) may be used to estimate an applicant’s future job performance. In regression analysis and other models, predictor variables are investigated to assess the strength and direction of their association with an outcome, criterion, or dependent variable. When more than one variable is included in the analysis, the relative weights of each in determining the outcome are evaluated as well. This term sometimes is used interchangeably with independent variable. Also called predictor.

predisposing cause

predisposing cause a factor that increases the probability that a mental or physical disorder or hereditary characteristic will develop but that is not the immediate cause of it. Compare precipitating cause.

predisposition

predisposition n. 1. a susceptibility to developing a disorder or disease, the actual development of which may be initiated by the interaction of certain biological, psychological, or environmental factors. 2. in genetics, any hereditary factor that, given the necessary conditions, will lead to the development of a certain trait or disease. Predisposition testing is genetic testing for mutations that are less than 100% penetrant (see penetrance). Thus, a positive test result indicates that the individual has an increased predisposition to develop the disease but might not necessarily do so. If a mutation is fully penetrant, the testing is referred to as predictive testing, since all those who carry the mutated gene will develop the disease.

PREE

PREE abbreviation for partial reinforcement extinction effect. See partial reinforcement effect.

preeclampsia

preeclampsia n. an increase in blood pressure in a pregnant woman, associated with edema or proteinuria (the presence of protein in the urine) or both. There may also be headaches, dizziness, and nervous irritability. Preeclampsia may progress to the serious condition of eclampsia.

preening

preening n. a form of grooming in which birds pick through their own feathers or those of another group member. —preen vb.

preestablished harmony

preestablished harmony a principle invoked by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz to explain how monads behave in a coordinated and orderly fashion, even though each is independent and follows its own preestablished end. The same principle is held to explain the coordinated interaction between the physical and nonphysical realms (see mind–body problem). According to Leibniz, God is the origin of the preestablished harmony.

preexperimental design

preexperimental design a research design or study with no control group and no random assignment of participants to experimental conditions. Examples include the one-shot case study and the one-group pretest–posttest design. Although such a design is of minimal value in establishing causality, it may be used when it is not possible to identify an appropriate control and circumstances prohibit randomization.

preference

preference n. 1. in conditioning, the probability of occurrence of one of two or more concurrently available responses, usually expressed as either a relative frequency (compared to the frequency of all the measured responses) or a ratio. 2. more generally, the act of choosing one alternative over others. —preferential adj.

preference for consistency

preference for consistency a personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person desires to maintain consistency among elements in his or her cognitive system. See also cognitive dissonance; cognitive dissonance theory. [originally proposed by U.S. psychologists Robert B. Cialdini (1945– ), Melanie R. Trost, and Jason T. Newsom (1965– )]

preference method

preference method a research technique in which an organism is presented with several stimuli and is required to choose one. Examples of such methods are those in which a nonhuman animal chooses a certain food or a human states a preference for one of several paintings, activities, or vocations.

preference test

preference test any measure used in research to determine an individual’s choice between two or more alternatives and what that choice might indicate behaviorally or affectively. An example might be a test in which an infant is required to choose between a toy with a smiling face and one with a frown in order to assess the child’s affect; another would be a marketing study in which consumers are asked to select between competing products, such as two or more soft drinks.

preferential effect

preferential effect in parapsychology experiments, the finding that a participant’s “calls,” or guesses, are more accurate for one set of targets in an experiment (e.g., die faces with high values, Zener cards with stars) than for another (e.g., die faces with low values, Zener cards with crosses) or even for one type of testing condition over another when the experiments ostensibly test the same preternatural ability. See also decline effect; differential effect; focusing effect; position effect; sheep–goat effect.

preferential looking technique

preferential looking technique an experimental method for assessing the perceptual capabilities of nonverbal individuals (e.g., human infants, nonhuman animals). Infants will preferentially fixate a “more interesting” stimulus when it is presented at the same time with a “less interesting” stimulus, but only if the stimuli can be distinguished from one another. To minimize bias, on each trial the investigator is positioned so that he or she can observe the infant and make a judgment about which stimulus the infant fixates, but the stimuli themselves are visible only to the infant. To assess visual acuity, for example, on the first trial a coarse acuity grating is paired with a homogeneous gray stimulus of the same mean luminance. The infant preferentially looks at the grating. On successive trials, the spatial frequency of the grating is increased (the bars are made narrower) and the position of the grating versus the homogeneous field is randomized. When the grating can no longer be discriminated by the infant, the likelihood that the grating will be chosen for fixation will drop to chance. [developed by Robert L. Fantz]

preferential matching

preferential matching in an ESP free-response test, the use of a judge to evaluate a participant’s “calls,” or guesses, regarding their similarity to possible targets.

preferred noise criterion (PNC)

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preferred provider arrangement (PPA)

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preferred provider organization

preferred provider organization see PPO.

prefigurative culture

prefigurative culture a society or culture in which people typically learn from those younger than themselves. Because of the extremely rapid rate of social and technological change in the modern world, it has been proposed that contemporary Western society may be moving toward a prefigurative culture in which the young possess a keener intuition of the present than do their elders. Compare cofigurative culture; postfigurative culture. [coined by U.S. anthropologist Margaret Mead (1901–1978)]

prefix

prefix n. in linguistics, a morpheme that is added to the beginning of a word to create a derived form, such as un- in unlikely or ex- in ex-wife. See affixation; infix; suffix.

preformism

preformism n. the biological theory, now discredited, that development consists of the emerging into mature form of the traits and capacities that exist in prototypical form in the germ cell. An early example of preformism was the 16th- and 17th-century notion of the homunculus, a minute but completely formed human body believed to exist in the spermatozoon. Preformism contrasts with the epigenetic principle of successive differentiation in complex and cumulative stages of development (see epigenesis).

prefrontal cortex

prefrontal cortex the most anterior (forward) part of the cerebral cortex of each frontal lobe in the brain. Divided into a dorsolateral region and an orbitofrontal region (see orbitofrontal cortex), the prefrontal cortex functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviors; its development in humans parallels improvement in cognitive control and behavioral inhibition as an individual grows into adulthood. By contrast, damage to the prefrontal cortex leads to emotional, motor, and cognitive impairments. Also called frontal association area.

prefrontal lobe

prefrontal lobe the furthest forward area of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain, which is concerned with such functions as memory and learning, emotion, and social behavior. See also frontal lobe.

prefrontal lobotomy

prefrontal lobotomy see lobotomy.

preganglionic autonomic neuron

preganglionic autonomic neuron any neuron of the sympathetic nervous system whose cell body is located in the central nervous system and that sends its axon to a ganglion in the sympathetic chain. Here it may connect to a postganglionic autonomic neuron, which can innervate such organs as the kidneys.

pregenital organization

pregenital organization in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the organization of libido functions before the genital stage of psychosexual development.

pregenital phase

pregenital phase in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the period of psychosexual development that precedes the organization of the libido around the genital zone. This period encompasses the anal stage, the oral stage, and according to some theorists, the phallic stage. Other theorists use the term synonymously with the preoedipal phase.

pregnancy

pregnancy n. the state of a woman who is carrying a developing embryo or fetus, which normally lasts about 266 days from conception until the birth of the baby (see prenatal period). Embryonic development normally occurs within the uterus, but occasionally it may be extrauterine (see ectopic pregnancy). Also called fetation; gravidity. See also adolescent pregnancy; pseudocyesis.

pregnancy brain

pregnancy brain see baby brain.

prehension

prehension n. the act of grasping, clasping, or seizing an object or supporting the body, usually with an appendage adapted for that purpose. For example, the hands of human beings and other primates and the tails of certain New World monkeys are prehensile.

prejudice

prejudice n. 1. a negative attitude toward another person or group formed in advance of any experience with that person or group. Prejudices include an affective component (emotions that range from mild nervousness to hatred), a cognitive component (assumptions and beliefs about groups, including stereotypes), and a behavioral component (negative behaviors, including discrimination and violence). They tend to be resistant to change because they distort the prejudiced individual’s perception of information pertaining to the group. Prejudice based on racial grouping is racism; prejudice based on sex is sexism; prejudice based on chronological age is ageism; and prejudice based on disability is ableism. 2. any preconceived attitude or view, whether favorable or unfavorable.

prekindergarten

prekindergarten n. see school readiness.

prelingually deafened

prelingually deafened being congenitally deaf or becoming deaf prior to the acquisition of language.

prelinguistic

prelinguistic adj. denoting or relating to the period of an infant’s life before he or she has acquired the power of speech. The prelinguistic period includes the earliest infant vocalizations as well as the babbling stage typical of the second half of the first year. Holophrases usually emerge around the time of the child’s first birthday.

preliterate

preliterate adj. denoting a child who has not yet acquired the ability to read and write. Also called nonliterate.

preloading

preloading n. an experimental procedure in which food, water, or some other nutritive substance is introduced into the stomach or another part of a nonhuman animal’s digestive system prior to giving the animal access to food or water. The effect of preloading on the animal’s eating or drinking behavior is then measured.

prelogical thinking

prelogical thinking in psychoanalytic theory, primitive thought processes that are characteristic of early childhood, when thought is under the control of the pleasure principle rather than the reality principle. Such thinking may also occur later in life, as in daydreaming, in which wish fulfillment is dominant, or in psychosis. See also magical thinking; primary process.

Premack’s principle

Premack’s principle the view that the opportunity to engage in behavior with a relatively high baseline probability will reinforce behavior of lower baseline probability. For example, a hungry rat may have a high probability of eating but a lower probability of pressing a lever. Making the opportunity to eat depend on pressing the lever will result in reinforcement of lever pressing. Also called Premack’s rule. [David Premack (1925– ), U.S. psychologist]

premarital counseling

premarital counseling educational and supportive guidance to individuals planning marriage. Provided by a member of the clergy trained in counseling, a therapist, or some other appropriately qualified person, premarital counseling may address such matters as the timing of marriage, spousal rights and responsibilities, birth-control methods, and sexual intimacy and may use assessment instruments to identify and thereby address potential conflicts in the marriage.

premarital sex

premarital sex sexual relations before marriage. See also fornication.

premature adrenarche

premature adrenarche see adrenarche.

premature aging

premature aging accelerated aging caused by environmental factors (e.g., sun exposure, smoking) or by genetic syndromes or other disease. See aging disorder.

premature ejaculation

premature ejaculation a sexual dysfunction in which ejaculation occurs with minimal sexual stimulation, before, on, or shortly after penetration or simply earlier than desired. The diagnosis takes into account such factors as age, novelty of the sexual partner, and the frequency and duration of intercourse. The diagnosis does not apply if the disturbance is due to the direct effect of a substance (e.g., withdrawal from opioids). See also squeeze technique.

premature termination

premature termination see termination.

prematurity

prematurity n. a state of underdevelopment, particularly in an infant born before it has completed the full gestational period of a normal pregnancy. Premature (preterm) infants have low birth weight and are at risk for such complications as respiratory distress syndrome and jaundice. See also prenatal stress.

premeditation

premeditation n. a deliberate resolve to commit a crime, especially a violent crime, as revealed by evidence of planning or other forethought. A premeditated crime is often considered more serious than the same offense committed intentionally but without prior resolve. See malice aforethought. —premeditated adj.

premenstrual dysphoric disorder

premenstrual dysphoric disorder a mood disorder in women that begins in the week prior to the onset of menstruation and subsides within the first few days of menstruation. Women experience mood swings, including markedly depressed mood, anxiety, feelings of helplessness, and decreased interest in activities. In contrast to premenstrual syndrome, the symptoms must be severe enough to impair functioning in social activities, work, and relationships. Only a small percentage of women with premenstrual syndrome meet criteria for this disorder. Also called late luteal phase dysphoric disorder.

premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

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premise

premise n. a proposition forming part of a larger argument: a statement from which a further statement is to be deduced, especially as one of a series of such steps leading to a conclusion.

premonitory dream

premonitory dream a dream that appears to give advance notice or warning of some future event. See also clairvoyant dream.

premoral stage

premoral stage 1. in Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development, the stage at which young children (under the age of 5) are unaware of rules as cooperative agreements; that is, they are unable to distinguish right from wrong. Compare autonomous stage; heteronomous stage. 2. the stage that precedes the preconventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and corresponds to infancy (birth to roughly 18 months).

premorbid

premorbid adj. characterizing an individual’s condition before the onset of some disease or disorder. —premorbidity n.

premorbid abilities

premorbid abilities see premorbid functioning.

premorbid adjustment

premorbid adjustment a measure of the level of a person’s functioning before the onset of an acute psychological disorder. The measure, as used in the Phillips Rating Scale of Premorbid Adjustment in Schizophrenia, has been found to be of value in predicting the course of schizophrenia.

premorbid functioning

premorbid functioning an individual’s cognitive functioning prior to a neurological trauma or disease, as estimated to determine the degree of loss or impairment caused by the damage. This estimate is based on testing and assessments conducted after the damage has occurred; it may include consideration of such factors as educational level, occupational history, and individual and family reports. Also called baseline functioning; premorbid abilities.

premorbid personality

premorbid personality 1. personality traits that existed before a physical injury or other traumatic event or before the development of a disease or disorder. 2. personality strengths and weaknesses that predispose an individual to mental health and well-being or to a particular mental disorder (e.g., depression, schizophrenia) or that affect the speed or likelihood of recovery from a disorder. Also called primary personality.

premortem clarity

premortem clarity mental alertness, following a period of confusion or withdrawal, that sometimes occurs in a dying individual just prior to death. Premortem clarity may have consequential importance, such as the utterance of last words and the affirmation or modification of wills and testaments.

premotor area

premotor area an area of the motor cortex concerned with motor planning. In contrast to the supplementary motor area, input to the premotor area is primarily visual, and its activity is usually triggered by external events. Also called Brodmann’s area 6; intermediate precentral area; premotor cortex.

premotor theory of attention

premotor theory of attention a theory proposing that attention is a consequence of the mechanisms that generate actions or motor responses. It is based on neurophysiological evidence that space is coded in several cortical circuits that have specific motor purposes. Those circuits that represent space for programming eye movements are considered to play the primary role in spatial attention. Preparing to move the eyes to a specific location increases the readiness to act in that region of space and facilitates the processing of stimuli located in that region.

prenatal

prenatal adj. prior to birth: pertaining to that which exists or occurs between conception and birth.

prenatal care

prenatal care health care and educational services provided to or obtained by a woman during pregnancy. Such services are intended to prevent complications and decrease the risk of maternal or fetal mortality.

prenatal counseling

prenatal counseling counseling given to couples or to single women who are expecting a baby or planning a pregnancy. It sometimes also includes advice on terminating a pregnancy (see abortion). For those who are considering adoption, prenatal counseling includes advice on preparing for the child’s arrival and future, dealing with friends and relatives, and coping with any impact on the biological mother and father.

prenatal developmental anomaly

prenatal developmental anomaly a congenital abnormality that originates in the course of development before birth. Examples include cleft palate and spina bifida.

prenatal diagnosis

prenatal diagnosis determination of a pathological condition or the presence of disease or genetic abnormalities in a fetus. See alpha-fetoprotein; amniocentesis; chorionic villus sampling; ultrasound.

prenatal influence

prenatal influence any adverse influence on fetal development. Prenatal influences include radiation effects, maternal diseases (e.g., rubella, toxoplasmosis) and behavior (e.g., alcohol or drug use, excessive smoking), blood incompatibility, nutritional deficiency, and stress. See also fetal programming.

prenatal masculinization

prenatal masculinization the masculinizing effects of androgens on fetal sexual anatomy and on neural pathways in the fetal brain prior to birth.

prenatal period

prenatal period the developmental period between conception and birth, in humans commonly divided into the germinal stage (approximately the first 2 weeks), the embryonic stage (the following 6 weeks), and the fetal stage (from 2 months to birth).

prenatal stress

prenatal stress stress in a pregnant woman, marked by elevation of stress hormones and other biological changes, with an increased likelihood of intrauterine infection. Preterm births and low birth weight are common effects of maternal stress during pregnancy. Preterm infants are susceptible to a range of complications, including chronic lung disease. Some recent studies suggest that a baby’s temperament and neurobehavioral development can be influenced by the mother’s stress level during pregnancy.

preoccupation

preoccupation n. a state of being self-absorbed and “lost in thought,” which ranges from transient absent-mindedness to a symptom of mental disorder, as when an individual with schizophrenia withdraws from external reality and turns inward upon the self.

preoccupied attachment

preoccupied attachment an adult attachment style that combines a negative internal working model of attachment of oneself, characterized by doubt in one’s own competence and efficacy, and a positive internal working model of attachment of others, characterized by one’s trust in the ability and dependability of others. Individuals with preoccupied attachment are presumed to seek others’ help when distressed. Compare dismissive attachment; fearful attachment; secure attachment.

preoedipal

preoedipal adj. 1. in classical psychoanalytic theory, pertaining to the first stages of psychosexual development, before the development of the Oedipus complex during the phallic stage. During this phase, the mother is the exclusive love object of both sexes and the father is not yet considered either a rival or a love object. 2. more generally, denoting organization or functions before the onset of the Oedipus complex. See also prephallic.

preoperational stage

preoperational stage the second major period in the Piagetian theory of cognitive development, occurring approximately between the ages of 2 and 7, when the child becomes able to record experience in a symbolic fashion and to represent an object, event, or feeling in speech, movement, drawing, and the like. The child’s thought processes tend to be intuitive and prelogical. During the later 2 years of the preoperational stage, egocentrism diminishes noticeably with the emerging ability to adopt the point of view of others. Also called symbolic stage. See also concrete operational stage; formal operational stage; sensorimotor stage.

preoptic area

preoptic area a region of the hypothalamus lying above and slightly anterior to the optic chiasm. Nuclei here are involved in temperature regulation and in the release of hypothalamic hormones. See also medial preoptic area.

preorgasmic

preorgasmic adj. 1. relating to the state immediately before orgasm. It is characterized by increased breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure; semispastic muscle contractions; and maximum increase in the size of the glans penis, testes, and upper vaginal walls. 2. denoting the status of a person who has never experienced orgasm. See orgasmic dysfunction.

preparadigmatic science

preparadigmatic science a science at a primitive stage of development, before it has achieved a paradigm and established a consensus about the true nature of the subject matter and how to approach it. Psychology has been considered a preparadigmatic science by many theorists, in contrast to physics and chemistry (regarded as normal sciences). See also immature science; paradigm shift; scientific revolution. [proposed by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996)]

preparation

preparation n. in cognitive psychology, the process of increasing readiness for an activity, such as by planning or imagining a movement before executing it. See plan. —prepare vb.

preparatory adjustment

preparatory adjustment the changes made by the brain and body that indicate readiness to perform a task and that contribute to improved performance. A period of about 500 ms is typically needed for optimal preparation. See also mental set; preafference.

preparatory response

preparatory response any response (except the final one) in a series of behaviors that leads to a goal or reinforcement. Preparatory responses themselves are not immediately goal directed.

preparatory set

preparatory set a special alertness or readiness to respond in a particular manner to an expected stimulus, action, or event. A preparatory set may be manifested physically, as when a tennis player prepares to receive a serve, or experienced mentally, as when a chess player anticipates an opponent’s next move. See mental set; perceptual set; set.

preparedness

preparedness n. the biological predisposition to quickly learn associations between stimuli, responses, and reinforcers that can be explained by their fit with genetic traits that evolved to enhance the chances of a species’ survival. For example, it has been suggested that humans readily learn certain phobias (e.g., fear of snakes) because of a predisposition to fear anything that could pose a threat to their survival. Preparedness (or prepared learning) also has been proposed as an explanation for why both human and nonhuman animals readily learn to associate certain foods with gastric illness and are more likely to avoid such foods in the future. In experiments to establish conditioned taste aversion, for instance, rats readily learn to associate a distinctive taste with illness; it has been proposed that they have an inherent preparedness to make this association, whereas they do not easily learn to make an association between a tone or light stimulus and illness because such contraprepared learning is incompatible with their evolutionary history. Along the continuum of preparedness—with highly prepared, easily formed associations on one end and contraprepared, poorly formed associations on the other—unprepared associations are intermediate occurrences; these are associations formed through unprepared learning that occurs despite the lack of a biological predisposition to form them. See also principle of belongingness. [introduced by U.S. psychologist Martin E. P. Seligman (1942– )]

preperceptual processing

preperceptual processing see preattentive processing.

prephallic

prephallic adj. in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the stages of psychosexual development preceding the phallic stage (i.e., the oral stage and the anal stage). See also pregenital phase; preoedipal.

prepotency

prepotency n. 1. the quality or state of possessing greater power, influence, or force. 2. the capacity for one parent to transmit more of his or her genetic characteristics to an offspring than the other parent. —prepotent adj.

prepotent response

prepotent response a response that takes priority over other potential responses (e.g., a pain response).

prepotent stimulus

prepotent stimulus any stimulus that is dominant over any other competing stimulus in that it is more likely to gain attention or elicit a response.

prepsychotic panic

prepsychotic panic a stage in the development of schizophrenia in which self-image is disordered: Individuals feel guilty, unlovable, humiliated, or otherwise different but have not yet acquired symptoms of delusions and hallucinations. [defined by Italian-born U.S. psychiatrist Silvano Arieti (1914–1982)]

prepsychotic personality

prepsychotic personality characteristics and behavior of a person, such as eccentricities, withdrawal, litigiousness, apathy, or hypersensitivity, that may be indicative of later development of a psychotic disorder.

prepubertal stage

prepubertal stage see preadolescence.

prepuberty

prepuberty n. see preadolescence.

prepubescence

prepubescence n. see preadolescence.

prepuce

prepuce n. a covering fold of skin, especially the skin covering the glans penis (see foreskin) in males and the clitoris (see clitoral hood) in females. Also called preputium. —preputial adj.

prepulse inhibition

prepulse inhibition diminution of a reflex response by presenting a weak stimulus just before the strong stimulus that elicits the response. For example, a loud noise can elicit a startle reaction, but presentation of a tone before the noise will diminish the startle reaction.

preputium

preputium n. see prepuce.

prepyriform area

prepyriform area the olfactory projection area at the base of the temporal lobe of the brain.

presbycusis

presbycusis n. the gradual diminution of hearing acuity associated with aging. See also vascular sclerosis.

presbyopia

presbyopia n. a normal, age-related change in vision due to decreased lens elasticity and accommodative ability, resulting in reduced ability to focus vision on near tasks (e.g., reading). Usually beginning in middle age, presbyopia is correctable with reading glasses or glasses with bifocal or trifocal lenses.

preschool program

preschool program an educational curriculum for children who are under the required minimum age for participation in regular classroom work. Preschool programs for children with intellectual or emotional difficulties are designed to develop social skills and provide stimulation at levels appropriate for each child.

prescribing

prescribing n. 1. ordering the use of a medication. 2. in psychotherapy and medicine, advising or telling a patient what to do in specific situations.

prescribing information (PI)

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prescribing psychology

prescribing psychology an emerging area of clinical psychology in which licensed, appropriately trained practitioners are legally authorized to prescribe medications for the treatment of emotional and mental disorders (see psychoactive drug). This integration of medication management with psychological practice is controversial: Within the United States, only New Mexico, Louisiana, and Illinois have enacted laws permitting it, in 2002, and 2004, and 2014, respectively. In addition to fulfilling all other requirements required for professional licensure as a practicing clinician, prescribing psychologists in these states must complete a postdoctoral psychopharmacology training program and pass a national certification exam. New Mexico also requires a supervised 400-hour, 100-patient practicum. Also called medical psychology. See also prescriptive authority.

prescription drug

prescription drug a medication that can be legally acquired only from a pharmacy and only on the basis of a written, faxed, telephoned, or electronically submitted order (the prescription or script) from a physician.

prescription privilege

prescription privilege the legal right to prescribe medications necessary for the treatment of medical or mental health disorders.

prescriptive authority (RxP)

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prescriptive eclectic psychotherapy

prescriptive eclectic psychotherapy see eclectic psychotherapy.

prescriptive grammar

prescriptive grammar an approach to grammar in which a series of rules is used to distinguish proper from improper usage and a standard version of the language is identified and promoted (see standard language). It is often contrasted with descriptive grammar, in which the goal is to provide an accurate account of language use without specification as to correctness. Prescriptive grammarians seek to correct nonstandard forms, such as I can’t get no satisfaction, whereas descriptive grammarians seek to characterize the rule system that produces such utterances.

prescriptive norm

prescriptive norm see injunctive norm.

prescriptivism

prescriptivism n. in linguistics, the practice of using prescriptive grammar to inculcate certain forms and varieties of language and to stigmatize others.

preselection

preselection n. 1. in in vitro fertilization, the choosing of one embryo over others because it is assessed as having a higher likelihood of developing into a healthy, viable fetus. 2. the choosing of traits for future progeny through genetic analysis and manipulation. Preselection of traits—for example, sex (see sex preselection), intelligence, beauty, and various talents—is highly controversial, with the potential for preselecting designer children raising serious ethical considerations. 3. a family’s subjective assignment of the role of mutation carrier to one or more family members prior to knowledge of their actual genetic status. Family members often treat the preselected person in a special way, assuming that he or she is a mutation carrier.

presenile dementia

presenile dementia see dementia.

presenile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type (PDAT)

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presenilin

presenilin n. any member of a family of transmembrane proteins, mutations in which are associated with early-onset familial Alzheimer’s disease.

Present State Examination (PSE)

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presentation

presentation n. 1. the way in which materials are set before an individual, often for the purpose of learning or understanding. 2. the act of exposing a human or nonhuman animal to stimuli or learning materials during an experiment. 3. in psychoanalytic theory, the means or vehicle through which an instinct is expressed. 4. in interpersonal relations and social interaction, the way in which an individual behaves or expresses himself or herself. 5. in animal behavior, see presenting. —present vb.

presenteeism

presenteeism n. 1. the practice of coming to work when one is ill, injured, or otherwise unable to function at full capacity on the job. The resulting reduction in productivity is a growing financial and safety concern for employers, particularly since research suggests presenteeism is much more prevalent and damaging than absenteeism. Factors that drive presenteeism include a large workload (often involving multiple tasks and demands from several departments), fear of missing deadlines, fear of disciplinary action or job loss, missed pay, the desire to conserve leave for future use (for vacations, emergences, child care, family problems, etc.), loyalty to coworkers (i.e., “I’ve got to get in because my colleagues are depending on me and nobody else can cover for me”), company loyalty, and job satisfaction. 2. less commonly, the practice of staying at work beyond the expected hours to the point at which one is no longer effective because of fatigue, boredom, or lack of useful tasks to perform.

presenting

presenting n. animal behavior in which a female turns its back toward a male and raises its posterior, which allows the male to mate. Lordosis is a specific form of presenting seen in many rodents during mating. The posture also occurs outside of a mating context, as when both male and female subordinate animals present to dominant animals.

presenting symptom

presenting symptom a symptom or problem that is offered by a client or a patient as the reason for seeking treatment. In psychotherapy, for example, a client may present with depression, anxiety, panic, anger, chronic pain, or family or marital problems; such symptoms may become the focus of treatment or may represent a different, underlying problem that is not recognized or regarded by the client as requiring help. Also called presenting problem.

presentist

presentist 1. adj. denoting a perspective that attributes the influence of past events on present behavior to a representation of these events that exists in the present. See ahistorical. 2. n. a person holding such a position. —presentism n.

presolution variability

presolution variability the variability observed in behavior prior to arriving at a successful solution to a difficult problem.

prespeech development

prespeech development development of the earliest forms of perceptual experience, learning, and communication, which precedes actual speech and is necessary for its development. For example, babies attend to sound at birth and can differentiate the human voice from other sounds within the 1st month. Cross-cultural studies reveal that mothers routinely use techniques that help their infants acquire language; for example, they shorten their expressions, stress important words, simplify syntax, and speak in a higher register and with exaggerated distinctness. See babbling; infant-directed speech; infantile speech.

press

press n. in the personology of Henry Alexander Murray, an environmental stimulus, such as a person or situation, that arouses a need. Examples are the birth of a sibling, parental discord, feelings of social inferiority, or the sight of food when hungry. See need–press theory.

pressor effect

pressor effect the effect of vasoconstrictors, such as vasopressin.

pressure

pressure n. 1. the exertion of force or weight on a surface (e.g., skin, tissue). 2. excessive or stressful demands, imagined or real, made on an individual to think, feel, or act in particular ways. The experience of pressure is often the source of cognitive and affective discomfort or disorder, as well as of maladaptive coping strategies, the correction of which may be a mediate or end goal in psychotherapy.

pressure gradient

pressure gradient a gradual reduction in pressure extending in all directions when a stimulus is applied to the skin.

pressure of activity

pressure of activity compulsive and occasionally uncontrolled activity and psychomotor agitation, usually occurring in the context of a manic episode.

pressure of ideas

pressure of ideas a characteristic symptom of mania in which there is increased spontaneity and productivity of thought: Numerous, widely varied ideas arise quickly and pass through the mind rapidly. It is usually manifested as pressured speech or pressure of activity. Also called thought pressure.

pressure of speech

pressure of speech see pressured speech.

pressure sense

pressure sense the sensation of stress or strain, compression, expansion, pull, or shear, usually caused by a force in the environment. Pressure receptors may interlock or overlap with pain receptors so that one sensation is accompanied by the other. The pressure sense is similar to the sensation of contact.

pressure spot

pressure spot any of the points on the body surface that are particularly sensitive to pressure stimuli. Also called pressure-sensitive spot.

pressure ulcer

pressure ulcer a localized area of cellular death (necrosis) affecting individuals with limited mobility. Pressure ulcers derive from increased pressure on small areas of tissue due to prolonged sitting or lying in one position and most commonly form where bones are close to the skin, such as at the ankles, heels, shoulder blades, elbows, and hips. If untreated, sepsis can develop, which is potentially fatal. Pressure ulcers are the third leading cause of death in individuals with spinal cord injury. Also called bedsore; decubitus ulcer; pressure sore.

pressure-threshold test

pressure-threshold test a sensory test in which pressure sensitivity is measured with a series of hairs of graded stiffness.

pressured speech

pressured speech accelerated and sometimes uncontrolled speech that often occurs in the context of a hypomanic episode or a manic episode. Also called pressure of speech.

prestige

prestige n. the degree of respect, regard, and admiration afforded an individual by his or her peers or the whole community. Prestige derives from various sources, including success, achievement, rank, reputation, authority, illustriousness, or position within a social structure. —prestigious adj.

prestige suggestion

prestige suggestion 1. a message whose persuasiveness derives from its delivery by or attribution to a person of recognized status. 2. a method of supportive, symptomatic treatment that relies on the prestige of the therapist in the eyes of the patient to reduce or eliminate symptoms. The so-called omnipotent therapist may be able to abolish undesirable symptoms, at least temporarily, by suggestion.

prestriate cortex

prestriate cortex visually responsive regions in the cerebral cortex outside the striate cortex. The prestriate cortex includes Brodmann’s areas 18 and 19, as determined by cytoarchitecture, and additional areas in the temporal and parietal lobes. On the basis of function and connectivity, the prestriate cortex has been divided into multiple visual areas, including V2, V3, V4, and V5. Also called circumstriate cortex; extrastriate cortex; prestriate area.

presupposition

presupposition n. in linguistics, a proposition that underlies an utterance but is not stated explicitly within it. For example, the question Has Simone finally given up smoking? presupposes that Simone is, or used to be, a smoker. Compare implicature.

presynaptic

presynaptic adj. 1. referring to the region of a neuron within a synapse that releases neurotransmitter. 2. referring to a neuron that is transmitting a signal to one or more other neurons via its synapses. Compare postsynaptic.

pretend play

pretend play see fantasy play.

preterm infant

preterm infant see prematurity; prenatal stress.

preterm viability

preterm viability the ability of a fetus to survive outside the uterus before the full term of pregnancy is completed. A human fetus may be viable from around 20 weeks after conception.

preternatural

preternatural adj. describing phenomena that appear to be inexplicable in terms of the known laws of the physical universe. Compare supernatural.

pretest

pretest 1. n. an initial assessment designed to measure existing characteristics (e.g., knowledge, ability) before some intervention, condition, manipulation, or treatment is introduced. Pretests often are given to research participants before they take part in a study. For example, in a study examining whether training helps math performance, participants might be administered a short math test to assess their original knowledge prior to undergoing the training. See also posttest. 2. n. a test administered before the main study to ensure that participants understand the instructions and procedures. See pilot study; practice trial. 3. vb. to administer a pretest.

pretest counseling

pretest counseling a type of genetic counseling that an individual undertakes before deciding whether to undergo genetic testing. Pretest counseling includes educating the individual about the contribution of genetics to the etiology of disease, taking a family history and creating a pedigree, estimating risk, and discussing the risks, benefits, and limitations of genetic testing. Compare posttest counseling.

pretest sensitization

pretest sensitization an effect in which the administration of a pretest affects the subsequent responses of a participant to experimental treatments. For example, if a researcher administers a mood measure prior to treatment conditions, participants may realize that the study is about mood and be more attuned to the mood induction occurring as part of the experimental condition. Pretest sensitization is important to consider in the interpretation of research findings, as it may make a treatment appear more effective than it actually is.

pretest–posttest design

pretest–posttest design a research design in which the same assessment measures are given to participants both before and after they have received a treatment or been exposed to a condition, with such measures used to determine if there are any changes that could be attributed to the treatment or condition. A more complete version in which participants are randomly assigned to a treatment group or a control group is a pretest–posttest control-group design: All individuals are assessed at the beginning of the study, the intervention is presented to the treatment group but not the control, and then all individuals are measured again. The presence of the control group allows the researcher to identify any preexisting disparities between the groups and thus to more definitely attribute differences between the pre- and posttest scores to the treatment of interest. Also called before–after design; pre–post design.

pretraumatic stress disorder

pretraumatic stress disorder a condition characterized by prolonged, significant anxiety about a potential threatening or otherwise devastating event, such as a terrorist attack or wartime violence. The individual remains in a constant state of worry and heightened stress at his or her perceived helplessness to prevent the expected future trauma and often mentally experiences the dreaded event again and again. For example, a soldier soon to be deployed for the first time may repeatedly visualize his friends wounded in a combat-zone explosion and mentally hear their cries for help. The resulting symptoms (e.g., fear, anger, vulnerability, uncertainty, irritability, concentration difficulties, insomnia, appetite disturbances) are so intense as to negatively affect daily functioning. Also called pretraumatic stress syndrome. [named by analogy with posttraumatic stress disorder]

pretrial publicity

pretrial publicity media coverage of a case that occurs prior to the trial and can lead prospective jurors to form opinions about the case before hearing evidence in court. See change of venue.

prevalence

prevalence n. the total number or percentage of cases (e.g., of a disease or disorder) existing in a population, either at a given point in time (point prevalence) or during a specified period (period prevalence). For example, health researchers may want to investigate the prevalence of a new disease in an area, whereas education researchers may be interested in the prevalence of bullying or cheating among students of a certain age group. See also incidence.

prevention

prevention n. behavioral, biological, or social interventions intended to reduce the risk of disorders, diseases, or social problems for both individuals and entire populations. See primary prevention; secondary prevention; tertiary prevention.

prevention design

prevention design in ergonomics, the design of tools or systems so as to reduce the possibility of human error. See engineering controls. See also exclusion design; fail-safe.

prevention research

prevention research research directed toward finding interventions to reduce the likelihood of future pathology (e.g., cancer, substance abuse). Such research often concentrates on individuals or populations considered to be particularly at risk of developing a condition, disease, or disorder. It involves one or more of the following: (a) analyzing risk and protective factors and assessing susceptibility; (b) identifying markers for those at risk and developing screening methods; (c) developing and implementing interventions to promote health and prevent pathology; and (d) conducting prevention analysis, the methodological and statistical evaluation of the effects of such interventions.

preventive care

preventive care medical care that aims to prevent disease or its consequences, emphasizing early detection and early treatment of conditions and generally including routine physical examination, immunizations, and well-person care. See also primary prevention.

preventive coping

preventive coping a stress-management strategy in which one prepares for possible events in the long term by building up resources to help minimize the severity of their impact. Examples of such events that may or may not occur in the distant future include job loss, forced retirement, crime, illness, or poverty. The perceived ambiguity stimulates a broad range of behaviors intended to accentuate one’s psychological strengths and accumulate wealth, social bonds, and skills “just in case” (e.g., maintaining a savings account, locking the doors when away from home, carrying health insurance). Preventive coping is not born out of an acute stress situation but rather from reasonable concern about the inherent hazards of daily living and is one of four types of coping proposed by German psychologists Ralf Schwarzer (1943– ) and Nina Knoll. See also anticipatory coping; proactive coping; reactive coping.

preventive counseling

preventive counseling counseling that aims to prevent anticipated problems or conflicts. A school-based preventive counseling program, for example, may focus on educating and providing guidance to adolescents about such issues as bullying and school violence, substance abuse, teen pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, eating disorders, and suicide, with the goal of reducing their vulnerability to these and similar problems that often occur in this particular age group.

preventive stress management

preventive stress management an intervention that provides information on stressors, coping strategies, and opportunities to practice these strategies prior to the occurrence of anticipated stressful situations.

preverbal

preverbal adj. before the acquisition of language. Preverbal children communicate using nonword sounds and gestures.

preverbal construct

preverbal construct a concept that may have been formulated before one acquired language but that, even without a verbal symbol, may still be used to construe one’s experiences in later life. [proposed by George A. Kelly]

prevocational training

prevocational training programs designed to help individuals prepare to enter a competitive work environment. Training is not career- or position-specific but rather focuses on helping individuals develop good work habits and gain the basic skills and abilities essential for employment in any field, such as following directions and being punctual. Prevocational training may be provided to any individual who has not had actual work experience in a competitive job market, such as a college student nearing graduation or an adult entering the workforce late in life, but it is most often offered to adolescents and to adults with disabilities as part of a vocational rehabilitation program.

prey

prey n. see predation.

priapism

priapism n. 1. persistent penile erection that occurs independently of sexual arousal or that continues long after orgasm has occurred and sexual activity has ceased. Immediate causes may be thrombosis, cancer, hemorrhage, inflammation, lesions involving nerve tracts between the brain and the urethra, or an overdose of drugs to treat erectile dysfunction. The condition is also associated with leukemia and sickle-cell anemia and is usually painful. 2. another name for satyriasis. Priapism is named for Priapus, the Greco-Roman god of procreation and of the generative force in nature, who was the basis of a cult that worshipped the phallus. See also phallocentric.

Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins

Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins a case resulting in a 1989 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that any employment decision made (even in part) on the basis of sex is discriminatory. In this case, the plaintiff was a woman who was denied partnership in an accounting firm because her conduct at work was judged to be excessively masculine.

price–quality relationship

price–quality relationship the real or perceived relationship between the price and the quality of an item or experience. In general, consumers think that higher prices mean higher quality.

prick experience

prick experience the sensation produced when a pin, needle, or small electrical stimulus is applied to a receptor area of the skin. A prick experience may resemble other somatic sensations, such as an itch, a tickle, pain, or pressure, depending on how the stimulus is applied.

pride

pride n. a self-conscious emotion that occurs when a goal has been attained and one’s achievement has been recognized and approved by others. It differs from joy and happiness in that these emotions do not require the approval of others to be experienced. Pride also has expressive reactions that differ from joy, such as puffing up of the chest and directing attention to others or an audience. False pride can become grandiosity if the sense of accomplishment is not deserved or the reaction is excessive. See also hubris. —proud adj.

prima facie

prima facie at first sight: on the face of things (Latin, literally: “first face”). Prima facie evidence is evidence that, although not conclusive, is considered sufficiently strong to support an inference of fact in the absence of evidence to the contrary.

primacy effect

primacy effect the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence. This effect can occur in both formal learning situations and social contexts. For example, it can result in a first-impression bias, in which the first information gained about a person has an inordinate influence on later impressions and evaluations of that person. Also called law (or principle of primacy). Compare recency effect.

primal anxiety

primal anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, the most basic form of anxiety, first experienced when the infant is separated from the mother at birth and suddenly has to cope with the flood of new stimuli. See also primal trauma.

primal envy

primal envy in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, envy that is first expressed in the infant’s coveting of the mother’s breast, leading to the child’s fantasized desire to spoil or destroy the good object that the breast represents (see good breast).

primal fantasy

primal fantasy in classical psychoanalytic theory, any of a range of fantasies used by children to fill gaps in their knowledge of sexual experience, especially one about conception and birth, parental intercourse, or castration.

primal father

primal father the head of a hypothetical primitive tribe who is slain and devoured by his sons (or other younger men) and later revered as a god, as described by Sigmund Freud in Totem and Taboo (1912–1913). The crime has a tragic effect on the sons and becomes enshrined in the culture of the tribe as a totem.

primal repression

primal repression see primary repression.

primal sadism

primal sadism in classical psychoanalytic theory, an aspect of the death instinct that is identical with masochism and remains within the person, partly as a component of the libido and partly with the self as an object.

primal scene

primal scene in classical psychoanalytic theory, the child’s first observation, in reality or fantasy, of parental intercourse or seduction, which is interpreted by the child as an act of violence (see phallic sadism). See also primal fantasy.

primal therapy

primal therapy a therapeutic technique in which the client is encouraged to reexperience traumatic early childhood (even peri- and prenatal) experiences and react vocally and physically to release the psychic pain associated with them. The technique, sometimes popularly and erroneously known as primal scream therapy, has received little scientific validation and is not advocated by most psychotherapists or counselors. [developed in the 1960s and 1970s by U.S. psychologist Arthur Janov (1924– )]

primal trauma

primal trauma in psychoanalytic theory, a painful situation to which an individual was subjected in early life that is presumed to be the basis of a neurosis in later life. See also primal anxiety.

primal-horde theory

primal-horde theory Sigmund Freud’s speculative reconstruction in Totem and Taboo (1912–1913) of the original human family, which comprised a dominant male (the primal father) holding sway over a subordinate group of females and younger men or sons. Freud used the theory to account for the origin of exogamy, the incest taboo, guilt, and totemism (see totem).

primary ability

primary ability any of the seven unitary factors revealed by factor analysis to be essential components of intelligence: verbal ability (V), word fluency (WF), numerical ability (N), spatial intelligence (S), memory (M), perceptual speed (P), and reasoning (R). These factors are measured by the Primary Mental Abilities Test. Also called primary mental ability. [proposed in about 1936 by Louis L. Thurstone]

primary aging

primary aging changes associated with normal aging that are inevitable and caused by intrinsic biological or genetic factors. Examples include the loss of melanin, which causes gray hair, and decreased skin elasticity. However, some age-related processes are accelerated by environmental influences, making the distinction between primary aging and secondary aging imprecise.

primary amenorrhea

primary amenorrhea see amenorrhea.

primary anxiety

primary anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety experienced as a spontaneous response to any stimulus that causes dissolution of the ego. Compare signal anxiety.

primary appraisal

primary appraisal in the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions, the initial evaluation of a situation’s relevance to one’s moral norms and personal preferences and to the likelihood of reaching one’s goals. The situation (or other stimulus) is identified as a threat, harm, or challenge and is followed by secondary appraisal. See also core relational themes. [proposed by Richard S. Lazarus]

primary attention

primary attention attention that does not require conscious effort, such as attention to an intense, powerful, or arresting stimulus. In classical psychology, the term is used to denote the basic kind of attention that is common to all animals and the first to develop in humans. Also called passive attention; reflex attention. Compare secondary attention. See also involuntary attention.

primary auditory cortex (A1)

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primary behavior disorder

primary behavior disorder any of various behavior problems in children and adolescents, including habit disturbances (e.g., nail biting, temper tantrums), bed-wetting, conduct disorders (e.g., vandalism, fire setting, alcohol or drug use, sex offenses, stealing), and school-centered difficulties (e.g., truancy, school phobia, disruptive behavior).

primary care

primary care the basic or general health care a patient receives when he or she first seeks assistance from a health care system. General practitioners, family practitioners, internists, obstetricians, gynecologists, and pediatricians are known as primary care providers. Also called primary health care. Compare secondary care; tertiary care.

primary care provider (PCP)

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primary care psychology

primary care psychology a specialty within health, clinical, and counseling psychology that involves providing psychologically oriented preventive and treatment services under the auspices of medical professionals in such settings as clinics, hospitals, and private practices, either on site or on a consultation basis. A physician, for example, might engage a primary care psychologist to further evaluate a patient with hypertension whose presenting symptoms also include anxiety and to offer both counseling to address the anxiety and behavioral interventions (e.g., relaxation training) to help the patient manage stress.

primary caregiver

primary caregiver see caregiver.

primary caretaker standard

primary caretaker standard a standard of evaluation used in child custody disputes that awards custody of the child to the parent who has previously assumed the most responsibility for and spent the most time with the child. See also tender years doctrine.

primary cause

primary cause a condition or event that predisposes an individual to a particular disorder, which probably would not have occurred in the absence of that condition or event. Sexual contact, for example, is a common primary cause of a sexually transmitted disease.

primary circular reaction

primary circular reaction in Piagetian theory, a type of repetitive action that represents the earliest nonreflexive infantile behavior. For example, in the first months of life, a hungry baby may repeatedly attempt to put a hand in the mouth. This does not result in effective goal-oriented behavior, but it does indicate a primitive link between goal (easing hunger) and action (attempting to suck on the hand). Primary circular reactions develop in the sensorimotor stage, following the activation of such basic reflexes as sucking, swallowing, crying, and moving the arms and legs. See also secondary circular reaction; tertiary circular reaction.

primary colors

primary colors the basic colors from which all the various hues can be produced by mixing different combinations. Some investigators believe human color perception involves combinations of the three primary colors (i.e., blue, green, and red); others contend that yellow, violet, or both should be included because of visual color sensitivity peaks found at those wavelengths.

primary consciousness

primary consciousness sensory experience. The descriptor implies that sensory experience emerged early in the evolution of consciousness. [proposed by U.S. neuroscientist Gerald M. Edelman (1929–2014)]

primary control

primary control behavior that is aimed at producing a sense of control through an individual’s direct alteration of the environment. Compare secondary control. See locus of control.

primary coping

primary coping a stress-management strategy in which a person actively seeks to alter external conditions, including environmental events and other people’s behavior, to bring them into line with his or her wishes. Primary coping encompasses a variety of different actions, such as seeking support, expressing one’s emotions, or regulating one’s emotions. It is a dynamic, approach-oriented coping strategy that provides an important sense of control over environmental circumstances. Also called primary control coping. Compare secondary coping. [identified in 1982 by Fred M. Rothbaum (1949–2011) and John R. Weisz (1945– ), U.S. clinical and developmental psychologists, and Samuel S. Snyder, U.S. developmental psychologist]

primary cortex

primary cortex any of the regions of the cerebral cortex that receive the main input from sensory receptors or send the main output to muscles. Examples are the primary motor cortex, primary visual cortex (see striate cortex), primary taste cortex, and primary somatosensory area. The primary motor cortex has a lower threshold for elicitation of motor responses than do adjacent motor cortical regions. Most neurons in primary sensory regions have more direct sensory input than do neurons in adjacent sensory cortical regions.

primary data

primary data 1. information cited in a study that was gathered directly by the researcher from his or her own experiments or from first-hand observation. Compare secondary data. 2. original experimental or observational data, that is, raw data.

primary deviance

primary deviance in theories of deviance and identity, an initial rule-breaking act (such as nonconformity or disobedience) performed by an otherwise socially compliant individual. In most cases, individuals amend their behaviors in response to social pressure, but if they continue to violate social norms (secondary deviance), other people may label them as deviant. See also labeling theory.

primary drive

primary drive an innate drive, which may be universal or species-specific, that is created by deprivation of a needed substance (e.g., food) or by the need to engage in a specific activity (e.g., nest building in birds). Compare secondary drive.

primary emotion

primary emotion any one of a limited set of emotions that typically are manifested and recognized universally across cultures. The list of primary emotions varies across different theorists. They often include fear, anger, joy, sadness, disgust, contempt, and surprise; some theorists also include shame, shyness, and guilt. Also called basic emotion; core emotion. Compare secondary emotion.

primary empathy

primary empathy an approach to client-centered therapy in which the therapist actively tries to experience the client’s situation and then to restate it from the client’s point of view and emotional standpoint.

primary environment

primary environment an environment that is central in one’s life and in which personal or family interactions can be sustained, such as one’s home. See also primary territory. Compare secondary environment.

primary factor

primary factor see first-order factor.

primary familial xanthomatosis

primary familial xanthomatosis see Wolman’s disease.

primary gain

primary gain in psychoanalytic theory, the basic psychological benefit derived from possessing neurotic symptoms, essentially relief from anxiety generated by conflicting or unexpressed impulses. Also called paranosic gain. Compare secondary gain.

primary group

primary group any of the small, long-term groups characterized by face-to-face interaction and high levels of group cohesion, solidarity, and group identification. These groups are primary in the sense that they are the initial socializers of the individual members, providing them with the foundation for attitudes, values, and a social orientation. Families, partnerships, and long-term psychotherapy groups are examples of such groups. Compare secondary group.

primary gustatory cortex

primary gustatory cortex see taste cortex.

primary health care

primary health care see primary care.

primary hypersomnia

primary hypersomnia in DSM–IV–TR, a sleep disorder characterized by excessive sleepiness (evidenced by prolonged episodes of sleep, daytime episodes of sleep on an almost daily basis, or both), the severity and persistence of which cause clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. The disorder is not caused by a general medical condition and is not an aspect of another sleep disorder or mental disorder. In DSM–5, it is known as hypersomnolence disorder. See dyssomnia. See also disorders of excessive somnolence. Compare primary insomnia.

primary identification

primary identification in psychoanalytic theory, the first and most basic form of identification, which occurs during the oral stage of psychosexual development when the infant experiences the mother as part of himself or herself. After weaning, the infant begins to differentiate between the self and external reality and then becomes capable of secondary identification. Primary identification is closely tied to oral incorporation. Also called primary narcissistic identification.

primary insomnia

primary insomnia in DSM–IV–TR, a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty in initiating or maintaining a restorative sleep to a degree in which the severity and persistence of the sleep disturbance causes clinically significant distress, impairment in a significant area of functioning, or both. The disorder is not caused by a general medical condition or the effects of a substance and is not exclusively an aspect of another sleep disorder or mental disorder. It is termed insomnia disorder in DSM–5. See dyssomnia. Compare primary hypersomnia.

primary line of sight

primary line of sight a line connecting a target of fixation with the center of the pupil of the eye. Compare visual axis.

primary masochism

primary masochism in psychoanalytic theory, the portion of the death instinct or aggressive instinct that is directed toward the self after the libido has absorbed it emotionally and directed a large portion of it toward the external world. Also called erotogenic masochism.

primary maternal preoccupation

primary maternal preoccupation in the object relations theory of British psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1896–1971), a state immediately following childbirth in which a mother becomes preoccupied with her infant to the exclusion of everything else, which permits a heightened sensitivity to the child’s needs.

primary memory (PM)

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primary mental ability

primary mental ability see primary ability.

primary microcephaly

primary microcephaly a congenital disorder in which microcephaly is the primary, and usually the only, evidence of anomalous fetal development. The most common characteristic is a normal-size face combined with a small cranium. The forehead is low and narrow but recedes sharply. The back of the head is flat, and the vertex often is pointed. Intellectual disability and spasticity of limbs occur as neurological deficits.

primary mood disorder

primary mood disorder a prolonged, pervasive emotional disturbance that is a diagnostic entity of its own and that does not occur in the context of another disorder.

primary motivation

primary motivation motivation created by the presence of a primary need. Compare secondary motivation.

primary motor cortex

primary motor cortex see motor cortex.

primary narcissism

primary narcissism in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest type of narcissism, in which the infant’s libido is directed toward his or her own body and its satisfaction rather than toward the environment or objects. At this stage, the child forms a narcissistic ego-ideal stemming from his or her sense of omnipotence. Compare secondary narcissism. See also body narcissism.

primary narcissistic identification

primary narcissistic identification see primary identification.

primary need

primary need an innate need that arises out of biological processes and leads to physical satisfaction, such as the need for water and sleep. See also physiological need; secondary need.

primary obsessional slowness

primary obsessional slowness an uncommon and severe subtype of obsessive-compulsive disorder characterized by an excessive orderliness and by routine self-care (e.g., washing, brushing teeth, getting dressed) that takes many hours to complete. [first described in 1974 by psychologist Stanley Rachman (1934– )]

primary odor

primary odor in various theories of odor perception, any of a number of posited odor qualities that somehow combine to produce the perception of an odor. See Crocker–Henderson odor system; Henning’s odor prism; Zwaardemaker smell system.

primary oocyte

primary oocyte see oogenesis.

primary personality

primary personality 1. the original personality, as opposed to a secondary personality or secondary personalities, of an individual with dissociative identity disorder. 2. see premorbid personality.

primary physician

primary physician see primary care provider.

primary position

primary position in vision, the position for binocular fixation that is looking straight ahead when the body and head are upright.

primary prevention

primary prevention research and programs, designed for and directed to nonclinical populations or populations at risk, that seek to promote and lay a firm foundation for mental, behavioral, or physical health so that psychological disorders, illness, or disease will not develop. Compare secondary prevention; tertiary prevention.

primary process

primary process in psychoanalytic theory, unconscious mental activity in which there is free, uninhibited flow of psychic energy from one idea to another. This mental process operates without regard for logic or reality, is dominated by the pleasure principle, and provides hallucinatory fulfillment of wishes. Examples are the dreams, fantasies, and magical thinking of young children. These processes are posited to predominate in the id. Also called primary process thinking. See also prelogical thinking.

primary quality

primary quality in the philosophy of John Locke, a sensible quality of an object that is a physical property, or the result of a physical property, of the object itself, such as weight, size, or motion. Locke contrasted such properties with so-called secondary qualities, such as color, taste, and smell.

primary reinforcement

primary reinforcement 1. in operant conditioning, the process in which presentation of a stimulus or circumstance following a response increases the future probability of that response, without the need for special experience with the stimulus or circumstance. That is, the stimulus or circumstance, known as an unconditioned or primary reinforcer, functions as effective reinforcement without any special experience or training. 2. the contingent occurrence of such a stimulus or circumstance after a response. Also called unconditioned reinforcement. Compare secondary reinforcement.

primary reinforcer

primary reinforcer see natural reinforcer; primary reinforcement.

primary relationship

primary relationship a person’s closest relationship, in terms of the time, energy, and priority given to it. A primary relationship will typically include high degrees of intimacy, attraction, and commitment.

primary repression

primary repression in psychoanalytic theory, the first phase of repression, in which ideas associated with instinctual wishes are screened out and prevented from becoming conscious. Primary repression contrasts with repression proper, in which the repressed material has already been in the realm of consciousness. Also called primal repression.

primary reward

primary reward any stimulus that is innately reinforcing, such as water to a thirsty person. Compare secondary reward.

primary sensory area

primary sensory area any area within the neocortex of the brain that acts to receive sensory input—for most senses, from the thalamus. The primary sensory area for hearing is in the temporal lobe, for vision in the occipital lobe (see striate cortex), and for touch and taste in the parietal lobe (see primary somatosensory area; taste cortex). See also secondary sensory area.

primary sensory ending

primary sensory ending see annulospiral ending.

primary sex characteristic

primary sex characteristic see sex characteristic.

primary skin senses

primary skin senses the sensations of heat, cold, touch (i.e., contact), and pain. Other sensations from the skin, such as wetness, are considered sensory blends (see touch blends).

primary sleep disorder

primary sleep disorder see sleep disorder.

primary somatosensory area (S1)

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primary spermatocyte

primary spermatocyte see spermatogenesis.

primary stuttering

primary stuttering dysfluency in the speech of young children without accompanying signs of awareness, stress, or emotion. This simple, nonanxiety-producing dysfluency is not accepted as true stuttering by some speech and language pathologists. Compare secondary stuttering.

primary suggestibility

primary suggestibility 1. a form of suggestibility that responds to overt influence, as in ideomotor suggestion. Some tests have indicated that this form of suggestibility does not correlate strongly with indirect or secondary suggestibility. Also called direct suggestibility. See also tertiary suggestibility. [proposed by Hans Eysenck] 2. an individual’s suggestibility in the absence of hypnosis or similar methods.

primary symptoms

primary symptoms 1. symptoms that are a direct result of a disorder and essential for its diagnosis. 2. symptoms that appear in the initial stage of a disorder. 3. see fundamental symptoms. Compare secondary symptoms.

primary task

primary task in ergonomics, the priority task in a situation requiring multiple-task performance. The operator is expected to allocate sufficient mental resources to the primary task to maintain an acceptable level of performance: He or she will then allocate remaining resources to other tasks. Compare secondary task.

primary taste

primary taste any of certain qualities posited as being basic to the entire sense of taste, in that all taste sensations are composed of them. The number of proposed primary tastes has ranged historically from 2 to 11, but sweet, salty, sour, and bitter, now joined by umami, are the most widely accepted. However, the evidence that primary tastes exist is not definitive.

primary taste cortex

primary taste cortex see taste cortex.

primary territory

primary territory 1. a space controlled by and identified with the person or group who uses it exclusively and to whom it is essential, such as an apartment or house. Primary territory is similar to primary environment. Compare public territory; secondary territory. See also proxemics. 2. in animal behavior, a defended space. See territoriality.

primary thought disorder

primary thought disorder a disturbance of cognition, observed primarily in schizophrenia, characterized by incoherent and irrelevant intellectual functions and peculiar language patterns (including bizarre syntax, neologisms, and word salad). See schizophrenic thinking.

primary tone

primary tone see combination tone.

primary visual cortex (V1)

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primary visual system

primary visual system the major visual pathway in primates, in which processing of visual information is done by the fovea centralis, enabling careful analysis of stimulus properties. Signals pass from the retina to the optic nerve, optic tract, lateral geniculate nucleus, and optic radiations, terminating in the striate cortex. It is the phylogenetically more recent visual system and functions poorly in newborns. Compare secondary visual system.

primate

primate n. a member of the Primates, an order of mammals that includes the lemurs, monkeys, apes, and humans. Characteristics of the order include an opposable thumb (i.e., a thumb capable of touching the other four digits on the same hand), a relatively large brain, and binocular vision. The young are usually born singly and mature over an extended period.

primidone

primidone n. a barbiturate anticonvulsant drug the primary metabolic product of which is phenobarbital. It is appropriate for the treatment of partial and tonic–clonic seizures but has been largely supplanted by newer, safer agents. U.S. trade name: Mysoline.

primigravida

primigravida n. a woman who is pregnant for the first time. Also called gravida I. Compare multigravida.

priming

priming n. 1. in cognitive psychology, the effect in which recent experience of a stimulus facilitates or inhibits later processing of the same or a similar stimulus. In repetition priming, presentation of a particular sensory stimulus increases the likelihood that participants will identify the same or a similar stimulus later in the test. In semantic priming, presentation of a word or sign influences the way in which participants interpret a subsequent word or sign. 2. in animal behavior, the ability of a pheromone to gradually alter the behavior of another member of the same species. —prime vb.

primiparous

primiparous adj. describing a woman who has been pregnant and given birth once. Such a woman is called a primipara, or para I. Also called uniparous. Compare multiparous.

primitive

primitive adj. 1. belonging to the earliest stages of the development of something, such as a language, a species, or a technology. 2. describing a society or culture that is nonliterate and economically and technologically undeveloped and that appears to be characterized by relatively simple forms of social organization. The term in this sense is now generally avoided by social scientists, as it implies acceptance of the discredited view that all societies pass through the same stages of development and that certain cultural practices belong to an “earlier” stage of human evolution (see cultural epoch theory; social Darwinism). Note also that technologically undeveloped societies may be highly developed in other respects, having complex religious and kinship systems. See also modernization; traditionalism.

primitive defense mechanism

primitive defense mechanism in psychoanalytic theory, any defense mechanism that protects against anxiety associated with the death instinct. Primitive defense mechanisms include denial, splitting, projection, and idealization and are the first to occur developmentally.

primitive reflex

primitive reflex in infants, a muscle reaction (e.g., the grasp reflex) that happens automatically in response to a certain type of stimulation but that disappears as the child grows older. The continued presence or reemergence of such a reflex later in life can be a sign of brain damage or damage to the nervous system. Also called infant reflex.

primitive superego

primitive superego in object relations theory, an early superego that is formed in the pregenital phase by the introjection of especially harsh and terrifying bad objects. [first used in 1934 by British psychoanalyst James Strachey (1887–1967)]

primitivization

primitivization n. in psychoanalytic theory, the regression of higher ego functions, such as objective thinking, reality testing, and purposeful behavior, with a return to primitive stages of development characterized by magical thinking (e.g., wish-fulfilling fantasies and hallucinations), helplessness, and emotional dependence. Primitivization occurs primarily in traumatic neuroses, in which higher functions are blocked by the overwhelming task of meeting the emergency, and in advanced schizophrenia, in which the ego breaks down and psychic energy is withdrawn from external reality and concentrated on a narcissistic fantasy life. [first used in 1950 by Austrian psychoanalyst Ernst Kris (1900–1957)]

primordial image

primordial image see archetype.

principal components analysis (PCA)

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principal components regression

principal components regression a prediction model that uses a set of uncorrelated variables obtained from a principal components analysis as predictor or independent variables. The benefit of this approach is that the original set of predictors in the model may have been so highly interrelated as to result in collinearity. The drawback is that if the uncorrelated variables are not interpretable, then the problem of collinearity is not solved.

principal factor analysis

principal factor analysis an approach to identifying the dimensions underlying associations among a set of variables by using a covariance matrix of estimated communalites as input. Principal factor analysis assumes that all variables have been measured with some degree of error and requires that dimensions be extracted in a particular way. Specifically, the first dimension extracted must account for the maximum possible variance, having the highest squared correlation with the variables it underlies; the second dimension must account for the next maximal amount of variance and be uncorrelated with the previously extracted dimension; and so forth. The researcher retains a certain number of dimensions based on various criteria, including interpretations of factor loadings.

principal-axis factor analysis

principal-axis factor analysis in exploratory factor analysis, an extraction method in which the coefficient of multiple determination of one variable with all other variables in the system is used as the initial communality estimate for that variable.

principle

principle n. 1. a fundamental rule, standard, or precept, especially in matters of morality or personal conduct. 2. a proposition deemed to be so fundamental and obvious as to need no defense or support. See axiom. 3. in the empirical sciences, a statement of an established regularity, similar to a law.

principle of belongingness

principle of belongingness 1. the learning principle that connections between items are more readily formed if the items are related in terms of sense (i.e., they “belong together”) rather than proximity or contiguity. For example, in “Mary is 12, Sasha is 13, and Alfre is 14,” the 12–Sasha proximity bond is weaker than the 12–Mary belongingness bond. [proposed by Edward L. Thorndike] 2. the idea that associations between some stimuli and responses are readily acquired because of evolutionary predispositions. See preparedness.

principle of beneficence

principle of beneficence in research ethics, the requirement of institutional review boards that studies “do good” with respect to the work being conducted, the benefits to society at large, and the treatment of participants. Thus, the researcher should maximize the possible benefits of each study and consider its potential impact in the broadest sense. For example, in a study of implicit attitudes, a researcher might note that understanding more about the measurement of attitudes toward sensitive topics may lead to reduced societal prejudice.

principle of closure

principle of closure see closure.

principle of common fate

principle of common fate see common fate.

principle of common region

principle of common region see common region.

principle of constancy

principle of constancy in classical psychoanalytic theory, the idea that all mental processes tend toward a state of equilibrium and the stability of the inorganic state. Also called constancy law; law of constancy. See also death instinct; nirvana principle.

principle of continuity

principle of continuity see good continuation.

principle of double effect (PDE)

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principle of economy

principle of economy see law of parsimony.

principle of equipotentiality

principle of equipotentiality see equipotentiality.

principle of good continuation

principle of good continuation see good continuation.

principle of good shape

principle of good shape see good shape.

principle of inclusiveness

principle of inclusiveness see inclusiveness.

principle of independent assortment

principle of independent assortment see Mendelian inheritance.

principle of least effort

principle of least effort the basic behavioral hypothesis that an organism will choose a course of action that appears to require the smallest amount of effort or expenditure of energy. Also called law of least action; least effort principle.

principle of mass action

principle of mass action see mass action.

principle of nonmaleficence

principle of nonmaleficence in research ethics, the requirement of institutional review boards that studies “do no harm” to participants. When a person considers taking part in a study, there is an expectation that he or she will leave the study in a state that is no worse than when the study began. Where negative consequences are not entirely avoidable—as in an experiment in which a participant is required to recall painful memories, for example—researchers have a duty to minimize the impact of such consequences.

principle of optimal stimulation

principle of optimal stimulation 1. a learning theory that organisms tend to learn those responses that result in a preferred level of stimulation or excitation. Also called optimal stimulation principle. 2. a motivational theory that an individual maintains contact with various stimuli so as to achieve and maintain a preferred level of stimulation. Also called optimal arousal theory.

principle of parsimony

principle of parsimony see law of parsimony.

principle of Prägnanz

principle of Prägnanz see Prägnanz.

principle of primacy

principle of primacy see primacy effect.

principle of proportionality

principle of proportionality the fundamental judicial principle that the severity of a punishment should be directly related to the seriousness of the crime. Harsh punishments for repeat offenders who commit minor offenses may be considered to violate this principle.

principle of proximity

principle of proximity see proximity.

principle of recency

principle of recency see recency effect.

principle of segregation

principle of segregation see Mendelian inheritance.

principle of similarity

principle of similarity see similarity.

principle of symmetry

principle of symmetry see symmetry.

principled negotiation

principled negotiation a procedure to resolve the conflict between individuals or groups that strives for a mutually beneficial resolution while acknowledging the value of ongoing relationships. The procedure has four main components: (a) separating interpersonal problems from the more substantive issues between the parties and dealing with each issue individually, (b) focusing on the parties’ real interests rather than on what they initially say they want, (c) developing possible solutions that benefit all parties, and (d) insisting on objective criteria for the parties’ decisions. [first described in 1981 by Roger Fisher (1922–2012) and William L. Ury, U.S. experts on negotiation]

print enlargement system

print enlargement system a system for individuals with low vision that enlarges and displays printed text or graphics on a computer or other monitor or screen. The system may be designed for use with a video camera and television or with a personal computer and scanner, or it may be a stand-alone device incorporating all necessary components into a single unit. See also closed-circuit television system.

prion

prion n. an aberrant counterpart of a normal cellular protein that acts as the infectious agent in certain brain diseases, notably Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.

prion disease

prion disease any of a group of fatal neurodegenerative diseases caused by self-replicating abnormal prion proteins in the brain. Symptoms include gait disturbance, lack of coordination, muscle tremors and jerks, and difficulty in swallowing. Human varieties include Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, fatal familial insomnia, Gerstmann–Straussler–Scheinker syndrome, and kuru. Prion diseases are also known as spongiform encephalopathies because of the postmortem appearance of the brain.

prior distribution

prior distribution a probability distribution of possible values for an unknown population characteristic that is formulated before one obtains any current data observations about the phenomenon of interest. It may be a subjective prior (based on a researcher’s knowledge of the specific field) or an objective prior (based on evidence obtained from other studies). In Bayesian methods, the prior distribution is combined with the likelihood function to yield the posterior distribution from which inferences are made.

prior entry

prior entry see law of prior entry.

prior probability

prior probability in Bayesian methods, the likelihood of a certain event occurring as determined from current accumulated knowledge about the phenomenon. For example, a researcher could calculate the prior probability of a couple divorcing within 5 years of marriage based on estimates obtained from census data and previously conducted studies. See also Bayes theorem; posterior probability.

prison psychologist

prison psychologist a psychologist specializing in correctional psychology.

prison psychosis

prison psychosis see Ganser syndrome.

prisoner abuse

prisoner abuse physical or psychological harm perpetrated on an incarcerated individual by those in authority over him or her. Such abuse may include sleep deprivation; refusal of health care; threatened harm to family members; beatings, torture, and other forms of violent coercion; sexual abuse and humiliation; and “enhanced” interrogation techniques utilizing coercive means to extract information from a prisoner or detainee. Particularly since the events in 2003 and 2004 at Abu Ghraib, Iraq, where American military guards used harsh interrogation methods on Iraqi prisoners, there has been debate about the role of psychologists in military-run interrogations of prisoners or detainees (including those at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba). In 2007, the American Psychological Association issued a statement specifically prohibiting psychologists from participating in 19 interrogation techniques (e.g., waterboarding, forced nudity) and asserting that no psychologist should be either directly or indirectly involved in treatment of prisoners that could lead to their physical or psychological harm.

prisoner of war (POW)

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prisoner’s dilemma

prisoner’s dilemma a mixed-motive game used in investigations of competition and cooperation. Each participant in the game must choose between a self-beneficial course of action that could be costly for the other players and an action that would bring a smaller individual payoff but would lead to some benefits for all the players. The name derives from a police tactic, used when incriminating evidence is lacking, in which two suspects are separated and told that the one who confesses will go free whereas the other will receive a heavy sentence. If both confess, both will receive a moderate sentence; if neither confesses, lack of evidence means that they will both escape with a light sentence. Each prisoner may choose silence (the cooperative strategy), hoping that the other does the same but risking a long sentence if the other confesses. Alternatively, either prisoner may confess (the competitive strategy), hoping to improve his or her own situation even though this will be at the expense of the other prisoner. Each prisoner has an incentive to confess regardless of what the other does. However, if both parties choose the competitive option, both will do worse than if they together choose the cooperative strategy. The prisoner’s dilemma has implications for social exchange theory and the study of social dilemmas.

privacy

privacy n. 1. the state in which an individual’s or a group’s desired level of social interaction is not exceeded. 2. the right to control (psychologically and physically) others’ access to one’s personal world, such as by regulating others’ input through use of physical or other barriers (e.g., doors, partitions) and by regulating one’s own output in communication with others. 3. the right of patients and others (e.g., consumers) to control the amount and disposition of the information they divulge about themselves. See privileged communication. —private adj.

private acceptance

private acceptance see conversion.

private adoption

private adoption see adoption.

private event

private event an activity or stimulus that is apparent only to the person engaged in or experiencing it. It usually denotes private behavior (e.g., imagining) or private stimuli (e.g., a headache). See also covert behavior.

private mental hospital

private mental hospital a hospital for patients with mental disorders that is organized and run by a group of health care professionals (e.g., psychiatrists, psychologists). Typically, a private mental hospital is considerably smaller than a public mental hospital, has a higher doctor–patient ratio, and offers specialized, intensive treatment rather than chronic care.

private practice

private practice 1. the practice of a medical or mental health care professional who operates as a self-employed individual. 2. in the United Kingdom, any medical practice outside the National Health Service.

private self

private self the part of the self that is known mainly to oneself, such as one’s inner feelings and self-concept. It may be similar to or different from the public self one reveals to others. See also social identity.

private self-consciousness

private self-consciousness see self-consciousness.

private speech

private speech spontaneous self-directed talk in which a person “thinks aloud,” particularly as a means of regulating cognitive processes and guiding behavior. In the theorizing of Lev Vygotsky, private speech is considered equivalent to egocentric speech.

privation

privation n. absence of something needed or desired, particularly something required to satisfy essential physiological needs, such as those for food and sleep. Privation is distinct from deprivation, which involves the initial presence and then removal of such requirements.

privilege

privilege n. 1. the legal right of an individual to confidentiality of personal information obtained by a professional in the course of their relationship, as between a patient and a health care professional during the course of treatment or diagnosis. See privileged communication. 2. a favor, benefit, or advantage provided to a person or group in return for something, such as cooperation or good behavior.

privileged access

privileged access the relationship that an individual has with his or her private, subjective, conscious experience, which is accessible to and observable by only that person.

privileged communication

privileged communication confidential information, especially as provided by an individual to a professional in the course of their relationship, that may not be divulged to a third party without the knowledge and consent of that individual. This protection applies to communications not only between patients and physicians, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, or other health care professionals but also between clients and attorneys, confessors and priests, and, in most instances, spouses.

pro-choice

pro-choice adj. supporting a woman’s right to freely make informed decisions regarding her reproductive options, including the right to choose safe, legal abortion or to choose to have children. Compare pro-life.

pro-life

pro-life adj. denoting a position or social movement that opposes or aims to limit the right to legal abortion, often on religious grounds. Compare pro-choice.

proactive aggression

proactive aggression see assertion. See also aggression.

proactive coping

proactive coping a stress-management strategy that reflects efforts to build up resources that facilitate promotion toward challenging goals and personal growth. Proactive individuals are motivated to meet challenges, and they commit themselves to their own high standards. They see demands and opportunities in the distant future and initiate a constructive path of action toward meeting them. Stress is interpreted as eustress—that is, productive arousal and vital energy—and coping thus becomes goal management instead of risk management. In contrast to the other three types of coping proposed by German psychologists Ralf Schwarzer (1943– ) and Nina Knoll, proactive coping does not arise from any negative appraisals, such as harm, loss, or threat. See also anticipatory coping; preventive coping; reactive coping.

proactive interference (PI)

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proattitudinal behavior

proattitudinal behavior behavior that is consistent with an attitude. Having a positive attitude toward a political candidate and agreeing to donate money to that candidate’s political campaign is an example of proattitudinal behavior. See also attitude–behavior consistency. Compare counterattitudinal behavior.

probabilism

probabilism n. 1. in psychology and other empirical sciences, the concept that events or sequences of events can be predicted with a high, though not perfect, degree of probability and validity on the basis of rational and empirical data. In statistical hypothesis testing associated with empirical research, probabilism is fundamental to the practice of attaching a probability to the truth or falsity of the null hypothesis. See also stochastic. 2. in ethical theory, the notion that when solutions to ethical questions are unclear, one should follow the course with the greatest estimated probability of being ethically correct. It is thought that evidence of a high probability of being correct can be found in agreement among persons of respected moral judgment. —probabilist adj. —probabilistic adj.

probabilistic functionalism

probabilistic functionalism 1. a theory of perception proposing that environmental cues are at best approximate indices of the objects they refer to, that organisms select the cues that are most useful for responding, and that the veracity of perceptions should therefore be considered probabilistic rather than certain. [proposed by Egon Brunswik] 2. the view that behavior is best understood in terms of its probable success in attaining goals.

probabilistic hypothesis

probabilistic hypothesis a hypothesis that is designed to be evaluated in terms of the probability of its being correct, rather than in terms of its being simply either true or false. Probabilistic hypotheses are important in Bayesian methods.

probability

probability (symbol: p) n. the degree to which an event is likely to occur. See also conditional probability; probability level. —probabilistic adj.

probability curve

probability curve a graphic representation of a probability distribution. Also called density curve.

probability density function (PDF)

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probability distribution

probability distribution a distribution describing the probability that a random variable will take certain values. The best known example is the bell-shaped normal distribution; others include the chi-square distribution, Student’s t distribution, and the F distribution. A probability distribution is a theoretical distribution.

probability learning

probability learning a principle of choice behavior in which the probability of a response tends to approach the probability of the reinforcement.

probability level (p value)

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probability plot

probability plot a graphic that compares probability values from two data sets; typically, one set will be a series of experimental findings and the other a theoretical set. Good examples are the probability–probability plot (P–P plot), depicting the cumulative probabilities of one data set against those of the other, and the quantile–quantile plot.

probability ratio

probability ratio the likelihood that a randomly selected unit will have a particular quality as derived from the known or expected frequency of this quality in the population. For example, if a bag contains 300 red balls and 500 white balls, then the probability ratio of drawing a red ball is 300 out of 800 = 3:8.

probability sampling

probability sampling any process in which a sample of participants or cases is chosen from a larger group in such a way that each one has a known (or calculable) likelihood of being included. This requires a well-defined population and an objective selection procedure, as in random sampling. Additionally, all members of the population must have some (i.e., nonzero) chance of being selected, although this probability need not be the same for all individuals. Compare nonprobability sampling.

probability table

probability table 1. a chart showing all possible outcomes of a situation under specified conditions and their likelihoods of occurrence. For example, one could create a probability table for the number of boys born into a family. 2. a display of critical values for various statistical tests (e.g., z test, t test, F test, chi-square test) at different significance levels and with different degrees of freedom. Probability tables traditionally were presented as appendixes in the back of statistics textbooks but currently are widely available via computer software.

probability theory

probability theory the branch of mathematics and statistics concerned with the study of probabilistic phenomena.

probability value

probability value see probability level.

probabilogical model

probabilogical model a theory of attitude and belief structure postulating that beliefs can be viewed as interlinked networks of syllogisms. These networks have vertical structure in that a syllogism containing two beliefs (i.e., the premises) can logically imply a third belief (i.e., the conclusion). They have horizontal structure in that the conclusion for one syllogism can serve as the conclusion for other syllogisms. [originally proposed by William J. McGuire]

proband

proband n. the family member whose possible genetic disease or disorder forms the center of the investigation into the extent of the illness in the family. He or she is the person around whom a pedigree is drawn and from whom the information about other family members is obtained. Also called index case.

probation

probation n. a criminal sentence in which an offender is not committed to a correctional facility but instead remains in the community under the supervision of a probation officer. Probation is typically accompanied by various conditions intended to control the offender’s conduct (e.g., no use of alcohol or drugs, no association with known criminals). See also shock probation.

probe technique

probe technique a memory test in which the participant is asked to recall whether a particular item was among a series of presented items. For example, if the participant hears 1, 3, 5, 7, the probe might be “Was 6 in the list?”

probing

probing n. in psychotherapy, the use of direct questions intended to stimulate discussion in the hope of uncovering relevant information or helping the client come to a particular realization or achieve a particular insight.

probit

probit n. probability unit: the inverse of the normal cumulative probability distribution. It is used in probit analysis and other techniques for modeling values of binary variables.

probit analysis

probit analysis a type of regression analysis in which a dichotomous outcome variable is related to any of a number of different predictor or independent variables. The technique assumes that a latent process generated the observed binary data and often produces very similar results to logistic regression. Also called probit regression.

problem behavior

problem behavior any conduct that is maladaptive, destructive, or antisocial.

problem box

problem box a problem-solving test consisting of a box with latches, strings, or other fastenings that the participant must learn to manipulate in such a way as to get in or, in some cases, get out.

problem checklist

problem checklist a type of self-report scale listing various personal, social, educational, or vocational problems. The participant indicates the items that apply to his or her situation.

problem drinking

problem drinking an informal and broad term referring to alcohol use with negative consequences, ranging from occasional drunkenness leading to missed days of work to a full alcohol use disorder.

problem finding

problem finding the skills involved in locating problems worth solving. Research by psychologists Jacob W. Getzels (1912–2001) and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1934– ) has suggested that expert artists tend to be better problem finders than are less expert artists; research by sociologist Harriett Zuckerman (1937– ) has indicated that the same distinction applies to scientists.

problem isomorphs

problem isomorphs problems that have the same underlying structure, so that they require essentially the same operations to achieve a solution. Such problems may vary enormously in their surface structure and in the degree of difficulty experienced by solvers. See isomorphism.

problem representation

problem representation a scheme, often a drawing, that represents the relations among elements of a problem. For example, a table might be used to express the relations among two sets of elements, or a flow chart might be used to express the series of steps to be followed in solving a problem.

problem solving

problem solving the process by which individuals attempt to overcome difficulties, achieve plans that move them from a starting situation to a desired goal, or reach conclusions through the use of higher mental functions, such as reasoning and creative thinking. Problem solving is seen in nonhuman animals in laboratory studies involving mazes and other tests as well as in natural settings to obtain hidden foods. Many animals display problem-solving strategies, such as the win–stay, lose–shift strategy, which allows an animal to solve a new problem quickly based on whether the first response was successful or unsuccessful. In terms of conditioning, problem solving involves engaging in behavior that results in the production of discriminative stimuli in situations involving new contingencies.

problem space

problem space the mental representation of a problem and of all the possible paths to solving it.

problem-focused coping

problem-focused coping a stress-management strategy in which a person directly confronts a stressor in an attempt to decrease or eliminate it. This may involve generating possible solutions to a problem, confronting others who are responsible for or otherwise associated with the stressor, and other forms of instrumental action. For example, a student who is anxious about an upcoming examination might cope by studying more, attending every class, and attending special review sessions to ensure he or she fully understands the course material. It has been proposed that problem-focused coping is used primarily when a person appraises a stressor as within his or her capacity to change. Compare emotion-focused coping. [identified in 1984 by Richard S. Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1938– ), U.S. psychologists]

problem-oriented record (POR)

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problem-solving approach

problem-solving approach 1. the process whereby difficulties, obstacles, or stressful events are addressed through the use of coping strategies. 2. the theoretical assumption underlying many therapies in the cognitive behavior tradition (e.g., problem-solving therapy) that posits that the symptoms of psychopathology can often be understood as the negative consequences of ineffective or maladaptive coping.

problem-solving interview

problem-solving interview 1. an employment interview in which the interviewee is presented with a problem that must be solved. The idea is that such an approach will reveal the applicant’s analytical, creative, and problem-solving abilities under pressure. See also patterned interview; structured interview; unstructured interview. 2. an interview that is focused on specific job-related problems, with the aim of working with the interviewee on reaching constructive and mutually acceptable solutions to deficits in performance. This technique is used both with supervisors and with other employees.

problem-solving skills training (PSST)

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problem-solving therapy (PST)

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problems in living

problems in living concrete problems with which patients with chronic mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia) frequently struggle (e.g., inability to keep a job or a place of residence), which are believed to be the most useful focus of treatment after symptoms stabilize with medication. Problems in living are often addressed in day treatment or in aftercare following hospitalization. See psychosocial rehabilitation. [proposed by Hungarian-born U.S. psychiatrist Thomas S. Szasz (1920–2012)]

procaine

procaine n. a local anesthetic used primarily in medical and dental procedures. Procaine was introduced in 1905 as the first synthetic substitute for cocaine.

procedural justice

procedural justice 1. in legal proceedings, the use of methods and procedures that are fair and impartial, as distinct from the making of just decisions. The various rules governing how witnesses are questioned and what evidence is admitted into court are examples of the application of procedural justice within the legal system. 2. see organizational justice.

procedural knowledge

procedural knowledge see procedural memory.

procedural learning

procedural learning the process of acquiring skill at a task, particularly a task that eventually can be performed automatically (i.e., without attention), as opposed to acquiring a declarative memory or factual knowledge about it.

procedural memory

procedural memory long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks. Procedural memory is demonstrated by skilled performance and is often separate from the ability to verbalize this knowledge (see declarative memory). Knowing how to type or skate, for example, requires procedural memory. Also called sensorimotor memory.

procedural rationality

procedural rationality the rationality of the processes used in arriving at a decision, as opposed to the rationality of the decision itself. Compare substantive rationality.

proceptivity

proceptivity n. the period during mating behavior when females actively solicit males for copulation. Proceptivity is distinguished from the more passive receptivity to indicate the female’s active role in mating.

process analysis

process analysis 1. in psychotherapy, the examination of the interaction between the therapist and the client and of their evolving relationship, as opposed to the content of their discussions. 2. in evaluation research, an analytic procedure that focuses on each element of a program in order to identify ways of improving program operations. See also implementation evaluation.

process approach

process approach a method of neuropsychological assessment that emphasizes observing, scoring, and analyzing the qualitative aspects of patient behavior in a systematic manner, in addition to obtaining test scores during the evaluation. For example, a clinician would carefully analyze a patient’s approach to items on a block-design test, in addition to obtaining the patient’s total score on the measure. Also called Boston Process Approach. [first advanced by Edith Kaplan and her colleagues at the Boston VA Health Care System]

process conflict

process conflict see intragroup conflict.

process consultation

process consultation an organizational development intervention in which work groups are observed by a consultant, who provides feedback on how to improve the effectiveness with which members work together.

process evaluation

process evaluation in evaluation research, an in-house function in which the evaluator quickly moves into the situation to be evaluated, conducts the evaluation, feeds findings back to the program administrator for immediate program modification (if necessary), then repeats the process for as long as required. See also formative evaluation.

process experiential psychotherapy

process experiential psychotherapy an approach to psychotherapy that focuses on the client’s moment-to-moment experience and guides his or her cognitive and affective processing in the direction of client-defined goals. The therapeutic alliance, internal patterns of viewing the self and others, and an emphasis on therapeutic process over content are core elements of this therapy. See also client-centered therapy; gestalt therapy; humanistic therapy. [proposed by South African-born Canadian psychologist Leslie S. Greenberg (1945– )]

process loss

process loss in the social psychology of groups, any action, operation, or dynamic that prevents the group from reaching its full potential, such as reduced effort (social loafing), inadequate coordination of effort (coordination loss), poor communication, or ineffective leadership. See also collective effort model; Ringelmann effect; social interference; sucker effect.

process model of emotion regulation

process model of emotion regulation a model proposing that emotion regulation may occur at two different points in the emotion-generative process: Antecedent-focused emotion regulation is evoked at the front end, or very early in the process, whereas response-focused emotion regulation occurs at the back end, or after an emotional response has been triggered. [proposed in 1998 by U.S. clinical psychologist James J. Gross]

process observer

process observer 1. in groups, the member who observes and comments on the group’s functioning. This role may be formally designated or taken on informally by one or more group members. 2. a consultant who helps groups to improve their performance by observing the unit as it works and discussing these observations with the unit.

process research

process research the study of various psychological mechanisms or processes of psychotherapy as they influence the outcome of treatment or the reactions that the therapist or client may have during treatment. A basic goal of such research is to identify therapeutic methods and processes that are most effective in bringing about positive change, as well as any inadequacies or other limitations. In other words, process research focuses on the means by which participants benefit from receiving an intervention. Compare outcome research. See also psychotherapy research.

process schizophrenia

process schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia that begins early in life, develops gradually, is believed to be due to endogenous (biological or physiological) rather than environmental factors, and has a poor prognosis. Psychosocial development before the onset of the disorder is poor; individuals are withdrawn, are socially inadequate, and indulge in excessive fantasies. This term is often used interchangeably with nuclear schizophrenia. Also called poor premorbid schizophrenia. Compare reactive schizophrenia. [proposed in 1959 by U.S. psychologists Norman Garmezy (1918–2009) and Eliot H. Rodnick (1911–1999)]

process study

process study any investigation undertaken to assess the mechanisms and variables that contribute to and influence the outcome of a particular activity. For example, a process study of group therapy sessions may seek to determine characteristics of the therapeutic interaction that are associated with positive, neutral, or negative changes individually and across the group. See also process research.

process variable

process variable 1. any set of psychological factors that has an effect on the development or modification of a process over time. 2. an interpersonal, affective, cognitive, or behavioral factor that is operative during the course of psychotherapy or counseling and influences the progress or the course of behavior.

process-dissociation procedure (PDP)

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process–reactive

process–reactive adj. relating to a disease model of schizophrenia based on the distinction between gradual and acute onset of symptoms. Process schizophrenia is marked by a long-term gradual deterioration before the disease is manifest, whereas reactive schizophrenia is associated with a rapid onset of symptoms after a relatively normal premorbid period.

Processes of Adaptation in Intimate Relationships Project

Processes of Adaptation in Intimate Relationships Project see PAIR Project.

Processing Speed Index

Processing Speed Index an index from more recent versions of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and other Wechsler tests that measures the speed of nonverbal processing.

processing-efficiency theory

processing-efficiency theory a theory that attempts to explain the relationship between anxiety and performance (see arousal–performance relationship). It suggests that anxiety serves two functions: (a) It increases worry and takes attentional resources, and (b) the worry created serves a monitoring function by identifying a task as important, so that the individual increases effort at the task, which overcomes the depleted attentional capacity (see capacity model).

processor

processor n. 1. in information theory, any device or system that can perform specific operations on data that have been presented to it in proper format. 2. in computer science, a computer or its principal operating part. See central processor.

prochlorperazine

prochlorperazine n. a low-potency phenothiazine used for the treatment of nausea and vomiting and occasionally for the control of anxiety. It was formerly used as an antipsychotic agent. U.S. trade name (among others): Compazine.

procreative sex

procreative sex sexual activity that can result in pregnancy. In some cultures and religions, this is the basis for what is considered to be normal sex, as opposed to deviant or sinful sexual activity.

Procrustes analysis

Procrustes analysis in statistical analysis, an approach in which empirical data are superimposed onto some fixed target matrix or other structure of theoretical interest. The name derives from the robber in Greek mythology who forced his victims to fit his bed by stretching them or cutting off their limbs.

procyclidine

procyclidine n. an anticholinergic drug that is used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms. U.S. trade name: Kemadrin.

prodigy

prodigy n. an individual, typically a child, who displays unusual or exceptional talent or intelligence, often in a discrete area of expertise, such as mathematics, music, or chess. Even if naturally endowed with such exceptional abilities, prodigies still require the opportunity and dedication to train and develop their gifts. They do not always develop into accomplished adults: There appears to be an important transition between the two, and only a proportion of prodigies successfully negotiate this transition. See also giftedness.

prodromal myopia

prodromal myopia see myopia.

prodromal syndrome

prodromal syndrome a set of traits, symptoms, or neurological deficits that may signal the onset of a psychological or neurological disorder.

prodrome

prodrome n. an early symptom or symptoms of a mental or physical disorder. A prodrome frequently serves as a warning or premonitory sign that may, in some cases, enable preventive measures to be taken. Examples are the auras that often precede epileptic seizures or migraine headaches and the headache, fatigue, dizziness, and insidious impairment of ability that often precede a stroke. Also called prodromic phase. —prodromic adj. —prodromal adj.

prodrug

prodrug n. a drug that is either biologically inert or of limited activity until metabolized to a more active derivative.

product appeal

product appeal see appeal.

product champion

product champion an individual who supports an innovation (e.g., a new technology) and provides information regarding its benefits so that the target user groups will adopt the innovation. Such individuals are held to play a key role in innovation diffusion and change management.

product image

product image in consumer psychology, the associations evoked by a particular brand. Product image is established usually on the basis of careful psychological studies and aims to instill in consumers a receptive feeling for the product. For example, some brands of coffee are identified as mountain-grown in Latin America, hand-picked by experts with Hispanic names, and carefully roasted to yield a rich, dark beverage, although the brand may actually contain coffees from Africa or Indonesia. Also called brand image.

product rule

product rule see Durham rule.

product testing

product testing the testing of consumer response to a new product before or after it has been offered for sale. In the United States, such tests are usually conducted on a limited scale in certain markets, such as in Omaha, Nebraska, or Rochester, New York, which have been studied intensively and have populations with known consumer characteristics. Large-scale advertising campaigns are based on results of the localized product testing, which also may influence changes in product or package design.

product-moment correlation coefficient

product-moment correlation coefficient (symbol: r) an index of the degree of linear relationship between two variables. Devised by Karl Pearson, it is often known as the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) and is one of the most commonly used sample correlation coefficients.

production deficiency

production deficiency in problem solving, failure to find the right or best strategy for completing a task (sometimes even after successful instruction), as opposed to failure in implementing it. Compare mediational deficiency; utilization deficiency.

production effect

production effect the finding that when people speak a word aloud during study, they generally remember that word better than if they read it silently.

production method

production method see magnitude production.

production rules

production rules the if–then statements describing the conditions under which a rule relating to a cognitive skill is to be applied (if…) and the action to be implemented (then…). See production system.

production system

production system a rule-based computer program that makes decisions or solves problems (see rule-based system). It operates according to a set of if–then (i.e., state–action) rules, such that if a certain state occurs, then an associated action is executed, thus altering the state, which produces a new action, and so on. A production system consists of three components: (a) the production memory, represented as sets of if–then rules; (b) the working memory, which contains information related to the present state of the problem solving, represented as patterns to be submitted to the production memory; and (c) a control regime that takes the patterns (representing the current state of the problem solving) from working memory to the set of production rules. When a production rule matches this pattern, it “fires” and produces a new pattern (reflecting the new state of the problem solving), which is then placed in working memory. This cycle continues until no patterns in working memory match the production rules. The production system approach is used as a cognitive architecture by many researchers in cognitive science. See also adaptive production system; Soar.

production task

production task 1. a cognitive test in which the participant is required to generate as many items as possible that adhere to specified criteria. Production tasks may take a variety of different forms. For example, in a word-production task, individuals may be asked to list as many exemplars from a given subject category (e.g., flower names) as possible, whereas in a sentence-production task, individuals may be asked to create as many unique sentences as possible that contain certain elements (e.g., a transitive verb, a noun, and a target stimulus word). 2. any test of linguistic development in which the participant is required to speak or write rather than to demonstrate understanding of material spoken or written by others. For example, in an experiment assessing foreign-language acquisition, native-English speakers studying German might be asked to read aloud a series of German sentences.

productive language

productive language see expressive language.

productive love

productive love in psychoanalytic theory, the capacity of healthy individuals to establish close, interdependent relationships without abridging their individuality. Respect, care, responsibility, and knowledge of the other are essential components. According to Erich Fromm, productive love is accomplished through active effort and is an aspect of the productive orientation.

productive orientation

productive orientation in psychoanalytic theory, a personality pattern in which the individual is able to develop and apply his or her potentialities without being unduly dependent on outside control. Such an individual is highly active in feeling, thinking, and relating to others and at the same time retains the separateness and integrity of his or her own self. [introduced by Erich Fromm]

productive thinking

productive thinking in the theory of Erich Fromm, thinking in which a given question or issue is considered with objectivity as well as respect and concern for the problem as a whole. It is a feature of the productive orientation.

productive vocabulary

productive vocabulary an individual’s vocabulary as defined by the words that he or she regularly uses, as opposed to those that he or she can understand when used by others. Also called active vocabulary; working vocabulary. Compare receptive vocabulary.

productivity

productivity n. 1. the relationship between the quantity or quality of output (goods created or services provided) and the input (time, materials, etc.) required to create it. 2. the capacity to produce goods and services having exchange value. Vocational rehabilitation programs often use the productivity of people with disabilities as a major measure of the effectiveness of the programs. 3. according to Roger Brown, one of the formal properties of all language, consisting of the ability to combine individual words to produce an unlimited number of sentences. See semanticity.

proecological behavior

proecological behavior behavior that promotes the quality of the natural environment. Examples include recycling, efficient use of energy, and use of mass transportation. Among topics examined in the analysis of these behaviors are environmental attitudes, economic and political impediments, and sociodemographic factors. See also social trap.

proestrus

proestrus n. the period that immediately precedes estrus.

profession

profession n. an occupation requiring specialized training and skills that meet the established qualifications for entrance into the profession and that match subsequent performance criteria. Among other requirements is adherence to the profession’s rules of conduct governing general business practices and ethical relations between members of the profession and their colleagues and clients. See professional ethics; professional licensing; professional standards. See also vocation. —professional adj., n. —professionalize vb.

professional development

professional development the continuing education or training that is often expected or required of people employed in a profession. Professional organizations often assist the professional development of their members by providing courses, conferences, literature, and other services. See also career development; management development.

professional ethics

professional ethics rules of acceptable conduct that members of a given profession are expected to follow. See boundary issues; code of ethics; ethics; professional standards; standards of practice.

professional labeling

professional labeling see labeling.

professional licensing

professional licensing the imposition of state-regulated minimal standards for legal employment as a member of a given profession. Professional licensing usually consists of three parts: provisional certification, full certification, and recertification. See license.

professional manager

professional manager a person occupying a managerial position in an organization who has been extensively prepared and trained for that position and thus possesses specialized knowledge of important principles, practices, and procedures.

professional standards

professional standards the levels of performance and conduct required or expected in a particular profession. See also code of ethics; professional ethics; standards of practice.

professional-aptitude test

professional-aptitude test any test used for selecting candidates for professional training. Typical aptitudes tested include the mental capacity, ability to acquire information and skills, and cognitive style needed for general higher education and proficiency in specific professions, such as psychology, law, science, nursing, engineering, dentistry, medicine, accounting, theology, and teaching.

professional–client sexual relations

professional–client sexual relations a boundary violation (see boundary issues) in which a health care professional engages in sexual relations with a patient under his or her care.

profile

profile n. 1. a graphical representation of the scores of an individual (or the means of groups of individuals) on multiple measures. The x-axis of the graph usually represents the various measures, whereas the y-axis is the score of the individual on the corresponding measure. Usually the points are connected by short line segments. See personality profile; test profile. 2. a group of characteristics indicating that a particular type of person is likely to engage in a certain behavior. See criminal profiling.

profile analysis

profile analysis a multivariate statistical technique that compares independent groups of individuals across several constructs or dimensions (e.g., of personality) that are measured on the same scale in terms of their mean level or elevation, their shape, and their scatter or variability. The data can be depicted graphically with the scale name on the x-axis, the scale score on the y-axis, and different lines reflecting the different groups being examined.

profile matching system

profile matching system a method of personnel selection in which decisions to hire or reject candidates for employment are based on the degree of fit between an applicant’s characteristics and a profile of the ideal or typical employee in the position. See also interviewer stereotype.

profile of a disorder

profile of a disorder a drawn or mechanically generated outline, often a graph, representing the symptoms and characteristics of a disorder.

Profile of Mood States (POMS)

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profiling

profiling n. 1. see criminal profiling. 2. in sport, an exercise in which athletes first identify the most important physical and mental components necessary for optimal performance and then assess the degree to which they possess each of these components.

profound mental retardation

profound mental retardation an older diagnostic category for those with IQs below 20, comprising about 1% of people with mental retardation. It is due to sensorimotor abnormalities as well as intellectual factors; typical developmental attainments include rudimentary speech and limited self-care, and affected individuals require lifelong supervision in highly structured environments.

progeria

progeria n. see aging disorder.

progesterone

progesterone n. a hormone, secreted mainly by the corpus luteum in the ovary, that stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium (lining) of the uterus required for implantation of an embryo. If implantation occurs, progesterone continues to be secreted—first by the corpus luteum and then by the placenta—maintaining the pregnant uterus and preventing further release of egg cells from the ovary. It also stimulates development of milk-secreting cells in the breasts.

progestogen

progestogen n. a steroid that includes the natural hormone progesterone and synthetic steroids (known as progestins) with physiological effects similar to those of progesterone. Progestins may be derived from progesterone or testosterone. Whereas progesterone has an antiestrogenic action, progestins may have different effects, such as proestrogenic activity. They are used in oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy, and medications for menstrual disorders.

prognosis

prognosis n. 1. in medicine and mental health science, a prediction of the course, duration, severity, and outcome of a condition, disease, or disorder. Prognosis may be given before any treatment is undertaken, so that the patient or client can weigh the benefits of different treatment options. 2. more generally, any prediction or forecast. —prognostic adj.

program effectiveness

program effectiveness conclusions drawn about program outcomes from testing an intervention as it is actually executed in the context of routine everyday service delivery. This method contains several threats to internal validity because it must rely on procedures that are not scientifically controlled. Compare program efficacy.

program efficacy

program efficacy conclusions drawn about program outcomes from testing an intervention under closely controlled scientific conditions, which may narrowly define the type of individual receiving services, the nature of services offered, and so forth. Because this method involves the provision of services under conditions that are very different from everyday real-world service delivery, there are dangers that it may not achieve a high degree of external validity. Compare program effectiveness.

program evaluation

program evaluation an appraisal process that contributes to decisions on installing, continuing, expanding, certifying, or modifying social programs, depending on their effectiveness. Program evaluation also is used to obtain evidence to rally support or opposition for the organization providing services and to contribute to basic knowledge in the social and behavioral sciences about social interventions and social experimentation. See evaluation research.

Program for Learning in Accordance With Needs (PLAN)

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program impact

program impact the effects of a program designed to produce some type of good or service, measured in terms of success or failure in achieving these objectives.

program integrity

program integrity the extent to which an intended program is actually delivered. Also called treatment integrity.

program monitoring

program monitoring the use of key indicators to measure program performance. The purposes and regularity of this activity vary widely and include process evaluation, information provided from management information systems, and performance measurement that identifies program outcomes. Typically, these methods do not assess the impact of the program. See also program effectiveness; program impact.

program outcome

program outcome any or all of the effects that arise from the implementation of a program. Also called program output.

programmed cell death

programmed cell death the orderly death and disposal of surplus tissue cells, which occurs as part of tissue remodeling during development, or of worn-out and infected cells, which occurs throughout life. Also called apoptosis.

programmed instruction

programmed instruction a learning technique, used for self-instruction and in academic and some applied settings, in which the material is presented in a series of sequential, graduated steps, or frames. The learner is required to make a response at each step: If the response is correct, it leads to the next step; if it is incorrect, it leads to further review of the material presented in the prior step. Also called programmed learning. See teaching machine.

programmed practice

programmed practice the homework component of in vivo exposure, in which a client directly confronts feared stimuli outside of therapeutic sessions. Programmed practice is used as a concomitant strategy to the primary treatment with the therapist, and clients often are instructed to keep a behavioral diary of all self-directed exposure practice. Some practitioners and researchers, however, use the term more generally as a synonym of exposure therapy itself.

programming

programming n. 1. the planning of a sequential set of operations in such areas as social organization or experimental research. 2. see computer programming.

programming language

programming language see computer programming.

Progressive Achievement Tests (PAT)

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progressive bulbar palsy

progressive bulbar palsy see bulbar paralysis.

progressive education

progressive education a broad educational approach originally associated with John Dewey’s philosophy. It emphasizes experimentalism as opposed to dogmatism in teaching, learning by doing, recognition of individual rates of learning, latitude in selecting areas of study according to interest, and a close relationship between academic learning and experience in the world outside the classroom.

progressive lipodystrophy

progressive lipodystrophy see lipodystrophy.

Progressive Matrices

Progressive Matrices see Raven’s Progressive Matrices.

progressive muscle relaxation

progressive muscle relaxation see progressive relaxation.

progressive muscular atrophy

progressive muscular atrophy see spinal muscular atrophy.

progressive myopia

progressive myopia see myopia.

progressive relaxation

progressive relaxation a technique in which the individual is trained to relax the entire body by becoming aware of tensions in various muscle groups and then relaxing one muscle group at a time. In some cases, the individual consciously tenses specific muscles or muscle groups and then releases tension to achieve relaxation throughout the body. Also called Jacobson relaxation method; progressive muscle relaxation. [developed by U.S. physician Edmund Jacobson (1888–1983)]

progressive spinal muscular atrophy

progressive spinal muscular atrophy see spinal muscular atrophy.

progressive supranuclear palsy

progressive supranuclear palsy a progressive neurological disorder usually starting in the 6th decade of life and characterized by oculomotor palsy, with downward gaze particularly affected. The condition may be accompanied by parkinsonism, postural instability, speech and swallowing difficulties, dystonia, personality changes, and typically mild cognitive impairment. Pathology often shows loss of neurons and gliosis in various regions of the brainstem, basal ganglia, and midbrain. Also called Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome; supranuclear palsy.

progressive teleologic regression

progressive teleologic regression the purposive return of a person with schizophrenia to the primary process level, in an attempt to avoid tension, stress and anxiety, and a self-image that has become bizarre, threatening, and frightening. The regression is progressive because it fails to accomplish its purpose and becomes more extreme. [first described by Italian-born U.S. psychiatrist Silvano Arieti (1914–1982)]

progressive-interval schedule (PI schedule)

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progressive-ratio schedule (PR schedule)

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Project Follow Through

Project Follow Through a U.S. government-funded program to develop and evaluate a variety of effective models for educating primary-school children from low-income families. A complement to Head Start, Project Follow Through began in 1967, involved more than 100,000 students, and lasted 10 years. Direct instruction was shown by various measures of achievement, cognitive skills, and self-esteem to be the most effective method of teaching. Psychologists had major responsibilities in all phases of Project Follow Through: planning the project, administering it, designing and implementing programs, reviewing and critiquing the total effort, and evaluating outcomes.

Project Head Start

Project Head Start see Head Start.

project method

project method a teaching structure in which students work alone or together to initiate, develop, and carry out learning projects with a minimal amount of direct guidance from the teacher.

project team

project team see cross-functional team.

projected jealousy

projected jealousy a type of behavior in which individuals who are unfaithful, or who repress impulses to be unfaithful, accuse their partners of infidelity, thereby projecting their own impulses.

projection

projection n. 1. in psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories, the process by which one attributes one’s own individual positive or negative characteristics, affects, and impulses to another person or group. This is often a defense mechanism in which unpleasant or unacceptable impulses, stressors, ideas, affects, or responsibilities are attributed to others. For example, the defense mechanism of projection enables a person conflicted over expressing anger to change “I hate him” to “He hates me.” Such defensive patterns are often used to justify prejudice or evade responsibility; in more severe cases, they may develop into paranoid delusions in which, for example, an individual who blames others for his or her problems may come to believe that those others are plotting against him or her. In classical psychoanalytic theory, projection permits the individual to avoid seeing his or her own faults, but modern usage has largely abandoned the requirement that the projected trait remain unknown in the self. 2. in linear algebra and exploratory factor analysis, the mapping of a set of points in multidimensional space. —project vb.

projection area

projection area an area of the cerebral cortex that receives inputs from a particular sense organ. Each sense sends messages to two or more projection areas.

projection fiber

projection fiber a nerve fiber that carries impulses from the cerebral cortex to subcortical structures (e.g., the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia).

projection neuron

projection neuron a neuron with a long axon extending some distance from the cell body. Also called Golgi Type I neuron. Compare local circuit neuron.

projective device

projective device in consumer psychology, a word-association technique used in motivation research. Key words are mixed with neutral background words and individuals are asked to make associations without being aware of which terms are the key words. Such techniques enable advertisers to learn which words are likely to be most attractive to consumers when used in advertising copy. Some versions also include cartoon characters or scenes for which individuals are asked to provide a dialogue.

projective doll play

projective doll play see doll play.

projective identification

projective identification 1. in psychoanalysis, a defense mechanism in which the individual projects qualities that are unacceptable to the self onto another individual and that person internalizes the projected qualities and believes himself or herself to be characterized by them appropriately and justifiably. See projection. 2. in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, a defense mechanism in which a person fantasizes that part of his or her ego is split off and projected into the object in order to harm or to protect the disavowed part, thus allowing the individual to maintain a belief in his or her omnipotent control. Projective identification is a key feature of Klein’s paranoid-schizoid position. Building on Klein’s work, British psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion (1897–1979) theorized that, in normal communication development, an infant will project part of his or her mind into an object in order to have that part of the mind felt and understood by the object.

projective method

projective method see projective technique.

projective play

projective play a variation of play therapy in which dolls and other toys are used by children to express their feelings, which can be helpful in diagnosing mental disturbances.

projective psychotherapy

projective psychotherapy a treatment procedure in psychotherapy in which selected responses on various projective tests are fed back to the client, who associates with them in much the same way that psychoanalytic patients make free associations. [developed by U.S. psychologist Molly Harrower (1906–1999)]

projective technique

projective technique any assessment procedure that consists of a series of relatively ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit unique, sometimes highly idiosyncratic, responses that reflect the personality, cognitive style, and other psychological characteristics of the respondent. Examples of this type of procedure are the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test, as well as sentence-completion, word-association, and drawing tests. The use of projective techniques has generated considerable discussion among researchers, with opinions ranging from the expressed belief that personality assessment is incomplete without data from at least one or more of these procedures to the assertion that such techniques lack important psychometric features such as reliability and validity. Also called projective method.

prolactin

prolactin n. a peptide hormone both synthesized and released into the bloodstream by specialized cells in the anterior pituitary gland called lactotrophs. Although generally known for its originally described role in initiating and maintaining lactation—prolactin levels rise significantly in women during pregnancy, stimulating the mammary glands to grow and subsequently produce milk—prolactin also performs many other essential reproductive, homeostatic, and behavioral functions in both sexes. These include such activities as preserving the corpus luteum and enhancing its secretion of progesterone, modulating sexual arousal and the orgasmic refractory phase, influencing spermatogenesis, regulating prostate gland development, regulating the immune response, regulating water and electrolyte concentrations (osmoregulation), modulating oligodendrocyte precursor production, and inhibiting fat metabolism. Prolactin also is associated with mammalian and avian parental behavior, with prolactin variation possibly explaining individual differences in parental choices and the initiation of parental interactions. Given such versatility of action, it is not surprising that prolactin receptors are found throughout the body, including within the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and other areas of the central nervous system; the thymus and lymphocytes of the immune system; and the liver, kidney, prostate, testis, ovary, uterus, mammary glands, and numerous other organs. Also called lactogenic hormone; lactotropic hormone; lactotropin; luteotropic hormone (LTH); luteotropin.

prolapsed intervertebral disk

prolapsed intervertebral disk see slipped disk.

proliferation

proliferation n. rapid reproduction or multiplication, particularly of new or diseased cells. Both benign and malignant tumors, for instance, experience a high rate of cell division and growth.

Prolixin

Prolixin n. a trade name for fluphenazine.

PROLOG

PROLOG n. PRO(gramming) LOG(ic): a high-level computer language that is important in artificial intelligence research. Inference in PROLOG is a form of deduction but is not mathematically sound due to several pragmatic compromises, including the use of “cut” to control backtracking and “negation” as the failure to find correct results. A strength of the language is a powerful pattern matcher based on unification, for use in production system applications.

prolonged exposure therapy

prolonged exposure therapy a form of cognitive behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in adults. Based on emotional processing theory, it is a brief treatment, involving 9 to 12 sessions of 60 to 90 minutes each conducted once or twice weekly. The first two sessions are devoted to information gathering, explanation of treatment rationale, treatment planning, and breathing retraining. During the remaining sessions, clients relive their traumatic experiences by imagining them as vividly as possible and describing them aloud in the present tense (i.e., imaginal exposure), including their thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations at the time. These narratives are recorded, and clients are instructed to listen to the recordings as homework. They are also instructed to confront, as homework, situations and stimuli that trigger distressing memories and thoughts and thus have been avoided (i.e., in vivo exposure). The homework assignments and imaginal exposure are reviewed in session: Clients discuss their emotions, cognitions, and other responses to the activity, while the therapist uses nondirective statements to validate and normalize the clients’ experiences and reactions. The exposure exercises are intended to teach clients that trauma memories are in fact not harmful and that they can cope with them; the in-session discussion seeks to help clients change their erroneous beliefs about the trauma and reevaluate their feelings about it. Ultimately, this method aims to habituate clients to the traumatic event so that it no longer evokes the excessive anxiety, fear, and other distressing emotions that it previously did. [developed in the 1980s by U.S. psychologist Edna B. Foa (1937– ) and colleagues]

promethazine

promethazine n. a phenothiazine used for the treatment of nausea, motion sickness, and allergies and as a sedative. Its mechanism of action includes blockade of H1 histamine receptors and of dopamine receptors in the mesolimbic system. U.S. trade name: Phenergan.

promiscuity

promiscuity n. transient, casual sexual relations with a variety of partners. In humans, this type of behavior is generally regarded unfavorably; however, it has been argued that there can be healthy promiscuity in the simple enjoyment of casual, consensual, nonexploitative relationships. Among nonhuman animals, bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees) engage in frequent sexual activity both between and within sexes in exchange for resources (e.g., food) or to calm tensions. In many species, females appear to display promiscuity to prevent certainty of paternity but often mate with the most dominant or successful male at the time when conception is most likely. —promiscuous adj.

prompt

prompt n. see retrieval cue.

prompting

prompting n. in psychotherapy, suggesting or hinting at topics by the therapist to encourage the client to discuss certain issues. Prompting may include reminding the client of previously discussed material, tying previously discussed topics together, or finishing a sentence or thought for the client to aid in his or her understanding of an issue.

pronation

pronation n. 1. the act of turning the arm and hand so that the palm faces downward and the two long bones of the forearm are crossed, or the condition resulting from this action. 2. the act of turning the foot so that the sole faces outward and the lateral (outer) margin is raised (as in walking on the inside of one’s feet), or the condition resulting from this action. 3. the state or condition of being prone (see posture). Compare supination. —pronate vb.

prone

prone adj. see posture.

pronoun

pronoun n. in linguistics, a word that substitutes for a noun, noun phrase, or larger nominal unit, usually to avoid repetition. English pronouns include the personal pronouns (I, you, she, etc.), the demonstrative pronouns (this, that, etc.), and the relative pronouns (that, which, etc.). See anaphora; antecedent. —pronominal adj.

pronoun reversal

pronoun reversal a speech phenomenon observed in children with autism, in which the child refers to himself or herself in the second or third person (e.g., you, him, she) while identifying others by first-person pronouns (e.g., me). Also called pronominal reversal.

proof

proof n. 1. the establishment of a proposition or theory as true, or the method by which it is so established. There is much debate as to whether propositions or theories can ever be truly proven. In logic and philosophy, even a valid argument can be untrue if its first premise is false. For example, it is a valid argument to say that All trees are pines: I have a tree in my garden: Therefore my tree is a pine. In empirical sciences such as psychology, both logical and methodological problems make it impossible to prove a theory or hypothesis true. Disciplines that rely on empirical science must settle for some type of probabilism based on empirical support of its theories and hypotheses. See also falsifiability. 2. in mathematics and logic, a sequence of steps formally establishing the truth of a theorem or the validity of a proposition. 3. in law, evidence that establishes and supports the truth of claims made by either party in a dispute. Only evidence presented at trial can constitute proof; the trier of fact must then decide whether such evidence constitutes adequate proof. In criminal cases, the standard of proof required to obtain a conviction is proof beyond reasonable doubt.

proofreader’s illusion

proofreader’s illusion a visual error in which a misspelling, omission, extra letter, transposition, or the like is overlooked, owing to top-down processing in which the context and other cues outweigh the impact of the word or phrase as literally spelled or misspelled.

proopiomelanocortin (POMC)

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propaedeutic

propaedeutic n. 1. introductory instruction provided by a teacher to a student before formal instruction of a full concept or idea begins. 2. an introduction to any art or science.

propaganda

propaganda n. a method of social control that attempts to strengthen or change the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of others by presenting highly biased information or sometimes disinformation. It usually involves an appeal to emotion that is designed to win support for an idea or course of action or to belittle or disparage the ideas or programs of others. See also card-stacking; fear appeal; glittering generalities; subliminal propaganda.

propaganda analysis

propaganda analysis a study of the techniques, appeals, content, and effectiveness of propaganda.

propanediol

propanediol n. any of a group of chemically related compounds derived from propyl alcohol and originally developed as antianxiety drugs. Their pharmacological actions include muscle relaxation, depression of the central nervous system, and a calming effect through interference with autonomic reactions. The prototype of the group is meprobamate. Due to their toxicity in overdose, propanediols have largely been supplanted as anxiolytics by benzodiazepines and other sedative-hypnotics; carisoprodol, a precursor of meprobamate, is currently used as a muscle relaxant.

propensity

propensity n. a strong tendency toward a behavior or action.

prophase

prophase n. the first stage of cell division, during which chromosomes shorten and thicken, dividing along their length into chromatids, and the nuclear envelope dissolves. In meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes associate to form bivalents (pairs).

prophecy formula

prophecy formula see Spearman–Brown prophecy formula.

prophylactic maintenance

prophylactic maintenance see maintenance therapy.

prophylactic surgery

prophylactic surgery the removal of an organ prior to the expected onset of cancer in that organ, usually because the individual has a positive family history of the disease or is a carrier of a predisposing mutation. For example, women who carry mutations in genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 (see BRCA1 and BRCA2) or p53 are at greatly increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer and may consider prophylactic surgery. Prophylactic mastectomy is the surgical removal of one or both breasts prior to a diagnosis of breast cancer. Prophylactic ovariectomy is the surgical removal of the ovaries prior to a diagnosis of ovarian cancer. Prophylactic thyroidectomy is the surgical removal of the thyroid gland prior to the onset of medullary thyroid cancer in individuals at increased risk for MEN2 (multiple endocrine neoplasia, Type 2), a hereditary cancer syndrome. The emotional impact of prophylactic surgery in such patients is under study.

prophylaxis

prophylaxis n. the use of methods or procedures designed to avoid or prevent mental or physical disease or disorder. —prophylactic adj., n.

propinquity

propinquity n. the physical and sometimes psychological nearness of two or more people to each other, an element in the formation of close relationships. See also proxemics.

propinquity effect

propinquity effect the tendency of individuals to form close relationships with people they repeatedly encounter. That is, the more often one comes into contact with another person, the more likely it is that one will form a friendship or romantic relationship with that person. For example, next-door neighbors often are friends with one another, as are classmates and coworkers, respectively. The propinquity effect possibly is related to the mere-exposure effect. [first theorized in 1950 by U.S. psychologists Leon Festinger and Stanley Schachter and Austrian-born U.S. sociologist Kurt Wolfgang Back (1920–1999), following a study of students living in the Westgate Apartments at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology]

proportion of variance index

proportion of variance index any of several measures describing the amount of variability in an outcome variable that is explained by the independent variables. In multiple regression, for example, the coefficient of multiple determination is a commonly used proportion of variance index.

proportional

proportional adj. having a constant ratio between quantities, such that the overall relationship does not change. For example, consider a researcher who is examining the differences between two treatments among males and females as follows: 10 males in Treatment A and 20 males in Treatment B; 20 females in Treatment A and 40 females in Treatment B. Although there are unequal numbers of people in each treatment condition, the ratio or proportion between them remains the same—twice as many females as males. In unbalanced designs, the presence or absence of such proportional cell frequency is critical to a researcher’s choice of analytic strategy.

proportional hazards model

proportional hazards model see Cox regression analysis.

proportional sampling

proportional sampling a form of stratified sampling in which one draws cases for study from certain groups (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity) in the proportions that are observed in the larger population. For example, if a university has 60% female students and 40% male students, a researcher would obtain a sample comprising the same percentages or proportions, such as 120 females and 80 males in a 200-student subset. Also called proportionate sampling.

proposita

proposita n. a female proband. Compare propositus.

proposition

proposition n. 1. in philosophy, anything that can be asserted or denied and that is capable of being either true or false; that is, the content of a typical declarative sentence, such as Grass is green or Lenin was a great man. 2. in linguistics, a formal statement representing the underlying meaning of a sentence or sentence component, irrespective of its form. For example, the sentences I scored the goal and The goal was scored by me represent the same proposition, as would a translation of either sentence into a different language. —propositional adj.

propositional analysis

propositional analysis the system of symbolic logic that is concerned only with the logical relationships between propositions as wholes, and not with relationships between the elements within individual propositions. Also called propositional calculus. Compare predicate analysis.

propositional knowledge

propositional knowledge the abstract representation of knowledge, words, or images. Propositions are the smallest units of meaningful thought, and knowledge is represented as a series of propositional statements or as a network of interconnected propositions.

propositional network

propositional network a diagram in which the terms of a proposition and the relations between them are represented as nodes linked to form a network.

propositus

propositus n. a male proband. Compare proposita.

propoxyphene

propoxyphene n. a synthetic opioid analgesic that has approximately half the pain-control efficacy of codeine. It was generally marketed in combination with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent, such as aspirin, for the management of moderate pain. In 2010, it was withdrawn from the U.S. market due to its risk of causing potentially fatal arrhythmia. Former U.S. trade names: Darvocet (in combination with acetaminophen); Darvon.

propranolol

propranolol n. a beta blocker used primarily to treat hypertension. In low doses, it is used as an adjunctive agent in the treatment of certain forms of social phobia, such as fear of public speaking or performance, predominantly due to its ability to control certain peripheral symptoms of anxiety, such as tremor and vocal quavering. Because it produces a nonspecific blockade of beta-adrenergic receptors, it should not be taken by individuals with asthma or reactive airway disease, due to its ability to constrict bronchial smooth musculature and thereby induce breathing difficulties. U.S. trade name: Inderal.

propriate striving

propriate striving the final stage in the development of the proprium. According to Gordon W. Allport, who originated the concept, propriate striving emerges in adolescence with the search for identity and includes the experimentation common to adolescents before making long-range commitments. In contrast to childhood, adolescence is considered especially significant as the time when conscious intentions and future-oriented planning begin to motivate the personality.

proprietary drug

proprietary drug any chemical used for medicinal purposes that is formulated or manufactured under a name that is protected from competition by trademark or patent. The ingredients, however, may be components of generic drugs that have the same or similar effects.

propriety standards

propriety standards the legal and ethical requirements of an evaluation research study. These standards include having formal or written agreements between parties in the study, protecting the rights of participants, avoiding conflicts of interest by both program evaluators and participants, conducting complete and fair program assessments, fully reporting all findings, and maintaining fiscal soundness. See also accuracy standards; feasibility standards; utility standards.

proprioception

proprioception n. the sense of body movement and position, resulting from stimulation of proprioceptors located in the muscles, tendons, and joints and of vestibular receptors in the labyrinth of the inner ear. Proprioception enables the body to determine its spatial orientation without visual clues and to maintain postural stability. Also called proprioceptive sense. —proprioceptive adj.

proprioceptive stimulus

proprioceptive stimulus a stimulus that arises from within an organism based on stimulation from proprioceptors, the receptors that detect body position. Compare exteroceptive stimulus; interoceptive stimulus.

proprioceptor

proprioceptor n. a receptor that is sensitive to body movement and position, including motion of the limbs. Examples are muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs. See proprioception.

proprium

proprium n. a concept of the self—or that which is consistent, unique, and central in the individual—that was developed by Gordon W. Allport. According to Allport, the proprium incorporates body sense, self-identity, self-esteem, self-extension, rational thinking, self-image, propriate striving, and knowing.

propulsive gait

propulsive gait see festinating gait.

prosencephalon

prosencephalon n. see forebrain.

prosocial

prosocial adj. denoting or exhibiting behavior that benefits one or more other people, such as providing assistance to an older adult crossing the street. Compare antisocial. See also altruism; helping.

prosocial aggression

prosocial aggression any act of instrumental aggression that has socially constructive and desirable consequences, such as intervening to prevent a theft or demonstrating against an unjust regime. Compare antisocial aggression.

prosodic

prosodic adj. see suprasegmental.

prosody

prosody n. a phonological feature of speech, such as stress, intonation, intensity, or duration, that pertains to a sequence of phonemes rather than to an individual segment. See paralanguage; suprasegmental.

ProSom

ProSom n. a trade name for estazolam.

prosopagnosia

prosopagnosia n. a form of visual agnosia in which the ability to perceive and recognize faces is impaired, whereas the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively unaffected. The term was originally limited to impairment following acute brain damage, but a congenital form of the disorder has since been recognized. Prosopagnosia can be distinguished from prosopamnesia, which is an abnormal difficulty in remembering faces, even though they are perceived normally: The condition may be congenital or acquired.

prospect theory

prospect theory a theory of decision making that attempts to explain how people’s decisions are influenced by their attitudes toward risk, uncertainty, loss, and gain. In general, it asserts that people are influenced by a systematic inability to evaluate probabilities correctly and in most cases are motivated more strongly by the fear of loss than by the prospect of making the equivalent gain. See anticipatory regret; regret theory. See also mental accounting. [formulated by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky]

prospective memory

prospective memory remembering to do something in the future, such as taking one’s medicine later. Prospective memory contrasts with retrospective memory, or remembering past events.

prospective research

prospective research research that starts with the present and follows participants forward in time to examine trends, predictions, and outcomes. Examples include randomized experiments and longitudinal designs. Also called prospective study. Compare retrospective research.

prospective sampling

prospective sampling a sampling method in which cases are selected for inclusion in experiments or other research on the basis of their exposure to a risk factor. Participants are then followed to see if the condition of interest develops. For example, young children who were exposed to lead in their drinking water and those who were not exposed to this risk factor could be included in a study and then followed through time to assess health problems that emerge when they are adolescents. Compare retrospective sampling.

prospective validity

prospective validity see predictive validity.

prostaglandin (PG)

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prostate

prostate n. a gland in male mammals, walnut-sized in humans, that surrounds the urethra immediately beneath the urinary bladder. It secretes a thin, alkaline fluid that increases in volume during sexual stimulation and becomes part of semen during ejaculation.

prosthesis

prosthesis n. (pl. prostheses) an artificial device that is attached to or implanted in the body to replace a missing body part or to improve a dysfunctional one. Prostheses include artificial limbs, artificial joints, and plastic heart valves. Recent work has produced neuroprosthetic devices that allow, for example, control of prosthetic limbs through voluntary neural impulses. Also called prosthetic device. —prosthetic adj.

prosthetics

prosthetics n. a medical specialization concerned with the design and construction of artificial body parts. Compare orthotics.

Prostigmin

Prostigmin n. a trade name for neostigmine.

prostitution

prostitution n. a sex service that is based on the payment of money or the exchange of other property or valuables. Prostitution may involve heterosexual or same-sex services provided by male or female prostitutes. The service may be simple coitus, other common sexual acts (e.g., fellatio, cunnilingus, masturbation), or acts leading to gratification of paraphilias.

prot-

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protagonist

protagonist n. in psychodrama, the person selected as the central character in the drama.

protanomaly

protanomaly n. a type of red color blindness in which the red-sensitive retinal cones do not function normally, although some red sensitivity may be present.

protanopia

protanopia n. red–green color blindness in which the deficiency is due to the absence of the core photopigment sensitive to red light, resulting in red stimuli appearing very dim and confusion between red and green (see dichromatism). The condition may be unilateral (i.e., color vision may be normal in one eye). See also deuteranopia.

protean career

protean career a career pattern that is characterized by a high degree of mobility between organizations, functions, and settings and that is shaped primarily by the needs, goals, and choices of the individual rather than by any external structure. The protean career is often contrasted with the organizational career, in which an individual makes a long-term commitment to an organization in return for an implied promise of job security and steady advancement.

protected class

protected class under U.S. antidiscrimination law, groups that cannot be unfairly excluded from some process or opportunity (e.g., in job hiring, education, housing) on the basis of sex, age, familial status, race, ethnicity, religion, national origin, physical or mental handicap, or prior military service.

protected relationship

protected relationship any professional provider–client contact that is subject to ethical standards regarding confidentiality of records and other information provided by the client, information about sessions with the client, and the existence of the relationship itself.

protected t test

protected t test see Fisher least significant difference test.

protective factor

protective factor a clearly defined behavior or constitutional (e.g., genetic), psychological, environmental, or other characteristic that is associated with a decreased probability that a particular disease or disorder will develop in an individual, that reduces the severity of an existing pathological condition, or that mitigates the effects of stress generally. For example, exercising regularly can serve as a protective factor by decreasing the likelihood or severity of coronary heart disease, hypertension, and depression. Likewise, supportive social networks and positive coping skills are examples of protective factors that reduce the effects of stressful life events and enhance mental health. Compare risk factor.

protective reflex

protective reflex the reflex withdrawal of the body or a body part away from painful or annoying stimulation. Also called protective response.

protein

protein n. a molecule that consists of a long-chain polymer of amino acids. Proteins are involved in virtually every function performed by a cell; they are the principal building blocks of living organisms and, in the form of enzymes, the basic tools for construction, repair, and maintenance. Proteins play an essential role in human nutrition, including the provision of all of the essential amino acids that humans cannot produce themselves. Protein deficiency leads to a variety of symptoms and conditions. Excess protein can cause overreaction of the immune system and liver dysfunction and is implicated in obesity. See also peptide.

protein deficiency

protein deficiency lack of a normal quantity of proteins in the diet or body tissues. It may lead to fatigue, retarded growth, loss of muscle mass, hair loss, insulin resistance, and hormonal irregularities. It may occur as a result of a lack of carbohydrates or fats in the diet, a condition that causes the body to consume its own proteins as a source of energy. If this self-digestion process is not controlled, irreversible damage to vital organs results. See also kwashiorkor; marasmus.

protein hormone

protein hormone any of a class of substances secreted into the bloodstream that regulate processes in distant target organs and tissues and that consist of a long-chain polymer of amino acids. Examples are parathyroid hormone, prolactin, growth hormone, and insulin.

protein kinase

protein kinase any of a class of enzymes that add one or more phosphate groups (PO4) to protein molecules.

protein metabolism

protein metabolism all the biochemical reactions involved in the manufacture and breakdown of proteins. The body makes a large variety of complex proteins from amino acids, including enzymes, antibodies, certain hormones (e.g., insulin), and structural proteins, such as keratin, collagen, and the actin and myosin molecules of muscle. Proteins are broken down into their constituent amino acids during the basic turnover of cell proteins as well as for the elimination of toxic peptides and abnormal proteins. In case of severe energy starvation, with depletion of the body’s fat reserves, protein can be broken down to provide carbon to make glucose, but this impairs normal body functions.

protensity

protensity n. the temporal attribute of a mental process: temporality (i.e., duration spread) considered as an essential aspect of all conscious experience. [introduced by Immanuel Kant]

Protestant work ethic

Protestant work ethic see work ethic.

Proteus syndrome

Proteus syndrome a rare genetic disorder characterized by excessive and asymmetric growth of bones, skin, or organs. The overgrowth becomes evident in infants after about 6 months of age and progresses in severity with age. Neurological symptoms may be present, including intellectual disability, seizures, and vision loss. Proteus syndrome is caused by a random mutation in the AKT1 gene and is not inherited. Also called Wiedemann syndrome. See Elephant Man’s disease. [after the Greek god of the sea, Proteus, who could change his shape at will]

prothetic

prothetic adj. describing a sensory dimension along which stimuli vary in degrees of magnitude or quantity but not in quality. Compare metathetic.

proto- (prot-)

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protocol

protocol n. 1. the original notes of a study or experiment recorded during or immediately after a session or trial, particularly as recorded from participant’s verbalizations during the process. See also research protocol; verbal protocol. 2. a case history and workup. 3. a treatment plan.

protocol analysis

protocol analysis a methodology in which people are encouraged to think out loud as they perform some task. Transcripts of these sessions (think-aloud protocols) are then analyzed to investigate the cognitive processes underlying performance of the task. Also called verbal protocol analysis.

protolanguage

protolanguage n. in genetic linguistics, a posited common ancestor of the members of a language family. Most protolanguages have been partially reconstructed through comparison among different members of a language family. The most celebrated protolanguage is Proto-Indo-European, the unrecorded prehistoric language that is presumed to be the ancestor of all Indo-European languages. See sound change.

protopathic

protopathic adj. denoting or relating to peripheral nerve fibers responsive to gross sensory stimulation, particularly pain, temperature extremes, and strong touch. Compare epicritic.

protoplasm

protoplasm n. all the living contents of a cell, consisting of the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. —protoplasmic adj.

prototypal approach to classification

prototypal approach to classification the process of classifying abnormal behavior on the assumption that there are combinations of characteristics (prototypes of behavior disorders) that tend to occur together regularly.

prototype

prototype n. 1. in concept formation, the best or average exemplar of a category. For example, the prototypical bird is some kind of mental average of all the different kinds of birds of which a person has knowledge or with which a person has had experience. 2. more generally, an object, event, or person that is held to be typical of a category and comes to represent or stand for that category. See prototype model. 3. an early model of something that represents or demonstrates its final form. —prototypal, prototypical, or prototypic adj.

prototype model

prototype model a theory of categorization proposing that people form an average of the members of a category and then use the average as a prototype for making judgments about category membership.

prototypicality

prototypicality n. the degree to which something is typical or exemplary of the category to which it belongs.

protriptyline

protriptyline n. see tricyclic antidepressant.

Proust phenomenon

Proust phenomenon the sudden, involuntary evocation of an autobiographical memory, including a range of related sensory and emotional expressions. The term is named for French writer Marcel Proust (1871–1922), who described, in the first section of his multivolume novel A la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time), how the experience of eating a madeleine (a small, shell-shaped sponge cake) transported him in memory back to childhood. Also called Proustian memory. See involuntary retrieval; recollection; redintegration.

proverb test

proverb test a verbal test in which the participant attempts to explain the meaning of proverbs. The test is used most often to measure intelligence but has also been used to measure wisdom.

provider

provider n. a professional (e.g., physician, psychologist) or facility (e.g., hospital, skilled nursing facility) that provides health care services to patients. See primary care provider. See also PPO; preferred provider arrangement.

Provigil

Provigil n. a trade name for modafinil.

provocative testing

provocative testing any type of testing in which symptoms of a condition are intentionally caused or reproduced in a patient or other person presenting for evaluation. This can be done to test the effectiveness of treatments for the condition, to rule in or rule out the possibility of a similar diagnosis, or in the case of psychogenic disorders, to test the veracity of the condition. For example, provocative testing has been used somewhat controversially in distinguishing nonepileptic seizures from neurologically based epileptic seizures.

provocative victim

provocative victim a target of bullying who is likely to be aggressive himself or herself and to respond aggressively to bullying behavior. [first described in 1973 by Swedish psychologist Dan Olweus (1931– )]

proxemics

proxemics n. the study of interpersonal spatial behavior. Proxemics is concerned with territoriality, interpersonal distance, spatial arrangements, crowding, and other aspects of the physical environment that affect behavior.

proximal

proximal adj. 1. situated near or directed toward the trunk or center of an organism. 2. near or mostly closely related to the point of reference or origin. Compare distal. —proximally adv.

proximal response

proximal response a response that occurs within an organism (e.g., a glandular or muscular response). Compare distal response.

proximal stimulus

proximal stimulus the physical energy from a stimulus as it directly stimulates a sense organ or receptor, in contrast to the distal stimulus in the actual environment. In reading, for example, the distal stimulus is the printed page of a book, whereas the proximal stimulus is the light energy reflected by the page that stimulates the photoreceptors of the retina.

proximate cause

proximate cause the most direct or immediate cause of an event. In a causal chain, it is the one that directly produces the effect. For example, the proximate cause of Smith’s aggression may be an insult, but the remote cause may be Smith’s early childhood experiences. In law, proximate cause is important in liability cases where it must be determined whether the actions of the defendant are sufficiently related to the outcome to be considered causal, or if the actions set in motion a chain of events that led to an outcome that could have been reasonably foreseen.

proximate explanation

proximate explanation an explanation for behavior in terms of physiological mechanisms or developmental experiences. Compare ultimate explanation.

proximity

proximity n. one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects close to each other into a perceptual group and interpret them as a single entity. Also called law (or principle) of proximity.

proximity compatibility

proximity compatibility in ergonomics, a design principle stating that a control should be placed next to or close to the area of the display that is activated by the control. See also display–control compatibility.

proximodistal

proximodistal adj. from the central to the peripheral. The term typically is used in the context of maturation to refer to the tendency to acquire motor skills from the center outward, as when children learn to move their heads, trunks, arms, and legs before learning to move their hands and feet. Compare cephalocaudal.

proxy variable

proxy variable a variable, b, used in place of another, a, when b and a are substantially correlated but scores are available only on variable b, often because of the difficulty or costs involved in collecting data for variable a. In other words, b is a substituted measure of a. For example, rather than reporting the precise income levels of their parents or guardians, survey respondents instead may be asked to indicate the highest level of education of each parent or guardian; in this case, education is a proxy for income. Also called surrogate variable.

Prozac

Prozac n. a trade name for fluoxetine.

PRP

PRP abbreviation for psychological refractory period.

PRS

PRS abbreviation for perceptual representation system.

prudence

prudence n. farsighted and deliberate concern for the consequences of one’s actions and decisions. It is a form of practical reasoning and self-management that resists the impulse to satisfy short-term pleasures at the expense of long-term goals. —prudent adj.

prudery

prudery n. the quality of being excessively modest or priggish, particularly in having a negative view of sexual matters. —prude n. —prudish adj.

pruning

pruning n. during various phases of brain development through the onset of puberty, the process in which excess or redundant neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated to enable more efficient neural processing. See synaptic pruning.

prurient interest

prurient interest in obscenity law, a morbid, degrading, or excessive interest in sexual matters. Material is judged to be obscene only if it is held to appeal predominantly to a prurient rather than a nonprurient interest in sex.

pruritus

pruritus n. itching that may result from physiological or psychological conditions. See also psychogenic pruritus. —pruritic adj.

PSE

PSE 1. abbreviation for point of subjective equality. 2. abbreviation for Present State Examination.

pseudesthesia

pseudesthesia n. see pseudoesthesia.

pseudo- (pseud-)

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pseudoachondroplasia

pseudoachondroplasia n. a form of short-limb autosomal dominant dwarfism that is usually diagnosed at 2 to 3 years of age. Individuals have normal head size and facial features, short arms and legs, a waddling walk, and early-onset osteoarthritis. Intelligence is not affected. It was once believed to be related to achondroplasia, but without the characteristically enlarged head size seen in that disorder. Pseudoachondroplasia is now considered a separate disorder. Also called pseudoachondroplastic spondyloepiphysial dysplasia.

pseudoangina

pseudoangina n. 1. chest pain that resembles the pain (angina pectoris) of a heart attack but for which there is no clinical evidence of heart disease. 2. chest pain that resembles angina pectoris but originates from damage to the spinal roots in the neck (cervical) region. Compression of the root of the seventh cervical nerve by a prolapsed intervertebral disk (see slipped disk) is commonly identified as the cause. Also called cervical angina. See noncardiac chest pain.

pseudoasthma

pseudoasthma n. a physical condition with symptoms and findings that suggest asthma, although no organic basis can be found. Differences between pseudoasthma and true asthma are detected during physical examination. For example, the patient generally has difficulty breathing in rather than breathing out, the respiratory attack is resolved quickly rather than gradually, and the severity of the attack decreases in the presence of distraction rather than remaining constant.

pseudobulbar affect (PBA)

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pseudocholinesterase (PChE)

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pseudochromesthesia

pseudochromesthesia n. see chromesthesia.

pseudocommunication

pseudocommunication n. distorted attempts at communication or vestiges of communication in the form of fragments of words, apparently meaningless sounds, and unfathomable gestures. The condition is sometimes observed in individuals with different types of schizophrenia.

pseudocommunity

pseudocommunity n. a group of real or imagined persons believed, in a persecutory delusion, to be organized for the purpose of conspiring against, threatening, harassing, or otherwise negatively focusing upon one. Also called paranoid pseudocommunity. [first described by 20th-century U.S. psychiatrist and clinical psychologist Norman A. Cameron]

pseudoconditioning

pseudoconditioning n. in circumstances of classical conditioning, elicitation of a response by a previously neutral stimulus when it is presented following a series of occurrences of a conditioned stimulus. For example, after flinching in response to each of several presentations of electric shock, a person is likely to flinch if a loud tone is then presented.

pseudoconversation

pseudoconversation n. see collective monologue.

pseudoconvulsion

pseudoconvulsion n. an older name for a type of nonepileptic seizure in which the person collapses and experiences muscular contractions, although other signs (e.g., pupillary signs, loss of consciousness, amnesia) are not observed.

pseudocyesis

pseudocyesis n. a condition in which a woman shows many or all of the usual signs of pregnancy when conception has not taken place. In some cases, the condition is psychogenic, whereas in others it is due to a medical condition (e.g., a tumor, an endocrine disorder). Also called false pregnancy; pseudopregnancy.

pseudodementia

pseudodementia n. 1. deterioration or impairment of cognitive functions in the absence of neurological disorder or disease. The condition may occur, reversibly, in a major depressive episode—particularly among older adults, in which case the preferred term is dementia syndrome of depression—or as a psychological symptom of factitious disorder. It may also occur as a result of a vitamin B deficiency or from delirium. 2. see Ganser syndrome.

pseudoephedrine (pseudephedrine)

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pseudoepilepsy

pseudoepilepsy n. see nonepileptic seizure.

pseudoesthesia

pseudoesthesia n. an illusory sensation, such as a feeling of irritation in a limb that has been amputated. Also called pseudesthesia. See phantom limb.

pseudoforgiveness

pseudoforgiveness n. the external expression of forgiveness for an offender while still internally harboring anger, a desire for retribution, or other negative feelings toward the offender.

pseudogroup

pseudogroup n. a group of participants in a research procedure who are led to believe that they are working on tasks together, although in fact they are working individually. This procedure is used to study the psychological effect of group membership.

pseudohallucination

pseudohallucination n. a vivid, nonpsychotic hallucination, usually visual, that the individual recognizes as hallucinatory.

pseudohermaphroditism

pseudohermaphroditism n. a congenital abnormality in which one or more contradictions exist in the morphological criteria of sex characteristics. In female pseudohermaphroditism, the individual is a genetic and gonadal female with partial masculinization, such as an enlarged clitoris resembling a penis and labia majora resembling a scrotum. In male pseudohermaphroditism, the individual is a genetic and gonadal male with incomplete masculinization, including a small penis, perineal hypospadias, and a scrotum that lacks testes. —pseudohermaphrodite n.

pseudohydrocephalus

pseudohydrocephalus n. see Silver–Russell syndrome.

pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy

pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy see muscular dystrophy.

pseudohypoparathyroidism

pseudohypoparathyroidism n. a condition that resembles hypoparathyroidism (deficiency of parathyroid hormone) but fails to respond to parathyroid hormone treatment. Patients have a round face and thick-set figure and seem to have impaired senses of smell and taste. In most cases, they have mild to moderate intellectual disability. The disease is believed to be due to a genetic defect that blocks normal response to parathyroid hormone by receptor tissues. See also Albright’s hereditary osteodystrophy.

pseudoidentification

pseudoidentification n. a defense mechanism in which individuals adopt or identify with the opinions, values, or orientations of others in order to protect themselves against attack or criticism.

pseudoinsomnia

pseudoinsomnia n. insomnia reported by an individual who actually sleeps an adequate number of hours. The reason for reporting the complaint is often obscure and may involve a subtle misperception of sleep or dreaming of a sleepless night; pseudoinsomnia may also be a symptom of anxiety or depression.

pseudoisochromatic charts

pseudoisochromatic charts a set of color plates used for testing color vision. See Hardy–Rand–Rittler pseudoisochromatic plates; Ishihara Test for Color Blindness.

pseudologia fantastica

pseudologia fantastica a clinical syndrome characterized by elaborate fabrications, which are usually concocted to impress others, to get out of an awkward situation, or to give the individual an ego boost. Unlike the fictions of confabulation, these fantasies are believed only momentarily and are dropped as soon as they are contradicted by evidence. Typical examples are the tall tales told by people with antisocial personality disorder, although the syndrome is also found among malingerers and individuals with factitious disorders, neuroses, and psychoses. See also pathological lying.

pseudomemory

pseudomemory n. a fake memory, such as a spurious recollection of events that never took place, as opposed to a memory that is merely inaccurate. Pseudomemory is a cause of particular concern when using hypnosis to help eyewitnesses retrieve memories (see hypermnesia). It was formerly called pseudomnesia. See also confabulation; false memory; recovered memory.

pseudomutuality

pseudomutuality n. a family relationship that has a superficial appearance of mutual openness and understanding although in fact the relationship is rigid and depersonalizing. Family theories of schizophrenia and other forms of major psychopathology have identified pseudomutuality as a critical etiological factor.

pseudoneurological

pseudoneurological adj. suggesting a neurological condition. The term is generally used in reference to somatization disorder: According to DSM–IV–TR, at least one pseudoneurological symptom must be present in order to diagnose this disorder.

pseudoneurotic schizophrenia

pseudoneurotic schizophrenia an outdated term describing a disorder characterized by all-pervasive anxiety and a wide variety of neurotic symptoms (persistent and irrational fears, obsessive thoughts, compulsive acts, dissociative states), with underlying psychotic tendencies (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, thought, or behavior) that at times emerge very briefly, typically in response to stress (see micropsychosis). Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia is primarily considered to be a personality disorder rather than a type of schizophrenia, and individuals exhibiting such symptoms tend to be diagnosed with schizotypal personality disorder or borderline personality disorder. [described in 1949 by German-born U.S. psychiatrist Paul H. Hoch (1902–1964) and psychiatrist Phillip Polatin (1905–1980) and used in clinical practice and research for the next 25 years]

pseudonomania

pseudonomania n. an abnormal urge to lie or to falsify information.

pseudoparalysis

pseudoparalysis n. loss of limb movement or limb power due to pain, with no identifiable structural or functional etiology within the nervous system.

pseudoparkinsonism

pseudoparkinsonism n. see parkinsonism.

pseudopersonality

pseudopersonality n. a fictitious persona contrived by an individual in an effort to conceal facts about his or her true self from others.

pseudophone

pseudophone n. an instrument used in studying the localization of sound. It diverts to the left ear those sounds that would normally enter the right ear, and vice versa. [invented by Paul Thomas Young]

pseudoprecocious puberty

pseudoprecocious puberty see precocious puberty.

pseudopregnancy

pseudopregnancy n. see pseudocyesis.

pseudoprodigy

pseudoprodigy n. an individual who develops an exceptionally high degree of skill or knowledge, usually at an early age and primarily as a result of overtraining by overzealous parents or teachers. Pseudoprodigies typically burn out at an early age.

pseudopsychology

pseudopsychology n. an approach to understanding or analyzing the mind or behavior that uses unscientific or fraudulent methods. Examples include palmistry, phrenology, and physiognomy. See pseudoscience. See also parapsychology. —pseudopsychological adj.

pseudopsychopathic schizophrenia

pseudopsychopathic schizophrenia a disorder in which psychotic tendencies characteristic of schizophrenia are masked or overlaid by antisocial tendencies, such as pathological lying, sexual deviations, and violent or other uninhibited behavior. Pseudopsychopathic schizophrenia is primarily considered to be a personality disorder rather than a type of schizophrenia; individuals exhibiting such symptoms tend to be diagnosed with schizotypal personality disorder or borderline personality disorder.

pseudorandom

pseudorandom adj. describing a process that is close to being random but is not perfectly so. For example, so-called random number generators are often described as pseudorandom because their algorithms do not achieve the ideal of producing a flawlessly random process. Also called quasirandom.

pseudoretardation

pseudoretardation n. slow intellectual development, usually consistent with mild intellectual disability, due to adverse cultural or psychological conditions rather than congenital factors. Among these conditions are maternal deprivation, intellectual impoverishment, severe emotional disturbance, and perceptual deficits. The term may be a misnomer as it can be applied to individuals whose performance is consistent with intellectual disability that may not be alleviated by educational intervention. Also called psychosocial mental retardation; psychosocial mental developmental delay.

pseudoscience

pseudoscience n. a system of theories and methods that has some resemblance to a genuine science but that cannot be considered such. Examples include astrology, numerology, and esoteric magic. Various criteria for distinguishing pseudosciences from true sciences have been proposed, one of the most influential being that of falsifiability. On this basis, certain approaches to psychology and psychoanalysis have sometimes been criticized as pseudoscientific, as they involve theories or other constructs that cannot be directly or definitively tested by observation (see prediction; risky prediction). See also parapsychology. —pseudoscientific adj.

pseudoscope

pseudoscope n. an optical instrument designed to create visual illusions by transposing images between the left and right eyes and inverting distance relations so that solid objects appear hollow and hollow objects solid.

pseudoseizure

pseudoseizure n. see nonepileptic seizure.

pseudosenility

pseudosenility n. see reversible dementia.

pseudoword

pseudoword n. a pronounceable nonword, such as flirp. Unlike nonsense syllables and trigrams, which are restricted to three letters and not necessarily pronounceable, pseudowords may be any length and must conform to orthographic and phonological conventions. Pseudowords are used both experimentally to study learning of items that do not already have meaning or associations with other information in memory and clinically to identify children with reading disabilities.

PSG

PSG abbreviation for phrase-structure grammar.

psi

psi n. 1. the Greek letter ψ, often used to symbolize psychology. 2. the phenomena or alleged phenomena studied in parapsychology, including extrasensory perception, precognition, and psychokinesis. PSI 1. abbreviation for Parenting Stress Index. 2. abbreviation for Psychological Screening Inventory.

PSI

Psi Beta

Psi Beta the national honor society in psychology for 2-year colleges in the United States, founded in 1981 and affiliated with the American Psychological Association in 1988. It promotes professional development through recognition of scholarship, leadership, research, and community service. Psi Beta is the sister honor society to Psi Chi.

Psi Chi

Psi Chi the international honor society in psychology for senior colleges and universities, founded in the United States in 1929 to encourage, stimulate, and maintain excellence in scholarship and to advance the science of psychology. It consists of a federation of over 1,000 chapters and is affiliated with the American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science. It is the sister honor society to Psi Beta.

psi-hitting

psi-hitting n. in parapsychology experiments, performance on a test that is significantly above chance expectations. Compare psi-missing.

psi-missing

psi-missing n. in parapsychology experiments, performance on a test that is significantly below chance expectations. Compare psi-hitting. See also consistent missing.

psilocin

psilocin n. an indolealkylamine hallucinogen that is the principal psychoactive compound in “magic mushrooms” of the genus Psilocybe, which were used by the Aztecs for religious and ceremonial purposes. Psilocybin, first isolated in 1958, differs from psilocin only in having an additional phosphate group; it is rapidly metabolized in the body and converted to psilocin. Like other indolealkylamine hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, DMT), psilocin is active at various serotonin receptors: Agonism at 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in the cerebral cortex of the brain appears to be responsible for the psychoactive effects of these drugs.

psittacism

psittacism n. the mechanical repetition of words, phrases, or ideas with no understanding of their meaning. [from Latin psittacus, “parrot”]

PSP

PSP abbreviation for postsynaptic potential.

PSST

PSST abbreviation for problem-solving skills training.

PST

PST 1. abbreviation for problem-solving therapy. 2. abbreviation for psychological skills training.

psychache

psychache n. intense psychological pain that is sometimes thought to be a risk factor for suicide. [coined by Edwin S. Shneidman]

psychalgia

psychalgia n. 1. an obsolete term denoting pain or discomfort, usually in the head, that accompanies mental activity of a psychiatric nature (e.g., obsessions, hallucinations) and that is identified by the patient as emotional in origin. 2. a nonspecific psychogenic pain disorder. Also called psychalgalia. See also algopsychalia; psychic pain. [coined in 1884 by Scottish psychiatrist Thomas Smith Clouston (1840–1915)]

psychasthenia

psychasthenia n. an archaic term for any of the anxiety disorders. It is still in use as the name of one of the primary scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

psyche

psyche n. in psychology, the mind in its totality, as distinguished from the physical organism. The term, which historically had come to refer to the soul or the very essence of life, derives from the character of Psyche in Greek mythology, a beautiful princess who, at the behest of her divine lover, Eros, son of Aphrodite, is made immortal by Zeus.

psychedelic drug

psychedelic drug see hallucinogen; phanerothyme.

psychedelic therapy

psychedelic therapy the use of hallucinogens (or psychedelic drugs) in the treatment of some types of mental or physical illness. LSD was used in the 1950s and 1960s in combination with psychotherapy to assist patients in enhancing their awareness of cognitive and psychological processes; it was also used in the management of a number of significant conditions, such as schizophrenia and alcoholism. MDMA was similarly used in the 1980s. However, various studies revealed no lasting benefit; indeed, some patients claimed to have been harmed by such treatments. These findings, coupled with reclassification of these drugs as illegal, ended for a time the use of such agents in therapy. More recently, MDMA has been studied for a potential role in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder and ibogaine for the treatment of substance dependence and withdrawal symptoms.

psychiatric classification

psychiatric classification the grouping of mental disorders and other psychological problems into diagnostic categories, as in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (see DSM–IV–TR; DSM–5) and in the International Classification of Diseases. Classification serves the purpose of organizing symptomatic states and abnormal functioning to enhance the treatment of disorders and research aimed at understanding causes. Also called psychiatric nosology.

psychiatric diagnosis

psychiatric diagnosis the diagnosis of mental disorders based on current systems of psychiatric classification. See also clinical diagnosis.

psychiatric disability

psychiatric disability chronic loss or impairment of function due to a mental disorder, resulting in severe difficulties in meeting the demands of life.

psychiatric disorder

psychiatric disorder see mental disorder.

psychiatric evaluation

psychiatric evaluation 1. an assessment, based on present problems and symptoms, of an individual’s biological, mental, and social functioning, which may or may not result in a diagnosis of a mental illness. See psychological examination. 2. an assessment to determine legal competency. See forensic assessment. 3. an evaluation to determine the need for involuntary commitment, as in the case of an individual threatening suicide.

psychiatric hospital

psychiatric hospital a public or private institution providing inpatient treatment to individuals with mental disorders. Also called mental hospital. See also private mental hospital; psychiatric unit; public mental hospital.

psychiatric illness

psychiatric illness see mental disorder.

psychiatric nosology

psychiatric nosology see psychiatric classification.

psychiatric nursing

psychiatric nursing a specialty within the field of nursing that provides holistic care to individuals with mental disorders or behavioral problems so as to promote their physical and psychosocial well-being. It emphasizes the use of interpersonal relationships as a therapeutic agent and considers the environmental factors that influence mental health. Thus, psychiatric nurses not only provide physical care but also socialize and communicate with their patients to create a safe, comfortable environment that promotes positive change. Their specific responsibilities often include assisting patients with activities of daily living, administering psychotropic medication and managing side effects, assisting with crisis management, observing patients to evaluate their progress, offering guidance and other forms of interpersonal support to patients, participating in recreational activities with patients, educating patients and their families about mental health issues and lifestyle choices, and conducting group therapy. Registered nurses wishing to become psychiatric nurses complete additional training in pharmacology and the behavioral and social sciences. They practice in a variety of settings—including general and psychiatric hospitals, assisted living facilities, long-term care centers, physicians’ offices, correctional facilities, community mental health centers, rehabilitation centers, and private homes (see home care)—in conjunction with psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and other mental health professionals. Psychiatric nurses are distinct from psychiatric nurse practitioners, who have obtained master’s or doctoral degrees and more advanced training to practice privately and perform additional assessment, diagnostic, and therapeutic functions, including conducting individual psychotherapy and prescribing medication. Also called mental health nursing.

psychiatric pharmacogenomics

psychiatric pharmacogenomics see pharmacogenomics.

psychiatric rehabilitation

psychiatric rehabilitation see psychosocial rehabilitation.

psychiatric unit

psychiatric unit a unit of a general hospital organized for inpatient treatment of individuals with a psychiatric condition. Such units usually provide emergency coverage and admission; treatment with psychotropic drugs or electroconvulsive therapy; group therapy; psychological examinations; and adjunctive modalities, such as social work services, occupational therapy, art therapy, movement therapy, music therapy, and discussion groups.

psychiatrist

psychiatrist n. a physician who specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and study of mental, behavioral, and personality disorders. In the United States, education for this profession consists of 4 years of premedical training in college; a 4-year course in medical school, the final 2 years of which are spent in clerkships studying with physicians in at least five specialty areas; and a 4-year residency in a hospital or agency approved by the American Medical Association. The 1st year of the residency is spent as a hospital intern, and the final 3 in psychiatric residency, learning diagnosis and the use of psychiatric medications and other treatment modes. After completing residency, most psychiatrists take a voluntary examination for certification by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology.

psychiatry

psychiatry n. the medical specialty concerned with the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental, behavioral, and personality disorders. As a medical specialty, psychiatry is based on the premise that biological causes are at the root of mental and emotional problems, although some psychiatrists do not adhere exclusively to the biological model and additionally treat problems as social and behavioral ills. Training for psychiatry includes the study of psychopathology, biochemistry, genetics, psychopharmacology, neurology, neuropathology, psychology, psychoanalysis, social science, and community mental health, as well as the many theories and approaches advanced in the field itself. —psychiatric adj.

psychic

psychic 1. adj. denoting phenomena associated with the mind. Ivan Pavlov referred to conditioned responses as “psychic reflexes” because the idea of the physical stimulus evoked the reflexive response. 2. adj. denoting a class of phenomena, such as telepathy and clairvoyance, that appear to defy scientific explanation. The term is also applied to any putative powers, forces, or faculties associated with such phenomena. See psi. 3. n. a medium, sensitive, or other person with alleged paranormal abilities.

psychic apparatus

psychic apparatus in classical psychoanalytic theory, mental structures and mechanisms. Sigmund Freud initially (1900) divided these into unconscious, preconscious, and conscious areas or systems and later (1923) into the id, ego, and superego: The id is described as unconscious, and the ego and superego as partly conscious, partly preconscious, and partly unconscious. Also called mental apparatus. See also structural model; topographic model.

psychic blindness

psychic blindness see functional blindness.

psychic conflict

psychic conflict see intrapsychic conflict.

psychic determinism

psychic determinism the position, associated particularly with Sigmund Freud, that mental (psychic) events do not occur by chance but always have an underlying cause that can be uncovered by analysis. See determinism. See also Freudian slip.

psychic energizer

psychic energizer a drug that has an antidepressant effect. The name, now rarely used, was introduced in the late 1950s by U.S. psychiatrist Nathan S. Kline (1916–1983) to identify monoamine oxidase inhibitors derived from iproniazid, which had been developed for control of tuberculosis. Iproniazid was discontinued as a tuberculosis drug because of its powerful effects on the central nervous system.

psychic energy

psychic energy in classical psychoanalytic theory, the dynamic force behind all mental processes. According to Sigmund Freud, the basic sources of this energy are the instincts or drives that are located in the id and seek immediate gratification according to the pleasure principle. Carl Jung also believed that there is a reservoir of psychic energy, but he objected to Freud’s emphasis on the pleasurable gratification of biological instincts and emphasized the means by which this energy is channeled into the development of the personality and the expression of cultural and spiritual values. Also called mental energy. See also libido.

psychic healing

psychic healing the treatment of physical or mental illness by parapsychological or spiritualistic means. See also crystal healing; faith healing.

psychic link

psychic link in parapsychology and spiritualism, a direct connection between one mind and another, not mediated by any sensory channel. See agent; percipient; telepathy.

psychic numbing

psychic numbing a posttraumatic symptom pattern in which the individual feels incapable of emotional expression, love, or closeness to others. See alexithymia.

psychic pain

psychic pain intolerable pain caused by intense psychological suffering (rather than physical dysfunction). At its extreme, prolonged psychic pain can lead to suicide attempts. See also algopsychalia; psychalgia.

psychic paralysis of visual ideation

psychic paralysis of visual ideation a cluster of visual deficits comprising difficulty in spatial localization, difficulty in executing saccades or tracking a moving object, and a tendency for visual perception to be dominated at any one time by an object. This symptom is associated with Bálint’s syndrome, but there is evidence to suggest it can occur in isolation.

psychic reality

psychic reality the internal reality of fantasies, wishes, fears, dreams, memories, and anticipations, as distinguished from the external reality of actual events and experiences.

psychic seizure

psychic seizure a type of complex partial seizure marked by psychological disturbances, such as illusions, hallucinations, affective experiences, or cognitive alterations (e.g., déjà vu).

psychic suicide

psychic suicide a purported form of self-destruction in which the individual decides to die and actually does so without resorting to a physical agency. See also voodoo death.

psychic tension

psychic tension emotional strain experienced in emergencies or other situations that generate inner conflict or anxiety.

psychic trauma

psychic trauma an experience that inflicts damage on the psyche, often of a lasting nature. Examples are sexual assault and child abuse.

psyching out

psyching out the use of various techniques to create fear, apprehension, and doubt in another person. This colloquialism probably originated in sport with reference to the psyching out of a competitor but has become generalized to numerous other situations.

psyching up

psyching up undertaking a series of activities for the purpose of getting into an ideal performance state for an event, such as a competition or an examination.

psychism

psychism n. see panpsychism.

psycho-

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psychoacoustics

psychoacoustics n. the scientific study of the physical effects of sound on biological systems, including the sensations produced by sounds and problems of communication. A branch of psychophysics, this interdisciplinary study includes physiology, physics, audiology, psychology, music, engineering, and otolaryngology.

psychoactive drug

psychoactive drug any drug that has significant effects on psychological processes, such as thinking, perception, and emotion. Psychoactive drugs include those deliberately taken to produce an altered state of consciousness (e.g., hallucinogens, opioids, inhalants, cannabis) and therapeutic agents designed to ameliorate a mental condition; these include antidepressants, mood stabilizers, sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics (which are CNS depressants), and antipsychotics. Psychoactive drugs are often referred to as psychotropic drugs (or psychotropics) in clinical contexts.

psychoanalysis

psychoanalysis n. an approach to the mind, personality, psychological disorders, and psychological treatment originally developed by Sigmund Freud at the beginning of the 20th century. The hallmark of psychoanalysis is the assumption that much mental activity is unconscious and that understanding people requires interpreting the unconscious meaning underlying their overt, or manifest, behavior. Psychoanalysis (often shortened to analysis) focuses primarily, then, on the influence of such unconscious forces as repressed impulses, internal conflicts, and childhood traumas on the mental life and adjustment of the individual. The foundations on which classical psychoanalysis rests are (a) the concept of infantile sexuality; (b) the Oedipus complex; (c) the theory of instincts or drives; (d) the pleasure principle and the reality principle; (e) the threefold structure of the psyche into id, ego, and superego; and (f) the central importance of anxiety and defense mechanisms in neurotic reactions. By contrast, contemporary psychoanalysis and other forms such as object relations theory, self psychology, and relational psychoanalysis share a belief in a dynamic unconscious but with minimal or no attention directed to drives or to structural theory. Psychoanalysis as a therapy seeks to bring about basic modifications in an individual’s personality by investigating his or her transference with the analyst or therapist and thereby eliciting and interpreting the unconscious conflicts that have produced the individual’s neurosis. The specific methods used to achieve this goal are free association, dream analysis, analysis of resistances and defenses, and working through the feelings revealed in the transference and countertransference process. Also called Freudian approach; Freudianism. See also analytic psychology; ego psychology; individual psychology; neo-Freudian. —psychoanalytic adj.

psychoanalyst

psychoanalyst n. a therapist who has undergone special training in psychoanalytic theory and practice and who applies to the treatment of mental disorders the techniques developed by Sigmund Freud and others whose theories were built on Freud’s belief in unconscious processes. In the United States, psychoanalysts are usually trained first as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, or other mental health professionals and then undergo extensive training at a psychoanalytic institute. Those institutes that believe psychoanalysis is an independent discipline accept other interested and qualified professionals for psychoanalytic training. All recognized training centers require a thorough study of the works of Freud and others in the field, supervised clinical training, a training analysis, and a personal program of psychoanalysis. See also analyst.

psychoanalytic group psychotherapy

psychoanalytic group psychotherapy group therapy in which basic psychoanalytic concepts and methods, such as free association, analysis of resistances and defenses, and dream analysis, are used in modified form, with the assumption that group members will manifest transference to each other as well as to the therapist, allowing multiple transferences to be explored and analyzed. The most prominent exponent of this therapy was British psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion (1897–1979).

psychoanalytic play technique

psychoanalytic play technique a method of child analysis developed by Melanie Klein during the 1920s, in which play activity is interpreted as symbolic of underlying fantasies and conflicts and substitutes for free association. The therapist provides toys for the child and encourages free, imaginative play in order to reveal the child’s unconscious wishes and conflicts.

psychoanalytic psychotherapy

psychoanalytic psychotherapy therapy originally conceived in the form of classical psychoanalysis or in one of the generally shorter approaches to treatment that evolved from the classical form, such as psychodynamic psychotherapy. Generally, it involves a systematic one-on-one interaction between a therapist and a patient that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior while helping the patient overcome abnormal behavior or adjust to the problems of life. The use of free association and therapist interpretation, as well as the development of a therapeutic alliance, are common techniques. More contemporary forms of the therapy are influenced by postclassical psychoanalytic concepts of interpersonal dynamics and the self, as emphasized, for example, in relational psychoanalysis and self psychology.

psychoanalytic theory

psychoanalytic theory the diverse complex of assumptions and constructs underlying the approach known as psychoanalysis. Classically, the term refers specifically to the formulations of Sigmund Freud, but it now also applies to such offshoots and counterapproaches as analytic psychology, individual psychology, object relations theory, self psychology, and others that are based on psychodynamic theory.

psychobiography

psychobiography n. a form of biographical literature that offers a psychological profile or analysis of an individual’s personality in addition to the usual account of his or her life and experiences. —psychobiographical adj.

psychobiology

psychobiology n. 1. a school of thought in the mental health professions in which the individual is viewed as a holistic unit and both normal and abnormal behavior is explained in terms of the interaction of biological, sociological, and psychological determinants. Also called ergasiology. [developed by Adolf Meyer] 2. see biological psychology. —psychobiological adj.

psychocardiology

psychocardiology n. see cardiac psychology.

psychochemistry

psychochemistry n. the study of the relationships between chemicals, behavior (including the genetic or metabolic aspects of behavior), and psychological processes.

psychocutaneous disorder

psychocutaneous disorder any skin (dermatological) disorder in which psychological factors are believed to play an important role. In some cases (e.g., hives, psychogenic pruritus), the disorder appears to be caused or exacerbated by psychological factors; in others (e.g., acne, psoriasis, eczema, dermatitis), there is a predisposition to the condition, which is precipitated by stress factors (see diathesis–stress model).

psychodiagnosis

psychodiagnosis n. 1. any procedure designed to discover the underlying factors that account for behavior, especially disordered behavior. 2. diagnosis of mental disorders through psychological methods (e.g., structured, semistructured, or unstructured psychodiagnostic interviews) and tests.

psychodrama

psychodrama n. a method of psychotherapy in which clients enact their concerns to achieve new insight about themselves and others. Its central premise is that spontaneity and creativity are crucial for the balanced, integrated personality and that humans are all improvising actors on the stage of life. Clients may role play in a variety of scenes either lived or imagined. The process involves (a) a protagonist, the client or central figure in the drama; (b) a director, or therapist, who guides this process and assists the client with alternative enactments and interpretations; and (c) auxiliary egos, therapeutic actors who assist the protagonist in completing his or her interaction with significant others in the drama. When psychodrama is used in a group, these actors are other group members, serving as therapeutic agents by sharing common themes or experiences touched on in the drama. In individual treatment, the protagonist takes the needed roles, although some therapists become involved in the action. Various special techniques are used to advance the therapy, among them role reversal, soliloquy, doubling (see double), and future exploration. See also hypnodrama; sociodrama; Theater of Spontaneity. [developed in the 1920s by Jacob L. Moreno]

psychodynamic approach

psychodynamic approach the psychological and psychiatric approach that views human behavior from the standpoint of unconscious motives that mold the personality, influence attitudes, and produce emotional disorder. The emphasis is on tracing behavior to its origins, as contrasted with the nosological approach, which concentrates on overt signs and symptoms of disorder. See dynamic psychology; psychodynamic psychotherapy.

Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual (PDM)

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psychodynamic group psychotherapy

psychodynamic group psychotherapy psychodynamic psychotherapy with groups, in which members provide each other with support and modeling for gaining awareness of previously disregarded or unconscious aspects of their personality and behavior.

psychodynamic psychotherapy

psychodynamic psychotherapy those forms of psychotherapy, falling within or deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition, that view individuals as reacting to unconscious forces (e.g., motivation, drive), that focus on processes of change and development, and that place a premium on self-understanding and making meaning of what is unconscious. Most psychodynamic therapies share certain features, such as emphasis on dealing with the unconscious in treatment and on analyzing transference. Also called dynamic psychotherapy.

psychodynamic theory

psychodynamic theory a constellation of theories of human functioning that are based on the interplay of drives and other forces within the person, especially (and originating in) the psychoanalytic theories developed by Sigmund Freud and his colleagues and successors, such as Anna Freud, Carl Jung, and Melanie Klein. Later psychodynamic theories, while retaining concepts of the interworking of drives and motives to some degree, emphasize the process of change and incorporate interpersonal and transactional perspectives of personality development. See psychodynamic approach; psychodynamics.

psychodynamics

psychodynamics n. 1. any system or perspective emphasizing the development, changes, and interaction of mental and emotional processes, motivation, and drives. 2. the pattern of motivational forces, conscious or unconscious, that gives rise to a particular psychological event or state, such as an attitude, action, symptom, or mental disorder. These forces include drives, wishes, emotions, and defense mechanisms, as well as biological needs (e.g., hunger, sex). See also dynamic psychology. —psychodynamic adj.

psychoeducational diagnostician

psychoeducational diagnostician a specialist trained in the diagnosis and assessment of children with learning disabilities.

psychoeducational problems

psychoeducational problems academic problems substantial enough to cause significant emotional or psychological distress. See school psychology.

psychoendocrinology

psychoendocrinology n. the study of the hormonal system to discover sites and processes that underlie and influence biological, behavioral, and psychological processes. It is often concerned with identifying biochemical abnormalities that may play a significant role in the development of mental disorders.

psychogalvanic reflex (PGR)

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psychogenesis

psychogenesis n. 1. the origin and development of personality, behavior, and mental and psychic processes. 2. the origin of a particular psychic event in an individual. See psychogenic. —psychogenetic adj.

psychogenetics

psychogenetics n. the study of the inheritance of psychological attributes. —psychogenetic adj.

psychogenic

psychogenic adj. resulting from mental factors. The term is used particularly to denote or refer to a disorder that cannot be accounted for by any identifiable physical dysfunction and is believed to be due to psychological factors (e.g., a conversion disorder). In psychology and psychiatry, psychogenic disorders are improperly considered equivalent to functional disorders.

psychogenic amnesia

psychogenic amnesia see dissociative amnesia; functional amnesia.

psychogenic cardiovascular disorder

psychogenic cardiovascular disorder any disorder of the heart or circulation that cannot be accounted for by any identifiable physical dysfunction or a general medical condition and is thought to be related to psychological factors. It can include a racing heart and chest pain or tightness.

psychogenic disorder

psychogenic disorder any disorder that cannot be accounted for by any identifiable organic dysfunction and is believed to be due to psychological factors, such as emotional conflict or stress. In psychology and psychiatry, psychogenic disorders are improperly considered equivalent to functional disorders. Compare organic disorder.

psychogenic hypersomnia

psychogenic hypersomnia episodes of excessive sleep precipitated by psychological factors, such as a wish to escape from a threatening or other anxiety-provoking situation. See also hypersomnia.

psychogenic mutism

psychogenic mutism loss of speech due to psychological rather than physical factors. See also mutism.

psychogenic nocturnal polydipsia

psychogenic nocturnal polydipsia excessive nighttime thirst with a psychological rather than physiological or physical basis. It is most often seen in patients with schizophrenia and is recognized as a dangerous and potentially life-threatening disorder, because chronic overconsumption of substantial amounts of water can fatally damage the body’s fluid balance.

psychogenic nonepileptic seizure (PNES)

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psychogenic pain disorder

psychogenic pain disorder see pain disorder.

psychogenic polydipsia

psychogenic polydipsia see polydipsia.

psychogenic pruritus

psychogenic pruritus a psychosomatic skin disorder characterized by itching that resists treatment. Psychogenic pruritus often occurs in individuals with anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or depression.

psychogenic purpura

psychogenic purpura see Gardner–Diamond syndrome.

psychogenic seizure

psychogenic seizure see psychogenic nonepileptic seizure.

psychogenic vertigo

psychogenic vertigo an unpleasant, illusory sensation of movement of oneself or the environment that cannot be accounted for fully by any identifiable neurological or other physical dysfunction and is thought to be related to psychological factors. Psychogenic vertigo is common in a number of psychological disorders, including panic disorder, agoraphobia, somatoform disorder, and schizophrenia.

psychographics

psychographics n. in marketing or advertising, an extended form of demographic analysis that surveys the values, activities, interests, and opinions of populations or population segments (psychographic segmentation) to predict consumer preferences and behavior. Psychographic profiling is generally carried out with proprietary techniques developed by private research firms. The information is then used in the development of advertising messages, as well as in products designed to appeal to individuals with specific profiles. Such analysis was formerly referred to as activities, interests, opinions (AIO). —psychographic adj.

psychography

psychography n. 1. the natural history and description of mental phenomena. 2. the art of literary characterization of an individual—real or fictional—making free use of psychological categories and theories. 3. a psychological biography or character description. See also psychobiography; psychohistory.

psychohistory

psychohistory n. the application of psychoanalytic theory to the study of historical figures, events, and movements. Also called historical psychoanalysis.

psychokinesis (PK)

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psycholinguistics

psycholinguistics n. a branch of psychology that employs formal linguistic models to investigate language use and the cognitive processes that accompany it. Developmental psycholinguistics is the formal term for the branch that investigates language acquisition in children. In particular, various models of generative grammar have been used to explain and predict language acquisition in children and the production and comprehension of speech by adults. To this extent, psycholinguistics is a specific discipline, distinguishable from the more general area of psychology of language, which encompasses many other fields and approaches. —psycholinguistic adj.

psychological abuse

psychological abuse see emotional abuse.

psychological acculturation

psychological acculturation see acculturation.

psychological aesthetics

psychological aesthetics a branch of psychology that studies the response to beauty and the underlying factors that contribute to its experience, particularly during exposure to works of art, such as paintings, music, sculpture, and photographs.

psychological assessment

psychological assessment the gathering and integration of data to evaluate a person’s behavior, abilities, and other characteristics, particularly for the purposes of making a diagnosis or treatment recommendation. Psychologists assess diverse psychiatric problems (e.g., anxiety, substance abuse) and nonpsychiatric concerns (e.g., intelligence, career interests) in a range of clinical, educational, organizational, forensic, and other settings. Assessment data may be gathered through interviews, observation, standardized tests, self-report measures, physiological or psychophysiological measurement devices, or other specialized procedures and apparatuses.

psychological atomism

psychological atomism the view that the contents of mind consist ultimately of discrete and independent units of thought that cannot be further subdivided. These psychological atoms can be arrived at by breaking complex ideas down into simpler ones, until further division and discrimination is impossible. Some interpretations of structural psychology (see structuralism) suggest that it is based on a type of psychological atomism.

psychological autopsy

psychological autopsy an analysis that is conducted following a person’s death to reconstruct his or her mental state prior to dying. Psychological autopsies are often performed when a death occurs in a complex, ambiguous, or equivocal (unexplained) manner to determine if the death was the result of natural causes, accident, homicide, or suicide. Attention is given to the total course of the individual’s life to ascertain the facts, motivations, and meanings associated with the death. Also called equivocal death analysis; reconstructive psychological evaluation. [pioneered in the 1970s by U.S. psychologists Edwin S. Shneidman and Norman L. Farberow and medical examiner Theodore J. Murphy at the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Center]

psychological contract

psychological contract a set of expectations held by employees about what they owe an employer and what an employer owes them. The expectations can be explicit, such as salary or place in the organizational hierarchy, as well as implicit, such as need for individual self-expression, autonomy, or power. [first proposed in 1960 by U.S. business theorist Chris Argyris (1923–2013)]

psychological counseling

psychological counseling interaction with a client to explore and offer direct advice about affective, cognitive, or behavioral problems and to reach solutions. See also counseling psychology.

psychological debriefing (PD)

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psychological deficit

psychological deficit cognitive, behavioral, or emotional performance of any individual at a level that is significantly below, or less adept than, the norm.

psychological dependence

psychological dependence 1. reliance on a psychoactive substance for its pleasurable effects. The dependence is signaled by a high rate of drug use, drug craving, and the tendency to relapse after cessation of use. Many believe that stimulation of the brain’s reward system is the driving force behind drug addiction and that tolerance and physical dependence may not be central to the development of dependency-inducing patterns of drug use. 2. reliance on others for emotional support, often characterized as an excessive need for their guidance, reassurance, and validation.

psychological determinism

psychological determinism the general position that psychological phenomena, including behaviors, are fixed, resulting from physical and other factors outside the control of the person. See determinism; identity theory; physical determinism.

psychological disorder

psychological disorder see mental disorder.

psychological distance

psychological distance the degree of a person’s detachment or disengagement from emotional involvement with one or more other people.

psychological distress

psychological distress a set of painful mental and physical symptoms that are associated with normal fluctuations of mood in most people. In some cases, however, psychological distress may indicate the beginning of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, somatization disorder, or a variety of other clinical conditions. It is thought to be what is assessed by many putative self-report measures of depression and anxiety.

psychological dysfunction

psychological dysfunction impaired or abnormal mental functioning and patterns of behavior.

psychological examination

psychological examination an investigation by means of interviews, observations of behavior, and administration of psychological tests that evaluates an individual’s personality, adjustment, abilities, interests, and functioning in important areas of life and that assesses the presence or severity of any psychological problems that the individual may have. It may contribute to the diagnosis of mental disorder and help to determine the type of treatment required.

psychological factors

psychological factors functional factors—as opposed to biological (constitutional, hereditary) factors—that contribute to the development of personality, the maintenance of health and well-being, and the etiology of mental and behavioral disorder. A few examples of psychological factors are the nature of significant childhood and adult relationships, the experience of ease or stress in social environments (e.g., school, work), and the experience of trauma.

psychological factors affecting medical condition

psychological factors affecting medical condition in DSM–IV–TR, a clinical category, classified under “Other Conditions,” comprising psychological and behavioral factors that adversely affect the course, treatment, or outcome of a general medical condition (e.g., by exacerbating symptoms or delaying recovery). The factors include mental disorders and psychological symptoms (e.g., major depressive disorder, anxiety), personality traits (e.g., hostile, denying), physiological response to stress, and behavior patterns detrimental to health (e.g., overeating, excessive alcohol consumption). A wide range of medical conditions can be affected by psychological factors: cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, neurological, and rheumatological disorders; cancers; and many others. In DSM–5, this category is labeled psychological factors affecting other medical conditions and is classified under somatic symptom and related disorders.

psychological field

psychological field in the social psychology of Kurt Lewin, the individual’s life space or environment as he or she perceives it at any given moment. See also field theory.

psychological intervention

psychological intervention see intervention.

psychological kidnapping

psychological kidnapping depriving a person of the free functioning of his or her personality. The term is sometimes used to describe the psychological mind control attributed to cults. See also brainwashing.

psychological masquerade

psychological masquerade a medical condition that can present as a psychological disorder. Examples include hypothyroidism, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, dementia, and brain tumors.

psychological maturity

psychological maturity the ability to deal effectively and resiliently with experience and to perform satisfactorily in developmental tasks (biological, social, cognitive) characteristic of one’s age level.

psychological me

psychological me see empirical self; me.

psychological model

psychological model 1. a theory, usually including a mechanism for predicting psychological outcomes, intended to explain specific psychological processes. See also construct. 2. a representation of human cognitive and response characteristics used to approximate and evaluate the performance of an actual individual in a complex situation, such as a novel aircraft cockpit.

psychological moment

psychological moment 1. in general usage, the best possible moment for producing a particular effect on another person or other people, as in He put in his counteroffer at the psychological moment. 2. the lived present as it is experienced. See specious present; timeless moment.

psychological need

psychological need any need that is essential to mental health or that is otherwise not a biological necessity. It may be generated entirely internally, as in the need for pleasure, or it may be generated by interactions between the individual and the environment, as in the need for social approval, justice, or job satisfaction. Psychological needs comprise the four higher levels of Maslow’s motivational hierarchy. Compare physiological need.

psychological network

psychological network the set of individuals, families, and social groups with whom people interact in personally meaningful ways, whose opinions are of some concern to them, and who provide emotional support for them.

psychological rapport

psychological rapport 1. Carl Jung’s term for transference, which he defined as an intensified tie to the analyst that acts as a compensation for the patient’s defective relationship to present reality. Jung saw this as an inevitable feature of every analysis. 2. more generally, a kind of agreement or affinity between individuals in their typical ways of thinking, affective responses, and behaviors.

psychological reactance

psychological reactance see reactance theory.

psychological refractory period (PRP)

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psychological rehabilitation

psychological rehabilitation the development or restoration of an effective, adaptive identity in an individual with a congenital or acquired physical impairment through such approaches as individual or group therapy, counseling, ability assessment, and drug therapy. The object is to help the individual to develop or regain his or her self-image, ability to cope with emotional problems, competence, and autonomy.

psychological resilience

psychological resilience see resilience.

psychological scale

psychological scale 1. a system of measurement for a cognitive, social, emotional, or behavioral variable or function, such as personality, intelligence, attitudes, or beliefs. 2. any instrument that can be used to make such a measurement. A psychological scale may comprise a single item measured with a variety of response formats (e.g., semantic differential, multiple choice, checklist) or be a collection of items with similar formats. Also called psychometric scale. See also psychological test.

Psychological Screening Inventory (PSI)

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psychological significance

psychological significance the extent to which an effect found in a research study is relevant to the attitudes, cognitions, beliefs, and behavior of humans. For example, a finding that describes how individuals function in a variety of different settings would have psychological significance. See also clinical significance; practical significance; statistical significance.

psychological skills training (PST)

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psychological social psychology

psychological social psychology see social psychology.

psychological statistics

psychological statistics the area within psychology and the behavioral sciences that is concerned with research design and methodology, addressing issues of measurement, sampling, data collection, data analysis, and reporting of findings. See also quantitative psychology.

psychological test

psychological test any standardized instrument, including scales and self-report inventories, used to measure behavior or mental attributes, such as attitudes, emotional functioning, intelligence and cognitive abilities (reasoning, comprehension, abstraction, etc.), aptitudes, values, interests, and personality characteristics. For example, a researcher might use a psychological test of emotional intelligence to examine whether some managers make better decisions in conflict situations than do others. Also called psychometric test.

psychological testing

psychological testing see psychometrics.

psychological time

psychological time the subjective estimation or experience of time. This is mainly dependent on the processing and interpretation by the brain of time-related internal or external stimuli (see time sense), but it can be influenced by other factors. In general, time is experienced as passing more slowly when one is bored or inactive and more rapidly when one is engaged in an absorbing activity. Certain peak experiences can produce a sense of time dissolving or being suspended (see timeless moment). Drugs and hypnosis can also be used to alter the perception of time. See also tachypsychia.

psychological treatment

psychological treatment various forms of treatment and psychoeducation—including psychotherapy and behavior modification, among others—aimed at increasing an individual’s adaptive and independent mental and behavioral functioning. Psychological treatment is the specific purview of trained mental health professionals and incorporates diverse theories and techniques for producing healthy and adaptive change in an individual’s actions, thoughts, and feelings. It stands in contrast to treatment with medication, although medication is sometimes used as an adjunct to various forms of psychological treatment (see adjunctive therapy).

psychological tremor

psychological tremor see tremor.

psychological universal

psychological universal a psychological feature that occurs and is recognized across diverse cultures, albeit sometimes in different forms. In 1980, U.S. psychologist Walter J. Lonner (1934– ) proposed a seven-level structure to categorize ideas and concepts that may qualify as psychological universals: (a) simple universals (e.g., the absolute facticity of human aggression); (b) variform universals (e.g., aggression takes on various forms in different cultures, but it always occurs); (c) functional universals (societal variations that have the same social consequences but are equilibrated for local relevance); (d) diachronic universals (universals of behavior that are temporally invariant but interpreted differently); (e) ethologically oriented universals (those with phylogenetic, Darwinian links); (f) systematic behavioral universals (various subcategories in psychology); and (g) cocktail-party universals (those things that all people feel but can only discuss as phenomena that defy measurement).

psychological warfare

psychological warfare a broad class of tactics designed to influence the attitudes, beliefs, and behavior of soldiers and civilians with regard to military operations. These include attempts to bolster the attitudes and morale of one’s own people as well as to change or undermine the attitudes and morale of an opposing army or civilian population.

psychologism

psychologism n. any position or theoretical perspective that holds one or more of the following: (a) that the rules of logic are reflective of the way the mind works, so that logic is persuasive only because it “fits” the working of the mind; (b) that truth is established by verifying the correspondence of external facts to ideas in the mind; (c) that epistemological questions can be answered by an understanding of the laws by which the mind works; and (d) that the meanings of words are established by the ideas corresponding to them. The term is generally used as a criticism of particular approaches or theories on the grounds that they make psychological processes that are accidental and contingent the foundation of knowledge: Because it takes the contingent to be fundamental, psychologism will be led toward epistemological relativism. This critical use of the term was introduced by German philosopher Gottlob Frege (1848–1925), whose work in mathematical logic can be seen as a rigorous attempt to eliminate psychologism. It was later taken up by the logical positivists (see logical positivism) and, from a different perspective, by German phenomenologist Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), who used it to criticize the British traditions of empiricism and associationism. The term was later turned against Husserl’s own work by German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976); see existential phenomenology.

psychologist

psychologist n. an individual who is professionally trained in one or more branches or subfields of psychology. Training is obtained at a university or a school of professional psychology, leading to a doctoral degree in philosophy (PhD), psychology (PsyD), or education (EdD). Psychologists work in a variety of settings, including laboratories, schools (e.g., high schools, colleges, universities), social agencies, hospitals, clinics, the military, industry and business, prisons, the government, and private practice. The professional activities of psychologists are also varied but can include psychological counseling, involvement in other mental health care services, educational testing and assessment, research, teaching, and business and organizational consulting. Formal certification or professional licensing is required to practice independently in many of these settings and activities.

psychologistic

psychologistic adj. 1. superficially resembling psychology. 2. characterized by an overuse of psychological explanation and jargon in dealing with some issue. 3. having the qualities or characteristics of psychologism.

psychology

psychology n. 1. the study of the mind and behavior. Historically, psychology was an area within philosophy and emerged from it (see epistemology). It is now a diverse scientific discipline comprising several major branches of research (e.g., experimental, biological, cognitive, lifespan developmental, personality, social), as well as several subareas of research and applied psychology (e.g., clinical, industrial/organizational, school and educational, human factors, health, neuropsychology, cross-cultural). Research in psychology involves observation, experimentation, testing, and analysis to explore the biological, cognitive, emotional, personal, and social processes or stimuli underlying human and animal behavior. The practice of psychology involves the use of psychological knowledge for any of several purposes: to understand and treat mental, emotional, physical, and social dysfunction; to understand and enhance behavior in various settings of human activity (e.g., school, workplace, courtroom, sports arena, battlefield); and to improve machine and building design for human use. 2. the supposed collection of behaviors, traits, attitudes, and so forth that characterize an individual or a group (e.g., the psychology of women). —psychological adj.

psychology of religion

psychology of religion the empirical or academic study of spiritual experience or organized religion from a psychological perspective. This has involved the description and analysis of certain specialized types of experience, such as those associated with mysticism, as well as an investigation of the more ordinary ways in which religious faith affects the behaviors and cognitive processes of believers. Pioneers in this field of study included Wilhelm Wundt and William James.

psychometric

psychometric adj. 1. of or relating to psychometrics. 2. of or relating to psychophysics.

psychometric examination

psychometric examination a series of psychological tests administered to determine intelligence, manual skills, personality characteristics, interests, or other mental factors.

psychometric function

psychometric function see psychophysical function.

psychometric model

psychometric model any theoretical and statistical framework describing how respondents generate their answers to items on a scale or instrument and explaining associated sources of error, which in turn provides a means to determine the reliability of test scores across different testing situations. There are three major approaches: classical test theory, generalizability theory, and item response theory.

psychometric research

psychometric research studies in the field of psychological measurement. Such research includes the development of new measures and appropriate methods for their scoring, the establishment of reliability and validity evidence for measures, the examination of item and scale properties and their dimensions, and the evaluation of differential item functioning across subgroups. For example, psychometric research could be used to determine whether a new scale is appropriately administered and scored in a specific subpopulation of respondents.

psychometric scale

psychometric scale see psychological scale.

psychometric scaling

psychometric scaling the creation of an instrument to measure a psychological concept through a process of analyzing responses to a set of test items or other stimuli. It involves identifying item properties, noting whether responses match theoretical formats, reducing the larger set of items into a smaller number (e.g., through exploratory factor analysis), and determining appropriate scoring methods.

Psychometric Society

Psychometric Society an international nonprofit professional organization founded in 1935 to promote the advancement of quantitative measurement practices in psychology, education, and the social sciences. It publishes the journal Psychometrika.

psychometric test

psychometric test see psychological test.

psychometric theories of intelligence

psychometric theories of intelligence theories of intelligence based on or tested by scores on conventional tests of intelligence, such as number-series completions and verbal analogies. These theories are often, but not always, based on factor analysis; that is, they specify a set of factors alleged to underlie human intelligence. Among the most famous of such theories are Charles Spearman’s two-factor theory and Louis L. Thurstone’s theory of primary abilities. See also radex theory of intelligence; three-stratum model of intelligence.

psychometrician

psychometrician n. 1. an individual with a theoretical knowledge of measurement techniques who is qualified to develop, evaluate, and improve psychological tests. 2. an individual who is trained to administer psychological tests and interpret their results, under the supervision of a licensed psychologist. Also called psychometrist.

psychometrics

psychometrics n. the branch of psychology concerned with the quantification and measurement of mental attributes, behavior, performance, and the like, as well as with the design, analysis, and improvement of the tests, questionnaires, and other instruments used in such measurement. Also called psychometric psychology; psychometry.

psychometry

psychometry n. 1. see psychometrics. 2. in parapsychology, the reputed ability of some people to hold an object in their hands and become aware of facts about its history or about people who have been associated with it. There is, however, no verified evidence of such an ability.

psychomimetic

psychomimetic adj., n. see psychotomimetic.

psychomimic syndrome

psychomimic syndrome a condition in which an individual who lacks physical evidence of an illness develops symptoms of an illness experienced by another person, who may have died of the disorder. The symptoms usually occur around the anniversary of the death of the other person. See also anniversary reaction.

psychomotility

psychomotility n. a motor action or habit (e.g., a tic, handwriting, gait, stammering, dysarthria) that is influenced or controlled by a mental process and that may be an indicator of psychomotor disturbance.

psychomotor

psychomotor adj. relating to movements or motor effects that result from mental activity.

psychomotor agitation

psychomotor agitation restless physical activity arising from mental tension or disturbance. It includes pacing, hand wringing, and pulling or rubbing clothing and other objects and is a common symptom of both major depressive episodes and manic episodes. Also called psychomotor excitement.

psychomotor disorder

psychomotor disorder 1. a disturbance in the psychological control of movement. 2. a motor disorder precipitated by psychological factors. Examples include epileptic seizures brought on by stress, psychomotor retardation associated with depression, and hyperactivity exhibited during a manic episode.

psychomotor domain

psychomotor domain see Bloom’s taxonomy.

psychomotor epilepsy

psychomotor epilepsy an old name for a form of epilepsy characterized by complex partial seizures.

psychomotor excitement

psychomotor excitement see psychomotor agitation.

psychomotor hallucination

psychomotor hallucination the sensation that parts of the body are being moved to different areas of the body.

psychomotor retardation

psychomotor retardation a slowing down or inhibition of mental and physical activity, manifest as slow speech with long pauses before answers, slowness in thinking, and slow body movements. Psychomotor retardation is a common symptom of major depressive episodes.

psychomotor seizure

psychomotor seizure see complex partial seizure.

psychomotor skill

psychomotor skill any ability (e.g., handwriting, drawing, driving a car) whose performance draws on a combined and coordinated set of cognitive and motor processes.

psychomotor test

psychomotor test a test requiring a coordination of cognitive and motor activities, as in the Trail Making Test.

psychoneuroendocrinology

psychoneuroendocrinology n. the study of the relations among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the endocrine system in determining behavior and health. It focuses on the effects of psychological stress on these neuroendocrine systems (see neuroendocrinology) and the effects that changes in these systems have on behavior in normal and psychopathological states.

psychoneuroimmunology

psychoneuroimmunology n. the study of how the brain and behavior affect immune responses. [originated by U.S. psychologist Robert Ader (1932–2011)] —psychoneuroimmunological adj.

psychoneuromuscular theory

psychoneuromuscular theory a theory postulating how the use of mental imagery of an activity can improve the subsequent motor performance of that activity. It states that, during the processing of imagery, the brain sends impulses to the muscles. These impulses are identical to those that cause muscle contraction with movement but are of lower intensity. The neural pathways are thereby strengthened, facilitating the learning and performance of motor skills. Also called ideomotor principle. See also mental practice. [originally proposed in 1874 by British physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter (1813–1885)]

psychoneurosis

psychoneurosis n. see neurosis.

psychonomic

psychonomic adj. denoting an approach to psychology that emphasizes quantitative measurement, experimental control, and operational definitions, especially in the area of experimental, laboratory psychology. The word was coined to provide a name for the Psychonomic Society, which was created in 1959 by a number of experimental psychologists who were opposed to what they regarded as a swing in the American Psychological Association toward an emphasis on the mental health concerns of psychology. See experimental psychology.

Psychonomic Society

Psychonomic Society a professional organization founded in 1959 to promote the communication of scientific research in psychology and allied sciences. It publishes six scholarly journals in psychology, mainly concerned with learning, behavior, and cognition.

psychonomics

psychonomics n. 1. the science of the laws governing the mind. 2. the science of the environmental factors that influence development. See nomology.

psychonosology

psychonosology n. the systematic classification of mental disorders. See psychiatric classification.

psychooncology

psychooncology n. the study of psychological, behavioral, and psychosocial factors involved in the risk, detection, course, treatment, and outcome (in terms of survival) of cancer. The field examines responses to cancer on the part of patients, families, and caregivers at all stages of the disease. —psychooncological adj. —psychooncologist n.

psychopath

psychopath n. a former name for an individual with antisocial personality disorder. —psychopathic adj.

psychopathia sexualis

psychopathia sexualis the name for sexual deviance coined by German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) and used as the title of his classic work on the subject, first published in 1886.

psychopathic personality

psychopathic personality see antisocial personality disorder.

psychopathology

psychopathology n. 1. the scientific study of mental disorders, including their theoretical underpinnings, etiology, progression, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment. This broad discipline draws on research from numerous areas, such as psychology, biochemistry, pharmacology, psychiatry, neurology, and endocrinology. The term in this sense is sometimes used synonymously with abnormal psychology. 2. the behavioral or cognitive manifestations of such disorders. The term in this sense is sometimes considered synonymous with mental disorder itself. —psychopathological adj. —psychopathologist n.

psychopathy

psychopathy n. 1. a synonym for antisocial personality disorder. 2. formerly, any psychological disorder or mental disease. —psychopathic adj.

psychopharmacological drug

psychopharmacological drug any medication used in the treatment of mental or behavioral disorders.

psychopharmacology

psychopharmacology n. the study of the influence of drugs on mental, emotional, and behavioral processes. Psychopharmacology is concerned primarily with the mode of action of various substances that affect different areas of the brain and nervous system, including drugs of abuse. See also clinical psychopharmacology; geriatric psychopharmacology; pediatric psychopharmacology; preclinical psychopharmacology. —psychopharmacological adj. —psychopharmacologist n.

psychopharmacotherapy

psychopharmacotherapy n. the use of pharmacological agents in the treatment of mental disorders. For example, acute or chronic schizophrenia is treated by administration of antipsychotic drugs or other agents. Although such drugs do not cure mental disorders, they may—when used appropriately—produce significant relief from symptoms.

psychophysical

psychophysical adj. of or relating to the relationship between physical stimuli and mental events.

psychophysical dualism

psychophysical dualism see dualism; mind–body problem. See also Cartesian dualism.

psychophysical function

psychophysical function a psychometric relationship between a stimulus and judgments about the stimulus, as expressed in a mathematical formula. In the method of constant stimuli, it is the proportion of yes responses (i.e., that the stimuli were perceived) as a function of physical magnitude of the stimuli. Also called psychometric function.

psychophysical law

psychophysical law a mathematical relationship between the strength of a physical stimulus and the intensity of the sensation experienced. Psychophysical laws were first developed from the empirical research conducted by Ernst Heinrich Weber and Gustav Theodor Fechner, chiefly at the University of Leipzig. This work, aimed at direct scientific investigation of the mind–body problem, established the foundation of psychology as an experimental science. Also called psychophysical relationship. See also inner psychophysics; outer psychophysics.

psychophysical method

psychophysical method any of various standard techniques used in investigating psychophysical problems, such as the method of adjustment, the method of equal-appearing intervals, and the method of limits.

psychophysical parallelism

psychophysical parallelism see parallelism.

psychophysical properties

psychophysical properties in Daniel E. Berlyne’s theory of aesthetic preference (see arousal potential), factors (e.g., intensity, pitch, saturation) that are intrinsic to a stimulus.

psychophysical relationship

psychophysical relationship see psychophysical law.

psychophysical research

psychophysical research empirical studies, often conducted in a laboratory setting, linking properties of a physical stimulus to a sensory response. For example, in a study of hearing, a participant might be requested to distinguish a number of different sounds by their loudness.

psychophysical scaling

psychophysical scaling any of the techniques used to construct scales relating physical stimulus properties to perceived magnitude. For example, a respondent in a study may have to indicate the roughness of several different materials that vary in texture. Methods are often classified as direct or indirect, based on how the observer judges magnitude.

psychophysical tuning curve (PTC)

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psychophysics

psychophysics n. a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between the objective physical characteristics of a stimulus (e.g., its measured intensity) and the subjective perception of that stimulus (e.g., its apparent brightness).

psychophysiological assessment

psychophysiological assessment the use of physiological measures via electroencephalography, electrocardiography, electromyography, and electrooculography to infer psychological processes and emotion. Also called psychophysiological monitoring.

psychophysiological research

psychophysiological research empirical studies, often conducted in a laboratory setting using functional magnetic resonance imaging and other neuroscientific tools, that link an individual’s bodily responses (e.g., change in heart rate, palmar sweat, eye blink) and mental processes (e.g., memory, cognitive processing, brain function). For example, in addition to collecting data on several performance measures, a psychophysiological researcher might examine cortisol levels in adolescents with a diagnosis of conduct disorder and compare them to levels in those without the disorder.

psychophysiology

psychophysiology n. the study of the relation between the chemical and physical functions of organisms (physiology) and cognitive processes, emotions, and behavior (psychology). Also called physiological psychology. See also applied psychophysiology; clinical psychophysiology. —psychophysiological adj. —psychophysiologist n.

psychopolitics

psychopolitics n. 1. the study of the psychological aspects of political behavior and political structures, such as the effects of different types of system (democratic, fascist, socialist, etc.) on a society and its members. 2. the use of psychological tactics or strategies to achieve a political objective. —psychopolitical adj.

psychoscience

psychoscience n. any science that deals with the mind and mental behavior, with mental diseases and disorders, and with their treatment and cure. In particular, it refers to psychology, psychiatry, and cognitive science.

psychosexual

psychosexual adj. relating to or denoting any aspects of human sexuality that are based on or influenced by psychological factors, as opposed to genetic, chemical, and other biologically based (organic) aspects.

psychosexual development

psychosexual development in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the step-by-step growth of sexual life as it affects personality development. Freud posited that the impetus for psychosexual development stems from a single energy source, the libido, which is concentrated in different organs throughout infancy and helps produce the various psychosexual stages: the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, and genital stage. Each stage gives rise to its own characteristic erotic activities (e.g., sucking and biting in the oral stage), and the early expressions may lead to “perverse” activities later in life, such as sadism, masochism, voyeurism, and exhibitionism. Moreover, the different stages leave their mark on the individual’s character and personality, especially if sexual development is arrested in a fixation at one particular stage. Also called libidinal development.

psychosexual disorders

psychosexual disorders see sexual and gender identity disorders.

psychosexual dysfunction

psychosexual dysfunction see sexual dysfunction.

psychosexual stages

psychosexual stages see psychosexual development.

psychosexual trauma

psychosexual trauma a frightening, degrading, or otherwise traumatic sexual experience in earlier life that is related to current emotional problems. Examples include incest or other forms of child sexual abuse, sexual assault, and date rape.

psychosis

psychosis n. 1. an abnormal mental state involving significant problems with reality testing It is characterized by serious impairments or disruptions in the most fundamental higher brain functions—perception, cognition and cognitive processing, and emotions or affect—as manifested in behavioral phenomena, such as delusions, hallucinations, and significantly disorganized speech. See psychotic disorder. 2. historically, any severe mental disorder that significantly interferes with functioning and ability to perform activities essential to daily living.

psychosocial

psychosocial adj. describing the intersection and interaction of social, cultural, and environmental influences on the mind and behavior.

psychosocial deprivation

psychosocial deprivation lack of adequate opportunity for social and intellectual stimulation. It may be a significant factor in emotional disturbance and delayed mental development or intellectual disability in children. Also called sociocultural deprivation. See pseudoretardation.

psychosocial development

psychosocial development 1. according to Erik Erikson, personality development as a process influenced by social and cultural factors throughout the lifespan. See Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. 2. the development of both prosocial behavior (e.g., cooperation) and antisocial behavior (e.g., aggression). Psychosocial development involves changes not only in children’s overt behavior but also in their social cognition. For example, they become able to take the perspective of others and to understand that other people’s behavior is based on their knowledge and desires.

psychosocial factors

psychosocial factors social, cultural, and environmental phenomena and influences that affect mental health and behavior. These influences include social situations, relationships, and pressures, such as competition for education, health care, and other social resources; rapid technological change; work deadlines; and changes in social roles and status (e.g., of women and minority groups).

psychosocial mental retardation (psychosocial mental developmental delay)

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psychosocial rehabilitation

psychosocial rehabilitation the process of enhancing the recovery of individuals with severe mental illness by teaching or restoring psychological, behavioral, social, and vocational skills that will enable them to function in their community and by facilitating that endeavor through a continuum of services such as psychotherapy, family psychoeducation, illness management, and supported employment. The services may be initiated just before a patient’s discharge from residential treatment and provided on an ongoing basis thereafter, but they are also available to individuals with severe mental illness who have not been institutionalized. The services are usually provided by specialized professionals (e.g., therapists, vocational counselors, employment specialists, social workers) who use focused programs and techniques to assist these individuals in achieving functional independence. Also called psychiatric rehabilitation.

psychosocial stressor

psychosocial stressor a life situation that creates an unusual or intense level of stress that may contribute to the development or aggravation of mental disorder, illness, or maladaptive behavior. Examples of psychosocial stressors include divorce, the death of a child, prolonged illness, unwanted change of residence, a natural catastrophe, or a highly competitive work situation.

psychosocial support

psychosocial support a broad term describing a range of services offered by mental health professionals to those in pressing need. Whether designed to help individuals cope with a serious illness or to alleviate distress in whole communities following a disaster (see disaster psychology), such services may range from mental health counseling, psychoeducation, and group support to spiritual support and other assistance and are provided by psychologists, social workers, and pastoral counselors, among others. See also social support.

psychosocial therapy

psychosocial therapy psychological treatment designed to help an individual with emotional or behavioral disturbances adjust to situations that require social interaction with members of the family, work group, community, or any other social unit.

psychosomatic

psychosomatic adj. 1. of or relating to the role of the mind (psyche) in diseases or disorders affecting the body (soma); specifically, the role of psychological factors (e.g., anxiety, depression) in the etiology and course of pathology in bodily systems. 2. characterizing an approach based on the belief that a psychological component operates in the cause of somatic disturbances. 3. of or referring to any interaction between mind and body.

psychosomatic disorder

psychosomatic disorder a type of disorder in which psychological factors are believed to play an important role in the origin or course (or both) of the disorder. See also psychological factors affecting medical condition.

psychosomatic medicine

psychosomatic medicine a branch of medicine that emphasizes the role of psychological factors in causing and treating disease.

psychostimulant

psychostimulant n. see CNS stimulant.

psychosurgery

psychosurgery n. the treatment of a mental disorder by surgical removal or destruction of selective brain areas. The most well-known example of psychosurgery is prefrontal lobotomy, historically used particularly for schizophrenia but also a variety of other disorders. Psychosurgery was most popular from 1935 to 1960 and is among the most controversial of all psychiatric treatments ever introduced. Contemporary psychosurgery approaches (e.g., cingulotomy) are far more precisely targeted and confined in extent than the early techniques, employing high-tech imaging and a variety of highly controllable methods of producing minute lesions. Additionally, they are used only as a last resort and only for a handful of specific psychiatric disorders—major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder—that have been resistant to other available therapies.

psychosynthesis

psychosynthesis n. in psychoanalysis, an attempt to unify the various components of the unconscious, such as dreams, fantasies, and instinctual strivings, with the rest of the personality. This “constructive approach” was advocated by Carl Jung, who contrasted it with what he saw as Sigmund Freud’s “reductive approach.” —psychosynthetic adj.

psychotechnics

psychotechnics n. 1. the practical application of psychological principles, as in economics, sociology, and business. 2. the application of psychological principles to alter or control the behavior of an individual.

psychotechnology

psychotechnology n. 1. the body of psychological facts and principles involved in the practical applications of psychology. 2. the application of such knowledge.

psychotherapeutic process

psychotherapeutic process whatever occurs between and within a client and therapist during the course of psychotherapy. This includes the experiences, attitudes, emotions, and behavior of both client and therapist, as well as the dynamic or interaction between them. See also process research.

psychotherapy

psychotherapy n. any psychological service provided by a trained professional that primarily uses forms of communication and interaction to assess, diagnose, and treat dysfunctional emotional reactions, ways of thinking, and behavior patterns. Psychotherapy may be provided to individuals, couples (see couples therapy), families (see family therapy), or members of a group (see group therapy). There are many types of psychotherapy, but generally they fall into four major categories: psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive therapy or behavior therapy, humanistic therapy, and integrative psychotherapy. The psychotherapist is an individual who has been professionally trained and licensed (in the United States by a state board) to treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders by psychological means. He or she may be a clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, counselor, social worker, or psychiatric nurse. Also called therapy; talk therapy. —psychotherapeutic adj.

psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition

psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition a type of behavior therapy in which emphasis is placed on weakening the bond between anxiety responses and anxiety-provoking stimuli by conditioning the anxiety response to an incompatible response, such as muscle relaxation. See reciprocal inhibition; systematic desensitization.

psychotherapy integration

psychotherapy integration see integrative psychotherapy.

psychotherapy matching

psychotherapy matching see matching patients.

psychotherapy research

psychotherapy research the use of scientific methods to describe, explain, and evaluate psychotherapeutic techniques, processes, and effectiveness.

psychotic

psychotic adj. of, relating to, or affected by psychosis or a psychotic disorder.

psychotic disorder

psychotic disorder any of a number of severe mental disorders, regardless of etiology, characterized by gross impairment in reality testing. The accuracy of perceptions and thoughts is incorrectly evaluated, and incorrect inferences are made about external reality, even in the face of contrary evidence. Specific symptoms indicative of psychotic disorders are delusions, hallucinations, and markedly disorganized speech, thought, or behavior; individuals may have little or no insight into their symptoms. Some examples of psychotic disorders are schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, brief psychotic disorder, and psychotic disorders due to a substance (see substance-induced psychotic disorder) or to a medical condition.

psychotic episode

psychotic episode a period during which an individual exhibits psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech. See also acute psychotic episode.

psychotic feature

psychotic feature any clinical symptom that entails a marked loss of contact with reality, notably including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, or disorganized behavior. See mood-congruent psychotic feature; mood-incongruent psychotic feature.

psychoticism

psychoticism n. a dimension of personality in Eysenck’s dimensions characterized by aggression, impulsivity, aloofness, and antisocial behavior, indicating a susceptibility to psychosis and psychopathic disorders (see antisocial personality disorder). It was originally developed as a factor for distinguishing between normal individuals and those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorders, using tests of judgment of spatial distance, reading speed, level of proficiency in mirror drawing, and adding rows of numbers.

psychotogenic

psychotogenic 1. adj. describing a drug-induced state resembling psychosis, marked, for example, by sensory illusions or distortions, hallucinations, delusions, and behavioral and emotional disturbances. 2. n. an agent, such as a hallucinogen, that induces such a state. Also called psychotogen.

psychotomimetic

psychotomimetic 1. adj. tending to induce hallucinations, delusions, or other symptoms of psychosis. 2. n. one of a group of drugs originally used in laboratory experiments to determine if they could induce psychoses, or states mimicking psychoses, on the basis of their effects. The group includes LSD and amphetamines. Also called psychomimetic.

psychotoxic

psychotoxic adj. denoting or relating to agents that cause brain damage, such as excess alcohol, certain drugs and heavy metals, volatile solvents, and pesticides.

psychotropic drug

psychotropic drug see psychoactive drug.

PT

PT abbreviation for physical therapy.

PTA

PTA 1. abbreviation for parent teachers association. 2. abbreviation for posttraumatic amnesia.

PTC

PTC abbreviation for psychophysical tuning curve.

Ptolemaic theory

Ptolemaic theory see geocentric theory.

ptosis

ptosis n. (pl. ptoses) the sinking or dropping of an organ or part of the body, especially drooping of the eyelid. This may be caused by injury to the third cranial (oculomotor) nerve or the eye muscles. It is also a characteristic sign of myasthenia gravis and Horner’s syndrome. —ptotic adj.

PTP

PTP abbreviation for posttetanic potentiation.

PTSD

PTSD abbreviation for posttraumatic stress disorder.

ptyalism

ptyalism n. 1. the excessive production of saliva. Normal production of the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual salivary glands is between 1,000 and 1,500 ml per day for an adult human. Ptyalism may be associated with epilepsy, encephalitis, certain medications, high blood pressure, intense emotion, or high anxiety. Also called sialorrhea. 2. a condition in which saliva production is normal but the person is unable to swallow the saliva as fast as it is secreted, as in cases of parkinsonism, bulbar or pseudobulbar paralysis, and bilateral facial-nerve palsy.

pubertas praecox

pubertas praecox see precocious puberty.

puberty

puberty n. the stage of development when the genital organs reach maturity and secondary sex characteristics begin to appear, signaling the start of adolescence. It is marked by ejaculation of sperm in the male, onset of menstruation and development of breasts in the female, and, in both males and females, growth of pubic hair and increasing sexual interest. See also precocious puberty; persistent puberism. —pubertal adj.

puberty rite

puberty rite the initiation into adult life of a pubescent member of a community through ceremonies, cultural-lore indoctrination, and similar customs. For young men in traditional societies, this may involve a physical and psychological ordeal in which they experience pain, hardship, and fear. For young women in traditional cultures, this rite often involves seclusion, spiritual activities, and special ceremonies. See rite of passage.

pubescence

pubescence n. the period or process of reaching puberty. —pubescent adj.

pubescent growth spurt

pubescent growth spurt the rapid development of bone and muscle in response to increased secretion of growth hormone at puberty. There is usually a dramatic increase in height and weight, accompanied by development of the reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics. Also called adolescent growth spurt.

public adoption

public adoption see adoption.

public distance zone

public distance zone the distance zone adopted by people in highly formal, official, or ceremonial interactions. The public distance zone is defined as an area between 3.5 and 7.5 m (11½–24½ ft) from a person. Compare intimate zone; personal distance zone; social zone. See also proxemics.

public health approach

public health approach a community-based approach to mental and physical health in which agencies and organizations focus on enhancing and maintaining the well-being of individuals by ensuring the existence of the conditions necessary for them to lead healthy lives. The approach involves such activities as monitoring community health status; identifying and investigating health problems and threats to community health; ensuring the competency of health care providers and personnel; disseminating accurate information and educating individuals about health issues; developing, modifying, and enforcing policies and other regulatory measures that support community health and safety; and ensuring the accessibility of quality health services. The approach involves various levels of disease and disorder prevention (primary, secondary, tertiary), the expansion and appropriate use of the scientific knowledge base, and the development and utilization of partnerships within and among communities.

public health nurse

public health nurse a registered nurse or nurse practitioner who has received additional training in social and public health sciences and services. Public health nurses are usually employed by government health departments and engaged in educational, informational, and preventive activities.

public health services

public health services 1. services intended to protect and improve community health. 2. in some countries, health services provided by the state and financed mainly by general taxation.

public mental hospital

public mental hospital a hospital for patients with mental disorders that is organized and run by the state, the county, or the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Compare private mental hospital.

public residential facility

public residential facility any residential setting directly operated by state or local government for individuals with intellectual or developmental disabilities. The term generally refers to large institutions, such as developmental centers (formerly called training schools or state schools), but the number of smaller residential settings, such as community residences, that are publicly operated now greatly exceeds the number of remaining large public facilities.

public self

public self information about the self, or an integrated view of the self, that is conveyed to others in actions, self-descriptions, appearance, and social interactions. An individual’s public self may vary depending on the target or audience of such impressions. The public self is often contrasted with the private self, which may be similar to or different from the self one reveals to others. See also social identity; social self.

public self-consciousness

public self-consciousness see self-consciousness.

public service psychology

public service psychology an area of psychology defined by the activities of psychologists employed in public sector agencies (e.g., community mental health centers, state hospitals, correctional facilities, police and public safety agencies) and by the psychological condition of people served by these agencies. Particular interests include advocacy, access to services, education and training, public policy formulation, research and program evaluation, and prevention efforts.

public sociology

public sociology a multidisciplinary, practice-oriented specialization in the field of sociology that works with individuals and community groups to develop problem-focused research projects that offer concrete help in generating needed social change. Formerly called clinical sociology.

public territory

public territory a public space temporarily used by a person or group (e.g., park bench, bus seat). Compare primary territory; secondary territory. See proxemics.

public-speaking anxiety

public-speaking anxiety fear of giving a speech or presentation in public because of the expectation of being negatively evaluated or humiliated by others. This is a common fear, associated with social phobia.

publication bias

publication bias the tendency for study results that are published in journals or other outlets to differ from study results that are not published. In particular, published studies are more likely to show positive or statistically significant findings. Thus, when conducting a meta-analysis, it is important to gather the full range of available research, both published and unpublished, to ensure that the analysis does not provide unrepresentatively large effect sizes. See file-drawer problem.

publication ethics

publication ethics the principles and standards associated with the process of publishing the results of scientific research or scholarly work in general. These include such requirements as giving the appropriate credit and authorship status to those who have earned it; ensuring that appropriate citations are given to ideas, methodology, or findings from another study; not submitting the same article to more than one journal simultaneously; and not submitting results for republication without indicating that they have already been published elsewhere.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association a reference book offering guidelines on how to present written material in the behavioral and social sciences clearly and effectively. Based on the special requirements of psychology but applicable to sociology, business, economics, nursing, social work, criminology, and other disciplines as well, the Publication Manual describes the editorial style established by the American Psychological Association (APA) and used in all of the books and journals that it publishes (i.e., APA style). Besides guidance on the content and organization of a manuscript, the Publication Manual offers direction on such points as grammar and the mechanics of writing, the uniform use of punctuation and abbreviations, the construction of tables and figures, the selection of headings, the citation and formatting of references, and the presentation of statistics. The forerunner of the Publication Manual was a brief article published in the February 1929 issue of the APA journal Psychological Bulletin. A revised and expanded version of these instructions was published as a first edition of the Publication Manual in 1952. The second edition was published in 1974, the third in 1983, the fourth in 1994 the fifth in 2001, and the sixth in 2010. The first electronic version was made available in 2013.

PUBS

PUBS abbreviation for percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling.

pudendal nerve

pudendal nerve a combined sensory and motor nerve that carries fibers to the muscles and skin of the perineal region from branches of the second, third, and fourth sacral nerves (see spinal nerve). It terminates as the dorsal nerve of the penis or clitoris.

pudendum

pudendum n. (pl. pudenda) human external genitalia, especially those of the female. See vulva. —pudendal adj.

puer aeternus

puer aeternus the archetype of eternal youth. [Latin, “eternal boy”; introduced by Carl Jung]

puerilism

puerilism n. immature, childish behavior.

puerperal disorder

puerperal disorder a disorder occurring in a woman during the puerperium, which extends from the termination of labor to the return of the uterus to its prepregnant condition. Symptoms include psychotic and depressive reactions and, occasionally, manic episodes or delirious states precipitated by biological, psychosocial, or environmental factors. See postpartum depression; postpartum psychosis.

puerperium

puerperium n. (pl. puerperia) see postpartum period. —puerperal adj.

Puerto Rican syndrome

Puerto Rican syndrome see mal de pelea.

Pulfrich effect

Pulfrich effect an illusion of depth that occurs when a swinging pendulum is viewed by one eye normally, but through a dimming filter by the other eye. The difference in the timing of the visual signals created by this situation is interpreted by the brain as binocular disparity, and the pendulum appears to be traveling in an ellipse rather than back and forth. Also called Pulfrich phenomenon. Compare Mach–Dvorak stereoillusion. [Carl Pulfrich (1858–1927), German scientist]

pull model

pull model a psychological theory emphasizing how positive experience draws a person to establish meaning or to set goals. Compare push model.

pull-out program

pull-out program an educational plan in which students who spend most of the day in traditional classrooms are, for a portion of the day, taken to a separate class for specialized work, either above or below the standard of instruction in their regular classrooms. See also opportunity class.

pulmonary embolism

pulmonary embolism the lodging of a blood clot or other obstructing material (see embolism) in a pulmonary artery with consequent obstruction of blood supply to the lung tissue. The clot most commonly derives from deep vein thrombosis.

pulse

pulse n. 1. the pressure waves caused by rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the walls of arteries as blood is pumped from the heart. The pulse, which can be detected manually at superficial arteries, provides a measure of the heart rate. The strength of the pulse at various points in the body (e.g., the ankle) gives an indication of the adequacy of circulation. 2. an increase followed by a decrease in magnitude of a signal.

pulvinar

pulvinar n. a large nucleus in the brain that forms the dorsal posterior region of the thalamus. It has afferent and efferent connections with the cingulate cortex and is also connected to the superior colliculus. It has a role in eye movements.

pun

pun n. an expression that makes deliberate use of verbal ambiguity, generally for humorous effect; an example is “That’s the psychologist who went for a walk and fell into a depression.” Many puns exploit the phenomenon of homophony, in which words sounding the same (or nearly the same) have different meanings. See also polysemy.

punch-drunk

punch-drunk adj. see dementia pugilistica.

punctate sensitivity

punctate sensitivity the variable distribution of sense receptors in the skin, with the result that some points are more sensitive to certain types of stimuli than others. On most parts of the skin, pain spots are more densely distributed than touch, cold, and warm spots, in that order.

punctuated equilibrium

punctuated equilibrium a theory of evolution proposing that periods of rapid change, resulting in the development of new species, are separated by longer periods of little or no change. Proposed in 1972 by U.S. paleontologists Niles Eldredge (1943– ) and Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002), the theory subsequently inspired similar models of change as applied to other processes. In a model of group development, for example, U.S. behavioral scientist Connie J. Gersick proposed in 1988 that groups go through three stages of development: (a) a preliminary stage of setting deep structures (i.e., establishing how the group will be organized and what activities it will carry out); (b) an equilibrium period during which the deep structures are maintained; and (c) a revolutionary period of rapid change (usually resulting from environmental pressures) during which the deep structures are undone and superseded by new ones.

pungent

pungent adj. denoting one of the seven classes of odorants in the stereochemical smell theory.

punishment

punishment n. 1. a physically or psychologically painful, unwanted, or undesirable event or circumstance imposed as a penalty on an actual or perceived wrongdoer. 2. in operant conditioning, the process in which the relationship, or contingency, between a response and some stimulus or circumstance results in the response becoming less probable. For example, a pigeon’s pecks on a key may at first occasionally be followed by presentation of food; this will establish some probability of pecking. Next, each peck produces a brief electric shock (while the other conditions remain as before). If pecking declines as a result, then punishment is said to have occurred, and the shock is called a punisher. —punish vb.

punishment and obedience orientation

punishment and obedience orientation see preconventional level.

punitive damages

punitive damages a sum of money a defendant is ordered to pay to the plaintiff in a civil lawsuit when the goal of the court is to punish the defendant for malicious or evil acts and to deter others from engaging in similar conduct. Also called exemplary damages. Compare compensatory damages.

punitive parenting

punitive parenting a parent’s habitual use of punishment to teach or control a child, often involving harsh or coercive practices such as yelling at, threatening, pushing, grabbing, hitting, or verbally disparaging the child.

pupil

pupil n. the aperture through which light passes on entering the eye. It is located immediately in front of the lens. The size of the opening is controlled by a circle of muscle (the iris) innervated by fibers of the autonomic nervous system.

pupillary reflex

pupillary reflex the automatic change in size of the pupil in response to light changes. The pupil constricts in response to bright light and dilates in dim light. Also called light reflex. See also accommodation.

pupillary-skin reflex

pupillary-skin reflex see cutaneous-pupillary reflex.

pupillometry

pupillometry n. 1. the scientific measurement of the pupil of the eye, using a pupillometer (or coreometer) to measure the pupil’s diameter. Also called pupilometrics. 2. a research method in which pupillary responses to stimuli (usually visual images) are measured in order to determine the participant’s interest in the stimuli. [devised by U.S. psychologist Ekhard Hess (1916–1986)]

puppetry therapy

puppetry therapy the use of puppets as a projective form of play therapy. See also projective play.

puppy love

puppy love a type of romantic love that flourishes during adolescence but is often unstable and transient. Puppy love is regarded as marking a step toward emotional maturation.

Purdue Pegboard Test

Purdue Pegboard Test see pegboard test.

pure alexia

pure alexia see alexia.

pure color

pure color a sensation of color induced by monochromatic light, that is, light that contains a single wavelength.

pure consciousness

pure consciousness awareness without content. It is a central concept in Vedanta philosophy.

pure research

pure research see basic research.

pure science

pure science see basic science.

pure tone

pure tone a sound whose instantaneous sound pressure is a sinusoidal function of time. A pure tone has only one frequency component. Also called simple tone; sinusoid. Compare complex tone.

pure word deafness

pure word deafness a type of auditory agnosia in which an individual is unable to understand spoken language but can comprehend nonverbal sounds and read, write, and speak in a relatively normal manner. The syndrome is considered “pure” in the sense that it is relatively free of the language difficulties encountered in the aphasias.

pure-stimulus act

pure-stimulus act a behavioral response that does not move an organism toward its goal but that serves solely as a stimulus for other responses. It operates by activating proprioceptive stimuli that in turn initiate the appropriate goal-directed response. Also called pure-stimulus response. [first defined in 1930 by Clark L. Hull]

pure-tone audiometry

pure-tone audiometry see audibility range; audiogram.

purging

purging n. the activity of expelling food that has just been ingested, usually by vomiting or the use of laxatives. Purging often occurs in conjunction with an eating binge in anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa; its purpose is to eliminate or reduce real or imagined weight gain.

purging disorder

purging disorder a disturbance in which individuals feel a loss of control after eating only a small amount of food and recurrently vomit up or otherwise expel their meals. It is differentiated from bulimia nervosa by the absence of binging. Studies indicate that purging disorder affects between 1.1% and 5.3% of women in their lifetimes and that the typical age of onset is late adolescence (18–20 years old). The condition is associated with a greater release of the hormone cholecystokinin, which controls feelings of fullness, and lower levels of the protein leptin, which conveys information about body-fat levels. [originally described in 2005 by clinical psychologist Pamela K. Keel and colleagues]

Purkinje afterimage

Purkinje afterimage see Bidwell’s ghost. [Jan Evangelista Purkinje (also spelled Purkynê; 1787–1869), Czech physiologist and physician]

Purkinje cell

Purkinje cell a type of large, highly branched cell in the cerebellar cortex of the brain that receives incoming signals about the position of the body and transmits signals to spinal nerves for coordinated muscle actions. [Jan Evangelista Purkinje]

Purkinje figures

Purkinje figures the observation of one’s own network of retinal blood vessels, best seen by shining a bright light through the sclera at the margin of the eye. [Jan Evangelista Purkinje]

Purkinje shift

Purkinje shift a visual phenomenon in which colors appear to change with the level of illumination. A rose, for example, may appear bright red and its leaves bright green at the beginning of twilight, then gradually change to a black flower with light gray leaves as the level of daylight declines. The Purkinje shift affects the brilliance of the red end of the spectrum before the blue end. [Jan Evangelista Purkinje]

Purkinje–Sanson images

Purkinje–Sanson images three reflected images of a fixated object produced by the surface of the cornea and the front and back of the lens. [Jan Evangelista Purkinje; Louis Joseph Sanson (1790–1841), French surgeon]

purple

purple n. a color that results from mixing short and long wavelengths of light. See extraspectral hue.

purpose

purpose n. 1. the reason for which something is done or for which something exists. 2. a mental goal or aim that directs a person’s actions or behavior. 3. persistence or resolution in pursuing such a goal.

purpose in life

purpose in life the mental sense of a goal or aim in the process of living or in existence itself. This concept is of special significance in existential psychotherapy, in which its development is considered to be central to the treatment of anxiety, depression, and related negative emotional states.

purposeful behavior

purposeful behavior behavior with a specific goal, as opposed to aimless or random behavior. See goal-directed behavior.

purposeless hyperactivity

purposeless hyperactivity a symptom of certain brain or mental disorders manifest as prolonged periods of excessive activity that has no purpose.

purposive accident

purposive accident an apparent accident that in fact was caused deliberately. It may have been motivated by psychological factors, such as unacknowledged wishes or needs. Also called intentional accident. See parapraxis.

purposive behaviorism

purposive behaviorism a cognitive theory of learning postulating that behavioral acts have a goal or purpose that selects and guides the behavioral sequence until the goal or purpose is attained. Purposive behaviorism incorporates the gestalt concepts of field theory and contrasts with behavioral learning theories, which reduce behavior to smaller units of learned stimuli and responses. See also S–S learning model. [proposed by Edward C. Tolman]

purposive psychology

purposive psychology an approach to psychology that makes the primary assumption that organisms usually have conscious goals that motivate and organize their behavior. See also hormic psychology; purposive behaviorism; teleology.

purposive sampling

purposive sampling a sampling method that focuses on very specific characteristics of the units or individuals chosen. For example, a researcher investigating a specific type of amnesia may select for study only those individuals who have specific lesions in their brains. Although the final subset of cases is extreme and not random, valuable information nonetheless may be obtained from their study. See nonprobability sampling.

purposivism

purposivism n. any approach that emphasizes goals or purposes to explain actions or behavior. See purposive behaviorism.

pursuit rotor

pursuit rotor a device to test visual–motor coordination that consists of a small target embedded in a disk. The participant attempts to keep a stylus above the target, which moves as the disk rotates at varying speeds.

pursuitmeter

pursuitmeter n. 1. any instrument that measures the ability of a test participant to follow a moving target. 2. an older term for a pursuit rotor.

push model

push model a psychological theory emphasizing how negative experience impels a person to establish meaning or to set goals. Compare pull model.

push switch

push switch a single- or multiple-button switch that can be activated by direct pressure from almost any body part and is therefore operable by users with disabilities.

push-down stack

push-down stack a model of memory that compares its storage procedures to stacks of cafeteria trays in spring-loaded compartments. New items in memory are like trays added to the top of the stack, with other items being pushed down to accommodate them. Access to memory items is only from the “top.” The model originated in computing but is now often applied to short-term memory in humans.

putamen

putamen n. a part of the lenticular nucleus in the basal ganglia of the brain. It receives input from the motor cortex and is involved in control of movements.

putrid

putrid adj. denoting one of the seven classes of odorants in the stereochemical smell theory.

puzzle box

puzzle box in experimental research, a box in which a nonhuman animal must manipulate some type of device, such as a latch, to escape from the box or to get a reward. It was originally used in 1898, in the form of the Thorndike Puzzle Box (a wooden box with slatted sides and a door that could be opened by the animal inside), by Edward L. Thorndike in studying animal learning and intelligence.

PVS

PVS abbreviation for persistent vegetative state.

PWS

PWS abbreviation for Prader–Willi syndrome.

pycnodysostosis (pyknodysostosis)

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Pygmalion effect

Pygmalion effect a consequence or reaction in which the expectations of a leader or superior engender behavior from followers or subordinates that is consistent with these expectations: a form of self-fulfilling prophecy. For example, raising manager expectations of the performance of subordinate employees has been found to enhance the performance of those employees. Compare upward Pygmalion effect.

pygmalionism

pygmalionism n. the act of falling in love with one’s own creation. The term is derived from Greek mythology, in which Pygmalion fell in love with a statue of Aphrodite that he had sculpted.

pygmyism

pygmyism n. a constitutional hereditary anomaly consisting of a dwarfed but well-proportioned body, roughly equivalent to the primordial nanosomia body type. This body build is typical for certain groups of people, particularly in central Africa. Communities of similar small people have been described in myths and the literature of ancient Europe.

pyknic type

pyknic type a body type characterized by a short, thickset, stocky physique. According to Kretschmer typology, such individuals tend to be jovial, extraverted, and subject to mood swings (in extreme cases, manic depressive). See also constitutional type.

pyknodysostosis

pyknodysostosis n. see pycnodysostosis.

pyknolepsy

pyknolepsy n. see childhood absence epilepsy.

pyloric stenosis

pyloric stenosis see stenosis.

pyr-

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pyramid

pyramid n. a bulge on the front of the medulla oblongata where fibers of motor neurons from higher centers cross from one side of the brain to the opposite side of the spinal cord. See also pyramidal tract.

pyramidal cell

pyramidal cell a type of large neuron that has a roughly pyramid-shaped cell body and is found in the cerebral cortex. See cortical layers.

pyramidal tract

pyramidal tract the primary pathway followed by motor neurons that originate in the motor area of the cortex, the premotor area, the somatosensory area, and the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain. Fibers of the pyramidal tract communicate with fibers supplying the peripheral muscles. Because of the contralateral relationship between left and right brain hemispheres and motor activity on the opposite sides of the body, pyramidal-tract fibers cross in the pyramids of the medulla oblongata. The pyramidal tract includes the corticospinal tract, and the two terms are occasionally used synonymously. Also called pyramidal motor system; pyramidal system. See also extrapyramidal tract.

pyramidotomy

pyramidotomy n. the surgical process of cutting the pyramidal (motor) tract in the brain.

pyridostigmine

pyridostigmine n. an anticholinergic drug used in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. U.S. trade name (among others): Mestinon.

pyriform area (piriform area)

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pyro- (pyr-)

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pyrogen

pyrogen n. any agent that causes an increase in body temperature. —pyrogenic adj.

pyrolagnia

pyrolagnia n. the arousal of sexual excitement by watching or setting large fires or conflagrations. Also called erotic pyromania.

pyromania

pyromania n. an impulse-control disorder characterized by (a) repeated failure to resist impulses to set fires and watch them burn, without monetary, social, political, or other motivations; (b) an extreme interest in fire and things associated with fire; and (c) a sense of increased tension before starting the fire and intense pleasure, gratification, or release while committing the act.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'P'