Terms Starting with "D"

1467 terms

d

d 1. see Cohen’s d. 2. see Glass’s d.glasss-d D 1. symbol for difference score. 2. see Cook’s D. d′ symbol for d prime.

D

d 1. see Cohen’s d. 2. see Glass’s d.glasss-d D 1. symbol for difference score. 2. see Cook’s D. d′ symbol for d prime.

d prime

d prime (symbol: d′) a measure of an individual’s ability to detect signals; more specifically, a measure of sensitivity or discriminability derived from signal detection theory that is unaffected by response biases. It is the difference (in standard deviation units) between the means of the noise and signal + noise distributions. The assumptions underlying the validity of d′ as a bias free measure are that the probability distributions upon which decisions are based are Gaussian (normal) and have equal variances. If this is true, then d′ completely describes the receiver-operating characteristic curve. In practice, d′ has proved to be sufficiently bias free to be the “best” measure of psychophysical performance. It is essentially a standardized score and is computed as the difference between the (Gaussian) standard scores for the false-alarm rate and the hit rate. A value of d′ = 3 is close to perfect performance; a value of d′ = 0 is chance (“guessing”) performance.

D trisomy syndrome

D trisomy syndrome see trisomy 13.

D-cognition

D-cognition n. see being cognition.

D-love

D-love n. see deficiency love.

D–KEFS

D–KEFS abbreviation for Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System.

D.A.R.E.

D.A.R.E. acronym for Drug Abuse Resistance Education: a program through which police officers teach kindergarten through 12th grade students how to say no to drugs, including how to defend against peer pressure to use drugs.

D’Acosta’s syndrome

D’Acosta’s syndrome see altitude sickness. [José de Acosta (1539–1600), Spanish geographer]

d′

d 1. see Cohen’s d. 2. see Glass’s d.glasss-d D 1. symbol for difference score. 2. see Cook’s D. d′ symbol for d prime.

DA

DA 1. abbreviation for developmental age. 2. abbreviation for dopamine.

Da Costa’s syndrome

Da Costa’s syndrome an anxiety state identified in soldiers during the American Civil War (1861–1865) in which heart palpitations were the most prominent symptom. It is now recognized as a form of panic disorder observed in soldiers during the stress of combat and marked by fatigue, heart palpitations, chest pain, and breathing difficulty. See also combat stress reaction; effort syndrome. [Jacob Méndes Da Costa (1833–1900), U.S. surgeon]

DABS

DABS abbreviation for Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale.

dACC

dACC abbreviation for dorsal anterior cingulate cortex.

dactylology

dactylology n. the communication of ideas by means of signs formed with the fingers. See fingerspelling; sign language.

DAF

DAF abbreviation for delayed auditory feedback.

DAH Test

DAH Test abbreviation for Machover Draw-a-House Test. See Machover Draw-a-Person Test.

DAI

DAI abbreviation for diffuse axonal injury.

daily stressor

daily stressor any normative, day-to-day event (e.g., demanding work, financial pressure, family conflict) that can influence physical and mental health and pose a risk to well-being.

daily-living aid

daily-living aid see assistive technology.

DAISY

DAISY acronym for Digital Accessible Information SYstem. See talking book.

Dale’s law

Dale’s law the concept, now known to be incorrect for many neurons, that each terminal button (see axon) of a neuron contains only one kind of neurotransmitter. Also called Dale’s principle. [Henry Hallet Dale (1875–1968), British neurophysiologist]

Dallenbach stimulator

Dallenbach stimulator a device for providing controlled thermal stimulation to the skin. [Karl M. Dallenbach]

Dalmane

Dalmane n. a trade name for flurazepam.

DALYs

DALYs acronym for disability adjusted life years.

damage-risk criteria (DRC)

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damped regression

damped regression see ridge regression.

damping

damping n. a diminution of the amplitude of vibrations, often as a result of absorption of energy (e.g., electricity, sound) by the surrounding medium. In speech and singing, it refers to the tension and elongation of the vocal cords beyond the normal maximal level in an attempt to reach still higher tones on the ascending scale.

dance therapy

dance therapy the use of various forms of rhythmic movement—classical, modern, folk, or ballroom dancing; exercises to music; and the like—as a therapeutic technique to help individuals achieve greater body awareness and social interaction and enhance their psychological and physical functioning. See also movement therapy. [pioneered in 1942 by U.S. dance professional Marian Chace (1896–1970)]

dancing language

dancing language see bee communication.

dancing madness

dancing madness see choreomania.

dancing mania

dancing mania see choreomania.

dancing mouse

dancing mouse a strain of mice displaying behavior that resembles dancing. Mice of this strain have a genetic defect that causes degeneration of the hair cells of the inner ear. This degeneration produces deafness and impaired functioning of the vestibular system of the ear, which is thought to cause the dancelike behavior.

Dandy–Walker syndrome

Dandy–Walker syndrome a congenital anomaly involving a large cyst in the posterior region of the fetal brain. The syndrome is characterized by (a) blockage of the fourth ventricle, resulting in increased volume of brain fluid (see hydrocephalus), and (b) complete or partial agenesis (failure to develop) of the middle portion of the cerebellum (the vermis) because of its displacement by the cyst. [Walter Dandy (1886–1946), U.S. neurosurgeon; Arthur Earl Walker (1907–1995), U.S. neurologist]

dangerousness

dangerousness n. the state in which individuals become likely to do harm either to themselves or to others, representing a threat to their own or other people’s safety. —dangerous adj.

dantrolene

dantrolene n. a muscle relaxant whose primary action is directly on skeletal muscles; it also indirectly affects the central nervous system as a secondary action. Dantrolene is used in the treatment of muscular spasms associated with spinal cord injury, stroke, cerebral palsy, and multiple sclerosis, as well as with neuroleptic malignant syndrome. U.S. trade name: Dantrium.

Daoism

Daoism n. see Taoism.

DAP Test

DAP Test abbreviation for Machover Draw-a-Person Test.

dark adaptation

dark adaptation the ability of the eye to adjust to conditions of low illumination by means of an increased sensitivity to light. The bulk of the process takes 30 minutes and involves expansion of the pupils and retinal alterations, specifically the regeneration of rhodopsin and iodopsin. See also rod–cone break. Compare light adaptation.

dark cell

dark cell see Type I cell.

dark light

dark light see retinal light.

dark-adaptation curve

dark-adaptation curve a graph of light sensitivity over time for an individual asked to detect dim flashes in total darkness. See also rod–cone break.

darkness fear

darkness fear see fear of darkness.

Darvocet

Darvocet n. a former trade name for the analgesic combination propoxyphene and acetaminophen.

Darvon

Darvon n. a former trade name for propoxyphene.

Darwinian algorithm

Darwinian algorithm in evolutionary psychology, an innate domain-specific cognitive program that evolved to accomplish specific adaptive functions. An example is the cognitive mechanism for face recognition. [Charles Darwin]

Darwinian fitness

Darwinian fitness the relative success of a particular organism or genotype in producing viable offspring, which is determined by natural selection. [Charles Darwin]

Darwinian reflex

Darwinian reflex a grasping response shown by newborn infants. See grasp reflex. [Charles Darwin]

Darwinism

Darwinism n. the theory of evolution by natural selection, as originally proposed by British naturalists Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913). In the 20th century, it was modified, as neo-Darwinism, to account for genetic mechanisms of heredity, particularly the sources of genetic variation upon which natural selection works. See also survival of the fittest.

DAS

DAS 1. abbreviation for developmental apraxia of speech. 2. abbreviation for Differential Ability Scales.

Dasein

Dasein n. in the thought of German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), the particular kind of being manifest in humans. It is their being as Dasein that allows humans access to the larger question of being in general, since access to the world is always through what their own being makes possible. The term is commonly used in existential psychology and related therapeutic approaches. See being-in-the-world. [German, literally: “being there”]

Dasein analysis

Dasein analysis a method of existential psychotherapy emphasizing the need to recognize not only one’s being-in-the-world but also what one can become (see Dasein). Through examination of such concepts as intentionality and intuition, Dasein analysis attempts to help clients to accept themselves and realize their potential rather than adapt themselves to others’ expectations. [developed by Swiss psychiatrist Medard Boss (1903–1990)]

DAST

DAST abbreviation for Drug Abuse Screening Test.

DAT

DAT 1. abbreviation for dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. 2. abbreviation for Differential Aptitude Tests.

data

data pl. n. (sing. datum) observations or measurements, usually quantified and obtained in the course of research. For example, a researcher may be interested in collecting data on health-related behaviors such as frequency and amount of exercise, number of calories consumed per day, number of cigarettes smoked per day, number of alcoholic drinks per day, and so forth.

data analysis

data analysis the process of applying graphical, statistical, or quantitative techniques to a set of observations or measurements in order to summarize it or to find general patterns. For example, a very basic data analysis would involve calculating descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, median, mode, standard deviation) and possibly graphing the observations with a histogram or bar graph.

data collection

data collection a systematic gathering of information for research or practical purposes. Examples include mail surveys, interviews, laboratory experiments, and psychological testing.

data dredging

data dredging the inappropriate practice of searching through large files of information to try to confirm a preconceived hypothesis or belief without an adequate design that controls for possible confounds or alternate hypotheses. Data dredging may involve selecting which parts of a large data set to retain to get specific, desired results. An extreme example would be if a marketing researcher found that 91 out of 100 people surveyed were opposed to a certain product and then chose to focus only on the last 10 people in order to state that 9 out of 10 people prefer this product, when in fact there were only 9 out of 100 preferred it. See data snooping.

data mining

data mining the automated (computerized) examination of a large set of observations or measurements, particularly as collected in a complex database, in order to discover patterns, correlations, and other regularities that can be used for predictive purposes. Although a relatively new discipline, data mining has become a widely utilized technique within commercial and scientific research. For example, retailers often use data mining to predict the future buying trends of customers or to design targeted marketing strategies, whereas clinicians may use it to determine variables predicting hospitalization for psychological disorders. Data mining incorporates methods from statistics, logic, and artificial intelligence.

data point

data point a specific piece of information derived from a larger set of data. A data point is often formed by the intersection of two other pieces of information, as in the intersection of a person’s score on one variable with his or her score on a second variable in a scatterplot. For example, 10 people could be asked their average number of hours of sleep per night and the number of colds they tend to have in a year. Then, the number of sleep hours could be recorded along the horizontal x-axis and the number of colds per year recorded along the vertical y-axis, resulting in 10 separate data points.

data pooling

data pooling combining the information from two or more studies or substudies, for example, by averaging standard deviations or variances across groups to form a single value for use in a t test or analysis of variance. Although it can be helpful to synthesize information in this way, data pooling can sometimes lead to misleading conclusions, as in Simpson’s paradox.

data reduction

data reduction the process of reducing a set of measurements or variables into a smaller, more manageable, more reliable, or better theoretically justified set or form. For example, a researcher may conduct a factor analysis on a set of 50 items on well-being and satisfaction to determine whether the information could be summarized more efficiently on underlying dimensions of relationship satisfaction, degree of meaning in life, job satisfaction, and general health.

data screening

data screening a procedure in which one subjects a large set of information to preliminary review for any of a variety of reasons: to check for accuracy, to identify unusual patterns (e.g., outliers that are very different from the information from most participants) or any missing information, to determine whether the information would meet a statistical assumption (e.g., of normality), to reduce the data to more manageable dimensions, and so forth.

data set

data set a collection of individual but related observations or measurements considered as a single entity. For example, the entire range of scores obtained from a class of students taking a particular test would constitute a data set.

data snooping

data snooping 1. looking for unpredicted, post hoc effects in a body of data. 2. examining data before an experiment has been completed, which can sometimes result in erroneous or misleading conclusions. See also data dredging.

data types

data types in the application of factor analysis to personality, various types of information collected on individuals and classified according to the information source. For example, Q data are collected on individuals from self-report questionnaires and inventories, and T data are acquired about individuals from the results of a formal scientific measurement or objective test. Other types include L data, or information gathered from individual life histories, and O data, or information gathered about individuals from other people (e.g., family members). [first specified by Raymond B. Cattell]

data-driven processing

data-driven processing see bottom-up processing.

database

database n. a large, structured collection of information stored in retrievable form, usually electronically. For example, the information that researchers collect from their studies is usually kept in a computer database to allow for easy access, manipulation, and analysis in testing relevant hypotheses. 2. In addition to the ir use as a research tool, databases are used in various sectors (e.g., healthcare) for record-keeping purposes (see problem-oriented record).

date rape

date rape sexual assault by an acquaintance, date, or other person known to the victim, often involving alcohol or date-rape drugs that may hinder the victim’s ability to withhold consent. Also called acquaintance rape.

date-rape drug

date-rape drug a common colloquial term for a drug that is surreptitiously administered to impair consciousness or memory for the purpose of sexual exploitation of the victim. Such drugs are typically introduced into alcoholic beverages in social settings. Date-rape drugs include barbiturates, high-potency benzodiazepines (flunitrazepam, triazolam), ketamine, and the illicit substance GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyrate). The most common slang for these drugs is roofies, from Rohypnol, the trade name for flunitrazepam. The U.S. Congress passed the Drug-Induced Rape Prevention and Punishment Act in 1996, making it a federal crime to give an unaware person a controlled substance with the intent of committing violence against him or her.

dative

dative n. a case of nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases that identifies the indirect object of a verb. In modern English, unlike more inflected languages, the dative case affects only a few personal pronouns, when it is indistinguishable from the accusative. Compare genitive; nominative.

Daubert test

Daubert test a test used in U.S. federal courts, in place of the earlier Frye test, to determine if expert scientific testimony is admissible under Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence. Established as a standard by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1993 case Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc., the Daubert test generally takes place before a trial begins, during a Daubert hearing at which judges evaluate whether the research presented in the testimony is both relevant and reliable, considering such factors as its testability, error rate, evidence of peer review, and general acceptance within the scientific community.

Dauerschlaf

Dauerschlaf n. a type of therapy in which prolonged sleep is induced with drugs (e.g., barbiturates). Dauerschlaf (German, “perpetual sleep”) has been used in the treatment of substance dependence, status epilepticus, and acute psychotic episodes. Its efficacy and use have been the subject of extreme controversy, and it is now rarely encountered clinically.

day blindness

day blindness see hemeralopia.

day camp

day camp a facility that provides recreational, educational, or therapeutic services to children on a short-term, day-by-day basis as opposed to long-term camps that require overnight accommodation.

day care center

day care center 1. see child care facilities. 2. a nonresidential facility that provides health and social services in a community setting for adults who are unable to perform many ordinary tasks without supervision or assistance. See adult day care.

day habilitation

day habilitation a home and community-based service provided for a person with an intellectual or developmental disability. This service provides productive daily schedules of activity based on individualized support planning, including clinical services, companion services, socialization, recreation, vocational development, and lifestyle enrichment. In practice, these services may be delivered on a person-by-person basis or in small groups in any location during daytime hours.

day hospital

day hospital a nonresidential facility where individuals with mental disorders receive treatment and support services during the day and return to their homes at night. Specific service offerings vary across facilities but generally include psychological evaluation, individual and group psychotherapy, social and occupational rehabilitation, and somatic therapy. Staff members are multidisciplinary, comprising psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, vocational counselors, and others.

day treatment

day treatment a program of coordinated interdisciplinary assessment, treatment, and rehabilitation services provided by professionals and paraprofessionals for people with disabilities, mental or physical disorders, or substance abuse problems, usually at a single location for 6 or more hours during the day. Services also address skill and vocational development and may include adjustment programs or sheltered workshops.

daydream

daydream n. a waking fantasy, or reverie, in which wishes, expectations, and other potentialities are played out in imagination. Part of the stream of thoughts and images that occupy most of a person’s waking hours, daydreams may be unbidden and apparently purposeless or simply fanciful thoughts, whether spontaneous or intentional. Researchers have identified at least three ways in which individuals’ daydreaming styles differ: positive-constructive daydreaming, guilty and fearful daydreaming, and poor attentional control. These styles are posited to reflect the daydreamer’s overall emotion and personality tendencies. Among the important positive functions that daydreams may serve are the release of strong affect, the gaining of self-insight when reviewing past experiences or rehearsing for future situations, the generation of creative solutions, and the production of greater empathy for others.

daylight vision

daylight vision see photopic vision.

daymare

daymare n. an attack of acute anxiety, distress, or terror that is similar to a nightmare but occurs in a period of wakefulness and is precipitated by waking-state fantasies.

dB

dB symbol for decibel.

DBI

DBI abbreviation for diazepam-binding inhibitor.

DBS

DBS abbreviation for deep brain stimulation.

DBT

DBT abbreviation for dialectical behavior therapy.

dc (d/c)

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DC amplifier

DC amplifier a direct-current device used to amplify the potential difference across a neural membrane so that the cortical current can be recorded and studied.

DDAVP

DDAVP n. a trade name for desmopressin.

DDE

DDE abbreviation for doctrine of double effect. See principle of double effect.

de Clérambault’s syndrome

de Clérambault’s syndrome see Clérambault’s syndrome.

de Lange syndrome

de Lange syndrome see Cornelia de Lange syndrome.

DEA

DEA abbreviation for U.S. Drug Enforcement Administrationus-drug-enforcement-administration.

deadly catatonia

deadly catatonia see lethal catatonia.

deadly nightshade

deadly nightshade see belladonna alkaloid.

deaf hearing

deaf hearing the capacity of some people with total deafness to detect and localize sounds without any conscious awareness of doing so. Studies suggest that this capacity is involuntary and is not accompanied by any ability to identify or interpret sounds. It has been proposed that such individuals may have a heightened sense of feeling that enables them to respond to the vibrations in sound waves. See also blindsight; numbsense.

deaf mutism–retinal degeneration syndrome

deaf mutism–retinal degeneration syndrome see Diallinas–Amalric syndrome.

deaf-blind

deaf-blind adj. lacking or having severely compromised vision and hearing concomitantly. People with deaf-blind impairment encounter significant—sometimes lifelong—challenges in communication, development, and education. Solutions involving tactile devices are often appropriate (e.g., braille). There are numerous known causes, including meningitis, congenital rubella syndrome, and Usher syndrome. —deaf-blindness n.

deaf-mute

deaf-mute n. an obsolescent and pejorative name for an individual who cannot speak, or chooses not to speak, because of congenital or early-acquired profound deafness.

deafferentation

deafferentation n. the cutting or removal of sensory neurons or axons that convey information toward a particular nervous system structure (e.g., the olfactory bulb).

deafness

deafness n. the partial or complete absence or loss of the sense of hearing. The condition may be hereditary or acquired by injury or disease at any stage of life, including in utero. The major kinds are conduction deafness, due to a disruption in sound vibrations before they reach the nerve endings of the inner ear, and sensorineural deafness, caused by a failure of the nerves or brain centers associated with the sense of hearing to transmit or interpret properly the impulses from the inner ear. Some individuals experience both conduction and sensorineural deafness, a form called mixed deafness. See also adventitious deafness; central deafness; congenital deafness; cortical deafness; exposure deafness; perception deafness. —deaf adj.

death

death n. 1. the permanent cessation of physical and mental processes in an organism. In the United States in the early 1980s, the American Medical Association and the American Bar Association drafted and approved the Uniform Determination of Death Act, in which death is defined as either the irreversible cessation of core physiological functioning (i.e., spontaneous circulatory and respiratory functions) or the irreversible loss of cerebral functioning (i.e., brain death). Given the emergence of sophisticated technologies for cardiopulmonary support, brain death is more often considered the essential determining factor, particularly within the legal profession. See also assisted death; dying process; thanatology. 2. the degeneration or disintegration of a biological cell. See necrosis; neuronal cell death; programmed cell death.

death anxiety

death anxiety emotional distress and insecurity aroused by reminders of mortality, including one’s own memories and thoughts of death (see also ontological confrontation). Classical psychoanalytic theory asserted that the unconscious cannot believe in its own death, therefore thanatophobia was a disguise for some deeper fear. Existentialists later proposed that death anxiety is at the root of all fears, though often disguised. A mass of research using self-report scales (see death-anxiety scales) suggests that most people have a low to moderate level of death anxiety. See also edge theory; terror management theory.

death concepts

death concepts cognitive constructions of linear time, finality, certainty, irreversibility, universality, and personal vulnerability, which cohere with other elements to form a general understanding of mortality. The infant’s fear of separation is seen as an early precursor of these abstract and differentiated ideas, which usually do not develop until early adolescence. Even then, fantasy often continues to contend with reality in the acceptance of the finality and inevitability of death.

death education

death education learning activities or programs designed to educate people about death, dying, coping with grief, and bereavement. Death education is typically provided by certified thanatologists from a wide array of mental and medical health personnel, educators, clergy, and volunteers. Individual or group sessions provide information, discussion, guided experiences, and exploration of attitudes and feelings.

death feigning

death feigning the act of becoming immobile, or “playing dead,” when threatened. Also called playing possum; tonic immobility. See animal defensive behavior; immobility.

death gene

death gene a gene that is expressed only when a cell becomes committed to programmed cell death.

death instinct

death instinct in psychoanalytic theory, a drive whose aim is the reduction of psychical tension to the lowest possible point, that is, death. It is first directed inward as a self-destructive tendency and is later turned outward in the form of the aggressive instinct. In the dual instinct theory of Sigmund Freud, the death instinct, or Thanatos, stands opposed to the life instinct, or Eros, and is believed to be the drive underlying such behaviors as aggressiveness, sadism, and masochism. See also nirvana principle.

death phobia

death phobia see thanatophobia.

death rite

death rite a culture-bound ceremony, ritual, or other religious or customary practice associated with dying and the dead, such as a funeral rite. See rite of passage.

death system

death system the dynamic patterns through which a society mediates its relationship with mortality in order to remain viable as a culture and meet the needs of the individual. All cultures have a death system whose primary functions are warning and prediction, prevention, care for the dying, disposing of the dead, social consolidation after death, killing, and making sense of death. How these functions are performed is significantly influenced by a number of factors, including economic priorities, religious values, traditions of discrimination and enmity, and level of technological development. [first described in 1977 by Robert J. Kastenbaum]

death taboo (death tabu)

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death wish

death wish 1. an unconscious desire for one’s own death, as manifested in self-destructive or dangerous behaviors. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a conscious or unconscious wish that another person, particularly a parent, will die. According to Sigmund Freud, such wishes are a major source of guilt, desire for self-punishment, and depression. See also death instinct.

death-anxiety scales

death-anxiety scales questionnaires that yield scores for the level of self-reported concern about death. Some scales distinguish between several types of concern, such as fear of pain or fear of nonbeing. See also thanatophobia.

death-qualified jury

death-qualified jury a jury in a criminal case whose members have been questioned under oath by either judges or attorneys and deemed to be capable of imposing the death penalty. See also Wainwright v. Wittwainwright-v-witt; Witherspoon excludables.

deathbed escorts and visions

deautomatization hypothesis

deautomatization hypothesis the idea that mystical experience results from focused attention, as through meditation and similar techniques, that brings about the conscious, voluntary undoing of automatic or habitual processes associated with organizing, limiting, selecting, and interpreting perceptual stimuli. See automaticity. [proposed in 1966 by U.S. psychiatrist Arthur J. Deikman (1929–2013)]

debilitative anxiety

debilitative anxiety a level of anxiety that an individual (e.g., an actor, an athlete) perceives as interfering with performance. Examples include being psyched out (see psyching out) or “out of the zone.”

Debré–Sémélaigne syndrome

Debré–Sémélaigne syndrome see Kocher–Debré–Sémélaigne syndrome.

debriefing

debriefing n. the process of giving participants in a completed research project a fuller explanation of the study in which they participated than was possible before or during the research.

debt counseling

debt counseling counseling specifically aimed at helping individuals with financial problems, providing assistance with or advice about budgeting, credit-card usage, debt consolidation, and money management. Debt counseling may be provided by counselors or therapists as part of a larger process of addressing various problems in an individual’s life, or it may be carried out by financial planners and accountants as a discrete effort.

decadence

decadence n. 1. a presumed deterioration of a culture, society, or civilization because of a general collapse of moral character and traditional values. 2. generally, a loss or diminution of excellence or some other quality. 3. (typically capitalized) loosely, an artistic movement of the mid- and late 19th century, particularly in literature and the visual arts, that valued extreme aesthetic refinement, the superiority of artifice (i.e., human invention) over nature, and innovative and atypical experiential perspectives and modes of being. Also called Decadent movement.

Decadron

Decadron n. a trade name for dexamethasone.

décalage

décalage n. in Piagetian theory, the invariant order in which cognitive accomplishments develop. See horizontal décalage; vertical décalage. [French, “interval,” “shift”]

decarboxylase

decarboxylase n. an enzyme that catalyzes the removal of a carboxyl group (–COOH) from a compound.

decarceration

decarceration n. 1. the process of removing offenders from correctional facilities, often to community facilities. 2. see deinstitutionalization.

decatastrophizing

decatastrophizing n. a technique, used in treating people with irrational or exaggerated fears, that explores the reality of a feared stimulus as a way of diminishing its imagined or anticipated danger.

decathexis

decathexis n. in psychoanalytic theory, the withdrawal of libido from objects (i.e., other people) in the external world. Compare cathexis.

decay theory

decay theory the theory that learned material leaves in the brain a trace or impression that autonomously recedes and disappears unless the material is practiced and used. Decay theory is a theory of forgetting. Also called trace-decay theory.

deceiver’s distrust

deceiver’s distrust the tendency of people who engage in acts of deception to perceive the recipients of those lies as untrustworthy and dishonest. Deceiver’s distrust presumably reflects the assumption that interaction partners are similar to oneself; thus, one’s own deceitfulness leads to the inference that the other is, has been, or will be similarly deceitful. By assuming that others are also untruthful, deceivers can feel less guilt about having lied to them.

deceleration

deceleration n. a decrease in speed of movement or rate of change. For example, a medical researcher may be interested in the deceleration of an illness or symptom as evidence that a treatment is working effectively. Compare acceleration.

decentering

decentering n. 1. any of a variety of techniques aimed at changing one’s centered thinking (i.e., focus on only one salient feature at a time, to the total exclusion of other important characteristics) to openminded thinking. 2. dissolution of unity between self and identity. 3. see decentration. —decenter vb.

decentralization

decentralization n. the trend to relocate patients with chronic mental illness from long-term institutionalization, usually at government hospitals, to outpatient care in community-based residential facilities. —decentralize vb.

decentralized organization

decentralized organization an organizational structure in which decision-making authority is spread throughout the organization rather than being reserved for those at the top of the hierarchy. Compare centralized organization.

decentration

decentration n. in Piagetian theory, the gradual progression of a child away from egocentrism toward a reality shared with others. Occurring during the concrete operational stage, decentration includes understanding how others perceive the world, knowing in what ways one’s own perceptions differ, and recognizing that people have motivations and feelings different from one’s own. It can also be extended to the ability to consider many aspects of a situation, problem, or object, as reflected, for example, in the child’s grasp of the concept of conservation. Also called decentering. Compare centration. —decenter vb.

deception

deception n. 1. any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others. For example, a researcher who has not disclosed the true purpose of an experiment to a participant has engaged in deception. 2. in nonhuman animal behavior, the provision of false information that results in the individual obtaining increased resources at the expense of others. Some animals give false alarm calls that disperse competitors and thus gain more food (see dishonest signal). Another form of deception is exhibited when certain animals engage in aggressive displays that make them appear larger than they really are. —deceive vb. —deceptive adj.

deception clue

deception clue a behavioral indication that an individual is not telling the truth. Deception clues include inconsistencies between voluntary and involuntary behavior and unusual or exaggerated physiological or expressive responses to knowledge that only a guilty person possesses.

deception research

deception research any study in which participants are deliberately misled or not informed about the purpose of the investigation in order to avoid the possibility that their responses may be given to meet the perceived expectations of researchers. For example, a social psychologist may use a deception experiment in which participants are randomly assigned to either of two scenarios that each describe job applicants in identical terms except that one is midleadingly said to be a male and the other is female. The researcher may then assess any gender bias in the participants by asking how likely the applicant is to be hired, instead of directly asking participants about their attitudes toward gender. See active deception; double deception; passive deception.

deceptive advertising

deceptive advertising advertising that leads to incorrect inferences on the part of consumers, for example, that taking a particular food supplement will help individuals lose weight.

decerebrate rigidity

decerebrate rigidity rigidity of the body that occurs when the brainstem is functionally separated from the cerebral cortex, typically as a result of a brain lesion or vascular disorder. It is marked by bilateral rigid extension, adduction, and hyperpronation of the legs and arms. Also called decerebrate posturing; extensor posturing.

decerebration

decerebration n. loss of the ability to discriminate, learn, and control movements as a result of transection of the brainstem, surgical removal of the cerebrum, or cutting off of the cerebral blood supply. Decerebrate (adj.) describes a human or nonhuman animal that has experienced decerebration; such an individual is also known as a decerebrate (n.).

decibel

decibel (symbol: dB) n. a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio of acoustic or electric power (intensity). An increase of 1 bel is a 10-fold increase in intensity; a decibel is one tenth of a bel and is the more commonly used unit, partly because a 1 dB change in intensity is just detectable (approximately and under laboratory conditions). The sound intensity (the numerator of the intensity ratio) or sound level is usually specified in decibels sound-pressure level (dB SPL). The reference intensity (the denominator of the intensity ratio) for dB SPL is 10–12W/m2 and corresponds to a sound pressure of 20 μPa (micropascal). A sound presented at the reference intensity has a level of 0 dB SPL and is close to the absolute threshold for a 1 kHz tone. Often SPL is omitted but is implied from the context: A “60 dB sound” usually means 60 dB SPL. The decibel, because it is a logarithmic measure, has caused much confusion. For example, decibels do not add: Two unrelated 60 dB SPL sounds when sounded simultaneously produce a 63 dB SPL sound, not a 120 dB SPL sound.

decile

decile n. one of a series of values that divide a statistical distribution into 10 equal-sized parts. Thus, the first decile is the value below which lie 10% of cases, the second decile is the value below which lie 20% of cases, and so forth.

decision making

decision making the cognitive process of choosing between two or more alternatives, ranging from the relatively clear cut (e.g., ordering a meal at a restaurant) to the complex (e.g., selecting a mate). Psychologists have adopted two converging strategies to understand decision making: (a) statistical analysis of multiple decisions involving complex tasks and (b) experimental manipulation of simple decisions, looking at the elements that recur within these decisions.

decision rule

decision rule in hypothesis testing, a formal statement of the set of values of the test statistic that will lead to rejection of the null hypothesis that there is no significant effect in the study being examined. For example, a common decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis when the value of a z test statistic exceeds 1.96.

decision theory

decision theory a broad class of presumptions in the quantitative, social, and behavioral sciences that aim to explain a process and identify optimal ways of arriving at conclusions so that prespecified criteria are met.

decision-making model of counseling

decision-making model of counseling an approach that envisions counseling as a process with three stages: the problem definition phase, the work phase, and the action phase. The problem definition phase considers alternative definitions of the client’s presenting problem and encourages him or her to commit to one of these. During the work phase, the counselor helps the client to look at the problem from different perspectives and to consider solutions to it. In the action phase, the client chooses a solution and tests it in the home environment.

decision–redecision method

decision–redecision method a technique used in transactional analysis that allows clients to reexperience “decision moments” from their childhood (e.g., internalized parental injunctions such as “Don’t be you,” “Don’t feel”) and to reconsider them with the goal of developing more positive self-assessments.

decisional balance

decisional balance a method of assessing the positive and negative consequences, for oneself and others, of selecting a new behavior. Decisional balance is frequently used in weighing the consequences of exercise behavior. For example, by beginning a regular early-morning exercise program, an individual would lose weight (a positive consequence), would not be available for early-morning meetings at work (a negative consequence), would gain greater respect from others (e.g., family, friends) for getting in shape (a positive consequence), and would incur costs in terms of gym fees and workout clothes (a negative consequence).

decisional competence

decisional competence the ability of a defendant to make the decisions normally faced in a criminal defense (e.g., deciding among various plea agreements). See also competency evaluation; competency to stand trial; Dusky standard.

decisive moment

decisive moment in psychotherapy, that moment at which a client makes a significant decision, such as revealing a secret or deciding to make a major life change. See also aha experience.

declarative

declarative adj. denoting a sentence or clause that takes the form of a straightforward statement rather than a question, request, or command. See indicative.

declarative memory

declarative memory the ability to retain information about facts or events over a significant period of time and to consciously recall such declarative knowledge, typically in response to a specific request to remember. It is one of two major divisions in memory proposed in 1980 by U.S. neuroscientist and biological psychologist Larry R. Squire (1941– ), and it generally is divided into two subtypes defined by Endel Tulving: episodic memory and semantic memory. Declarative memory depends on the integrity of a set of highly interconnected structures in the medial temporal lobe and adjacent cortical areas—specifically, the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex, and the parahippocampal gyrus. Both emotion and sleep are known to facilitate declarative memory, and abundant evidence indicates that exposure to acute stress enhances declarative memory consolidation. This form of memory is selectively impaired in amnesia and is known as explicit memory in other theoretical classifications. Compare nondeclarative memory.

decline effect

decline effect in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, the situation in which the accuracy of the participant’s “calls,” or guesses, begins at above-chance levels but progressively drops to chance levels as further trials are carried out. See regression toward the mean. See also differential effect; focusing effect; preferential effect; sheep–goat effect.

decoding

decoding n. the process of translating coded information back into its source terms or symbols. Decoding is used in information processing, communication, and computer science. —decode vb.

decompensation

decompensation n. a breakdown in an individual’s defense mechanisms, resulting in progressive loss of normal functioning or worsening of psychiatric symptoms.

decomposition

decomposition n. 1. a process in which a complex item is separated into its simpler constituent elements. For example, in problem solving, it is a strategy in which a problem is transformed into two or more simpler problems. 2. in statistics, the breaking down of total effects or parameters into their different aspects. For example, in an analysis of variance, one may break down the total variance into the portion that concerns how the means vary between groups and the portion that concerns how much random variance there is within each group. If the between-group variance is significantly larger than the within-group variance, there is some evidence for a difference in means across groups.

decomposition of movement

decomposition of movement difficulty of movement in which gestures are broken up into individual segments instead of being executed smoothly. It is a symptom of cerebellar lesions.

decompression sickness

decompression sickness an adverse effect of rapid movement of a body from an environment of high pressure to one of lower pressure, resulting in the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the body tissues. The circulatory system is particularly sensitive to the effect. Neurological consequences may include loss of consciousness, convulsions, paresthesias, and damage to the brain and spinal cord. A form of decompression sickness that affects the cardiopulmonary system and may lead to circulatory collapse is called the chokes; it is characterized by discomfort underneath the sternum and coughing on deep inspiration. When decompression sickness affects mainly the bones and joints, it is called the bends.

deconditioning

deconditioning n. a technique in behavior therapy in which learned responses, such as phobias, are “unlearned” (deconditioned). For example, a person with a phobic reaction to flying might be deconditioned initially by practicing going to the airport and using breathing techniques to control anxiety. See also desensitization.

deconstruction

deconstruction n. a form of critical analysis of literary texts and philosophical positions that is based on the twin assumptions that there can be no firm referents for language and no adequate grounding for truth claims. Although deconstruction challenges the fundamental grounds of the Western philosophical tradition, it recognizes that both the tools and the motivation for doing so arise from that very tradition. A deconstructive reading of a text will generally use traditional analytical methods to expose the innumerable ways in which the text subverts its own claims to meaning and coherence. In much general usage, the term is now taken to be synonymous with the destruction of an idea or a truth claim. See also poststructuralism. [introduced by French philosopher Jacques Derrida (1930–2004)] —deconstruct vb. —deconstructive adj.

decontextualization

decontextualization n. 1. the process of isolating a constituent from its normal or expected context. It may occur deliberately, as when visual artists isolate a familiar object from its everyday context by turning it upside down or vastly expanding its size to reveal a new perspective about it, or nonconsciously, as when one’s memory of a traumatic event becomes dissociated from the context in which the trauma occurred and acquires a quality of unreality. 2. in the study of perception, the process of making implicit stimulus features explicit and testable, as in the Ames room and many other perceptual demonstrations. —decontextualize vb.

deconversion

deconversion n. 1. loss of one’s faith in a religion, as in a Catholic of many years who becomes an atheist or agnostic. Research has shown that the bond between religious leaders and their followers is particularly significant in determining the strength of religious affiliation; thus, the severing of that bond is the most common cause of deconversion. Compare conversion. 2. less commonly, regression from a more complex belief system to a simpler one.

decortication

decortication n. surgical removal of the outer layer (cortex) of an anatomical structure, especially the outer layer of the cerebrum of the brain (i.e., the cerebral cortex).

decremental conduction

decremental conduction the exponential decay in the size of a membrane potential with distance from the site of stimulation when a subthreshold stimulus is applied to an axon. Compare nondecremental conduction. See also cable properties.

decreolization

decreolization n. a stage of linguistic evolution that sometimes follows the formation of a creole, in which its structure is further elaborated through the influence of the standard language and other languages in contact. The complex linguistic situation that arises in such cases is often referred to as a postcreolization continuum.

decriminalization

decriminalization n. the reduction of legal ramifications for acts that were previously subject to criminal prosecution. It typically involves milder penalties for possession of small amounts of certain drugs, ranging, for example, from reduced or no jail time to paying a small fine.

decubitus ulcer

decubitus ulcer see pressure ulcer.

deculturation

deculturation n. the processes, intentional or unintentional, by which traditional cultural beliefs or practices are suppressed or otherwise eliminated as a result of contact with a different, dominant culture. Compare acculturation. —deculturate vb.

decussation

decussation n. a crossing or intersection in the form of a letter X, as in the decussation of the pyramids of the medulla oblongata and of the fibers of the left and right optic nerves in the optic chiasm.

dedifferentiation

dedifferentiation n. loss of specialization or of advanced organizational and functional abilities. This may occur, for example, when mature cells within an organism regress to a more general, simplified state, as is sometimes seen in the progression of certain cancers, or as a form of thought disorganization seen in schizophrenia.

deduction

deduction n. 1. a conclusion derived from formal premises by a valid process of deductive reasoning. 2. the process of inferential reasoning itself. Compare induction. —deductive adj.

deductive reasoning

deductive reasoning the form of logical reasoning in which a conclusion is shown to follow necessarily from a sequence of premises, the first of which stands for a self-evident truth (see axiom) or agreed-upon data. In the empirical sciences, deductive reasoning underlies the process of deriving predictions from general laws or theories. Compare inductive reasoning. See also logic.

deductive-nomological model

deductive-nomological model an influential model of scientific explanation in which laws describing regularities in nature (see natural law) are used as initial premises or axioms to deduce working explanations of phenomena, which are then used to deduce specific testable predictions. See hypothetico-deductive method; nomology. See also covering-law model. [identified by German philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel (1905–1997)]

deep body temperature

deep body temperature the temperature of the body’s internal organs. Also called core temperature.

deep brain stimulation (DBS)

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deep cerebellar nucleus

deep cerebellar nucleus any of the nuclei at the base of the cerebellum, such as the interpositus nucleus.

deep depression

deep depression a severe major depressive episode characterized by psychomotor retardation, guilt, suicidal ideation, and psychotic features. Rumination is frequent, and risk of suicide is high.

deep dyslexia

deep dyslexia a form of acquired dyslexia characterized by semantic errors (e.g., reading parrot as canary), difficulties in reading abstract words (e.g., idea, usual) and function words (e.g., the, and), and an inability to read pronounceable nonwords. See also phonological dyslexia; surface dyslexia. [first described in 1973 by British neuropsychologists John C. Marshall (1939–2007) and Freda Newcombe (1925–2001)]

deep processing

deep processing cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its meaningful properties rather than its perceptual characteristics. It is considered that processing at this semantic level, which usually involves a degree of elaboration, produces stronger, longer-lasting memories than shallow processing. See levels-of-processing model of memory. See also semantic encoding; top-down processing. [proposed in 1972 by Canadian psychologists Fergus I. M. Craik (1935– ) and Robert S. Lockhart]

deep reflex

deep reflex see tendon reflex.

deep sensibility

deep sensibility see bathyesthesia.

deep sleep

deep sleep the stage of the sleep cycle in which arousal thresholds are highest and consciousness is taken to be least likely. In electroencephalography, deep sleep is commonly defined by a predominance of slow, high-amplitude waveforms. See delta wave; slow-wave sleep.

deep structure

deep structure 1. in anatomy, any organ or tissue that is located beneath the surface layers of the body, such as the heart, liver, or kidney. 2. in transformational generative grammar, an abstract base form of a sentence in which the logical and grammatical relations between the constituents are made explicit. The deep structure generates the surface structure of a sentence through transformations, such as changes in word order or the addition or deletion of elements. Also called base structure.

deep trance

deep trance in hypnosis and shamanistic practices, a state in which participants are minimally responsive to environmental cues.

deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

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deep-pockets effect

deep-pockets effect the theory that juries assessing compensatory damages are more likely to find in favor of the plaintiff and to make larger awards when the defendant is wealthy.

deep-pressure sensitivity

deep-pressure sensitivity see bathyesthesia.

Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm

Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm a laboratory memory task used to study false recall. It is based on a report in 1959 that, after presentation of a list of related words (e.g., snore, rest, dream, awake), participants mistakenly recalled an unpresented but strongly associated item (e.g., sleep). Called the Deese paradigm after its original investigator, U.S. psychologist James Deese (1921–1999), it has since been renamed to reflect renewed research into the technique by U.S. cognitive psychologists Henry L. Roediger III (1947– ) and Kathleen B. McDermott (1968– ).

default-mode network (DMN)

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defecation reflex

defecation reflex emptying of the rectum and lower portion of the colon in response to movement or pressure of fecal material. As the rectum fills, receptors send impulses to the spinal cord. Motor nerve impulses are transmitted through sacral fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system, causing relaxation of the inner anal sphincter and contraction of muscles of the abdominal wall. In order for the act to be completed, the external sphincter muscle, which is controlled by voluntary, skeletal muscle nerves, must also be relaxed. The voluntary nervous system can override the reflex and, under normal conditions, prevent automatic defecation. Also called rectal reflex. See also anal stage; toilet training.

defect orientation

defect orientation 1. in service-planning processes, an emphasis that focuses on the impairments, limitations, deficits, or defects in functioning of individuals with disabilities but that excludes a corresponding assessment of and emphasis on their skills, abilities, and strengths. 2. see defect theory. Compare developmental orientation.

defect theory

defect theory the proposition that the cognitive processes and behavioral development of people with intellectual disabilities are qualitatively different from those of their peers without intellectual disabilities. Also called defect orientation; difference hypothesis. Compare developmental theory.

defectology

defectology n. in Russian psychology, the field concerned with the education of children with sensory, physical, cognitive, or neurological impairment. It is roughly equivalent to special education and school psychology in the United States. It is based on the view that the primary problem of a disability is not the organic impairment itself but its social implications. [originally defined by Lev Vygotsky]

defender strategy

defender strategy a business strategy in which an organization attempts to compete in the marketplace by focusing on a narrow range of products and services and then protecting this niche by offering higher quality, superior service, and lower prices.

defense

defense n. physical features or behavior that reduce the likelihood of an individual being harmed by another. In nonhuman animals, for example, defensive physical features include hard body parts (e.g., a turtle’s shell) and toxic or noxious substances (e.g., odor from a skunk, poison from snakes and spiders); defensive behavior includes submissive signals, defensive aggression, immobility, and flight. —defensive adj.

defense interpretation

defense interpretation in psychoanalysis, an interpretation of the ways in which the patient protects himself or herself from anxiety. Such an interpretation aims to make the patient aware of his or her defenses and to uncover the source of the anxiety in intrapsychic conflict.

defense mechanism

defense mechanism in classical psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious reaction pattern employed by the ego to protect itself from the anxiety that arises from psychic conflict. Such mechanisms range from mature to immature, depending on how much they distort reality: Denial is very immature because it negates reality, whereas sublimation is one of the most mature forms of defense because it allows indirect satisfaction of a true wish. In more recent psychological theories, defense mechanisms are seen as normal means of coping with everyday problems and external threats, but excessive use of any one, or the use of immature defenses (e.g., displacement or repression), is still considered pathological. Also called escape mechanism. See also avoidance; projection; rationalization; regression; substitution. [proposed in 1894 by Sigmund Freud]

defense reflex

defense reflex a sudden response elicited by a painful or unexpected stimulus. The term is applied to a variety of responses, ranging from an acceleration in heart rate in reaction to a startling auditory stimulus; through flight, fight, or freezing elicited by perceived threat; to complex psychological responses. Also called defense response.

defensible space

defensible space a set of principles and guidelines for the design and planning of settings to reduce crime. Among the critical elements of defensible space are the creation of shared territories in which people have collective control, good surveillance, and markers and other symbols of ownership and primary territory. See territoriality.

defensive aggression

defensive aggression see animal defensive behavior.

defensive attribution

defensive attribution a bias or error in attributing cause for some event such that a perceived threat to oneself is minimized. For example, people might blame an automobile accident on the other driver’s mistake because this attribution lessens their perception that they themselves are responsible for the accident.

defensive behavior

defensive behavior 1. aggressive or submissive behavior in response to real or imagined threats of harm. A cat, for example, may exhibit defensive aggression by spitting and hissing, arching its back, and raising the hair along the back of the neck in anticipation of a physical threat (see animal defensive behavior). A human might fend off criticism by putting forth self-justifying excuses or by expressing an emotional reaction (e.g., crying) to limit another’s disapproval or anger. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, behavior characterized by the use or overuse of defense mechanisms operating at an unconscious level.

defensive conditioning

defensive conditioning a form of classical conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus is noxious.

defensive identification

defensive identification 1. the process by which a victim of abuse psychologically identifies with the perpetrator of abuse, or with the group with which the perpetrator is identified, as a defensive strategy against continuing feelings of vulnerability to further victimization. 2. in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, part of the identification process in which a child identifies with a parent (particularly the father) who is perceived to be powerful, threatening, and punitive. Freud proposed that this form of identification develops as the child’s defense against punishment by the parent. Compare anaclitic identification. See also identification with the aggressor.

defensive processing

defensive processing the seeking out, attending to, encoding, interpreting, or elaborating of attitude-relevant information to support or confirm one’s initial attitude. For example, defensive processing can involve avoiding attitude-inconsistent information and seeking out attitude-consistent information. Similarly, it can involve elaborating attitude-inconsistent information in a highly critical fashion in order to refute it. See also biased elaboration; counterargument; selective information processing.

defensiveness

defensiveness n. a tendency to be sensitive to criticism or comment about one’s deficiencies and to counter or deny such criticisms. —defensive adj.

deferred imitation

deferred imitation imitation of an act minutes, hours, or days after viewing the behavior. Research indicates that deferred imitation of simple tasks can be initially observed in infants late in their 1st year. See also symbolic function.

deferred prosecution

deferred prosecution see diversion program.

deficiency

deficiency n. a lack or shortage of something. A deficiency may, for example, be a relative or absolute lack of a skill, of a biological substrate or process, or of resources that enable specific functions or actions to be performed.

deficiency cognition (D-cognition)

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deficiency love (D-love)

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deficiency motivation

deficiency motivation in Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychology, the type of motivation operating on the lower four levels of his hierarchy of needs (see Maslow’s motivational hierarchy). Deficiency motivation is characterized by the striving to correct a deficit that may be physiological or psychological in nature. Compare metamotivation.

deficiency motive

deficiency motive any motive driven by the need to counter a deficiency, for example, eating simply to alleviate hunger.

deficiency need

deficiency need any need created by lack of a substance required for survival (e.g., food, water) or of a state required for well-being (e.g., security, love).

deficient processing theory

deficient processing theory see spacing effect.

definite article

definite article in linguistics, an article (e.g., the in English) used with a noun phrase to indicate reference to a specific entity that has been or is about to be defined, as in The patient died last night or The patient who died last night. Compare indefinite article.

definition

definition n. in optics, the clarity of an image reproduced by photography or an optical system. Compare resolution.

definitional formula

definitional formula the formal verbal definition of a statistical concept. For example, the definitional formula of variance states that it is the mean squared difference between a score and the mean of all of the scores. This contrasts with the computational formula, which is the equation used to calculate values for the concept. Also called conceptual formula; definition formula.

definitional validity

definitional validity the extent to which the methods or approaches used by a researcher are consistent with the significance claimed (explicitly or implicitly) for the research. See also external validity; internal validity; empirical validity; face validity.

deformity

deformity n. distortion or malformation of any part of the body. See disfigurement.

degeneracy

degeneracy n. 1. a state in which a person has declined or reverted to an earlier or simpler state of development in physical, mental, or moral qualities. 2. the state of possessing few if any of the moral standards considered normal in one’s society. Degeneracy is often popularly used with special reference to sexual offenses. —degenerate adj.

degenerating axon

degenerating axon the remnant of an injured or dead axon. Degenerating axons leave a residue that absorbs particular dyes. Thus, a degenerating myelinated nerve fiber releases myelin, which absorbs osmium, producing a black trail where the healthy fiber had been.

degeneration

degeneration n. 1. deterioration or decline of organs or tissues, especially of neural tissues, to a less functional form. 2. deterioration or decline of moral values. —degenerate vb.

degenerative status

degenerative status a constitutional body type marked by an accumulation of deviations from that considered normal, although a single deviant feature would have no particular pathological significance.

deglutition

deglutition n. see swallowing.

degradation

degradation n. 1. in neurophysiology, the process by which neurotransmitter molecules are broken down into inactive metabolites. 2. more generally, the process or result of declining or reducing in value, quality, level, or status.

degraded stimulus

degraded stimulus a stimulus to which noise (visual or auditory) has been added to make it more difficult to perceive.

degrees of freedom

degrees of freedom 1. (symbol: df) the number of elements that are allowed to vary in a statistical calculation, or the number of scores minus the number of mathematical restrictions. If the mean of a set of scores is fixed, then the number of degrees of freedom is one less than the number of scores. For example, if four individuals have a mean IQ of 100, then there are three degrees of freedom, because knowing three of the IQs determines the fourth IQ. 2. in motor control, the various joints that can move or the various muscles that can contract to produce a movement.

degrees of freedom problem

degrees of freedom problem the fact that, in most movement situations, the brain has access to many more degrees of freedom than are necessary to accomplish the task and thus selects which posture or movement trajectory to use from the large set of those that are possible.

dehoaxing

dehoaxing n. debriefing participants who have been involved in deception research to inform them that they were misled as part of the study. This may involve desensitizing participants, so that their self-image is not harmed by having participated in a deceptive study.

dehumanization

dehumanization n. any process or practice that is thought to reduce human beings to the level of mechanisms or nonhuman animals, especially by denying them autonomy, individuality, and a sense of dignity. —dehumanize vb.

dehydration

dehydration n. lack of water in the body tissues. Dehydration may be absolute, as measured in terms of the difference from normal body water content, or relative, as considered in terms of fluid needed to maintain effective osmotic pressure. The delay before drinking sufficient liquids for complete hydration following water loss through sweating and urination is called voluntary dehydration. Compare hydration.

dehydration reactions

dehydration reactions metabolic and psychological disturbances occurring when the body’s water supply falls far below its needs. Early symptoms are apathy, irritability, drowsiness, inability to concentrate, and anxiety. Dehydration reactions may progress to delirium, spasticity, blindness, deafness, stupor, and death if more than 10% of body weight is lost.

dehydrogenase

dehydrogenase n. an enzyme that catalyzes the removal of hydrogen atoms in biological reactions. See lactate dehydrogenase.

deictic

deictic adj. see deixis.

deification

deification n. 1. the elevation of a living or dead person to the position of a god, as in the case of certain Roman emperors and other rulers of the ancient world. 2. extreme adulation, or the endowment of a person or thing with godlike status. —deify vb.

deindividuation

deindividuation n. an experiential state characterized by loss of self-awareness, altered perceptions, and a reduction of inner restraints that results in the performance of unusual and sometimes antisocial behavior. It can be caused by a number of factors, such as a sense of anonymity or submersion in a group.

deinstitutionalization

deinstitutionalization n. the joint process of moving people with developmental or psychiatric disabilities from structured institutional facilities to their home communities and developing comprehensive community-based residential, day, vocational, clinical, and supportive services to address their needs. See community care. —deinstitutionalize vb.

deism

deism n. a type of natural religion associated chiefly with the 18th-century Enlightenment. It is based on the premise that a benevolent God will make sure that the knowledge necessary for human happiness is (a) universally available and (b) accessible to the intellectual powers natural to human beings. It follows that divine truth will conform to human reason and the evidence provided by the natural creation. Deism thus contrasts with revealed religion, which requires a divine revelation of truth beyond what is available by the light of nature. Most forms of deism hold that God created the universe and the natural laws that govern it but has since dispassionately and detachedly allowed it to run its course. Compare pantheism; theism. —deist adj., n.

Deiters cells

Deiters cells cells that support the outer hair cells in the organ of Corti. [Otto Deiters (1834–1863), German anatomist]

deixis

deixis n. in linguistics, the use of a word or phrase whose meaning is dependent on the situation in which it is used. For example, the meaning of The tree on my side of the fence depends on who says it and where that person is standing. Some words, including the personal and demonstrative pronouns and such adverbs as here, there, and now, are always deictic. The psychological interest in deixis stems from the recognition of the different possible perspectives that it entails. —deictic adj.

déjà vécu

déjà vécu a recurring feeling that one has lived previously (French, “already lived”); novel situations are experienced as strangely familiar, leading to a conviction that they are being recollected from a previous life. See false memory.

déjà vu

déjà vu the feeling that a new event has already been experienced or that the same scene has been witnessed before (French, “already seen”). The feeling of familiarity may be due to a neurological anomaly, to resemblance between the present and the past scenes, or to a similar scene having been pictured in a daydream or night dream. The feeling may occur even though the person experiencing it cannot consciously recollect the earlier event or scene. See false memory.

delay conditioning

delay conditioning in classical conditioning, a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is presented, and remains present, for a fixed period (the delay) before the unconditioned stimulus is introduced. After repeated exposure to such pairings, a conditioned response develops. If the delay is long enough, inhibition of delay may be observed. Also called delayed conditioning. Compare simultaneous conditioning.

delay of gratification

delay of gratification forgoing immediate reward in order to obtain a larger, more desired, or more pleasurable reward in the future. Compare immediate gratification.

delay of reinforcement

delay of reinforcement the time between a response and its reinforcer.

delay-of-reward gradient

delay-of-reward gradient the relation between delay of reinforcement and the effectiveness of reinforcement. The effectiveness decreases as the delay increases. Also called delay-of-reinforcement gradient.

delayed alternation task

delayed alternation task a delayed response task in which a nonhuman animal must alternate responses between trials. The most common version of this task is one in which a food reward is alternated from side to side with a delay between trials. The animal must learn that a well (cup) containing food is always on the opposite side from the previous trial. Also called delayed response alternation.

delayed auditory feedback (DAF)

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delayed conditioning

delayed conditioning see delay conditioning.

delayed development

delayed development slower than expected developmental increases in physical, emotional, social, or cognitive abilities or capacities. A child with delayed development may hold attitudes, exhibit habits, or engage in behaviors consistent with an earlier developmental level.

delayed effect

delayed effect an effect that is not observed for some period of time after the event or factor that is held to have caused it. Usually the precipitating event exerts an indirect influence by starting a process or chain of events that ultimately has a demonstrable effect. See causal latency; remote cause.

delayed ejaculation

delayed ejaculation see male orgasmic disorder.

delayed feedback

delayed feedback the delay of feedback from the senses that is used to guide or monitor specific motor movements. Delayed feedback interferes with decision making and behavior; for example, delayed auditory feedback when speaking can substantially interfere with the speed and processing of speech.

delayed matching to sample (DMTS)

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delayed parenthood

delayed parenthood the state of people who have their first child relatively late in life, usually after their 30th birthday.

delayed posttraumatic stress disorder

delayed posttraumatic stress disorder a form of posttraumatic stress disorder that is diagnosed when the symptoms first appear more than 6 months after exposure to the traumatic stressor.

delayed recall

delayed recall the ability to recollect information acquired earlier. Frequently used in laboratory studies of memory, delayed recall is also used in neuropsychological examinations to determine the rate of loss of information presented earlier, in comparison to established norms.

delayed reflex

delayed reflex a reflexive response that has an abnormally long latency after stimulation.

delayed reinforcement

delayed reinforcement reinforcement that does not occur immediately after a response has been made. The delay may be signaled or unsignaled. If it is signaled, a stimulus change occurs immediately after the response, and this stimulus remains present until the reinforcer is delivered. If the delay is unsignaled, there is no change of stimulus.

delayed response

delayed response a response that occurs some time after its discriminative stimulus has been removed. The most common delayed response task for nonhuman animals is one in which the animal is required to recall the location of a reward after a delay period has elapsed.

delayed response alternation

delayed response alternation see delayed alternation task.

delayed speech

delayed speech the failure of speech to develop at the expected age. It may be due to developmental delay, hearing loss, brain injury, intellectual disability, psychological disorder, or emotional disturbance.

Delboeuf illusion

Delboeuf illusion a size contrast illusion in which a larger enclosing circle influences the perceived size of a smaller enclosed circle. If the two circles are of similar sizes, the perceived size of the inner circle will be increased. If the size of the enclosing circle is significantly larger, then the perceived size of the inner circle will be decreased. [Joseph-Rémi-Léopold Delboeuf]

delegation of authority

delegation of authority an approach whereby a manager or supervisor assigns tasks to subordinates, along with commensurate responsibility for completion of the tasks, but without relinquishing the ultimate responsibility for any success or failure.

deletion

deletion n. 1. in genetics, a particular kind of mutation characterized by the loss of genetic material from a chromosome. Deletion of a gene or part of a gene may result in the development of a disease or abnormality. The deletion may involve the loss of one or several base pairs (point mutation) or a much larger segment of a chromosome (chromosomal mutation). 2. in generative grammar, the process in which a constituent of the deep structure of a sentence is deleted from the surface structure (i.e., the sentence as used). For example, the sentence I am happy, my mother is too is derived from the deep structure I am happy, my mother is happy too, with the second happy deleted. The question of whether deletion can serve as a psychological model of sentence processing has been a subject of much psycholinguistic investigation. See also ellipsis.

deliberate psychological education (DPE)

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deliberate sampling

deliberate sampling any method of selecting individuals to participate in research on the basis of a specific plan, rather than randomly. This includes simple nonrandom techniques, such as judgment sampling and convenience sampling. In more sophisticated methods, such as quota sampling and stratified sampling, various steps are taken with the aim of creating a sample that is representative of the larger population.

deliberate self-harm (DSH)

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deliberative mind-set

deliberative mind-set see mind-set.

delinquency

delinquency n. behavior violating social rules or conventions. The term is often used to denote the misbehavior of children or adolescents. See juvenile delinquency. —delinquent adj., n.

délire de négation

délire de négation see Cotard’s syndrome.

délire du toucher

délire du toucher the compulsion to touch objects, which may be associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder or may be a complex tic in Tourette’s disorder.

deliriant

deliriant n. a substance capable of inducing acute delirium, commonly associated with restlessness or agitation. An acute delirium may result from excess ingestion of anticholinergic drugs (see anticholinergic syndrome) or withdrawal from alcohol and certain other substances.

delirium

delirium n. a disturbed mental state in which attention cannot be sustained, the environment is misperceived, and the stream of thought is disordered. The individual may experience changes in cognition (which can include disorientation, memory impairment, or disturbance in language), perceptual disturbances, hallucinations, illusions, and misinterpretation of sounds or sights. The episode develops quickly and can fluctuate over a short period. Delirium may be caused by a variety of conditions, such as infections, cerebral tumors, substance intoxication and withdrawal, head trauma, and seizures.

delirium of persecution

delirium of persecution delirium in which the predominant symptoms include intense mistrust and hallucinations that one is being threatened.

delirium tremens (DTs)

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Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System (D–KEFS)

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delivery

delivery n. the second stage of childbirth, during which the infant travels through the birth canal and into the external world. See also afterbirth; labor.

Delphi technique

Delphi technique a method of developing and improving group consensus by eliminating the effects of personal relationships and dominating personalities. Conflict is managed by circulating a questionnaire, which is edited and summarized on the basis of the last round of comments and then reissued for further response by those participating in the survey. The Delphi technique is used in many situations where convergence of opinion is desirable (e.g., for defining goals, setting standards, or identifying and ranking needs and priorities).

delta

delta (symbol: ∆) n. 1. a measure of the change in a parameter. For example, ΔR2 indicates how much of the change in R2 (the coefficient of multiple determination) was caused or explained by a given step (e.g., adding a specific variable to an analysis). 2. see Glass’s D.

delta alcoholism

delta alcoholism see Jellinek’s alcoholism species.

delta movement

delta movement a form of apparent movement in which a brighter stimulus appears to move toward a darker stimulus, provided that certain conditions of stimulus size, distance, and time between stimuli are met. Also called delta motion.

delta opioid receptor

delta opioid receptor see opioid receptor.

delta rule

delta rule the principle that the change in strength of an association during learning is a function of the difference between the maximal strength possible and the current strength of the association. The delta rule is used in associationistic learning theory (see associative learning).

delta wave

delta wave the lowest frequency brain wave recorded in electroencephalography. Delta waves are large, regular-shaped waves that have a frequency of 1 to 3 Hz. They are associated with deep sleep (delta-wave sleep) and indicate a synchronization of cells of the cerebral cortex. Also called delta rhythm; slow wave. See NREM sleep; Stage 3 sleep; Stage 4 sleep.

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol n. see tetrahydrocannabinol.

deltoid

deltoid 1. n. a muscle that covers the shoulder and is used to raise the arm to the side. 2. adj. pertaining to the deltoid muscle.

delusion

delusion n. an often highly personal idea or belief system, not endorsed by one’s culture or subculture, that is maintained with conviction in spite of irrationality or evidence to the contrary. Delusions may be transient and fragmentary, as in delirium, or highly systematized and elaborate, as in delusional disorders, though most of them fall between these two extremes. Common types include delusional jealousy, delusions of being controlled, delusions of grandeur, delusions of persecution, delusions of reference, nihilistic delusions (see nihilism), and somatic delusions. Data suggest that delusions are not primarily logical errors but are derived from emotional material. They have come to represent one of the most important factors in systems for diagnostic classification. Some researchers believe that delusions may be the most important symptom of schizophrenia. See also bizarre delusion; fragmentary delusion; systematized delusion.

delusion of being controlled

delusion of being controlled the false belief that external forces, such as machines or other people, are controlling one’s thoughts, feelings, or actions.

delusion of grandeur

delusion of grandeur the false attribution to the self of great ability, knowledge, importance or worth, identity, prestige, power, accomplishment, or the like. Also called grandiose delusion. See also megalomania.

delusion of influence

delusion of influence 1. the false supposition that other people or external agents are covertly exerting powers over oneself. Idea of influence is used synonymously but with the implication that the condition is less definite, of shorter duration, or less severe. 2. the false belief that one’s intentions or actions directly control external events or the thoughts and behavior of other people.

delusion of negation

delusion of negation see nihilism.

delusion of observation

delusion of observation the false belief that one is being watched by others. Also called observation delusion.

delusion of persecution

delusion of persecution the false conviction that others are threatening or conspiring against one. Also called persecutory delusion.

delusion of poverty

delusion of poverty a false belief in which the individual insists that he or she is, or will soon be, entirely destitute.

delusion of reference

delusion of reference the false conviction that the actions of others and events occurring in the external world have some special meaning or significance (typically negative) in relation to oneself. See also idea of reference.

delusion of sin

delusion of sin a delusion in which the individual is convinced of having committed unpardonable sins, for example, being to blame for wars, droughts, and other catastrophes. Such a delusion is frequently accompanied by intense fear of punishment.

delusion system

delusion system see delusional system.

delusional disorder

delusional disorder in DSM–IV–TR, any one of a group of psychotic disorders with the essential feature of one or more nonbizarre delusions that persist for at least 1 month but are not due to schizophrenia. The delusions are nonbizarre in that they feature situations that could conceivably occur in real life (e.g., being followed, poisoned, infected, deceived by one’s government). Diagnosis also requires that the effects of substances (e.g., cocaine) or a medical condition be ruled out as causes of the delusions. Seven types of delusional disorder are specified, according to the theme of the delusion: erotomanic, grandiose, jealous, persecutory, somatic, mixed, and unspecified. Criteria changes for delusional disorder in DSM–5 include the following: The delusions may be either nonbizarre or bizarre (i.e., implausible), and their potential presence as a result of an ingested substance, a medical condition, or another mental disorder sometimes associated with firmly held delusional beliefs (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder) must be ruled out. Formerly called paranoid disorder.

delusional jealousy

delusional jealousy a false belief that a spouse or partner is unfaithful. The individual is constantly on the watch for indications that this belief is justified, manufactures evidence if it is not to be found, and completely disregards facts that contravene the conviction. Also called morbid jealousy; Othello syndrome or delusion; pathological jealousy.

delusional mania

delusional mania a less common name for a manic episode with psychotic features.

delusional misidentification syndrome

delusional misidentification syndrome see misidentification syndrome.

delusional parasitosis

delusional parasitosis a rare psychiatric disorder (previously called acarophobia) in which a person has the false and persistent belief of being infested by parasites (mites and lice), worms, insects, bacteria, or other small living organisms. It may occur in isolation or be secondary to , psychosis, or various medical conditions. See also formication.

delusional system

delusional system a more or less logically interconnected group of delusions held by the same person. Delusions that are tightly logical, but based on a false premise, are characteristic of persecutory type delusional disorder. Also called delusion system.

demand

demand n. a requirement or urgent need, particularly any internal or external condition that arouses a drive in an organism.

demand characteristics

demand characteristics in an experiment or research project, cues that may influence or bias participants’ behavior, for example, by suggesting the outcome or response that the experimenter expects or desires. Such cues can distort the findings of a study. See also experimenter effect; sensory leakage.

demand feeding

demand feeding see self-demand schedule.

demand reduction

demand reduction an approach to fighting addiction (including smoking and alcoholism) that attempts to reduce user demand for abused drugs through such tactics as antidrug education in schools, antidrug advertising (e.g., on television and billboards), and legislation requiring that health warnings be prominently placed on product packaging (e.g., cigarette packs, liquor bottles). In contrast, supply reduction attempts to lessen the supply of abused substances through, for example, drug interdiction, drug-seller arrests, and the requirement that retailers limit access to substances such as inhalants.

demand–withdraw pattern

demand–withdraw pattern a pattern of interaction in which a person criticizes or requests changes in the behavior of a relationship partner, who responds by avoiding the demand, becoming defensive, or withdrawing from the conversation. This pattern of communication is considered dysfunctional and predicts marital deterioration and divorce. The pattern occurs more often with female demands and male withdrawal than vice versa. [first identified in the 1980s by U.S psychologist Andrew Christensen and colleagues]

demandingness

demandingness n. insistence upon attention, help, or advice from others. It is commonly associated with depression. See also dependence. —demanding adj.

demandment

demandment n. any self-constructed and often self-defeating and nonconscious imperative that converts important desires and goals into absolute demands: “Because I am not performing well, as I absolutely must, I am a terrible person.” See rational emotive behavior therapy. [defined by Albert Ellis]

demasculinization

demasculinization n. 1. removal of the testes. 2. inhibition of masculine development in the fetus by insufficiency of androgens.

démence précoce

démence précoce see dementia praecox.

dementia

dementia n. 1. a generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes. The loss of intellectual abilities is severe enough to interfere with an individual’s daily functioning and social and occupational activity. In DSM–IV–TR, dementias are categorized according to the cause, which may be Alzheimer’s disease, cerebrovascular disease (see vascular dementia), Lewy body dementia, Pick’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, HIV infection (see AIDS dementia complex), Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, head injury, alcoholism (see alcohol-induced persisting dementia), or substance abuse (see substance-induced persisting dementia). Brain tumor, hypothyroidism, hematoma, or other conditions, which may be treatable, can also cause dementia. The age of onset varies with the cause but is usually late in life. When occurring after the age of 65, it is termed senile dementia, and when appearing before 65, it is called presenile dementia, although these distinctions are becoming obsolete because its manifestations are the same no matter the age of onset. Dementia should not be confused with age-associated memory impairment or mild cognitive impairment, which have a much less deleterious effect on day-to-day functioning. DSM–5 has subsumed dementia and amnestic disorder into the diagnostic category major neurocognitive disorder, although it still accepts the term dementia where commonly used. 2. historically, loss at ability to reason due to mental illness, diseases such as neurosyphylis (see general paresis), or advanced age (senility). [Latin, “out of mind”]

dementia of the Alzheimer’s type (DAT)

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dementia paralytica

dementia paralytica see general paresis.

dementia praecox

dementia praecox a progressively deteriorating psychotic disorder marked by severe, incurable cognitive disintegration beginning in early adulthood (Latin, “premature dementia”). The term, now obsolete, was first used in 1891 by psychiatrist and neuroanatomist Arnold Pick (1851–1924) and subsequently formalized by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin as a taxonomic concept, defining it as one of two major classes of mental illness (the other being manic-depressive illness; see bipolar disorder) and distinguishing it from the “senile dementia” of advanced age. It is said to have originated as a translation of démence précoce, coined in 1852 by Austrian-born French psychiatrist Bénédict A. Morel (1809–1873), but some dispute that connection, arguing that Morel’s term was only a passing description of a group of young patients who suffered from “stupor,” a condition unrelated to the psychotic disorder that Kraepelin described more than 40 years later. Whatever its exact origins, the more prevalent Latin term was eventually replaced after Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler reframed the Kraepelinian concept, deemphasizing its characterization as an early dementia with an irreversible disease course, and renamed it schizophrenia in 1908.

dementia pugilistica

dementia pugilistica a chronic, slowly progressive dementia produced by repeated blows to the head, as may affect participants of contact sports such as boxing, football, and wrestling. Affected individuals are often described as “punch-drunk.” Common symptoms include poorly articulated speech (see dysarthria), poor balance, impaired memory and concentration, and involuntary movements. The term is often applied to the more advanced cases, whereas chronic traumatic encephalopathy refers to all types of cases. Also called boxer’s dementia.

Dementia Rating Scale (DRS)

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dementia syndrome of depression

dementia syndrome of depression see pseudodementia.

Demerol

Demerol n. a trade name for meperidine.

Deming management method

Deming management method an approach to management that uses a prescriptive set of 14 points as guidelines for appropriate organizational practice and that emphasizes the strategic role of senior management in meeting customer needs. The method was important in the development of total quality management. See also Theory Z. [W. Edwards Deming (1900–1993), U.S. management expert]

demo- (dem-)

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democracy

democracy n. 1. a form of government in which the people either participate in the political process themselves or elect others to do so on their behalf (representative democracy) and in which decisions are made by majority vote. 2. more loosely, any society in which all citizens purportedly have equal rights and in which certain basic freedoms, such as freedom of speech, are upheld. See also open society. —democrat n. —democratic adj.

democratic atmosphere

democratic atmosphere a climate of social and political equality in which group members resolve issues and make choices through the use of procedures that ensure that the final decision accurately reflects the predominant desires and intentions of the group.

democratic leader

democratic leader the type of leader who establishes and maintains an egalitarian group climate in which members themselves participate in planning activities, resolving issues, and making choices important to the group. Groups with democratic leaders tend to show greater originality, higher morale, and less anxiety, aggression, and apathy than do groups with authoritarian leaders or with laissez-faire leaders. Also called group-centered leader.

democratic parenting

democratic parenting a parenting style, derived from the ideas of Alfred Adler, in which the parent guides the child’s development in an accepting but steady manner and fosters a climate in which cooperation, fairness, equality, and mutual respect between parent and child are assumed.

demographic research

demographic research see population research.

demography

demography n. the statistical study of human populations in regard to various factors and characteristics, including geographical distribution, sex and age distribution, size, structure, and growth trends. Such analyses are used in many types of investigation, including epidemiological studies. See also biostatistics; social statistics. —demographer n. —demographic adj.

demonic possession

demonic possession the supposed invasion of the body by an evil spirit or devil that gains control of the mind or soul, producing mental disorder, physical illness, or criminal behavior. Many forms of physical and psychological illness were formerly attributed to such possession, notably epilepsy, schizophrenia, and Tourette’s disorder. The traditional remedy for possession was ritual exorcism.

demonolatry

demonolatry n. the worship of devils or demons. See also Satanism; witchcraft. —demonolator n.

demonology

demonology n. the systematic study of belief in demons and evil spirits, frequently depicted in folklore and mythology as invading the mind, gaining possession of the soul, and producing disordered behavior. See also exorcism; familiar; incubus; succubus; witchcraft. —demonological adj. —demonologist n.

demonomania

demonomania n. a morbid preoccupation with demons and demonic possession, including the belief that one is possessed by or under the control of an evil spirit or demon.

demonstration experiment

demonstration experiment a demonstration, often by a teacher in a classroom, of a well-established fact. Demonstration experiments are usually not experiments in the technical sense of comparing experimental to control conditions after randomization.

demoralization

demoralization n. a sense of threat to or a breakdown of values, standards, and mores in an individual or group, such as may occur in periods of rapid social change, extended crises (e.g., war, economic depression), or personal traumas. A demoralized person may be disheartened and feel helpless, bewildered, and insecure. —demoralize vb.

demoralization hypothesis

demoralization hypothesis the idea that effective psychotherapy depends on the therapist overcoming the client’s state of demoralization, which can be achieved by encouraging the client to confide, explaining his or her symptoms, and providing a therapeutic ritual through which these may be resolved. Such an approach is held to be a common factor underlying the success of various therapies. [proposed by Jerome D. Frank]

demotivation

demotivation n. negative imagery or negative self-talk that emphasizes why one cannot do well in a task and thus discourages any attempt to perform it.

demyelinating disease

demyelinating disease any of various pathological conditions, such as multiple sclerosis, resulting from destruction of the myelin sheath covering nerve fibers in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

demyelination

demyelination n. the loss of the myelin sheath that covers nerve fibers.

demyelination plaque

demyelination plaque see plaque.

denasality

denasality n. see hyponasality.

dendrite

dendrite n. a branching, threadlike extension of the cell body that increases the receptive surface of a neuron. The full arrangement of the dendrites of a single neuron is termed a dendritic tree, and the specific pattern and quality of that arrangement is termed dendritic branching. See also arborization. —dendritic adj. [from Greek dendron, “tree”]

dendritic pathology

dendritic pathology abnormalities of dendrites associated with specific psychological disorders and neurological illnesses or injuries.

dendritic potential

dendritic potential the electric potential across the membrane of a dendrite, usually its resting potential.

dendritic spine

dendritic spine a mushroom-shaped outgrowth along the dendrite of a neuron, which forms a synapse with the axon terminals of neighboring neurons. Research suggests that neurons develop dendritic spines as part of an organism’s learning process. Also called dendritic thorn.

dendritic zone

dendritic zone any part of the receptive surface of a neuron, including the membrane of the cell body.

dendrodendritic synapse

dendrodendritic synapse a synapse between dendrites of two neurons.

dendrogram

dendrogram n. a type of treelike diagram used in hierarchical clustering. It lists all of the participants at one end and then directs branches out from those participants who are similar and connects them with a node that represents a cluster. A dendrogram could be used, for example, to cluster individuals into various categories of HIV risk, depending on their number of sexual partners, their frequency of unprotected sex, and the perceived risk of their partners. Individuals who had few sexual partners with little or no unprotected sex and who perceived little or no partner risk of HIV infection would be branched into a cluster that could be labeled low risk, whereas individuals with high values on these three variables would branch into a high-risk cluster, with other individuals presumably clustering into a medium-risk group.

dendrophilia

dendrophilia n. a paraphilia characterized by sexual attraction to trees. The person may have actual sexual contact with trees, may venerate them as phallic symbols, or both. Also called dendrophily.

denervation

denervation n. removal or interruption of the nerves that supply a part of the body.

denervation sensitivity

denervation sensitivity see disuse supersensitivity.

denial

denial n. a defense mechanism in which unpleasant thoughts, feelings, wishes, or events are ignored or excluded from conscious awareness. It may take such forms as refusal to acknowledge the reality of a terminal illness, a financial problem, an addiction, or a partner’s infidelity. Denial is an unconscious process that functions to resolve emotional conflict or reduce anxiety. Also called disavowal. —deny vb.

denial stage

denial stage the first of the five stages of grief described by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. It is characterized by a conscious or unconscious inability to acknowledge or accept one’s own or an important other’s impending or actual death or some other great loss or trauma.

denotative meaning

denotative meaning the objective or literal meaning of a word or phrase as opposed to its connotative meaning, which includes the various ideas and emotions that it suggests within a particular culture. For example, the word father denotes “male parent” but may connote a range of ideas involving protection, authority, and love.

density

density n. 1. the compactness of the constituent elements of something, reflecting its degree of impenetrability. 2. a measure of the amount of physical space per individual. High density can produce crowding, the feeling of having insufficient space. Interior indices of density (e.g., people per room) are consistently related to negative psychological consequences, whereas external indices (e.g., people per square mile) are not. See also social density; spatial density. —dense adj.

density curve

density curve see probability curve.

density function

density function see probability density function.

density-intensity hypothesis

density-intensity hypothesis an explanation of psychological reactions to overcrowding positing that high density makes unpleasant situations more unpleasant but pleasant situations more pleasant. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Jonathan M. Freedman (1952– )]

dent-

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dental

dental 1. adj. of or relating to the teeth. 2. adj. denoting a speech sound produced with the tongue touching the upper front teeth, as in the French [t] sound. 3. adj. more loosely, denoting any alveolar, dental, or interdental speech sound. 4. n. a dental speech sound.

dental age

dental age a measure of dental development based on the number of permanent teeth present. Dental age may be used to calculate chronological age.

dental lisp

dental lisp see lisp.

dental pattern

dental pattern the species-specific arrangement of teeth by type (i.e., incisors, canines, bicuspids, and molars) in each quadrant of the mouth, from front to back.

dental phobia

dental phobia a persistent and irrational fear of dentists or of dental treatment, resulting in the avoidance of dental care or marked distress and anxiety during dental visits. It may be related to a prior negative dental experience, fear of pain, perceived lack of control, or feelings of helplessness or embarrassment.

dentate gyrus

dentate gyrus a strip of gray matter that is part of the hippocampal formation, connecting the entorhinal cortex with the CA3 region of the hippocampus proper. It comprises the granular layer, which is densely packed with the bodies (somas) of elongated neurons called granule cells; the molecular layer, which contains the dendrites of the granule cells and is divided into outer, middle, and inner sublayers; and the polymorphic layer (or hilus), which contains the axons of the granule cells (see mossy fiber). At the border between the granular and polymorphic layers is the subgranular zone, one of only two currently known areas in the adult brain in which new neurons are formed (the other is the subventricular zone in the lateral ventricles). This multistage creation process, called neurogenesis, is modulated by many factors (e.g., age, environmental stimuli, hormones, neurotransmitters, neurotrophins, stress) and essential to several activities, notably information processing and learning, memory formation, spatial representation, and affect regulation. Structural and functional abnormalities of the dentate gyrus are associated with an increasing number of pathologies, including Alzheimer’s disease, autism, epilepsy, depression and other mood disorders, schizophrenia, and substance abuse and dependence. Consequently, novel therapeutic approaches focused on enhancing the rate of neurogenesis and the successful survival of newborn neurons are being explored.

dentate nucleus

dentate nucleus a cluster of cell bodies in the cerebellum believed to be associated with skilled and rapid movement.

denti- (dent-)

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deoxycorticosterone

deoxycorticosterone n. a potent mineralocorticoid hormone synthesized by the adrenal glands. It is a precursor of corticosterone.

deoxyglucose

deoxyglucose n. a compound that is related to glucose but cannot be metabolized. It is used, in various forms, to label cells for histological examination or imaging techniques; for example, radiolabeled 2-deoxyglucose is used in positron emission tomography.

deoxyribonucleic acid

deoxyribonucleic acid see DNA.

Depacon

Depacon n. a trade name for valproate sodium. See valproic acid.

Depakene

Depakene n. a trade name for valproic acid.

Depakote

Depakote n. a trade name for divalproex sodium.

dependence

dependence n. 1. the state of having some reliance on or association with another entity or event, as when one variable is formed from another variable in an analysis. For example, dependence would be seen if a researcher included IQ, formed from mental age over actual age, in an analysis that already has age as a variable. 2. a state in which assistance from others is expected or actively sought for emotional or financial support, protection, security, or daily care. The dependent person leans on others for guidance, decision making, and nurturance. Whereas some degree of dependence is natural in interpersonal relations, excessive, inappropriate, or misdirected reliance on others is often a focus of psychological treatment. Personality, social, and behavioral psychology, as well as psychoanalytic theory, all contribute different perspectives to the study and treatment of pathological dependence. 3. see substance dependence. 4. in operant conditioning, a causal relation between a response and a consequence, which results in a contingency. 5. see statistical dependence. Also called dependency. —dependent adj.

dependency court

dependency court in the United States, a court dealing with all issues concerned with child abuse and neglect; such issues are brought to the attention of the court by a government agency (typically Child Protective Services), which intervenes on behalf of the child by filing a petition alleging abuse or neglect.

dependency need

dependency need any personal need that must be satisfied by others, including the need for affection, love, shelter, physical care, food, warmth, protection, and security. Such needs are considered universal and normal for both sexes and at all ages, though excessive dependence can be maladaptive. See also codependency; morbid dependency.

dependency ratio

dependency ratio a measure of the portion of a population that is composed of people who are not in the work force and depend on others for support versus people who are in the work force and are self-sufficient. The dependency ratio is often defined in terms of age groups, with those who either are too young to work or are retired being set against those who are in their prime earning years; it is then calculated as the number of individuals aged below 15 or above 64 divided by the number of individuals aged 15 to 64.

dependent events

dependent events in probability theory, events that have a relationship such that the outcome of one affects the outcome of the other. For example, overeating and being overweight are dependent events, whereas shoe size and political party preference are most likely not. Compare independent events.

dependent groups

dependent groups see dependent samples.

dependent model

dependent model see integrated model.

dependent personality disorder

dependent personality disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a personality disorder manifested in a long-term pattern of passively allowing others to take responsibility for major areas of life and of subordinating personal needs to the needs of others, due to lack of self-confidence and self-dependence. It was formerly known as passive-dependent personality.

dependent samples

dependent samples sets of data that are related owing to their having been collected from the same group on two or more occasions (as with a pre- and posttest), or from two or more sets of individuals who are related or otherwise closely associated (e.g., parents and their children). Also called correlated samples; dependent groups; related samples. Compare independent samples.

dependent variable (DV)

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dependent-part quality

dependent-part quality in Gestalt psychology, the quality that a part of a larger whole derives by virtue of the part–whole relationship.

dependent-samples t test

dependent-samples t test a t test used to analyze data from two or more sets of associated individuals or from one set of individuals measured on different occasions (e.g., pre- and posttreatment). Also called related-samples t test; repeated measures t test. See within-subjects design. Compare independent-samples t test.

depersonalization

depersonalization n. a state of mind in which the self appears unreal. Individuals feel estranged from themselves and usually from the external world, and thoughts and experiences have a distant, dreamlike character. In its persistent form, depersonalization is observed in such disorders as depression, hypochondriasis, dissociative states, temporal lobe epilepsy, and early schizophrenia. It also often occurs as a result of a traumatic experience. The extreme form is called depersonalization syndrome.

depersonalization disorder

depersonalization disorder a dissociative disorder characterized by one or more episodes of depersonalization severe enough to impair social and occupational functioning. Onset of depersonalization is rapid and usually manifested in a sensation of self-estrangement, a feeling that one’s extremities are changed in size, a sense of being mechanical, a perception of oneself as if from a distance, and, in some cases, a feeling that the external world is unreal (derealization).

depersonalization syndrome

depersonalization syndrome see depersonalization.

depersonification

depersonification n. 1. treatment of another person as something other than the unique individual that he or she really is. For example, parents may treat their child as an extension of themselves, which leads to the child having a distorted sense of self. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a stage in the maturation of the superego that follows introjection of parental imagoes and leads to integration of parental values as abstract ideas. —depersonify vb.

depletive treatment

depletive treatment a type of treatment that involves deliberately weakening the organism and thereby (it is supposed) depleting it of some substance believed to be harmful, as by bleeding, purging, blistering, or making the patient vomit. Depletive treatment originated in the time of Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 377 bce) and was practiced for many centuries. More recently, certain psychiatric disorders have been treated by depletive therapies, as in various shock therapies.

Deplin

Deplin n. a trade name for L-methylfolate.

deployment psychology

deployment psychology a branch of military psychology devoted to understanding and addressing the unique mental and behavioral health needs of members of the armed forces and their families during and after members’ posting to combat zones and other operational environments. Research in this area focuses on (a) the psychosocial effects on military personnel and their families of combat exposure and of injuries sustained in combat, including disfigurement, amputation, sensory loss, traumatic brain injury, and other severe wounds; (b) barriers to accessing mental health care in the military and the efficacy of existing prevention and intervention programs; (c) the psychology of trauma and promotion of resilience among military personnel and their families; and (d) the process of readjusting to family, community, and general civilian life for returning military personnel. Similarly, clinical services focus on (a) treating posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorder, adjustment disorder, depression, substance abuse, and other mental health disorders common among returning military personnel; (b) mitigating the negative effects of these disorders on the families of those affected; (c) mitigating the stress experienced by families while military personnel are deployed; (d) teaching effective coping skills—such as anger management, conflict resolution, and communication techniques—to returning soldiers and their families to better prepare them to handle interpersonal difficulties that may arise; and (e) using stress-inoculation training and other strategies during deployment to enhance the psychological well-being of soldiers and thus prevent the subsequent development of serious problems.

Depo-Provera

Depo-Provera n. a trade name for medroxyprogesterone acetate, an antiandrogen used as a long-acting contraceptive for women and in the treatment of sex offenders. See chemical castration.

depolarization

depolarization n. a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface. Depolarization occurs when the membrane is stimulated and sodium ions (Na+) flow into the cell. If the stimulus intensity exceeds the excitatory threshold of the neuron, an action potential is created and a nerve impulse propagated. Compare hyperpolarization.

deprenyl

deprenyl n. see selegiline.

depressant

depressant 1. adj. having the quality of diminishing or retarding a function or activity of a body system or organ. 2. n. any agent that has this quality, especially a CNS depressant.

depressed skull fracture

depressed skull fracture a skull fracture in which part of the skull is pressed in toward the brain. In some cases, skull fragments may enter the brain tissue.

depression

depression n. 1. a negative affective state, ranging from unhappiness and discontent to an extreme feeling of sadness, pessimism, and despondency, that interferes with daily life. Various physical, cognitive, and social changes also tend to co-occur, including altered eating or sleeping habits, lack of energy or motivation, difficulty concentrating or making decisions, and withdrawal from social activities. It is symptomatic of a number of mental health disorders. 2. in psychiatry and psychology, any of the depressive disorders. —depressed adj.

depression stage

depression stage the fourth of the five stages of grief described by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. It is characterized by feelings of sadness, loss, regret, or uncertainty that typically represent, consciously or nonconsciously, some level of acceptance in facing one’s own or another’s impending or actual death or some other great loss or trauma.

depressive anxiety

depressive anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety provoked by fear of one’s own hostile feelings toward others. It is based on the theory that depression is hostility turned inward.

depressive disorder

depressive disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, any of the mood disorders that typically have sadness as the predominant symptom. They primarily include major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder.

depressive episode

depressive episode see major depressive episode.

depressive neurosis

depressive neurosis a former name for dysthymic disorder.

depressive personality disorder

depressive personality disorder a diagnosis in the appendix of DSM–IV–TR (i.e., proposed but not given official recognition in the manual) that is characterized by glumness, pessimism, a lack of joy, the inability to experience pleasure, and motor retardation. Feelings of loss, a sense of giving up, and an orientation to pain are notable. There are vegetative signs, despair regarding the future, and a disheartened outlook. Clinicians attempt to differentiate this disorder from dysthymic disorder. Mention of the diagnosis has been removed from DSM–5.

depressive position

depressive position in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, the stage of infant development that reaches its peak at about 6 months of age. In the depressive position, the infant begins to perceive the good object and bad object as a single whole and feels guilt for having attacked the good object during the preceding paranoid-schizoid position. In this—Klein’s most mature—phase of primary psychological organization, the infant fears that he or she will lose or destroy the good object and attempts to make reparation for earlier hostility. It is thought that maintenance of the depressive position fluctuates throughout the lifespan and that the lack of capacity for this position is tied to severe pathology.

depressive reaction

depressive reaction see reactive depression.

depressive spectrum

depressive spectrum the range of severity and disparate symptoms that characterize depressive disorders. The underlying concept is that depression is a continuum of related disorders, rather than a single diagnostic entity.

depressor nerve

depressor nerve an afferent nerve that depresses motor or glandular activity when stimulated, for example, a nerve that causes a fall in blood pressure via a brainstem reflex.

deprivation

deprivation n. 1. the removal, denial, or unavailability of something needed or desired. See cultural deprivation; maternal deprivation. 2. in conditioning, reduction of access to or intake of a reinforcer. —deprive vb.

deprivation index

deprivation index a measure of the degree of inadequacy in a child’s intellectual environment with respect to such variables as achievement expectations, incentives to explore and understand the environment, provision for general learning, emphasis on language development, and communication and interaction with significant adult role models.

deprogramming

deprogramming n. the process by which people who have adopted profoundly new sets of attitudes, beliefs, and values have their original attitudes, beliefs, and values restored. Deprogramming techniques are typically used on people who have left or been removed from highly coercive social groups, such as religious cults. See also brainwashing.

depth cue

depth cue any of a variety of means used to inform the visual system about the depth of a target or its distance from the observer. Monocular cues require only one eye and include signals about the state of the ciliary muscles, atmospheric perspective, linear perspective, and occlusion of distant objects by near objects. Binocular cues require integration of information from the two eyes and include signals about the convergence of the eyes and binocular disparity.

depth from motion

depth from motion a depth cue obtained from the distance that an image moves across the retina. Motion cues are particularly effective when more than one object is moving. Depth from motion can be inferred when the observer is stationary and the objects move, as in the kinetic depth effect, or when the objects are stationary but the observer’s head moves, inducing motion parallax.

depth from shading

depth from shading a depth cue obtained from the pattern of light and shadow on an illuminated solid object. The shading alone, without any outline of an object, can also convey a sense of three-dimensional depth.

depth interview

depth interview an interview designed to reveal an individual’s deep-seated feelings, attitudes, opinions, and motives by encouraging him or her to express them freely without fear of disapproval or concern about the interviewer’s reactions. Such interviews may be conducted, for example, in counseling and as part of qualitative market research. They tend to be relatively lengthy, unstructured, one-on-one conversations.

depth perception

depth perception awareness of three-dimensionality, solidity, and the distance between the observer and the object. Depth perception is achieved through such cues as atmospheric perspective, motion parallax, visual accommodation, binocular disparity, and convergence. See also visual cliff.

depth psychology

depth psychology a general approach to psychology and psychotherapy that focuses on unconscious mental processes as the source of emotional disturbance and symptoms, as well as of personality, attitudes, creativity, and lifestyle. Typical examples are classical psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy, but others include Carl Jung’s analytic psychology and Alfred Adler’s individual psychology.

depth therapy

depth therapy any form of psychotherapy, brief or extended, that involves identifying and working through unconscious conflicts and experiences that underlie and interfere with behavior and adjustment. Compare surface therapy.

depth-first search

depth-first search a graph search strategy, equivalent to backtrack search, that considers states in a graph recursively. The search is often organized by a “stack” or “last in is first out” data structure.

depth-of-processing hypothesis

depth-of-processing hypothesis the theory that the strength of memory depends on the degree of cognitive processing the material receives. Depth has been defined variously as elaboration, the amount of cognitive effort expended, and the distinctiveness of the memory trace formed. This theory evolved an expanded empirical investigation of the levels-of-processing model of memory. [expounded in 1972 by Canadian psychologist Fergus I. M. Craik (1935– ) and Robert S. Lockhart and in 1975 by Craik and Endel Tulving]

depth-oriented brief therapy

depth-oriented brief therapy a form of brief psychotherapy that applies principles of constructivist psychotherapy in a time-limited fashion.

Deracyn

Deracyn n. a trade name for adinazolam.

derailment

derailment n. a symptom of thought disorder, often occurring in individuals with schizophrenia, marked by frequent interruptions in thought and jumping from one idea to another unrelated or indirectly related idea. It is usually manifested in speech (speech derailment) but can also be observed in writing. Derailment is essentially equivalent to loosening of associations. See cognitive derailment; thought derailment.

derangement

derangement n. 1. disturbance in the regular order or normal functioning of something. 2. loosely, mental illness or mental disturbance.

derealization

derealization n. a state characterized by a diminished feeling of reality; that is, an alteration in the perception or cognitive characterization of external reality so that it seems strange or unreal (“This can’t be happening”), often due to trauma or stress. It may also occur as a feature of schizophrenia or of dissociative disorders. See also depersonalization.

dereflection

dereflection n. a common technique used to allay anxiety or stop inappropriate behavior by diverting attention to a different topic and away from the self. It is used to reduce excessive self-concern and shyness and is a central component in Morita therapy.

dereism

dereism n. mental activity that is not in accord with reality, experience, or logic. It is similar to autistic thinking. Also called dereistic thinking.

derivation sample

derivation sample see cross-validation.

derivative

derivative n. in calculus, a measure of the change in a variable that results from change in another variable. Compare integral.

derived ideas

derived ideas ideas that have causes outside the mind and thus derive from external sources, such as particular sense impressions. René Descartes distinguished between derived ideas and innate ideas, which arise from processes of thought that occur naturally in the mind. According to Descartes, derived ideas are less clear and distinct, and less obviously trustworthy, than innate ideas. See Cartesianism; Cartesian self.

derived need

derived need see secondary need.

derived property

derived property in Gestalt psychology, a property taken on by a part of a whole by virtue of its being in a particular configuration or context. For example, if three noncollinear dots are seen as forming a triangle, each dot then has the derived property of being a vertex of the triangle.

derma

derma n. the skin, particularly the dermis.

dermal sensation

dermal sensation see cutaneous experience.

dermal sensitivity

dermal sensitivity the cutaneous sensations detected by nerve receptors in the skin.

dermato- (dermo-)

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dermatoglyphics

dermatoglyphics n. the study of the patterns of lines on the skin of the fingers, palms, and soles. The technique is used in the diagnosis of certain kinds of chromosomal abnormalities, based on observations that some patterns are associated with certain types of birth defects or disorders. For example, people with Down syndrome have a single crease across the palm and a single crease on the skin of the little (fifth) finger. [coined in 1926 by U.S. anatomist Harold Cummins (1894–1976)]

dermatographism

dermatographism n. a kind of hives due to physical allergy in which a pale raised welt or wheal with a red flare on each side appears when the skin is scratched with a dull instrument. Also called autographism; dermographia.

dermatological disorder

dermatological disorder any disorder or disease of the skin. See also psychocutaneous disorder.

dermatome

dermatome n. 1. an area of skin that is innervated primarily by fibers from the dorsal root of a particular spinal nerve. 2. a surgical instrument for removing thin slices of skin to be used as skin grafts or for removing lesions.

dermis

dermis n. the layer of skin beneath the outermost layer (epidermis). The dermis contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves and nerve endings, and the hair follicles. —dermal adj.

dermo-optical perception (DOP)

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dermographia

dermographia n. see dermatographism.

DES

DES 1. abbreviation for diethylstilbestrol. 2. abbreviation for dysexecutive syndrome.

descending pathway

descending pathway 1. a neural pathway from a higher center that modulates sensory input, such as tracts from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord that gate pain input (see spinal gate). 2. see descending tract.

descending reticular system

descending reticular system part of the reticular formation that receives information from the hypothalamus and is involved in activity of the autonomic nervous system. It also plays a role in motor activity.

descending tract

descending tract a bundle of nerve fibers that carries motor impulses from the brain to the spinal cord. There are three major descending tracts: the corticospinal tract, vestibulospinal tract, and reticulospinal tract. Also called descending pathway. Compare ascending tract.

descent group

descent group any social group, such as a clan, phratry, or sept, in which membership depends on real or supposed descent from a common ancestor. The group may be defined by unilateral descent (as in a patriarchy or matriarchy) or bilateral descent. See also kinship network.

deschooling

deschooling n. an informal movement in the late 1960s and 1970s that criticized the formal educational system for emphasizing a narrow idea of academic knowledge and ignoring people’s real-life experience and the wider social context in which all learning takes place. Such thinkers and polemicists as Austrian-born U.S. writer Ivan Illich (1926–2002) sought to separate education from its institutional context and to promote the idea of informal lifelong learning. —deschool vb.

descriptive approach

descriptive approach see topographic model.

descriptive average

descriptive average an estimate of the center point of a set of values, indicating where information “piles up,” that is sometimes made on the basis of imprecise or partial data. For example, a teacher could provide a descriptive average (e.g., 75%) that indicates how most people performed on an exam.

descriptive behaviorism

descriptive behaviorism an approach to the study of behavior espoused by B. F. Skinner, who thought that psychology should limit itself to a description of behaviors of organisms, the conditions under which they occur, and their effects on the environment. It requires that theoretical explanations in terms of underlying biological or hypothetical psychological processes be avoided. See behaviorism; radical behaviorism.

descriptive discriminant analysis

descriptive discriminant analysis a statistical procedure that distinguishes between two or more groups of a categorical outcome on the basis of several initial explanatory or predictor variables. The focus is on a set of standardized weights linking each initial variable to the grouping variable; high weights (in absolute value) indicate variables that tend to differ across the groups. For example, a researcher may want to study what differentiates those who survive cancer from those who do not by using a set of background variables, such as age, weight, frequency of saturated fat in the diet, and family history of cancer. The descriptive discriminant analysis may reveal negative standardized weights in the moderate to high range, suggesting that within the sample examined more family history of cancer, older age, higher weight, and more saturated fat in the diet are significantly linked with a lower chance of surviving cancer. Compare predictive discriminant analysis.

descriptive grammar

descriptive grammar see prescriptive grammar.

descriptive norm

descriptive norm any of various consensual standards (social norms) that describe how people typically act, feel, and think in a given situation. These standards delineate how most people actually do behave, whereas injunctive norms prescribe how they should behave.

descriptive operant

descriptive operant in experimental studies of behavior, the formal, physical requirements for reinforcement (see operant). For example, the descriptive operant for pressing a lever might be as follows: Any action on the part of the organism that exerts a force on the lever of 0.2 N through a distance of 5 mm will be reinforced. Compare functional operant.

descriptive research

descriptive research an empirical investigation designed to test prespecified hypotheses or to provide an overview of existing conditions, and sometimes relationships, without manipulating variables or seeking to establish cause and effect. For example, a survey undertaken to ascertain the political party preferences of a group of voters would be a descriptive study because it is intended simply to identify attitudes rather than systematically infer or analyze influencing factors.

descriptive responsibility

descriptive responsibility the judgment that a defendant has performed an illegal act, as opposed to the judgment that he or she can be ascribed criminal responsibility. Compare ascriptive responsibility.

descriptive science

descriptive science see normative science.

descriptive statistics

descriptive statistics procedures for depicting the main aspects of sample data, without necessarily inferring to a larger population. Descriptive statistics usually include the mean, median, and mode to indicate central tendency, as well as the range and standard deviation that reveal how widely spread the scores are within the sample. Descriptive statistics could also include charts and graphs such as a frequency distribution or histogram, among others. Compare inferential statistics.

deseasonalization

deseasonalization n. the process of removing short-term cyclical variations in a time series to reveal the underlying trend. For example, a marketing researcher may want to investigate whether a particular advertising strategy increased sales, after removing the fluctuations in the data that have to do with the time of year (e.g., holiday sales, summer spending). Compare detrending.

desegregation

desegregation n. the ending of the physical and social separation of groups in schools, neighborhoods, workplaces, and public settings, through legal mandates and social programs deliberately designed to remove barriers to intergroup contact.

desensitization

desensitization n. a reduction in emotional or physical reactivity to stimuli that is achieved by such means as deconditioning techniques. See also covert desensitization; in vivo desensitization; systematic desensitization.

desensitizing

desensitizing n. see dehoaxing.

desertion

desertion n. see abandonment.

desexualization

desexualization n. in psychoanalytic theory, the elimination or neutralization of a sexual aim. See also sublimation. —desexualize vb.

design

design n. the format of a research study, describing how it will be conducted and the data collected. For example, an experimental design involves an independent variable and at least two groups, a treatment or experimental group and a control group, to which participants are randomly assigned and then assessed on the dependent variable. A variety of other design types exist, including correlational research, quasi-experimental designs, longitudinal designs, natural experiments, and observational studies, among others.

design and behavior

design and behavior see architectural psychology.

design fluency test

design fluency test any of a group of tests in which participants must generate (within a given time) a series of figures that have specific criteria. The tests were developed to provide clinical information regarding nonverbal capacity for flexibility and planning similar to verbal fluency tests. For example, participants may be required to produce figures from five lines and must devise new ways to put the lines together in an organized manner to make new figures or designs. Also called figural fluency test.

design for adjustable range

design for adjustable range the practice of designing equipment so that it can be adjusted to suit the physical characteristics of a large portion of the population. Compare design for the average; universal design.

design for the average

design for the average the principle that equipment for human use should be designed for average human dimensions, thereby sacrificing the extreme dimensions (e.g., below the 5th and above the 95th percentiles). Although no truly “average” person exists, this principle is used when adjustable designs cannot be developed and it is impossible or impracticable to design for the extremes. Compare design for adjustable range; universal design.

design matrix

design matrix a grid of data whose elements denote the presence or absence of each participant (row) in a treatment (column) of an experimental study.

design trade-off

design trade-off the situation in which one attribute of a system or product is made less usable because another attribute has been given priority. An example is the child-resistant safety cap. The press-and-turn requirement may be frustrating at times, but its purpose of preventing a child’s easy access to, and accidental ingestion of, harmful substances is considered to be a greater benefit.

designer children

designer children see preselection.

designer drug

designer drug a drug synthesized or manufactured to have the same or similar effects as a known illicit substance. The intention behind the creation of designer drugs is to circumvent existing legal definitions of controlled substances and thus avoid restrictions on use.

desipramine

desipramine n. a tricyclic antidepressant and the principal metabolic product of the demethylation of imipramine in the liver. Desipramine is a stronger inhibitor of norepinephrine reuptake than of serotonin reuptake relative to imipramine. In general, it is less sedating and has fewer anticholinergic effects than imipramine and was frequently used to treat behavior disorders and insomnia in children. However, like all tricyclic antidepressants, it has fallen into relative disuse as safer medications have become available. U.S. trade name: Norpramin.

deskilling

deskilling n. the redesign of tasks in an organization so that they require less knowledge, skill, and ability and take less time to learn. Deskilling is often a consequence of technological and organizational change; it often results in a loss of employee motivation. —deskill vb.

desmopressin

desmopressin n. a synthetic analog of the pituitary hormone vasopressin that, among other functions, stimulates water retention. Desmopressin is used in pill form or in the form of a nasal spray to treat nocturnal enuresis (bed-wetting) and diabetes insipidus. It possesses more antidiuretic activity (i.e., prevents excessive water loss from the body) and less potential to raise blood pressure than vasopressin. U.S. trade name (among others): DDAVP.

desocialization

desocialization n. gradual withdrawal from social contacts and interpersonal communication, as commonly occurs in those who have schizophrenia or other severe mental illness.

Desoxyn

Desoxyn n. a trade name for methamphetamine.

despair

despair n. 1. the emotion or feeling of hopelessness, that is, that things are profoundly wrong and will not change for the better. Despair is one of the most negative and destructive of human affects, and as such it is a primary area for psychotherapeutic intervention. 2. in Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, see integrity versus despair.

despondency

despondency n. a state characterized by feelings of hopelessness and despair. —despondent adj.

destiny and growth beliefs

destiny and growth beliefs two contrasting sets of beliefs about the outcomes of romantic relationships. Those who endorse destiny theories generally believe that relationships succeed or fail because two people are either inherently compatible or not. As a result, when problems occur, destiny theorists are more likely to conclude that the relationship was “not meant to be.” People who endorse growth theories, in contrast, believe that relationships thrive when partners overcome challenges and obstacles. Thus, when problems arise, they put additional effort into making their relationship work. [first identified by U.S. social psychologist C. Raymond Knee]

destructive obedience

destructive obedience compliance with the direct or indirect orders of a social, military, or moral authority that results in negative outcomes, such as injury to innocent victims, harm to the community, or the loss of confidence in social institutions. Examples of destructive obedience include soldiers obeying orders to attack civilians, medical personnel following a doctor’s orders even when they know the doctor is mistaken, and participants complying with the experimenter in Stanley Milgram’s classic behavioral study of obedience. Compare constructive obedience.

destructiveness

destructiveness n. a tendency toward the expression of aggressive behavior by destroying, damaging, or defacing objects. See also self-destructiveness.

desymbolization

desymbolization n. the process of depriving symbols, especially words, of their accepted meanings and substituting distorted, neologistic, autistic, or concrete ideas for them.

desynchronization

desynchronization n. in electroencephalography, the replacement of occipital alpha waves by the fast, low-amplitude, irregular waveforms characteristic of alert wakefulness, often because of an external stimulus, usually one that requires active attention. Other brain waves can be desynchronized as well, as for example when activity of delta waves is suppressed by dreaming during sleep. See alpha blocking.

desynchronized sleep

desynchronized sleep see REM sleep.

Desyrel

Desyrel n. a trade name for trazodone.

DET

DET diethyltryptamine: a synthetic hallucinogen belonging to the indolealkylamine family, to which LSD, psilocin, and DMT also belong.

detached character

detached character a personality characterized by extreme self-sufficiency and lack of feeling for others. Karen D. Horney identified the development of such a character as one of three basic neurotic trends used as a defense against basic anxiety. Compare aggressive character; compliant character.

detached retina

detached retina the separation of the inner layer of the retina (the neural retina) from the outer pigment epithelium layer. The onset of symptoms, depending on the size and site of the detachment, may include flashes of light followed by a clouding of vision, the appearance of spots or visual artifacts before the eye (known as floaters), or a sudden complete loss of vision. Detached retina is usually treated by surgery. Also called retinal detachment. See also diabetic retinopathy.

detachment

detachment n. 1. a feeling of emotional freedom resulting from a lack of involvement in a problem or situation or with a person. 2. objectivity: that is, the ability to consider a problem on its merits alone. Also called intellectual detachment. 3. in developmental psychology, the child’s desire to have new experiences and develop new skills. This occurs at about 2 years of age, as the child begins to outgrow the period of total attachment to and dependence on the parent or caregiver.

detail perspective

detail perspective a depth cue related to texture. Features or details on a surface appear closer together on a distant object and farther apart on a near object.

detailed inquiry

detailed inquiry a phase of a clinical interview during which the therapist gains an understanding of the patient by asking direct questions on diverse topics, ranging from mundane questions about everyday life to highly detailed questions, for example, about particular reactions to specific events.

detection task

detection task see signal detection task.

detection theory

detection theory see signal detection theory.

detection threshold

detection threshold see absolute threshold.

deterioration

deterioration n. progressive impairment or loss of basic functions, such as emotional, judgmental, intellectual, muscular, and memory functions.

deterioration effect

deterioration effect an adverse effect or negative outcome from participating in psychotherapy.

deterioration index

deterioration index a pattern of subtest scores on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale viewed as suggestive of declines from baseline functioning and used in measuring the degree of reduced performance that can be attributed to a variety of pathologies, including schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, and dementia. Also called deterioration quotient. See also don’t-hold functions; hold functions.

deterioration of attention

deterioration of attention inconstant and shifting attention and impaired ability to concentrate on external reality.

deterioration quotient

deterioration quotient see deterioration index.

determinant

determinant n. 1. any internal or external condition that is the cause of an event. 2. a value that represents the generalized variance in a matrix of numbers, with large values indicating that the matrix numbers are very dissimilar and thus have more varied information. A determinant can be calculated by multiplying the eigenvalues of a matrix by one another.

determinant of elaboration

determinant of elaboration any factor that influences the amount of elaboration a person engages in when encountering attitude-relevant information. Such factors may regulate ability to elaborate (e.g., distractions in the social context) or motivation to elaborate (e.g., the personal relevance of the attitude object). See also elaboration-likelihood model.

determination

determination n. 1. a mental attitude characterized by a strong commitment to achieving a particular goal despite barriers and hardships. 2. the process of making a decision, reaching a conclusion, or ascertaining the characteristics or exact nature of something, or the end result of such a process. 3. the precise definition or qualification of the attributes of a concept or proposal (e.g., determination of the dependent variable in an experiment).

determination coefficient

determination coefficient see coefficient of determination.

determiner

determiner n. in linguistics, a word that appears with a noun or pronoun and limits (determines) its reference in some way, such as a, the, this, that, some, all, any, every, and so on. Numbers (as in three cats) and personal pronouns (as in her cats) can also be determiners. See also article; quantifier.

determining tendency

determining tendency a goal or intended result that directs mental processes. For example, when shown the numbers 6 and 4 and asked to add them, a person answers 10, but when asked to subtract them, he or she answers 2; the same stimuli lead to different thoughts as intended ends determine what the mind does with the two numbers. The term, introduced by German psychologist Narziss Ach (1871–1946) and derived from the earlier concept of Aufgabe, is essentially equivalent to the modern mental set.

determinism

determinism n. the philosophical position that all events, physical or mental, including human behavior, are the necessary results of antecedent causes or other forces. Determinism, which requires that both the past and the future are fixed, manifests itself in psychology as the position that all human behaviors result from specific, efficient causal antecedents, such as biological structures or processes, environmental conditions, or past experience. The relationships between these antecedents and the behaviors they produce can be described by generalizations much like the laws that describe regularities in nature. Determinism contrasts with belief in free will, which implies that individuals can choose to act in some ways independent of antecedent events and conditions. Those who advocate free-will positions often adopt a position of soft determinism, which holds that free will and responsibility are compatible with determinism. Others hold that free will is illusory, a position known as hard determinism. Of contemporary psychological theories, behaviorism takes most clearly a hard determinist position. See also causality; genetic determinism; physical determinism; psychic determinism; psychological determinism. Compare indeterminism. —determinist adj., n. —deterministic adj.

deterministic model

deterministic model a mathematical function in which the outcome can be exactly established. In other words, the model explains all of the variance in a dependent variable and no error term is needed. This contrasts with a stochastic model, from which a range of possible values may result.

deterministic process

deterministic process see stochastic process.

deterministic psychology

deterministic psychology any psychology that assumes determinism, most notably behaviorism.

deterrence

deterrence n. the notion that punishing an individual who has committed an undesirable act, particularly a criminal one, will deter that person, as well as others, from committing such acts in the future. —deter vb. —deterrent n., adj.

deterrent therapy

deterrent therapy see aversion therapy.

detour problem

detour problem in studies of problem solving, any problem or task that must be solved or performed indirectly, often because the most direct solution is ineffective or blocked. Also called Umweg problem.

detoxification

detoxification n. a therapeutic procedure, popularly known as detox, that reduces or eliminates toxic substances (e.g., alcohol, opioids) in the body. The procedure may be metabolic (by converting the toxic substance to a less harmful agent that is more easily excreted), or it may require induced vomiting, gastric lavage (washing), or dialysis, depending upon the nature of the poison and other factors. In many cases, detoxification occurs in a clinic, hospital unit, or residential rehabilitation center devoted to treating individuals for the toxic effects of alcohol or drug overdose and to managing their acute withdrawal symptoms; these facilities may also provide professional- or peer-run social support during the detox process (known as social setting detoxification). In the absence of this type of assistance, an individual who actively tries to manage his or her own withdrawal from a substance is said to be engaged in self-detoxification.

detrending

detrending n. the practice of removing a specific existing pattern from data, often collected in a time series, in order to reveal other expected patterns or sequences in the data. Deseasonalization is a similar process but removes the effect of seasonal shifts in the data.

detumescence

detumescence n. the reduction of a swelling, especially in the genital organs of either sex following orgasm. Compare tumescence. —detumescent adj.

Detussin

Detussin n. a trade name for a combination of hydrocodone and pseudoephedrine.

deutan color blindness

deutan color blindness a type of color blindness in which green hues are perceived imperfectly or green is confused with red. In some cases, the condition results from an ability to perceive only two distinct hues, blue and yellow.

deuteranomaly

deuteranomaly n. a form of color blindness in which the green part of the spectrum is perceived inadequately. In testing for deuteranomaly, an unusual amount of green would be required in a red–green mixture to match a given yellow.

deuteranopia

deuteranopia n. red–green color blindness in which the deficiency is due to absence of the cone photopigment sensitive to green light, resulting in loss of green sensitivity and confusion between red and green (see dichromatism). The condition may be unilateral (i.e., color vision may be normal in one eye). See also protanopia.

deutero- (deuter-; deut-)

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deutoplasm

deutoplasm n. a substance, rich in protein and fat, that is laid down within the yolk of an egg cell to serve as nourishment for the embryo. It is absent from the egg cells of mammals, whose embryos absorb nutrients from their mothers via the placenta.

devaluation

devaluation n. a defense mechanism that involves denying the importance of something or someone, including the self. —devalue vb.

development

development n. the progressive series of changes in structure, function, and behavior patterns that occur over the lifespan of a human being or other organism. —developmental adj.

development cycle

development cycle in ergonomics, the process of developing a product or system, beginning with a formative idea and continuing through research, design, testing, and improvement to final release.

developmental acceleration

developmental acceleration an abnormal or precocious growth in one or more functions (e.g., language).

developmental age (DA)

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developmental amblyopia

developmental amblyopia a condition affecting central vision in which the early development of neural circuits for fine-pattern discrimination is disrupted due to inadequate detail in foveal imagery. There are two forms of developmental amblyopia: anisometropic amblyopia, in which the two eyes have differing powers of refraction, and strabismic amblyopia, in which the image from one eye is favored because of imbalance in the extrinsic eye muscles.

developmental amnesia

developmental amnesia impaired ability to form memories of past events (i.e., impaired episodic memory) due to a brain injury sustained early in life. Specifically, the injury is to the hippocampus but not to surrounding medial temporal lobe structures. In this condition, memory for factual information (i.e., semantic memory) appears to remain largely intact.

developmental aphasia

developmental aphasia see developmental dysphasia.

developmental apraxia of speech (DAS)

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developmental articulation disorder

developmental articulation disorder see phonological disorder.

developmental assessment

developmental assessment the evaluation of a child’s level of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, as assessed by specific developmental scales.

developmental cognitive neuroscience

developmental cognitive neuroscience the area of study that seeks to understand how the mind and brain jointly develop. It uses data from a variety of sources, including molecular biology, cell biology, artificial intelligence, and evolutionary theory, as well as conventional studies of cognitive development.

developmental contextual model

developmental contextual model see developmental systems approach.

developmental coordination disorder

developmental coordination disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a motor skills disorder characterized by marked impairment in the development of motor coordination, with performance of motor activities (e.g., walking, handwriting) well below that expected for the child’s chronological age. Significant impairment of academic performance or daily living activities is also observed. However, the difficulties are not due to intellectual disability or to a neurological disorder affecting movement (e.g., cerebral palsy). See also developmental dyspraxia.

developmental crisis

developmental crisis see maturational crisis.

developmental delay

developmental delay delay in the age at which developmental milestones are achieved by a child or delay in the development of communication, social, and daily living skills. It most typically refers to delays that are meaningful but do not constitute substantial handicap in infants, toddlers, and preschool children. Such individuals are often eligible for early intervention or preschool services to ameliorate these delays.

developmental disability

developmental disability a developmental level or status that is attributable to a cognitive or physical impairment, or both, originating before the age of 22. Such an impairment is likely to continue indefinitely and results in substantial functional or adaptive limitations. Examples of developmental disabilities include, but are not limited to, intellectual disability, pervasive developmental disorders, learning disorders, developmental coordination disorder, communication disorders, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, blindness, deafness, mutism, and muscular dystrophy. Also called developmental disorder.

developmental dysgraphia

developmental dysgraphia see disorder of written expression.

developmental dyslexia

developmental dyslexia a form of dyslexia that is apparent during an early developmental age or phase and manifested as difficulty in learning to read and spell single words.

developmental dysphasia

developmental dysphasia language difficulty or delayed language acquisition believed to be associated with brain damage or cerebral maturation lag. It is characterized by defects in expressive language and articulation and in more severe cases by defects in comprehension of language. Also called developmental aphasia.

developmental dyspraxia

developmental dyspraxia dyspraxia present since birth and manifested during an early developmental age or phase as difficulty in performing coordinated movements. Compare acquired dyspraxia.

developmental factors

developmental factors the conditions and variables that influence emotional, intellectual, social, and physical development from conception to maturity. Examples include parental attitudes and stimulation, peer relationships, learning experiences, recreational activities, and hereditary predispositions.

developmental function

developmental function 1. the form that development takes over time. Different aspects of development (e.g., physical vs. cognitive) may show different patterns of change over time. 2. the role played by an entity (e.g., a gene), activity (e.g., play), stage (e.g., adolescence), or other phenomenon in the development of an organism.

developmental immaturity

developmental immaturity the status of a child who exhibits a delay (usually temporary) in reaching developmental landmarks without clinical or historical evidence of damage to the central nervous system. The child may appear younger than his or her chronological age in physical development, gross and fine motor abilities, language development, social awareness, or any combination of these. See also developmental delay; developmental retardation.

developmental invariance

developmental invariance a pattern of development in which a skill reaches adult competence early in life and remains stable thereafter. For example, certain sensory and perceptual skills (e.g., vision) function at a high level early in life.

developmental language disorder

developmental language disorder any disorder in which the development of language skills is impaired. See expressive language disorder; mixed receptive-expressive language disorder; specific language impairment.

developmental levels

developmental levels the stages into which the human lifespan is typically divided: (a) neonatal period; (b) infancy; (c) early, middle, and late childhood; (d) adolescence; and (e) early, middle, and late adulthood.

developmental measure

developmental measure any assessment used to measure an age-associated dimension, such as motor development in young children. The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development is an example of a developmental measure.

developmental milestone

developmental milestone any aspect of physical, cognitive, social, or emotional development that is significant and predictable, such that children throughout the world develop this ability, characteristic, or behavior at about the same time. Developmental milestones include presence of first teeth and language acquisition.

developmental norm

developmental norm the typical skills and expected level of achievement associated with a particular stage of development.

developmental orientation

developmental orientation 1. in service-planning processes, an emphasis on the skills, abilities, and strengths of young people with disabilities in relation to expected developmental attainments and performance of young people without disabilities. 2. see developmental theory. Compare defect orientation.

developmental pharmacokinetics

developmental pharmacokinetics see pharmacokinetics.

developmental psycholinguistics

developmental psycholinguistics see psycholinguistics.

developmental psychology

developmental psychology the branch of psychology that studies the changes—physical, mental, and behavioral—that occur from conception to old age and investigates the various biological, neurobiological, genetic, psychological, social, cultural, and environmental factors that affect development throughout the lifespan. Since its emergence as a formal discipline in the late 19th century, the field has broadened its focus from one that largely emphasized infant, child, and adolescent development to one, beginning in the 1920s, that also accounted for adult development and the aging process and, more recently, prenatal development. As such the term developmental psychology is now often considered virtually synonymous with lifespan developmental psychology. Over the years, numerous currents of thought and investigation have informed or shaped the field’s direction, such as the child study movement, psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, evolutionary theory, the development of intelligence measures (e.g., Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale), genetic studies, twin studies, research using longitudinal designs and cross-sectional designs, professional organizations and academic journals (e.g., Developmental Psychology, Psychology and Aging) devoted to understanding various aspects of the lifespan, and the explosion of brain research in recent decades. See also genetic psychology.

developmental psychopathology

developmental psychopathology the scientific study of the origins and progression of psychological disorders as related to the typical processes of human growth and maturation. Central to this field is the belief that studying departures from developmental norms will enhance understanding of those norms, which will in turn enhance the conceptualization and treatment of mental illness.

developmental quotient (DQ)

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developmental readiness

developmental readiness a student’s state of psychological and intellectual preparedness for a given task, subject, or grade level.

developmental reading disorder

developmental reading disorder see reading disorder.

developmental retardation

developmental retardation abnormally slow maturation in any or all areas—intellectual, motor, perceptual, linguistic, or social. See also developmental delay; developmental immaturity.

developmental scale

developmental scale a measurement instrument used to assess the degree to which an individual has progressed through the typical developmental milestones.

developmental schedules

developmental schedules normative timetables of when certain aspects of physical and behavioral development typically occur (see developmental milestone).

developmental science

developmental science the interdisciplinary study of changes in the biopsychosocial dimensions of individuals over their lifespan and into successive generations.

developmental sequence

developmental sequence the order in which changes in structure or function occur during the process of development of an organism.

developmental stage

developmental stage a period of development during which specific abilities, characteristics, or behavior patterns appear.

developmental systems approach

developmental systems approach the view that development is the result of bidirectional interaction between all levels of biological and experiential variables, from the genetic through the cultural. Also called developmental contextual model. See also bidirectionality of structure and function; transactional model of development.

developmental task

developmental task any of the fundamental physical, social, intellectual, and emotional achievements and abilities that must be acquired at each stage of life for normal and healthy development. Because development is largely cumulative, the inability to master developmental tasks at one stage is likely to inhibit development in later stages.

developmental teaching model

developmental teaching model a general approach in education based on the work of Jean Piaget and others, emphasizing logical reasoning and the enhancement of intellectual development. There is an effort to orient school curricula toward helping students acquire operative knowledge.

Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration (VMI)

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developmental theory

developmental theory 1. any theory based on the continuity of human development and the importance of early experiences in shaping personality. Examples are the psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development, Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, learning theories that stress early conditioning, and role theories that focus on the gradual acquisition of different roles in life. 2. the proposition that intellectual disability is due to slower than normal development of cognitive processes but that such processes are not otherwise qualitatively different from those of people without intellectual disability. Also called developmental orientation. Compare defect theory.

developmental therapy

developmental therapy a method of treatment for children and adolescents with emotional, social, or behavioral problems. A series of graded experiences is used, for example, to help clients improve their interactions with others or manage anger.

developmental toxicology

developmental toxicology the study of the effects of toxic (poisonous) substances on the normal development of infants and children: specifically, the study of the adverse effects of certain agents administered to them or to which they may have been exposed in utero.

developmental trauma disorder (DTD)

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developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD)

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developmental visual agnosia

developmental visual agnosia see congenital visual agnosia.

developmental-behavioral pediatrics

developmental-behavioral pediatrics see behavioral pediatrics.

deviance

deviance n. 1. any behavior that differs significantly from what is considered appropriate or typical for a social group. Also called deviancy. 2. in statistics, a measure of the goodness of fit between a smaller hierarchical model and a fuller model that has all of the same parameters plus more. If the deviance reveals a significant difference, then the larger model is needed. If the deviance is not significant, then the smaller, more parsimonious model is retained as more appropriate.

deviance information criterion (DIC)

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deviancy training

deviancy training the reinforcement, by the peers of a child or adolescent, of his or her antisocial words or actions. Deviancy training is a risk factor for increased aggression and delinquent behaviors.

deviant sexuality

deviant sexuality see sexual deviance.

deviant verbalization

deviant verbalization see schizophrenic thinking.

deviate

deviate n. in statistics, the extent to which a score differs from a specified value, such as the mean. Thus, a negative deviate from the mean indicates how much lower than average the score is, whereas a positive deviate from the mean indicates how much higher than average the score is.

deviation

deviation n. a significant departure or difference. This conceptually broad term has a variety of applications in psychology and related fields but most commonly refers to behavior that is significantly different from the accepted standard or norm, or to the arithmetical difference between one of a set of values and some fixed amount, generally the mean of the set or the value predicted by a model. See standard deviation.

deviation IQ

deviation IQ the absolute measure of how far an individual differs from the mean on an individually administered IQ test. This is the approach now most commonly used in standard IQ tests. A reported deviation IQ is a standard score on an IQ test that has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation specific to that of the test administered, usually 15 or 16 for intelligence tests. The test scores represent a deviation from the mean score rather than a quotient, as was typical in the early days of IQ testing.

deviation score

deviation score the difference between an observation or value x and the mean value (i.e., x – mean) in a set of data. The sum of the deviation scores for a given data set will equal zero, as approximately half of the values will be less than the mean and half will be greater than the mean. Also called deviation value.

device for automated desensitization

device for automated desensitization a computerized system for applying desensitization therapy to the treatment of focused phobic behavior. The device administers visual or audio instructions for muscle relaxation and visualization of feared stimuli arranged in a hierarchical order. See also covert desensitization; systematic desensitization.

devil’s trumpet

devil’s trumpet see jimsonweed.

DEX

DEX abbreviation for Dysexecutive Questionnaire. See dysexecutive syndrome.

dexamethasone

dexamethasone n. a synthetic analog of cortisol, with similar biological action. It is used to treat nausea and vomiting and as an anti-inflammatory agent. U.S. trade name (among others): Decadron.

dexamethasone suppression test (DST)

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dexamphetamine

dexamphetamine n. see dextroamphetamine.

Dexedrine

Dexedrine n. a trade name for dextroamphetamine.

dexterity test

dexterity test a manual test of speed and accuracy.

dextrality

dextrality n. a tendency to use the right hand, arm, or leg in motor activities. See also right-handedness. Compare sinistrality.

dextro- (dextr-)

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dextroamphetamine

dextroamphetamine n. a sympathomimetic agent and CNS stimulant that is the dextrorotated form of the amphetamine molecule. It is used in the treatment of narcolepsy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Like all amphetamines, it is prone to abuse and dependence. Also called dexamphetamine. U.S. trade names (among others): Dexedrine; Adderall (in combination with amphetamine).

dextromethorphan

dextromethorphan n. a synthetic opioid used clinically as a cough suppressant. Its mechanism of action is unknown, but it does bind to NMDA receptors and to sigma receptors. Dextromethorphan is a common ingredient in over-the-counter cough and cold preparations and is increasingly a drug of abuse, particularly among adolescents. Because it is metabolized extensively by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 liver enzyme, it is used in pharmacology as a comparison when calculating the degree to which certain drugs inhibit CYP enzymes. It should not be taken by individuals who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and it should be used with caution by those taking inhibitors of the CYP2D6 enzyme (i.e., fluoxetine, paroxetine) because unexpectedly high plasma concentrations of either drug may occur (see enzyme inhibition). Examples of some common U.S. proprietary products that include dextromethorphan are Coricidin, NyQuil, Robitussin, Tylenol PM, and Vicks 44. Dextromethorphan is also used in combination with quinidine to treat pseudobulbar affect (U.S. trade name: Neudexta).

dextrosinistral

dextrosinistral adj. oriented or directed from the right side of the body to the left side.

df

df symbol for degrees of freedom.

dharma

dharma n. 1. in Hinduism, the principle of natural law that sustains and governs the cosmos. In a narrower sense, the term denotes the social laws and customs that must be followed to achieve the right path of spiritual advancement. 2. in Buddhism, the cosmic law underlying the world of humans and, above all, the functioning of karmic rebirth (see karma). The term has multiple other meanings, including the truth as set out in the teachings of the Buddha, norms of behavior and ethical rules, the manifestation of reality, and the content of human thought. [Sanskrit, literally: “carrying, holding”]

dhat

dhat n. a culture-bound syndrome specific to India. Dhat involves severe anxiety and hypochondriacal concerns about the discharge of semen, whitish discoloration of the urine, and feelings of weakness and exhaustion. It is similar to shen-k’uei.

DHE 45

DHE 45 a trade name for dihydroergotamine.

DHT

DHT abbreviation for dihydroxytryptamine.

di-

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dia-

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diabetes insipidus

diabetes insipidus a metabolic disorder marked by a deficiency of vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), which promotes the reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules. The patient experiences excessive thirst and excretes large amounts of urine but without the high level of sugar found in the urine of people with diabetes mellitus. See also nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.

diabetes mellitus

diabetes mellitus a metabolic disorder caused by ineffective production or utilization of the hormone insulin. Because of the insulin disruption, the patient is unable to oxidize and utilize carbohydrates in food. Glucose accumulates in the blood, causing weakness, fatigue, and the appearance of sugar in the urine. Fat metabolism is also disrupted so that end products of fat metabolism (ketones) accumulate in the blood. There are two major types of the disorder. Type 1 diabetes, formerly called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), is characterized by a complete or near complete absence of endogenous insulin secretion, requiring patients to take daily insulin injections and to carefully manage the timing and size of their daily food intake to control their blood glucose levels; because this type usually occurs during childhood or early adolescence, it was formerly also called juvenile-onset diabetes (or juvenile diabetes). Type 2 diabetes, formerly called noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), is characterized by reduced secretion of or resistance to insulin in the body and may be manageable through diet alone. In the past, it typically occurred in adulthood (and was formerly also called adult-onset diabetes); however, with the rise in childhood obesity, a significant risk factor for the disorder, Type 2 diabetes is increasingly seen in children as well as adults.

diabetic enteropathy

diabetic enteropathy a gastrointestinal complication of diabetes mellitus, marked by intermittent occurrence of nocturnal fecal incontinence. The condition is often associated with autonomic and peripheral neuropathy and is regarded as one of several manifestations of visceral neuropathy in people with diabetes. See also gastric neuropathy.

diabetic gastropathy

diabetic gastropathy any disorder of the stomach or related digestive organs that is due primarily to the effects of diabetes on the autonomic nervous system. See also gastric neuropathy.

diabetic retinopathy

diabetic retinopathy deterioration of the retina as a complication of diabetes mellitus, marked by tiny aneurysms of the retinal capillaries. These first appear as small venous dilations and red dots, observed during ophthalmological examination; they progress to retinal hemorrhages and exudates that impair vision. New, abnormal vessels may form in the vitreous cavity and may also hemorrhage. Detached retina is a complication. Treatment includes control of diabetes and hypertension, laser photocoagulation, and vitreous surgery.

diacetylmorphine

diacetylmorphine n. the chemical name for heroin. A synthetic analog of morphine (produced by substituting acetyl groups for hydroxyl groups at two positions on the morphine molecule), it is, like morphine and codeine, a pure opioid agonist, activating receptors for endorphins and enkephalins (see endogenous opioid). Diacetylmorphine has a rapid onset of action and a duration of action similar to that of morphine; however, it is three times more potent than morphine. In Great Britain and Canada, it is used clinically in the management of severe pain—for example, in terminally ill patients—but it is not legally available in the United States due to concerns about its potential for abuse. Also called diamorphine. See opioid analgesic.

diachronic linguistics

diachronic linguistics the study of languages as they change over time, as practiced in philology or comparative linguistics. This is often contrasted with synchronic linguistics, the study of languages or (more often) a particular language at a single point in time, with no reference to historical or developmental factors. The synchronic approach to language is the basis of linguistic structuralism. [introduced by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913)]

diachronic universal

diachronic universal see psychological universal.

diacritical marking system (DMS)

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diadochokinesis

diadochokinesis n. the ability to rapidly perform repetitive muscular movements, such as finger tapping or pursing and retracting the lips. This ability is often examined during clinical assessments of motor behavior.

diagnosis (Dx)

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diagnosis-related groups (DRGs)

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Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale (DABS)

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders see DSM–IV–TR; DSM–5.

diagnostic audiometry

diagnostic audiometry see audiometry.

diagnostic baseline

diagnostic baseline the entry or pretreatment levels of symptoms, used in identifying or treating diseases or disorders. Such levels are also used to assign patients or participants in a study to correlational groups.

diagnostic center

diagnostic center a facility equipped with skilled personnel and appropriate laboratory and other equipment for evaluating the condition of a patient and determining the cause of his or her physical or psychological disorder. The diagnostic center may be separate or part of a larger health care facility.

diagnostic educational tests

diagnostic educational tests tests designed to identify and measure academic deficiencies. Examples include the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, and the Nelson–Denny Reading Test. Also called educational tests.

diagnostic formulation

diagnostic formulation a comprehensive evaluation of a patient, including a summary of his or her behavioral, emotional, and psychophysiological disturbances. Diagnostic formulation includes the most significant features of the patient’s total history; the results of psychological and medical examinations; a tentative explanation of the origin and development of his or her disorder; the diagnostic classification of the disorder; a therapeutic plan, including basic and adjunctive treatments; and a prognostic evaluation based on carrying out this plan.

diagnostic interview

diagnostic interview an interview in which a health or mental health professional explores a patient’s presenting problem, current situation, and background, with the aim of formulating a diagnosis and prognosis as well as developing a treatment program.

Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS)

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diagnostic orphan

diagnostic orphan a person who manifests one or two symptoms of a disorder but who does not qualify for a formal diagnosis. For example, someone who exhibits only a few symptoms indicating a dependence on alcohol and who therefore would not qualify for a formal DSM–IV–TR diagnosis of alcohol dependence is a diagnostic orphan.

diagnostic overshadowing

diagnostic overshadowing the failure, when assessing an individual with multiple disabilities, to discern the presence of one disability because its features are attributed to another, primary disability. In particular, the term refers to the failure to recognize a mental disorder in a person with intellectual disability because characteristics of that mental disorder are erroneously attributed to the intellectual disability. See also dual diagnosis.

diagnostic prescriptive education

diagnostic prescriptive education the concept that effectiveness of classroom teaching of children with disabilities depends in large part on the teacher’s understanding of the disabilities. For example, the more the teacher and educational administrators know about hydrocephalus, the more effectively they can design and individualize an appropriate educational program for students with this particular disability.

diagnostic test

diagnostic test any examination or assessment measure that may help reveal the nature and source of an individual’s physical, mental, or behavioral problems or anomalies. In medical research, a diagnostic test would be expected to show sensitivity (i.e., correctly identifying individuals with a certain illness) and specificity (i.e., correctly identifying those who do not have a specific illness).

diagnosticity

diagnosticity n. the informational value of an interaction, event, or feedback for someone seeking self-knowledge. Information with high diagnosticity has clear implications for the self-concept, whereas information with low diagnosticity may be unclear, ambiguous, or inaccurate. The desire for highly diagnostic information about the self is called the self-assessment motive.

diagnostics

diagnostics pl. n. 1. the practice of diagnosis. 2. procedures for evaluating how much a model differs from expected patterns and assumptions. For example, diagnostics may reveal how much a set of data departs from assumptions of normality, linearity, and homogeneity of variance, possibly showing skewed, curvilinear, and unequal variances across levels of another variable, respectively. See also regression diagnostics.

dialect

dialect n. 1. a variety of a language that is associated with a particular geographical region, social class, or ethnic group and has its own characteristic words, grammatical forms, and pronunciation. Dialects of a language are generally mutually intelligible. Compare accent; register. 2. among nonhuman animals, a variant of the standard form of communication that is specific to a population or a geographical region. For example, cardinals in different parts of North America have regional differences in song. —dialectal adj.

dialectic

dialectic n. 1. in general, any investigation of the truth of ideas through juxtaposition of opposing or contradictory opinions. 2. the conversational mode of argument attributed to Socrates, in which knowledge is sought through a process of question and answer. 3. in the work of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), the pattern of statement, contradiction, and reconciliation (thesis, antithesis, and synthesis) that he held to govern thought processes and the progress of human history. See also dialectical materialism. —dialectical adj.

dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

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dialectical materialism

dialectical materialism in the philosophy of Karl Marx, the principle that accounts for the progress of history and the succession of economic and government systems. The process is one in which the clash of the prevailing system (the thesis) with an insurgent system (the antithesis) results in a new system (the synthesis). This movement is driven by purely material factors, most notably those attending the control of the means of production. Marx’s dialectical account of history thus inverts what may be referred to as the dialectical idealism of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831). See also class theory; Marxism.

dialectical operations

dialectical operations mechanisms by which development occurs as a result of interactions between the individual and the environment. Rather than emphasizing universal stages of development, theorists taking a dialectical perspective, such as Lev Vygotsky, argue that development takes place as individuals both react to and influence their social environment. Models of this sort are based on the theories of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831).

dialectical teaching

dialectical teaching a method that engages students in a critical examination of their reasoning through repeated questioning of their answers, much as Socrates is portrayed as doing in the Platonic dialogues. Also called dialectical method.

dialectology

dialectology n. the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of dialects.

Diallinas–Amalric syndrome

Diallinas–Amalric syndrome a familial condition thought to be an autosomal recessive trait in which deafness is associated with defects in central vision. Also called Amalric’s syndrome; deaf mutism–retinal degeneration syndrome. [described in 1959 by Nicolaos Pindaros Diallinas, Greek ophthalmologist, and in 1960 by Pierre Amalric (1923–1999), French ophthalmologist]

dialogue (dialog)

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dialysis dementia

dialysis dementia an aluminum-induced brain disease affecting patients undergoing long-term dialysis. Major symptoms are progressive mental deterioration, personality changes, and speech impairment, with such neurological signs as seizures, dysarthria, dysnomia (difficulty in naming objects), and dyspraxia.

diamorphine

diamorphine n. see diacetylmorphine.

dianetics

dianetics n. a controversial therapeutic technique claiming to treat, according to its founder, “all inorganic mental ills and all inorganic psychosomatic ills, with assurance of complete cure.” Dianetics has been largely discredited within the fields of psychology and psychiatry. [introduced in 1950 by L(afayette) Ron(ald) Hubbard (1911–1986), U.S. science-fiction writer and subsequent founder of Scientology]

dianoia

dianoia n. in philosophy, reasoning based on sensory perception and experience, especially as contrasted with the purely intellectual operation of the nous. Compare noesis. See also understanding. —dianoetic adj.

diaphragm

diaphragm n. 1. a muscular sheet that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. 2. a cup-shaped contraceptive device made from a layer of thick latex rubber fitted over a round or spiral spring. The diaphragm is filled with a contraceptive jelly and inserted in the vagina so that it forms a barrier between the cervix and any spermatozoa that enter the vagina during coitus. The spring holds it in place. The diaphragm has been used by women since 1882. —diaphragmatic adj.

diary method

diary method a technique for compiling detailed data about an individual who is being observed or studied by having the individual record his or her daily behavior and activities. Also called diary survey.

diaschisis

diaschisis n. a loss or deficiency of function in brain regions surrounding or connected to an area of localized damage.

diastolic blood pressure

diastolic blood pressure the pressure of blood flowing in a major artery while the heart rests briefly between contractions. On blood pressure readings, it is the smaller number, usually noted after the systolic blood pressure.

diathesis

diathesis n. any susceptibility to or predisposition for a disease or disorder. See also genetic predisposition.

diathesis–stress model

diathesis–stress model the theory that mental and physical disorders develop from a genetic or biological predisposition for that illness (diathesis) combined with stressful conditions that play a precipitating or facilitating role. Also called diathesis–stress hypothesis (or paradigm or theory). See also stress–vulnerability model.

diatonic

diatonic adj. pertaining to a musical scale with an octave span and intervals of five tones and two semitones. Compare chromatic.

diazepam

diazepam n. a long-acting benzodiazepine that is used for the management of alcohol withdrawal and as an anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant. It is broken down in the liver to produce a number of metabolites (metabolic products) of varying half-lives, including the active compounds desmethyldiazepam (nordiazepam) and oxazepam. Its complex metabolism and lengthy half-life make diazepam unsuitable for use in older adults and those with liver disease. U.S. trade name (among others): Valium.

diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI)

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dibenzodiazepine

dibenzodiazepine n. any member of a class of chemically related compounds that include clozapine, the first atypical antipsychotic introduced into clinical medicine. This class is structurally similar to the dibenzoxazepines.

dibenzothiazepine

dibenzothiazepine n. any member of a class of chemically related compounds that include quetiapine, an atypical antipsychotic. This class is structurally similar to the dibenzodiazepines and the dibenzoxazepines.

dibenzoxazepine

dibenzoxazepine n. any member of a class of chemically related compounds that include loxapine, one of the older antipsychotics that does not belong to the phenothiazine class. This class is structurally similar to the dibenzodiazepines.

DIC

DIC abbreviation for deviance information criterion.

DICE model

DICE model dissociable interactions and conscious experience model: a cognitive model proposing that linguistic, perceptual, and other kinds of knowledge are processed by independent memory modules, with consciousness operating as an awareness system that serves as a gateway to an executive system. Access to various types of knowledge depends on intact interactions between the consciousness awareness system and other components of the model. The model considers certain impairments (e.g., amnesia, alexia) as examples of “disconnects” in this interactive process. See modularity. [devised by U.S. psychologist Daniel L. Schacter (1952– )]

dichoptic stimulation

dichoptic stimulation the simultaneous presentation of different stimuli to each of the eyes. Dichoptic stimulation usually causes binocular rivalry.

dichorhinic

dichorhinic adj. relating to the presentation of different odorants in each nostril via an olfactometer.

dichorial twins

dichorial twins a set of twins that had separate chorionic membranes as embryos. They include dizygotic twins as well as monozygotic twins that separate shortly after fertilization. Compare monochorial twins.

dichotic

dichotic adj. affecting or relating to the left and right ears differently, as with the presentation of different sounds to each ear. Compare diotic; monotic.

dichotic listening

dichotic listening the process of receiving different auditory messages presented simultaneously to each ear. Listeners experience two streams of sound, each localized at the ear to which it is presented, and are able to focus on the message from one ear while ignoring the message from the other ear. See also interaural rivalry.

dichotomized variable

dichotomized variable an item or score that initially had a set of continuous values (e.g., age) but was then separated into two possible values (e.g., younger and older). It may be useful to create a dichotomized variable when there are truncated data.

dichotomous thinking

dichotomous thinking the tendency to think in terms of polar opposites—that is, in terms of the best and worst—without accepting the possibilities that lie between these two extremes. The term has been used to characterize the tendency of people with major depressive disorder to view mildly negative events as extremely negative, but the potential role of such thinking in other conditions (e.g., eating disorders, personality disorders) is also under investigation. Also called polarized thinking.

dichotomous variable

dichotomous variable a variable that can have only one of two values (typically, 0 or 1) to designate membership in one of two possible categories, such as female versus male or Republican versus Democrat. Also called binary variable. See also polychotomous variable.

dichromatism (dichromacy; dichromasy; dichromatopsia)

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dichromic

dichromic adj. distinguishing only two colors.

DID

DID abbreviation for dissociative identity disorder.

didactic group therapy

didactic group therapy an early form of group psychotherapy based on the theory that institutionalized individuals will respond most effectively to the active guidance of a professional leader. In one form of didactic group therapy, the group members bring up their own problems and the therapist leads the discussion, often giving his or her own interpretations. In another form, the therapist presents a short lecture based on printed material designed to stimulate the members to break through their resistances and express themselves. The didactic approach is also used in self-help groups.

didactic teaching

didactic teaching 1. a technique in which behavioral and therapeutic concepts and techniques are explained to clients, and instructions are given in both verbal and written form. Such instruction is common in many forms of therapy, with the exception of psychodynamic psychotherapy and psychoanalysis. 2. a component of many undergraduate and graduate psychology courses and multidisciplinary psychotherapy training.

diencephalic amnesia

diencephalic amnesia amnesia caused by lesions of the diencephalon due to infarction of the paramedian artery, trauma, diencephalic tumors, and Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome.

diencephalon

diencephalon n. the posterior part of the forebrain that includes the thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus. —diencephalic adj.

diestrus

diestrus n. in the polyestrous mammalian female, a period of sexual inactivity between two estrous cycles, during which the reproductive system prepares for potential conception and gestation.

diet

diet n. 1. food substances and liquids habitually consumed by an organism. 2. a prescribed course of eating and drinking for a particular reason (e.g., a low-cholesterol diet). —dietary adj.

dietary neophobia

dietary neophobia avoidance of new foods. A nonpathological form is commonly seen in children who display a reluctance to try unfamiliar food. Acceptance of novel diets may be facilitated through observation of others eating similar foods or, in some cases, by simply observing others eating familiar foods. In some nonhuman primates, parents or other caretakers appear more likely to offer or share foods that are novel to their young than foods that are familiar to them.

dietary selection

dietary selection the ability of an organism to choose foods that maintain a good nutritional balance of calories, fats, protein, minerals, and vitamins. Many species appear to be able to self-select an appropriate diet, perhaps due to sampling of foods that reduce illness induced by lack of one nutrient or another. Most species studied, however, demonstrate a specific appetite for sodium, a critical mineral for survival.

diethylpropion

diethylpropion n. a CNS stimulant used as an appetite suppressant in the treatment of obesity. See also analeptic. U.S. trade name: Tenuate.

diethylstilbestrol (DES)

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diethyltryptamine

diethyltryptamine n. see DET.

dieting

dieting n. the deliberate restriction of the types or amounts of food one eats, usually in an effort to lose weight or to improve one’s health. Dieting is viewed by some medical and mental health professionals as a solution to obesity and by others as a primary pathology associated with eating disorders.

DIF

DIF abbreviation for differential item functioning.

difference canon

difference canon see method of difference.

difference hypothesis

difference hypothesis see defect theory.

difference judgment

difference judgment a judgment that two similar stimuli are not identical. The minimum difference between the stimuli necessary to make such a judgment is called the difference threshold.

difference score

difference score (symbol: D) an index of dissimilarity or change between observations from the same individual across time, based on the measurement of a construct or attribute on two or more separate occasions. For example, it would be helpful to calculate a difference score for a person’s weight at the beginning of a diet and exercise program and the final weight 6 months later. Also called change score; gain score.

difference threshold

difference threshold the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be consistently and accurately detected on 50% of trials. Also called difference limen (DL); just noticeable difference (JND; jnd). See also Weber’s law.

difference tone

difference tone see combination tone.

Differential Ability Scales (DAS)

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differential accuracy

differential accuracy the ability to determine accurately in what way and to what extent a person’s traits differ from a stereotype associated with his or her age group, ethnic group, professional group, or other relevant group. Compare stereotype accuracy.

differential amplifier

differential amplifier an electrical device that amplifies the voltage difference between two input leads. In neural research, potential changes may be as small as 1 μV, and electrical resistances and sources of interference may be greater than the voltages being studied. Thus, complex electronic equipment, such as a differential amplifier, is required.

Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT)

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differential association

differential association 1. the theory that an individual’s behavior is influenced by the particular people with whom he or she associates, usually over a prolonged period. This concept was proposed to explain why people living in a neighborhood with a high crime rate were more likely to commit crimes themselves. Moreover, it was suggested that association with a particular type of criminal determined what kind of criminal one became. [proposed by U.S. criminologist Edwin H. Sutherland (1883–1950)] 2. the different effects that individual factors—such as medicines, genes, catalysts, traits, and the like—may contribute to a phenomenon, structure, or outcome.

differential conditioning

differential conditioning a classical conditioning experiment in which two or more stimuli are used, each paired with different outcomes. Most commonly, one stimulus (the positive conditioned stimulus, e.g., a light) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), and another (e.g., a tone) is not paired. The usual outcome is that a conditioned response is elicited by the positive conditioned stimulus but not by the other stimulus.

differential diagnosis

differential diagnosis 1. the process of determining which of two or more diseases or disorders with overlapping symptoms a particular patient has. 2. the distinction between two or more similar conditions by identifying critical symptoms present in one but not the other.

differential effect

differential effect in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, the finding that a participant shows an above-chance difference in performance under two contrasting conditions of testing (e.g., with two different targets). See also decline effect; focusing effect; position effect; preferential effect; sheep–goat effect.

differential emotions theory

differential emotions theory a theory proposing the existence of a large but limited set of specific emotions that appear without social learning at the age when the emotions can first play an adaptive role in the behavior of the child. [proposed by Carroll E. Izard]

differential extinction

differential extinction the extinction of one or more responses established through conditioning while related conditioned responses remain.

differential fertility

differential fertility the fertility rate of any group (e.g., an ethnic or socioeconomic group) in relation to that of another group.

differential growth

differential growth the growth of an organ at a rate different from that of other organs in the body.

differential inhibition

differential inhibition a decreased tendency to respond to stimuli resembling the original conditioning stimulus.

differential item functioning (DIF)

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differential psychology

differential psychology the branch of psychology that studies the nature, magnitude, causes, and consequences of psychological differences between individuals and groups, as well as the methods for assessing these differences. See also individual differences.

differential reinforcement

differential reinforcement in conditioning, the reinforcement of only selected behavior. For example, one might reinforce lever presses that are more than 1 second in duration but not reinforce those that are less than 1 second in duration.

differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA)

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differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH)

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differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL)

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differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

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differential relaxation

differential relaxation a technique for exerting only the amount of muscular tension or energy required to perform an activity successfully. For example, an individual driving an automobile can practice easing and releasing contracted muscles that are not primarily involved in the act of driving (e.g., the shoulders and upper back or the neck and facial muscles) and thus permit more appropriate focus and engagement of those muscles directly involved (e.g., in the hands, arms, legs, and lower back).

differential validity

differential validity 1. the accuracy of a battery of tests in discriminating between a person’s subsequent success in two or more different criterion tasks. 2. differences in validity coefficients across groups. For example, the correlation between test scores and job performance may differ for males and females.

differential-organization theory

differential-organization theory see lag effect.

differentiation

differentiation n. 1. sensory discrimination of differences among stimuli. For example, wines that at first taste are identical may, with experience, be readily distinguished. 2. a conditioning process in which a limited range of behavior types is achieved through selective reinforcement of only some forms of behavior. Also called response differentiation. 3. in embryology, the process whereby cells of a developing embryo undergo the changes necessary to become specialized in structure and function so that they or their successors can form tissues, such as muscle, neurons, or bone. 4. in mathematics, the process used in calculus for obtaining the differential coefficient of a function or variable. 5. in attitudes research, see complexity of an attitude.

differentiation theory

differentiation theory the theory that perception can be understood as an incremental filtering process enabling environmental noise (i.e., dispensable, incidental information) to be screened out while one learns to distinguish the essential characteristics of sensory patterns.

differentiation–dedifferentiation hypothesis

differentiation–dedifferentiation hypothesis two complementary proposals about the development of intelligence. In one, U.S. psychologist Henry E. Garrett (1894–1973) proposed in 1938 that intelligence begins as a fairly unified, general ability that then differentiates into separate, albeit related, abilities as children develop. This proposal has come to be called the age differentiation hypothesis. According to the other proposal, put forth by U.S. psychologist Benjamin Balinsky in 1941, a process occurs after age 65 during which the separate abilities developed in childhood become increasingly intercorrelated as a result of decreasing fluid intelligence (see Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence); at this time, intelligence dedifferentiates and returns to a single factor of general ability. This proposal has become known as the age dedifferentiation hypothesis. Both proposals have garnered much debate over the years, but the evidence for each remains limited.

diffraction

diffraction n. the bending or scattering of waves as they pass through an aperture or around the edge of a barrier. Diffraction most often refers to this phenomenon in light waves, but it may occur with waves of any type, including sound waves, radio waves, water waves, and so forth.

diffraction grating

diffraction grating a piece of glass or metal containing closely spaced parallel slits or transparencies, used to separate light into its component wavelengths.

diffuse axonal injury (DAI)

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diffuse bipolar cell

diffuse bipolar cell a retinal bipolar cell that receives input from several receptors. Compare midget bipolar cell.

diffuse thalamic projection system (DTPS)

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diffuse-status characteristic

diffuse-status characteristic in expectation-states theory, any of certain general personal qualities, such as age, sex, and ethnicity, that people intentionally and unintentionally consider when estimating the relative competency, ability, and social value of themselves and others. Unlike specific-status characteristics, diffuse-status characteristics have no particular relevance in the given setting. See status generalization.

diffusion

diffusion n. 1. the process by which knowledge, innovation, language, or cultural characteristics are spread within or between cultures or communities. 2. in biology, see passive transport. 3. more generally, any process by which something becomes spread or distributed throughout something else. —diffuse vb.

diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI)

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diffusion model

diffusion model a model of reaction time and accuracy proposing that an individual accumulates evidence continuously, rather than in discrete steps, until a response criterion is reached. [proposed in 1978 by U.S. psychologist Roger Ratcliff (1947– )]

diffusion of responsibility

diffusion of responsibility the diminished sense of responsibility often experienced by individuals in groups and social collectives. The diffusion has been proposed as a possible mediator of a number of group-level phenomena, including the bystander effect, choice shifts, deindividuation, social loafing, and reactions to social dilemmas. See also confusion of responsibility. [first described in 1970 by U.S. social psychologists John M. Darley (1938– ) and Bibb Latané (1937– )]

diffusion of treatments

diffusion of treatments a situation in which research participants adopt a different intervention from the one they were assigned because they believe the different intervention is more effective. When diffusion of treatments occurs, the internal validity of a study is called into question, as it would be difficult to attribute a specific outcome to a specific intervention. For example, participants in a weight-reduction program may be assigned to a low-carbohydrate intervention, a low-fat intervention, a low-calorie intervention, or a control group that only receives educational material on losing weight. If some participants in the control condition found out that those in one of the other conditions were losing more weight and they adopted that intervention, there would be diffusion of treatments.

diffusion process

diffusion process in consumer psychology, the process by which the general public comes to accept a new concept or product. The process is often compared to a stone dropped into a pond that produces waves that spread outward to cover the entire pond. The diffusion process depends on acceptance by an initial core of people, whose influence then ripples outward through the surrounding population.

diffusion status

diffusion status see identity status model.

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

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digestion

digestion n. the process by which food is broken down so that it may be absorbed and assimilated by the body, thus providing energy and nutrients.

digestive type

digestive type a constitutional body type in which the alimentary system dominates other systems (see Rostan types). It corresponds to the pyknic type in Kretschmer typology.

digit span

digit span the number of random digits from a series that a person can recall following a single auditory presentation. A span of 5 to 9 digits (see seven plus or minus two) is considered typical for an adult. Digit Span an attentional subtest in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale that assesses the ability of an individual to repeat a series of digits of increasing length. Digit Span Forward assesses the number of digits an individual is able to repeat immediately following their presentation, in the exact order they were presented. Digit Span Backward assesses the number of digits an individual is able to repeat immediately following their presentation, but in reverse order. The former is regarded as a measure of immediate memory; the latter provides a measure of working memory.

Digit Span

Digit Symbol

Digit Symbol a performance subtest in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale that measures the time taken to indicate digits associated with abstract symbols using a substitution key. It is a measure of fluid abilities (see Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence) and performance and is negatively correlated with adult age. Also called Digit Symbol Substitution.

digital

digital adj. 1. relating to the representation of information in discrete or numerical (typically binary) form. Compare analog. 2. of or relating to the fingers or toes.

Digital Accessible Information SYstem (DAISY)

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digital computer

digital computer an electronic device that processes information, including making numeric calculations. It is called “digital” because the machine’s primary mechanisms include counting, comparing, and rearranging digits in its memory and processing modules. The (digital) unit for these computations is called a bit. Compare analog computer.

digital divide

digital divide any significant gap between groups of individuals in their access to and skilled use of computers, the Internet, smartphones, and other information and communication technologies. For example, there is a digital divide between older adults and younger people: Since the former have been without computers for the majority of their lives, they tend to be less knowledgeable about use of such technology than the latter, who have grown up with the technology. The digital divide is an increasing concern as more and more information is collected and disseminated electronically. A related concern is digital acceptance, or how information gathered through digital means is perceived. For example, some social science researchers routinely collect data via online surveys and other Internet-based methods, whereas other researchers do not consider the information obtained from such methods to be as valuable as that collected from more traditional (i.e., nonelectronic) sources.

digital subtraction angiography

digital subtraction angiography angiography to visualize blood vessels that have been injected with contrast medium in which minimization or elimination of the background and other soft tissues by computer results in a clear image.

digitized speech

digitized speech speech that has been coded in digital form, usually for storage in a computer or transmission over a computer network.

diglossia

diglossia n. the situation in which two varieties of a language coexist and have distinct social functions within a community; these are usually characterized by high (H) and low (L) uses, H being associated with formality and literacy, and L with everyday colloquial usage. See also code switching; multilingualism; vernacular. [first described in 1959 by U.S. linguist Charles Ferguson (1921–1998)]

digraph

digraph n. a combination of two letters or other symbols used to represent a single speech sound, for example, ph in digraph or ea in head. The corresponding term trigraph refers to three letters or symbols, for example, tth in Matthew. See also diphthong.

dihydrocodeine

dihydrocodeine n. see opioid analgesic.

dihydroergotamine

dihydroergotamine n. a semisynthetic derivative of the ergot alkaloid ergotamine, used in the treatment of acute migraine headache. It is a potent vasoconstrictor due to its ability to antagonize alpha-adrenergic receptors in blood-vessel walls as well as serotonin and dopamine receptors. U.S. trade names: DHE 45; Migranal.

dihydromorphine

dihydromorphine n. a semisynthetic opioid analgesic used primarily in research on opioid receptors. It is also a metabolite (metabolic product) of dihydrocodeine.

dihydrotestosterone

dihydrotestosterone n. a potent androgenic hormone produced by the metabolic breakdown of testosterone, many of whose effects it mediates in target tissues. It is important in the development of reproductive organs in the male fetus and of male secondary sex characteristics. A semisynthetic form is used therapeutically (see stanolone).

dihydroxyphenylacetic acid

dihydroxyphenylacetic acid see dopac.

dihydroxytryptamine (DHT)

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Dilantin

Dilantin n. a trade name for phenytoin.

dilation

dilation n. the process of enlargement, usually of an aperture, such as the pupil of the eye.

dilator

dilator n. 1. a muscle or nerve that causes opening or enlargement of a bodily structure. 2. an instrument for opening up an orifice or passage in the body. 3. a drug or other agent that causes dilation or enlargement of an organ or opening. See vasodilator.

dildo

dildo n. an artificial penis, made usually of plastic or silicone but occasionally of wood or other materials. A dildo is used in autoerotic practices and other sexual activities. Also called olisbos. See also vibrator.

dilemma

dilemma n. a situation necessitating a choice between two equally desirable or undesirable alternatives. Psychologists, economists, or sociologists may invent dilemmas and present them to individuals or groups to study decision making. See ethical dilemma; prisoner’s dilemma; social dilemma.

dilution effect

dilution effect 1. the reduction in the average probability that any one individual animal will be preyed on when many animals carry out the same activity at the same time. For example, young birds may leave a nesting colony en masse, or insects may emerge synchronously; as a result, predators are able to take proportionally fewer prey. See also antipredator behavior; confusion effect. 2. the protection against disease transmission that may occur when the presence of incompetent reservoirs (i.e., organisms that do not efficiently transmit a particular pathogen) dilutes the effect of competent reservoirs; in this situation, a decrease in biodiversity may lead to an increase in the transmission of a pathogen. In contrast, the amplification effect occurs when an increase in biodiversity leads to an increase in disease transmission.

dimenhydrinate

dimenhydrinate n. a nonprescription antihistamine at H1 receptors that is commonly taken to suppress symptoms of motion sickness. U.S. trade name (among others): Dramamine.

dimension

dimension n. in statistics, a factor or component that is applied in measuring a set of variables. For example, some intelligence scales are considered to have two important dimensions consisting of verbal and nonverbal intelligence.

dimensional theory of emotion

dimensional theory of emotion any theory postulating that emotions have two or more fundamental dimensions. There is universal agreement among theories on two fundamental dimensions—pleasantness–unpleasantness (hedonic level) and arousal–relaxation (level of activation)—but considerable differences in labeling others.

dimensionality

dimensionality n. the number of dimensions applied in measuring a construct. In factor analysis and principal components analysis, it is important to assess the dimensionality of a set of items on a scale in order to form cohesive subscales that each describe a similar set of items.

dimensions of consciousness

dimensions of consciousness variables along which the overall quality of a person’s consciousness can be assessed, including mood and feeling tone, internal or external focus of attention, changes in spatial awareness, a sense of flow or difficulty, degree of self-awareness, and degree of self-identification with groups or individuals.

dimer

dimer n. a complex in which two macromolecular subunits (e.g., of a protein) are bound together. —dimeric adj.

dimethoxymethylamphetamine

dimethoxymethylamphetamine n. see DOM.

dimethyl ketone

dimethyl ketone see acetone.

dimethyltryptamine

dimethyltryptamine n. see DMT.

diminished capacity

diminished capacity a legal defense in which a mental abnormality, due to either intoxication (see intoxication defense) or mental defect, is claimed to have limited the defendant’s ability to form the requisite criminal intent (see mens rea) for the crime with which he or she is charged.

diminished responsibility

diminished responsibility a form of affirmative defense in which evidence of mental abnormality is presented to mitigate or reduce a defendant’s accountability for an act. It is distinct from an insanity defense, which takes an all-or-none perspective with regard to criminal responsibility. Also called limited responsibility. See also partial insanity.

diminutive visual hallucination

diminutive visual hallucination see Lilliputian hallucination.

dimming effect

dimming effect 1. the effect of a bright light in a scene with fainter elements. The faint elements appear dimmer in the presence of the light source than they do when the light source is absent. 2. the increase in brightness of an afterimage that results from dimming its background.

dimorphism

dimorphism n. the existence among members of the same species of two distinct forms that differ in one or more characteristics, such as size, shape, or color. Compare monomorphism. See also sexual dimorphism. —dimorphic adj.

DIMS

DIMS abbreviation for disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep.

DIN color system

DIN color system a European system for representing colors by their attributes of hue, luminous intensity, and saturation (from German D[eutsche] I[ndustrie-] N[orm], German Industry Standard). It is similar to the U.S. Munsell color system.

dinitrogen monoxide

dinitrogen monoxide see nitrous oxide.

Dionysian

Dionysian adj. describing a state of mind that is irrational, sensuous, disordered, and even drunken or mad (from Dionysus, Greek god of wine, intoxication, and ritual madness or ecstasy). This modern use of the term was originated by Friedrich Nietzsche, who drew a contrast between the Dionysian and the Apollonian sides of human nature. He felt that a Dionysian attitude would counter the enervating effects of the Apollonian attitude then dominant in morality, religion, and philosophy.

diopter

diopter n. a unit of the power of a lens, equal to the reciprocal of its focal length in meters. A lens of 1 diopter will focus parallel rays of light to a point 1 m behind the lens.

dioptrics

dioptrics n. the field of optics concerned with the refraction of light. Compare catoptrics.

diotic

diotic adj. denoting or relating to the presentation of the same sound to both ears. Compare dichotic; monotic.

diphenhydramine

diphenhydramine n. a sedating antihistamine at H1 receptors that also possesses activity at cholinergic and other receptor sites. It is used generally to suppress allergic responses and, in mental health, as a sedative and hypnotic or to suppress the parkinsonian symptoms induced by conventional antipsychotic drugs. U.S. trade name (among others): Benadryl.

diphenylbutylpiperidine

diphenylbutylpiperidine n. any member of a class of chemically related compounds that include the conventional antipsychotic pimozide.

diphenylmethane

diphenylmethane n. any of a class of sedating antihistamines at H1 receptors that are used primarily as anxiolytics. They also prevent cardiac fibrillation and have local anesthetic effects. The prototype is hydroxyzine.

diphthong

diphthong n. a speech sound in which one vowel glides imperceptibly into another, as in the English words boy or great.

diplacusis

diplacusis n. a condition in which one tone is heard as two.

diplegia

diplegia n. a paralysis that affects corresponding parts on both sides of the body (e.g., both arms). —diplegic adj.

diplo- (dipl-)

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diploid

diploid adj. denoting or possessing the normal number of chromosomes, which in humans is 46: the 22 homologous pairs of autosomes plus the male or female set of XY or XX sex chromosomes. Compare haploid.

diplomate

diplomate n. see board certified.

diplopia

diplopia n. a visual disorder in which images from the two eyes are seen separately and simultaneously. Diplopia is usually due to weak or paralyzed eye muscles, resulting in a failure of coordination and focus. It may also be a functional symptom or result from brain injury (cerebral diplopia). See also double vision.

dipsomania

dipsomania n. an obsolete term for compulsive alcoholic drinking, particularly episodic binge drinking. —dipsomaniac n.

direct aggression

direct aggression aggressive behavior directed toward the source of frustration or anger. Compare displaced aggression.

direct attitude measure

direct attitude measure any procedure for assessing attitudes that requires a person to provide a report of his or her attitude. Traditional approaches to attitude measurement, such as the Likert scale, semantic differential, and Thurstone attitude scales, are examples of direct attitude measures. See also explicit attitude measure; implicit attitude measure. Compare indirect attitude measure.

direct coping

direct coping active, focused confrontation and management or resolution of stressful or otherwise problematic situations. See also active coping.

direct correlation

direct correlation see positive correlation.

direct dyslexia

direct dyslexia a form of acquired dyslexia characterized by an ability to read words aloud but an inability to understand what is being read. Some have suggested this is a parallel to developmental hyperlexia.

direct glare

direct glare interference with vision caused by bright light from a source in the visual field, as opposed to reflected glare, which is interference caused by light reflected from a surface.

direct marketing

direct marketing promoting a product by means of communication strategies addressed directly to individuals, rather than via the mass media: Direct marketing strategies will usually make use of knowledge of past purchases, demographics, and other factors. Examples are direct mail campaigns, telemarketing, and targeted e-mailing.

direct memory test

direct memory test see explicit memory test.

direct model

direct model a representation in which interest centers on how one or more variables specifically correlate with one or more other variables, without the inclusion of a mediator or intervening variable. For example, a researcher may hypothesize that an individual’s health background relates to his or her coping style, which in turn may be related to the individual’s sense of well-being. A direct model of this research would focus upon how health background relates to well-being, without considering the mediator of coping style.

direct object

direct object see object.

direct observation

direct observation a method of collecting data in which a researcher simply views or listens to the subjects of the research, without asking specific questions or manipulating any variables. The method of direct observation is useful in evaluation research or field research. See also naturalistic observation.

direct odor effect

direct odor effect a change in the nervous system caused by direct stimulation of the olfactory tract and related brain structures. In contrast, an indirect odor effect is a change in the central nervous system arising from cognitions, such as expectations, associated with the odor.

direct perception

direct perception the theory that the information required for perception is external to the observer; that is, one can directly perceive an object based on the properties of the distal stimulus alone, unaided by inference, memories, the construction of representations, or the influence of other cognitive processes. See ecological perception. Compare constructivism. [proposed by James J. Gibson]

direct realism

direct realism 1. see naive realism. 2. an occasional synonym for direct perception.

direct reflex

direct reflex a reflex involving a receptor and effector on the same side of the body.

direct relationship

direct relationship 1. an association between two variables such that they rise and fall in value together. For example, the number of hours studied and the level of test performance form a direct relationship in that as the number of study hours increases, the level of performance also increases, and vice versa. 2. in structural equation modeling, a correlation or prediction between two variables that does not involve a mediator or intervening variable. Also called positive relationship. Compare indirect relationship.

direct replication

direct replication the process of repeating a study with different data under similar conditions, or of conducting several different studies with the same data. Direct replication is useful for establishing that the findings of the original study are reliable (see reliability). In contrast, systematic replication uses a different data set and also adjusts the conditions in specific ways.

direct scaling

direct scaling a procedure for developing numerical scales of magnitude of psychophysical factors in which the observer makes judgments of the magnitude of stimuli. This is in contrast to indirect scaling, in which the magnitude scales are derived from paired comparison judgments.

direct selection

direct selection a form of natural selection in which some behavioral, physical, or physiological trait in an individual improves the likelihood that its offspring will survive to reproduce. This contrasts with kin selection, in which the behavior of an organism may not help survival of its direct descendants but may benefit its relatives instead.

direct suggestibility

direct suggestibility see primary suggestibility.

direct suggestion

direct suggestion 1. a technique in supportive psychotherapy in which attempts are made to alleviate emotional distress and disturbance in an individual through reassurance, encouragement, and direct instructions. 2. a technique in hypnotherapy in which a client under hypnosis is directed to follow instructions of the therapist either in the session or in his or her daily life.

direct-contact group

direct-contact group see face-to-face group.

directed attention

directed attention see selective attention.

directed discussion method

directed discussion method dialogue between two or more people about a specific topic in which one person’s role is to keep the dialogue focused on a certain path or moving in a certain direction. That person may be a teacher, group leader, or mediator. In an educational setting, for example, a professor would provide curriculum-directed focus based on experience, while the students would contribute varied perspectives and broad-ranging information from their research.

directed forgetting

directed forgetting in memory trials, forgetting that happens due to an item being accompanied by a forget cue, that is, a stimulus that signifies that the item will not be included in the memory test. A remember cue signifies that an item will be included.

directed graph

directed graph see graph.

directed masturbation

directed masturbation a behavioral treatment for women with anorgasmia or female orgasmic disorder to improve the consistency, strength, and number of orgasms experienced in intercourse. Directed masturbation also is used to alter deviant sexual preferences in individuals who engage in pedophilia, rape, and child molestation. The procedure consists of weekly therapy sessions as well as extratherapy sensuality and masturbatory exercises to be practiced by the client, including visual examination of the genitalia and whole body, focused genital exploration and touching, and increasingly intense manual stimulation supplemented with erotica and fantasy. Sexual enrichment workshops, communication skills training, sexual counseling, and Kegel exercises may also be used. Despite the clinical popularity of directed masturbation for treating orgasmic dysfunction, empirical support for its effectiveness has been plagued by methodological problems (e.g., small sample sizes, confounded treatments, lack of objective outcome measures), and the technique has yet to gain widespread acceptance as an evidence-based practice. [formally developed in 1972 by U.S. psychologists Joseph LoPiccolo (1943– ) and W. Charles Lobitz]

directed movement

directed movement movement targeted toward achieving a specific goal.

directed reverie

directed reverie in individual and group therapy, a technique in which the therapist directs the client to reexperience a dream or something that happened in early life by creating and then describing a mental image of that dream or event. See also guided affective imagery.

directed thinking

directed thinking controlled, purposeful thinking that is focused on a specific goal, such as the solution to a problem, and guided by the requirements of that goal. See also critical thinking.

directedness

directedness n. the sense of unified purpose that provides the mature individual with enduring motivation, continuity, and orientation to the future. [first described by Gordon W. Allport]

direction circular

direction circular see labeling.

direction perception

direction perception the ability to determine the location in space of a moving visual target or of an auditory stimulus.

directional confusion

directional confusion difficulty in distinguishing left from right and, in some cases, difficulty with other spatial relationships, such as that of uptown and downtown. Some directional confusion is common up to the age of 6 or 7, especially during the early stages of reading, writing, and spelling, and also in people with mixed laterality. Persistent directional confusion may indicate minimal brain dysfunction or a history of forced conversion from left-handedness to right-handedness.

directional hypothesis

directional hypothesis a scientific prediction stating (a) that an effect will occur and (b) whether that effect will specifically increase or specifically decrease, depending on changes to the independent variable. For example, a directional hypothesis could predict that depression scores will decrease following a 6-week intervention, or conversely that well-being will increase following a 6-week intervention. Also called directional alternative hypothesis; one-tailed hypothesis. Compare nondirectional hypothesis.

directional test

directional test a statistical test of a directional hypothesis. Also called directional alternative hypothesis test; directional hypothesis test; one-tailed test. Compare nondirectional test.

directionality problem

directionality problem in correlational research, the situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect.

directions test

directions test a type of intelligence test that measures the participant’s ability to follow instructions on a series of tasks. Most directions tests only implicitly measure this ability, typically resulting in a reduced score only if their directions are misunderstood.

directive

directive n. a command, suggestion, or order specifying the type of action that should be performed. In therapeutic contexts, a directive is a specific statement by the therapist that enjoins the client to act, feel, or think in a particular way when he or she confronts a particular problem or situation. The use of directives varies depending on therapeutic method; in some modes (e.g., psychoanalysis), directives occur rarely if at all, whereas in others (e.g., behavior therapy), they occur more frequently.

directive counseling

directive counseling an approach to counseling and psychotherapy in which the therapeutic process is directed along lines considered relevant by the counselor or therapist. Directive counseling is based on the assumption that the professional training and experience of the counselor or therapist equip him or her to manage the therapeutic process and to guide the client’s behavior. Also called directive therapy. See also active therapy.

directive discipline

directive discipline a field of study, particularly within the social sciences or humanities, that provides explicit or implicit answers to prescriptive questions regarding society and the conduct of individual lives. For example, philosophy is a directive discipline when it suggests that some ethical system is to be recommended over another. Psychology is a directive discipline to the extent that it describes a healthy or fully functioning life and may attempt to modify behaviors that fall short of this ideal.

directive group psychotherapy

directive group psychotherapy a type of group psychotherapy designed to help members adjust to their environment through educational tasks, group guidance, group counseling, and therapeutic recreation. [developed by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

directive leader

directive leader a group leader who actively guides the group’s planning, activities, and decision making. In therapeutic groups, for example, a directive leader is one who guides the course of the interaction, assigns various tasks to the group members, and offers verbal interpretations and recommendations. In contrast, nondirective democratic leaders refrain from providing direction or interpretation.

directive play therapy

directive play therapy a controlled approach to play therapy in which the therapist is actively involved, structuring a child’s activities by providing selected play materials and encouraging the child to use them in the enactment of “pretend” situations and the expression of feelings. Compare nondirective play therapy.

directive therapy

directive therapy see directive counseling.

director

director n. in a psychodrama, the therapist who establishes the scenario or role play and manages the interactions therein.

Directory of Psychological Tests in the Sport and Exercise Sciences

Directory of Psychological Tests in the Sport and Exercise Sciences a collection of psychological scales, questionnaires, and inventories related to sport and exercise. It provides the source, purpose, description, construction, reliability, validity, norms, availability, and references for each instrument.

dirhinic

dirhinic adj. relating to the presentation of the same odorant in each nostril via an olfactometer.

dirt phobia

dirt phobia a persistent and irrational fear of dirt, often accompanied by a fear of contamination and a hand-washing compulsion. Fear of dirt is a common obsession associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

DIS

DIS abbreviation for Diagnostic Interview Schedule.

disability

disability n. a lasting physical or mental impairment that significantly interferes with an individual’s ability to function in one or more central life activities, such as self-care, ambulation, communication, social interaction, sexual expression, or employment. For example, an individual who cannot see has a visual disability. See also handicap. —disabled adj.

disability adjusted life years (DALYs)

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disability evaluation

disability evaluation an evaluation of the effect of an impairment (i.e., a loss of function) on an individual’s capabilities, particularly in terms of his or her capacity for gainful employment.

disability laws

disability laws legislation relating to the treatment of people with mental or physical disabilities. An example in the United States is the 1990 Americans With Disabilities Act.

Disability Rating Scale (DRS)

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disadvantaged

disadvantaged adj. denoting individuals, families, or communities deprived of equal access to society’s resources, especially the necessities of life or the advantages of education and employment.

disaggregation

disaggregation n. the process of breaking down data into smaller units or sets of observations. For example, faculty salary data initially may show a significant difference between male and female earnings. After disaggregating the data into separate levels (e.g., assistant, associate, full professor), however, one may find that there are no significant differences in salary among men and women at the assistant professor level but there are differences at the full professor level. Thus, disaggregating the data reveals a finer pattern. Compare aggregation.

disarranged-sentence test

disarranged-sentence test a test or test item whose objective is to put a scrambled sentence in proper order. For example, the individual being tested could be required to reorder “Boy town the to went bustling the” to read “The boy went to the bustling town.”

disaster

disaster n. a collectively experienced sudden catastrophic event caused by nature (e.g., hurricane, earthquake, tsunami, tornado), technology (e.g., airplane crash, nuclear plant explosion, mining accident), or human aggression (e.g., acts of terrorism). The effect is often measured in terms of loss of lives, injuries, and property damage and typically overwhelms the community’s resources and ability to respond without outside assistance.

disaster counseling

disaster counseling counseling offered to victims and their families, emergency workers, and witnesses during or immediately following a catastrophic event. Individual therapists and counselors and mental health teams are specially trained (e.g., by the American Red Cross) to respond in disaster situations. Their approach may include defusing, debriefing. and other counseling techniques to help traumatized people cope with stress. One aim of the counseling might be to reduce the potential for posttraumatic stress disorder, which may develop after the event.

disaster psychology

disaster psychology the specialized domain of training, research, and service provision applied to individuals, communities, and nations exposed to a disaster. A key goal is to reduce initial distress and foster short- and long-term adaptive functioning following a disaster. Within this domain, disaster mental health is the term most widely used in the United States to describe the psychological component in overall disaster response. Psychosocial support is the term adopted by the international community and the World Health Organization to refer to the development and implementation of culturally appropriate mental health training and services for communities devastated by a disaster. Disaster mental health specialists may serve as consultants, researchers, and educators in the field. See also crisis intervention; disaster counseling.

disavowal

disavowal n. see denial.

discharge

discharge n. 1. in neurophysiology, the firing or activity of a neuron or group of neurons, resulting in an action potential. 2. in hospitals and other health facilities, the release of a patient from treatment or other services. 3. the dismissal of an employee. 4. the abrupt reduction in psychic tension that occurs in symptomatic acts, dreams, or fantasies.

discharge of affect

discharge of affect the reduction of an emotion by giving it active expression, for example, by crying. [described by Sigmund Freud]

discharge planning

discharge planning a structured plan to facilitate an individual’s safe and successful transition from an inpatient treatment setting (e.g., hospital, psychiatric unit, drug or alcohol residential treatment center) back into the community. It is part of the continuum of care and may begin development at the time of admission. The process systematically addresses, with the patient’s participation, his or her physical and mental health needs (e.g., prescribed medications, follow-up therapy), but it may also address social services needs (e.g., food, housing, employment, education).

discharge procedure

discharge procedure the process of releasing a patient from an inpatient setting back into the community. Common steps in the process include a final clinical interview and evaluation, instructions regarding prescribed medication (if relevant), and discussion of follow-up treatment and services. See discharge planning.

discharge rate

discharge rate the ratio of the number of patients discharged from a hospital or other institution in a given period to the number admitted. Also called improvement rate; recovery ratio.

dischronation

dischronation n. an aspect of disorientation in which there is confusion about time. See also chronotaxis.

disciple

disciple n. 1. a student under a teacher’s direction, a supporter of a cause, or a follower. 2. one who spreads the doctrine of another.

discipline

discipline n. 1. training that is designed to establish desired habits of mind and behavior. 2. control of conduct, usually a child’s, by means of punishment or reward. 3. a field of study.

discomfort anxiety

discomfort anxiety tension and consequent low frustration tolerance that arise from irrational beliefs about perceived threats to well-being. [proposed in 1979 by Albert Ellis]

disconfirmability

disconfirmability n. see falsifiability.

disconnection syndrome

disconnection syndrome any neurological disorder resulting from a separation or isolation of cortical areas that usually work together. Several neurobehavioral symptoms, including some apraxias and agnosias, are thought to be attributable to disconnection syndrome. [defined by U.S. neurologist Norman Geschwind (1926–1984)]

discontinuity effect

discontinuity effect the markedly greater competitiveness of intergroup interactions relative to the competitiveness of interpersonal interactions. Diffusion of responsibility and ingroup bias have been proposed as contributing factors to this effect.

discontinuity hypothesis

discontinuity hypothesis in Gestalt psychology, the viewpoint that emphasizes the role of sudden insight and perceptual reorganization in successful discrimination learning and problem solving. According to this view, a correct answer is only recognized when its relation to the issue as a whole is discovered. Also called discontinuity theory. Compare continuity hypothesis. See also aha experience; all-or-none learning; eureka task.

discontinuous

discontinuous adj. intermittent or disconnected. For example, a sequence of ordinal numbers is discontinuous because it does not have a smooth flow from one value to the next. See also discrete. Compare continuous.

discontinuous variable

discontinuous variable a variable that has distinct, discrete values but no precise numerical flow. For example, gender can be thought of as a discontinuous variable with two possible values, male or female. In contrast, a continuous variable involves numerically precise information, such as height, weight, and miles per hour. Also called discrete variable.

discordance

discordance n. 1. the state or condition of being at variance. Affective discordance may be observed, for example, when a person relates a particularly disturbing experience without any facial or vocal indication of distress. 2. in twin studies, dissimilarity between a pair of twins with respect to a particular trait or disease. Compare concordance. —discordant adj.

discounting principle

discounting principle see attribution theory.

discourse

discourse n. the areas of written, spoken, and signed communication, whether formal (debate) or informal (conversation). The term is most often used in linguistics, where discourse analysts focus on both the study of language (sentences, speech acts, and lexicons) as well as the rhetoric, meanings, and strategies that underlie social interactions.

discourse analysis

discourse analysis in linguistics, the study of structures that extend beyond the single sentence, such as conversations, narratives, or written arguments. Discourse analysis is particularly concerned with the ways in which a sequence of two or more sentences can produce meanings that are different from or additional to any found in the sentences considered separately. An important source of such meanings is the “frame” or format of the discourse (news item, fairytale, joke, etc.) and a recognition of the various norms that this implies. The norms and expectations that govern conversation are a major concern of discourse analysis, as is the structure of conversational language generally. Particular areas of interest here include the distinction between background and foreground information (see foregrounding; given–new distinction) and the relations between explicit and inferred meanings (see conversational inference; implicature; presupposition).

discourse routine

discourse routine a highly structured and ritualized conversational act in which the participants have set expectations about turn taking and participation. Discourse routine is important in institutional contexts, such as classroom instruction.

discovery

discovery n. in a legal dispute, a motion usually put forward by the defense that the prosecution make available for copy all documents relevant to its case. These include both paper documents and any information stored on computer or video.

discovery learning

discovery learning learning that occurs through solving problems, by formulating and testing hypotheses, and via actual experience and manipulation in attempting solutions.

discovery method

discovery method teaching that seeks to provide students with experience of the processes of science or other disciplines through inductive reasoning and active experimentation, with minimal teacher supervision. Students are encouraged to organize data, develop and test hypotheses, and formulate conclusions or general principles. The discovery method is associated with the cognitivist school of Jean Piaget, Jerome Seymour Bruner, and others.

discovery of new means through active experimentation

discovery of new means through active experimentation see tertiary circular reaction.

discrepancy evaluation

discrepancy evaluation in evaluation research, the search for differences between two or more elements or variables of a program that should be in agreement. Reconciling these differences may then become a major objective in the program’s development.

discrepancy principle

discrepancy principle see novelty preference task.

discrepant stimulus

discrepant stimulus a stimulus that varies moderately from a known stimulus or schematic image. For example, a stranger’s face represents a discrepant stimulus for an infant.

discrete

discrete adj. separate or distinct; often referring to categorical or ordinal data that have names or ranks as values. In contrast, continuous data have a potentially infinite flow of precise numerical information. See also discontinuous.

discrete control

discrete control see continuous control.

discrete distribution

discrete distribution a delineation of separate, distinct values. For example, the number of children in a family can be displayed in a discrete distribution with values of 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Compare continuous distribution.

discrete measure

discrete measure a measure of a discontinuous value, for example, the grade level of a student.

discrete movement task

discrete movement task a purposeful movement that has a recognizable beginning and end. Examples include grasping an object, kicking a ball, and shifting the gears of a car. Compare continuous movement task.

discrete trial

discrete trial a defined, limited occasion to engage in some behavior. For example, each trip through a maze by a rat can be considered a discrete trial. Such trials may be contrasted with those in which the behavior in question can occur at any time (see free operant).

discrete variable

discrete variable see discontinuous variable.

discretionary task

discretionary task a relatively unstructured group task that can be completed using a variety of procedures. See additive task; compensatory task; conjunctive task; disjunctive task.

discriminal dispersion

discriminal dispersion in an experiment involving the differentiation of stimuli, the distribution of responses around a given mean.

discriminanda

discriminanda pl. n. (sing. discriminandum) stimuli that can be distinguished from one another.

discriminant analysis

discriminant analysis a multivariate method of data analysis that uses a linear combination of values from a set of quantitative variables to predict differences among a set of predefined categories or groups of another variable. For example, a researcher might use a discriminant analysis to determine whether several measures of personality can differentiate those who pursue different majors in college. If there are more than two outcome categories, multiple discriminant analysis is used. See also descriptive discriminant analysis; predictive discriminant analysis.

discriminant function

discriminant function 1. any of a range of statistical techniques used to situate an item that could belong to any of two or more variables in the correct set, with minimal probability of error. 2. in discriminant analysis more specifically, a linear combination of predictor variables that is used to categorize items into distinct groups. The first discriminant function denotes the linear combination that best distinguishes among the discrete groups, the second discriminant function is the linear combination that is the next best in distinguishing among the groups, and so forth.

discriminant loading

discriminant loading a correlation between a variable and an underlying dimension found when trying to predict a categorical outcome from a set of predictor variables. It may range from −1 to +1, where values near either extreme indicate a variable that is able to clearly differentiate among the categories of the outcome.

discriminant validity

discriminant validity the degree to which a test or measure diverges from (i.e., does not correlate with) another measure whose underlying construct is conceptually unrelated to it. This is one of two aspects of construct validity, the other being convergent validity. Also called divergent validity.

discriminated avoidance

discriminated avoidance an approach to avoidance conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus signals the onset of an aversive unconditioned stimulus. By responding to the first stimulus, the organism can prevent the occurrence of the second. By contrast, in nondiscriminated avoidance, there is no warning conditioned stimulus. Also called signaled avoidance.

discriminated operant

discriminated operant a conditioned operant that is under stimulus control, that is, a response that is more likely to occur when its discriminative stimulus is present than when it is not present.

discriminating power

discriminating power 1. a measure of the ability of a test to distinguish between two or more groups being assessed. 2. in discriminant analysis, the degree of accuracy with which a set of predictor variables differentiates outcomes into categories.

discrimination

discrimination n. 1. the ability to distinguish between stimuli or objects that differ quantitatively or qualitatively from one another. 2. the ability to respond in different ways in the presence of different stimuli. In conditioning, this is usually established in experiments by differential reinforcement or differential conditioning techniques. See discrimination learning; discrimination training. 3. differential treatment of the members of different ethnic, religious, national, or other groups. Discrimination is usually the behavioral manifestation of prejudice and therefore involves negative, hostile, and injurious treatment of the members of rejected groups. By contrast, reverse discrimination is the favorable treatment of the oppressed group rather than the typically favored group. See also racial discrimination; sex discrimination; social discrimination. —discriminate vb.

discrimination index

discrimination index see index of discrimination.

discrimination learning

discrimination learning a conditioning or learning experience in which an individual must learn to make choices between alternative stimuli, some of which may be highly similar. To facilitate the learning, typically one of the stimuli is associated with a reinforcer or goal object and the other is not. For example, a cat may have to learn to find food under a white cup on the left side of an area in which there are white and black cups on both sides. Also called discriminative learning.

discrimination of cues

discrimination of cues the ability to distinguish between two or more stimuli. Operant or classical discrimination training procedures are often used to allow behavior to reflect this ability.

discrimination reaction time

discrimination reaction time the time it takes a participant in a task to distinguish different stimuli, as in a choice reaction time task. See also simple reaction time.

discrimination training

discrimination training 1. a procedure in which an operant response is reinforced in the presence of a particular stimulus but not in the absence of that stimulus. For example, a rat’s lever-press response might be reinforced when a stimulus light is on but not when the light is off. The rat will eventually learn to press the lever only when the light is on. See discrimination of cues. 2. in sport, the training of the ability to identify task-relevant cues and their meaning.

discriminative learning

discriminative learning see discrimination learning.

discriminative response

discriminative response following discrimination learning, the choice of a particular stimulus among different stimuli to obtain a particular reward.

discriminative stimulus

discriminative stimulus (symbol: SD) in operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the probability of a response because of a previous history of differential reinforcement in the presence of that stimulus. For example, if a pigeon’s key pecks are reinforced when the key is illuminated red but not when the key is green, the red stimulus will come to serve as an SD and the pigeon will learn to peck only when the key is red. Compare negative discriminative stimulus.

discursive psychology

discursive psychology the study of social interactions and interpersonal relationships with a particular focus on understanding the ways in which individuals construct events via written, spoken, or symbolic communication.

discussion group

discussion group any group set up to explore problems and questions in a variety of vocational, educational, guidance, therapeutic, and community settings. In schools, a discussion group is usually an instructional technique; in counseling and other therapeutic settings, the focus is emotional and interpersonal; in vocational, guidance, and community settings, the objective may be to stimulate decision-making processes and to channel recommendations to a study or action group.

discussion method

discussion method a teaching method in which both teacher and students actively contribute to the instructional process through classroom dialogue.

disease

disease n. a definite pathological process with organic origins, marked by a characteristic set of symptoms that may affect the entire body or a part of the body and that impairs functioning.

disease course

disease course the progress of a pathological condition or process from inception, manifestation, and diagnosis through treatment and resolution.

disease management

disease management an integrated treatment approach for patients with chronic health conditions that seeks to minimize the effects of their condition through illness-specific management, education, and patient support.

disease model

disease model 1. any of several theories concerning the causes and course of a pathological condition or process. 2. see medical model.

disease of adaptation

disease of adaptation any of a group of illnesses, including high blood pressure and heart attacks, that are associated with or partly caused by long-term defective physiological or psychological reactions to stress. [named and defined by Hungarian-born Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907–1982)]

disease phobia

disease phobia a persistent and irrational fear of disease in general or of a particular disease. Fear of disease may be a specific phobia or a feature of hypochondriasis or obsessive-compulsive disorder.

disenfranchised grief

disenfranchised grief grief that society (or some element of it) limits, does not expect, or may not allow a person to express. Examples include the grief of parents for stillborn babies, of teachers for the death of students, and of nurses for the death of patients. People who have lost an animal companion are often expected to keep their sorrow to themselves. Disenfranchised grief may isolate the bereaved individual from others and thus impede recovery. Also called hidden grief. See also grief counseling; grief work; mourning.

disengaged family

disengaged family a family whose members are mutually withdrawn from each other psychologically and emotionally.

disengagement

disengagement n. the act of withdrawing from an attachment or relationship or, more generally, from an unpleasant situation. —disengaged adj.

disengagement theory

disengagement theory a theory proposing that old age involves a gradual withdrawal of the individual from society and of society from the individual. According to this theory, those happiest in old age have turned their attention inward toward the self and away from involvement in the outside world. Empirical research has shown, however, that this mutual withdrawal is not an inevitable component of old age. Compare activity theory; continuity theory. [developed by 20th-century U.S. psychologists Elaine Cumming and William E. Henry]

disequilibrium

disequilibrium n. 1. a loss of physical balance, as in Parkinson’s disease and ataxias due to cerebellar disorder or injury. 2. emotional imbalance, as in individuals with extreme mood swings (labile affect). 3. in developmental psychology, a state of tension between cognitive processes competing against each other. In contrast to Jean Piaget, some theorists believe that disequilibrium is the optimal state for significant cognitive advances to occur. See also equilibration.

disesthesia

disesthesia n. see dysesthesia.

disfigurement

disfigurement n. a blemish or deformity that mars the appearance of the face or body. Disfigurement can result from severe burn scars; mutilations due to wounds, accidents, or radical surgery; and a wide variety of congenital anomalies, some of which are at least partially reparable. The psychological effects of disfigurement are often devastating; they include damage to self-image, loss of self-esteem, feelings of inferiority, self-consciousness, shame, resentment, hypersensitivity, withdrawal, antisocial behavior, and paranoid reactions. These effects often result from the negative and sometimes humiliating reactions of others in a society that places a high value on physical attractiveness. See also facial disfigurement.

disgust

disgust n. a strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behavior deemed morally repugnant. —disgusting adj.

dishabituation

dishabituation n. the reappearance or enhancement of a habituated response (i.e., one that has been weakened following repeated exposure to the evoking stimulus) due to the presentation of a new stimulus. Dishabituation can be interpreted as a signal that a given stimulus can be discriminated from another habituated stimulus and is a useful method for investigating perception in nonverbal individuals or nonhuman animals. Compare habituation.

dishonest signal

dishonest signal among nonhuman animals, a signal that provides misleading information about the size, quality, or intention of an individual. Dishonest signals include alarm calls that scare away other group members, with the result that the animal gains better access to food, and a misleading impression of great vigor that attracts mates. Some have argued that dishonest signals are more compatible with the competitive process of natural selection than are honest signals. See deception.

disidentification

disidentification n. 1. a protective mechanism whereby one removes a potentially harmful characteristic or experience (e.g., one that causes stereotype threat) from one’s self-identity as insulation from anxiety or failure. 2. in meditation, a benign separation from one’s sense of self in order to gain self-knowledge. It is a stepping away from self-identity to attempt to observe oneself objectively.

disincentive

disincentive n. a deterrent. Specifically, in industrial and organizational psychology, it is any factor that tends to discourage effort or productivity and to lower motivation, such as unpleasant working conditions. See also hygiene factors.

disinformation

disinformation n. propaganda or false information publicly announced or planted in the news media for the purpose of deception.

disinhibited feedback theory

disinhibited feedback theory see synesthesia.

disinhibited social engagement disorder

disinhibited social engagement disorder see reactive attachment disorder.

disinhibition

disinhibition n. 1. diminution or loss of the normal control exerted by the cerebral cortex, resulting in poorly controlled or poorly restrained emotions or actions. Disinhibition may be due to the effects of alcohol, drugs, or brain injury, particularly to the frontal lobes. 2. in conditioning experiments, the reappearance of responding, which has stopped occurring as a result of exposure to extinction, when a new stimulus is presented.

disintegration

disintegration n. a breakup or severe disorganization of some structure or system of functioning, for example, of psychic and behavioral functions.

disjoint sets

disjoint sets in set theory, two sets that have no elements in common. The intersection of the groups is empty, and they are mutually exclusive. An example of disjoint sets would be the set of all males and the set of all females.

disjunctive concept

disjunctive concept a concept that is based on possession of any one of a set of attributes. For example, the concept people with black hair or brown hair is a disjunctive concept. Compare conjunctive concept. See also family resemblance.

disjunctive motivation

disjunctive motivation striving for substitute or temporary (rather than true and lasting) satisfaction. Compare conjunctive motivation. [defined by Harry Stack Sullivan]

disjunctive task

disjunctive task a group task or project, such as solving a complex problem, that is completed when a single solution, decision, or group member’s recommendation is adopted by the group. This means that the group’s performance tends to be determined by the most skilled member. Compare additive task; compensatory task; conjunctive task.

dismissive attachment

dismissive attachment an adult attachment style that combines a positive internal working model of attachment of oneself, characterized by a view of oneself as competent and worthy of love, and a negative internal working model of attachment of others, characterized by one’s view that others are untrustworthy or undependable. Individuals with dismissive attachment are presumed to discount the importance of close relationships and to maintain rigid self-sufficiency. Compare fearful attachment; preoccupied attachment; secure attachment.

disorder

disorder n. a group of symptoms involving abnormal behaviors or physiological conditions, persistent or intense distress, or a disruption of physiological functioning. See also mental disorder.

disorder of written expression

disorder of written expression in DSM–IV–TR, a learning disorder in which writing skills are substantially below those expected for a person’s chronological age, education, and measured intelligence. The writing difficulties—which may involve errors in grammar, punctuation, and paragraph organization, often combined with extremely poor handwriting and spelling errors—significantly interfere with academic achievement and activities of daily living that require writing skills. In DSM–5, the disorder has been subsumed within a category labeled specific learning disorder and is no longer considered a distinct diagnosis. Also called developmental dysgraphia.

disorders of excessive somnolence (DOES)

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disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep (DIMS)

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disorders of the self

disorders of the self in self psychology, narcissistic problems resulting from insufficient response by others (such as parents) to one’s needs. According to this view, an individual’s self-cohesion, self-esteem, and vitality derive from and are maintained by the empathic responsiveness of others; lack of this response can lead to deficiencies or inabilities in loving other people and to a focus on oneself. [defined by Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)]

disorders of the sleep–wake cycle schedule

disorders of the sleep–wake cycle schedule one of four basic types of sleep disorders, differentiated from the other types in that it results from a mismatch between one’s internal circadian rhythm and one’s actual sleep schedule. The equivalent classification in DSM–IV–TR is circadian rhythm sleep disorder (or in DSM–5, circadian rhythm sleep–wake disorder). Rotating work-shift schedules and jet lag are two common causes of this disorder. Diagnosis can involve observation in a sleep laboratory, in which such criteria as nocturnal awakening, sleep time, sleep efficiency, breathing patterns, body temperature, minutes of REM sleep, and sleep latency are measured.

disorganization

disorganization n. loss or disruption of orderly or systematic structure or functioning. For example, thought disorganization is an inability to integrate thought processes; behavior disorganization manifests as self-contradictory or inconsistent behavior.

disorganized attachment

disorganized attachment in the Strange Situation, a form of insecure attachment in which infants show no coherent or consistent behavior during separation from and reunion with their parents. Also called disoriented attachment.

disorganized behavior

disorganized behavior behavior that is self-contradictory or inconsistent. It may include childlike silliness, purposeless behavior, unpredictable agitation, or extreme emotional reaction (e.g., laughing after a catastrophe). A typical example is dressing in clothing inappropriate for the weather (e.g., wearing several layers on a warm summer day). Disorganized behavior is commonly seen in individuals with schizophrenia.

disorganized development

disorganized development disruption in the normal course of attachment in which a child does not learn how to deal with separation from or reunion with a parent and reacts inconsistently to the parent. See disorganized attachment).

disorganized offender

disorganized offender the type of offender who approaches his or her crimes in a frenzied and impulsive manner, is typically of low to moderate intelligence and socially withdrawn, and has a poor work history. Compare organized offender.

disorganized schizophrenia

disorganized schizophrenia in DSM–IV–TR, a subtype of schizophrenia characterized primarily by random and fragmented speech and behavior and by flat or inappropriate affect, frequently associated with grimaces, odd or unusual mannerisms, laughter, and extreme social withdrawal. It tends to be the most severe of the schizophrenia subtypes and is often associated with poor premorbid personality and early and insidious onset. This subtype has been eliminated from DSM–5. Historically, and in other classifications, it is known as hebephrenia or hebephrenic schizophrenia.

disorganized speech

disorganized speech incoherent speech. This may be speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another seemingly unrelated subject, sometimes described as loosening of associations. Other types of disorganized speech include responding to questions in an irrelevant way, reaching illogical conclusions, and making up words. See neologism; paralogia.

disorientation

disorientation n.impaired ability to identify oneself or to locate oneself in relation to time, place, or other aspects of one’s surroundings. Long-term disorientation can be characteristic of neurological and psychological disorders; temporary disorientation can be caused by alcohol or drugs or can occur in situations of acute stress, such as fires or earthquakes. See also confusion; topographical disorientation. —disoriented adj.

disoriented attachment

disoriented attachment see disorganized attachment.

disparate impact

disparate impact see adverse impact.

disparate sensations

disparate sensations 1. different sensory or cognitive responses arising from a single object or idea. 2. the bases for thought and perception, which are integrated by the brain into wholes.

dispersal

dispersal n. the departure of nonhuman animals from their natal group to join a different group or find mates elsewhere. Dispersal is thought to be important in reducing inbreeding and avoiding competition with older individuals of the same sex. Species vary in terms of whether dispersal is male biased or female biased or whether both sexes disperse. It is a costly behavior, because the dispersing individual is more subject to predation as well as to aggression from other members of the same species. See also philopatry.

dispersion

dispersion n. the degree to which a set of scores deviate from the mean. Also called spread. See also range; standard deviation; variance.

dispersion matrix

dispersion matrix see covariance matrix.

dispersion measure

dispersion measure an index of variability, or how dispersed a set of values is for a given variable. Common measures of dispersion include the range, which is the highest minus the lowest score, and the standard deviation, which is the average distance of scores from the mean. The larger the dispersion measure, the more spread out the scores.

dispersion parameter

dispersion parameter an index of the skewness (lopsidedness) or kurtosis (peakedness) of a distribution. The normal distribution thus does not need a dispersion parameter as skewness and kurtosis are not present (i.e., equal zero) in such a distribution. Also called scale parameter.

displaced aggression

displaced aggression the direction of hostility away from the source of frustration or anger and toward either the self or a different entity. Displaced aggression may occur, for example, when circumstances preclude direct confrontation with the responsible entity because it is perceived as too powerful to attack without fear of reprisal. Compare direct aggression.

displacement

displacement n. the transfer of feelings or behavior from their original object to another person or thing. In psychoanalytic theory, displacement is considered to be a defense mechanism in which the individual discharges tensions associated with, for example, hostility and fear by taking them out on a less threatening target. Thus, an angry child might break a toy or yell at a sibling instead of attacking the father; a frustrated employee might criticize his or her spouse instead of the boss; or a person who fears his or her own hostile impulses might transfer that fear to knives, guns, or other objects that might be used as a weapon. See also displaced aggression; drive displacement; scapegoating. —displace vb.

displacement behavior

displacement behavior a behavior in which an individual substitutes one type of action for another when the first action is unsuccessful or when two competing motivations are present that lead to incompatible actions. A gull at a territory boundary may direct attacklike actions toward the ground rather than its rival due to simultaneous aggressive and fearful responses to the opponent. A laboratory animal that is frustrated by servings of food that are small and delivered slowly may express displacement behavior by drinking instead of eating. Also called displacement activity.

displacement of affect

displacement of affect see transposition of affect.

display

display n. 1. the presentation of stimuli to any of the senses. 2. more or less stereotyped actions (i.e., actions repeated with little variation) that bring about a response in another individual: an integral part especially of animal communication. Display behavior may be a physical or vocal signal, usually involving stimulation of the visual or auditory senses. It may include body language that would convey a message of courtship to a member of the opposite sex (e.g., a show of plumage or color) or a suggestion that would be interpreted by an opponent as threatening (e.g., bared teeth or hissing noises). Because of their stereotyped nature, displays are thought to have evolved from physiological or behavioral responses to previously direct interactions that have now become symbolic. For example, a human being may be flushed when aggressive or pale when fearful due to vasodilation or vasoconstriction associated with attack or avoidance. These vascular changes have now become predictive of the behavior likely to follow and serve as communication signals. See also display rule.

display design

display design in ergonomics, the design of displays for effective transmission of information in different situations. Displays may be static devices (such as signs, labels, and diagrams) or dynamic devices (such as speedometers, clocks, and temperature gauges). The information conveyed may include directions and instructions, safety messages and alerts, and fluctuating information about the state of a particular system (e.g., speed, volume, or temperature). See bar display; object display; integrated display; separated display. See also display–control compatibility.

display rule

display rule a socially learned standard that regulates the expression of emotion. Display rules vary by culture; for example, the expression of anger may be considered appropriate in some cultures but not in others. [coined in 1972 by U.S. psychologist Paul Ekman (1934– )]

display–control compatibility

display–control compatibility in ergonomics, a design principle stating that controls and their corresponding displays should be compatible on such dimensions as direction of movement, color, and location or alignment. See also control function logic; proximity compatibility.

disposition

disposition n. a recurrent behavioral, cognitive, or affective tendency that distinguishes an individual from others. See also personal disposition.

dispositional attribution

dispositional attribution the ascription of one’s own or another’s actions, an event, or an outcome to internal or psychological causes specific to the person concerned, such as traits, moods, attitudes, decisions and judgments, abilities, or effort. Also called internal attribution; personal attribution. Compare situational attribution.

dispositional hearing

dispositional hearing a proceeding held in juvenile court cases after the court finds that an offense has been committed. It is similar to the sentencing hearing or penalty phase in an adult criminal court.

disrupt-then-reframe technique

disrupt-then-reframe technique a persuasion technique for enhancing compliance in which one uses an odd request to surprise or confuse another person before following up with a new framing of the same request. In the original investigations of this technique, sellers offered potential buyers a set of note cards for 300 pennies (the odd request) and then broke in on the buyers’ confusion about the price in pennies with a reframed pitch (“that’s $3. It’s a bargain”). The studies reported that nearly twice as many people bought the cards after experiencing the disrupt-and-reframe approach as did those who received only a standard pitch in which the cards were offered for $3. [introduced by U.S. psychologists Barbara Price Davis and Eric S. Knowles (1941– )]

disruptive behavior

disruptive behavior behavior that chronically threatens and intimidates others or violates social norms. The term is typically applied to the behavior of children, but it can also be used to describe adult behavior.

disruptive behavior disorder

disruptive behavior disorder a set of disorders in which the primary symptom (e.g., violation of social rules and rights of others, defiance, hostile behavior) is severe enough to produce significant impairment in social or occupational functioning. In DSM–IV–TR, disruptive behavior disorders include conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and disruptive behavior disorder not otherwise specified (i.e., a pattern of behavior, such as aggression or defiance, that results in clinically significant impairment but does not conform to the full diagnostic criteria of the other disorders in this category). DSM–5 uses the rubric disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders to encompass conditions characterized by problems with behavioral and emotional self-control, including not only conduct and oppositional defiant disorders but also intermittent explosive disorder, pyromania, and kleptomania, among others. It also includes in this category antisocial personality disorder, cross-listing it under the category for personality disorders.

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder in DSM–5, a new diagnosis in children 18 years or younger with persistent irritability and an average of at least three episodes per week of extreme behavioral dyscontrol (e.g., severe rages). It has been established as an alternative to the diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children.

dissent

dissent n. 1. disagreement with majority opinion or established social norms. 2. disagreement with government policies, especially as expressed through organized protests or social activism. See also civil disobedience; passive resistance. —dissenter n.

dissimilarity coefficient

dissimilarity coefficient an index of difference or distance between two objects, variables, or samples. It may be based on correlation, with lower values indicating more difference or distance, or variance, with higher values indicating greater difference or distance. A dissimilarity coefficient often is used in multivariate procedures such as cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling, and principal components analysis. Also called distance measure. Compare similarity coefficient.

dissociated learning

dissociated learning see state-dependent learning.

dissociated state

dissociated state a reaction to a traumatic event in which the individual splits the components of the event into those that can be faced in the present and those that are too harmful to process. See also dissociative disorders.

dissociation

dissociation n. 1. a defense mechanism in which conflicting impulses are kept apart or threatening ideas and feelings are separated from the rest of the psyche. See compartmentalization. 2. in research, a method used to differentiate processes, components, or variables. For instance, it might involve discovering a variable that influences short-term memory but not long-term memory. See double dissociation.

dissociative amnesia

dissociative amnesia in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a dissociative disorder characterized by failure to recall important information about one’s personal experiences, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness. Recovery of memory often occurs spontaneously within a few hours and is usually connected with removal from the traumatic circumstances with which the amnesia was associated. Formerly called psychogenic amnesia. See also functional amnesia.

dissociative anesthetic

dissociative anesthetic an agent capable of producing amnesia, analgesia, and sedation without inducing loss of consciousness. PCP and ketamine were formerly used as dissociative anesthetics.

dissociative barriers

dissociative barriers the psychological mechanisms that prevent individuals from fully remembering a traumatic event. The trauma is presumed to be implicated in the development of a dissociative disorder, and the barriers are theorized to serve a protective function, allowing the traumatized person to avoid knowledge of horrific life events.

dissociative disorders

dissociative disorders any of a group of disorders characterized by a sudden or gradual disruption in the normal integrative functions of consciousness, memory, or perception of the environment. Such disruption may last for minutes or years, depending on the type of disorder. Some of the disorders typically included in this category are dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder, and depersonalization disorder.

dissociative fugue

dissociative fugue in DSM–IV–TR, a dissociative disorder in which the individual suddenly and unexpectedly travels away from home or a customary place of daily activities and is unable to recall some or all of his or her past. Symptoms also include either confusion about personal identity or assumption of a new identity. No other signs of mental disorder are present, and the fugue state can last from hours to months. Travel can be brief or extended in duration, and there may be no memory of travel once the individual is brought back to the prefugue state. DSM–5 subsumes dissociative fugue as a feature that may or may not occur with dissociative amnesia rather than as a separate diagnosis.

dissociative group

dissociative group a group with which one wishes not to be associated. Compare aspirational group.

dissociative hysteria

dissociative hysteria a former name for a dissociative disorder.

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

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dissociative pattern

dissociative pattern a pattern of behavior consistent with dissociative disorders, as evidenced by disruption in the normal integrative functions of consciousness, memory, or perception of the environment.

dissociative psychosis

dissociative psychosis see hysterical psychosis.

dissociative stupor

dissociative stupor a profound decrease in or absence of voluntary movement and responsiveness to external stimuli, apparently resulting from acute stress.

dissociative trance disorder

dissociative trance disorder a dissociative disorder characterized by involuntary alterations in consciousness, identity, awareness or memory, and motor functioning that result in significant distress or impairment. The two subtypes of the disorder are distinguished by the individual’s identity state. In possession trance, the individual’s usual identity is replaced by a new identity perceived to be an external force, such as a ghost, another person, or a divine being, and there is loss of memory for the episode of trance. In trance disorder, individuals retain their usual identity but have an altered perception of their milieu. These types of dissociative experiences are common in various cultures and may be part of customary religious practice; they should not be regarded as pathological unless considered abnormal within the context of that cultural or religious group. Also called possession trance disorder; trance and possession disorder (TPD).

dissonance

dissonance n. see cognitive dissonance.

dissonance reduction

dissonance reduction the process by which a person reduces the uncomfortable psychological state that results from inconsistency among elements of a cognitive system (see cognitive dissonance). Dissonance can be reduced by making one or more inconsistent elements consistent with other elements in the system, by decreasing the perceived importance of an inconsistent element, or by adding new consistent elements to the system. Finally, self-affirmation theory postulates that merely affirming some valued aspect of the self, even if it is not directly relevant to the inconsistency, can reduce dissonance. See also bolstering of an attitude; forced compliance effect.

distal

distal adj. 1. situated or directed toward the periphery of the body or toward the end of a limb. 2. remote from or mostly distantly related to the point of reference or origin. Compare proximal.

distal 18q-

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distal effect

distal effect any influence that particular responses of an organism may have on the environment.

distal response

distal response a response of an organism that produces an effect in the environment. Compare proximal response.

distal stimulus

distal stimulus in perception, the actual object in the environment that stimulates or acts on a sense organ. Compare proximal stimulus.

distance

distance n. the disparity between two values or entities. In statistics, the term often refers to the difference or deviation between a raw score and a mean score.

distance cue

distance cue any of the auditory or visual cues that enable an individual to judge the distance of the source of a stimulus. Auditory distance cues include intensity of familiar sounds (e.g., voices), intensity differences between the ears, and changes in spectral content. In vision, distance cues include the size of familiar objects and accommodation. See also depth cue.

distance learning

distance learning the process of acquiring knowledge in a location remote from the teaching source. Distance learning may occur via correspondence coursework, coursework presented over radio or television, computerized software programmed learning, coursework programmed and accessible on the Internet, live Internet hook-up to an instructor, direct live remote television, and live group videoconferencing. Also called distance education.

distance measure

distance measure see dissimilarity coefficient.

distance paradox

distance paradox see size–distance paradox.

distance perception

distance perception the ability of a viewer to judge the distance between him- or herself and a visual target. See also depth cue.

distance therapy

distance therapy any type of psychotherapy in which sessions are not conducted face to face because of problems of mobility, geographical isolation, or other limiting factors. Distance therapy includes interventions by telephone, audioconference, or videoconference (known collectively as telepsychotherapy) and the Internet (see e-therapy).

distance vision

distance vision vision that permits discrimination of objects more than 6 m (20 ft) from the observer.

distance zone

distance zone the area of physical distance commonly adopted between interacting individuals. Interpersonal distances can be influenced by culture and tend to be relatively small when people are familiar with each other and larger in formal or impersonal interactions. See intimate zone; personal distance zone; public distance zone; social zone. See also proxemics.

distinctiveness effect

distinctiveness effect the finding that people tend to have superior memory for odd or unusual information. The most cited example is the von Restorff effect, originally proposed in 1933 by German psychologist Hedwig von Restorff (1906–1962). Also called the isolation effect or Restorff phenomenon, it refers specifically to superior memory for isolated items. For instance, if most of the words in a list are printed in blue ink, one word printed in red will be better remembered than the blue words; the isolated item is odd only with respect to its immediate context—that is, it is the only member of a category (because it is printed in a different color than the other items in the list). By contrast, other types of distinctiveness effects occur when an item is distinct with respect to general knowledge. They include, among others, the bizarreness effect (superior memory for offbeat images or sentences as compared to common images or sentences) and the orthographic distinctiveness effect (superior memory for words with unusual letter combinations, as in subpoena, compared to words with more typical letter combinations, as in bookcase).

distinctness

distinctness n. 1. the quality of being perceived clearly and as separate from other stimuli that is characteristic of an object upon which attention is focused. 2. in tasks requiring selective attention, the extent to which the target is different from distractor stimuli. Performance on selective attention tasks is better when the target is distinct from the distractors.

distorted speech test

distorted speech test a test used to evaluate auditory and perceptual processing problems. In such tests, certain elements of the acoustic signal are removed. Examples are filtered speech and time-compressed speech.

distorting-photograph procedure

distorting-photograph procedure a procedure for assessing body-size perception that asks individuals to indicate their size by adjusting a photographic self-image so that it appears withing a range of 20% over or under their actual size. Discrepancy between the body size in the selected image and that of an accurate image is used as an index of perceptual distortion of body size.

distortion

distortion n. 1. any inaccuracey of perception, cognition, memory, and so forth. 2. either the unconscious process of altering emotions and thoughts that are unacceptable in the individual’s psyche or the conscious misrepresentation of facts, which often serves the same underlying purpose of disguising that which is unacceptable to or in the self. 3. in psychoanalytic theory, the outcome of the dream-work that modifies forbidden thoughts and wishes to make them more acceptable to the ego. Such distortion of the dream wish through the use of substitutes and symbols means that only an act of interpretation can uncover the true meaning of the dream.

distractibility

distractibility n. difficulty in maintaining attention or a tendency to be easily diverted from the matter at hand. Excessive distractibility is frequently found in children with learning disorders or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and in people experiencing manic or hypomanic episodes.

distractible speech

distractible speech a speech pattern in which the individual shifts rapidly from topic to topic in response to external or internal stimuli. It is a common symptom in mania. See also flight of ideas.

distraction

distraction n. 1. the process of interrupting attention. 2. a stimulus or task that draws attention away from the task of primary interest.

distractor

distractor n. a stimulus or an aspect of a stimulus that is irrelevant to the task or activity being performed. In memory studies, an item or task may be used as a distractor before the participant attempts to recall the study material to be remembered; the distractor minimizes the participant’s rehearsal of the material and ensures that it is not currently stored in working memory. For instance, the participant might be given some arithmetic problems to solve as a distractor task between the study and recall phases of an experiment. See also visual attention.

distractor task

distractor task see Brown–Peterson distractor technique; distractor.

distress

distress n. 1. the negative stress response, often involving negative affect and physiological reactivity: a type of stress that results from being overwhelmed by demands, losses, or perceived threats. It has a detrimental effect by generating physical and psychological maladaptation and posing serious health risks for individuals. This generally is the intended meaning of the word stress. Compare eustress. 2. a negative emotional state in which the specific quality of the emotion is unspecified or unidentifiable. For example, stranger anxiety in infants is more properly designated stranger distress because the infant’s negative behavior, typically crying, allows no more specific identification of the emotion. —distressing adj.

distress tolerance

distress tolerance the level of either (a) one’s unwillingness to experience emotional distress as part of pursuing desired goals or (b) one’s inability to engage in goal-directed behaviors when experiencing distress. Low distress tolerance is related to a range of disorders, including borderline personality disorder, substance abuse, and eating disorders; some treatments (e.g., dialectical behavior therapy) are designed in part to raise an individual’s level of distress tolerance by habituating him or her to the experience of adapting to distress and other negative emotions.

distributed actions theory

distributed actions theory a model of leadership that assumes that group effectiveness and member satisfaction increase when certain key functions of a leader, such as decision making, task orientation, initiating structure, and the improvement of intermember relations, are not the sole responsibility of the leader but are instead distributed throughout the group. See also leadership theories; participative leadership.

distributed attention

distributed attention see spatial attention.

distributed cognition

distributed cognition a model for intelligent problem solving in which either the input information comes from separated and independent sources or the processing of this input information takes place across autonomous computational devices. Agent-based problem solving is sometimes described as distributed cognition.

distributed knowledge

distributed knowledge see distributed representation.

distributed practice

distributed practice a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time. In many learning situations, distributed practice is found to be more effective than massed practice. Also called spaced learning; spaced practice. See also spacing effect.

distributed processing

distributed processing information processing in which computations are made across a series of processors or units, rather than being handled in a single, dedicated central processor. See also parallel distributed processing; parallel processing.

distributed representation

distributed representation in information processing, a system of representation in which information pertaining to a given unit of knowledge is carried by many separate components of the system, rather than being stored together as a single entity.

distributed-practice effect

distributed-practice effect see spacing effect.

distribution

distribution n. the relation between the values that a variable may take and the relative number of cases taking on each value. A distribution may be simply an empirical description of that relationship or a mathematical (probabilistic) specification of the relationship. For example, it would be helpful in examining the distribution of scores for a college exam to view the frequency of students who achieved various percentages correct on the exam. In a normal distribution, most of the scores would fall in the middle (i.e., about 70% correct or a score of C), with fewer students achieving a D (i.e., 60–69% correct) or a B (i.e., 80–89% correct) and even fewer earning 59% or less (i.e., an F) or 90% to 100% (e.g., an A). See also frequency distribution; probability distribution.

distribution function

distribution function see cumulative distribution function.

distribution-free test

distribution-free test see nonparametric test.

distributional redundancy

distributional redundancy in psychological aesthetics, the development of uncertainty in an artistic pattern by making some elements occur more frequently than others. Distributional redundancy is one of two kinds of internal restraint in pattern variation, the other being correlational redundancy, in which certain combinations of elements are made to occur more frequently than others.

distributive analysis and synthesis

distributive analysis and synthesis an approach to psychotherapy that developed within psychobiology. In the first stage, a systematic analysis is made from information gained from the client about past and present experience and distributed into such categories as symptoms and complaints, assets and liabilities, and pathological or immature reactions. In the second stage, this study is used as a prelude to a constructive synthesis built on the client’s own strengths, goals, and abilities. [developed by Adolf Meyer]

distributive bargaining

distributive bargaining a form of bargaining seen in adversarial situations in which the parties involved must allocate finite resources, such that one party’s gain necessarily entails the other’s loss. The parties make demands of each other by indicating their preferred outcomes, using such contentious tactics as threats and arguments, and insist that they remain committed to their positions. Also called competitive bargaining. Compare integrative bargaining.

distributive justice

distributive justice 1. the belief that rules can be changed and punishments and rewards distributed according to relative standards, specifically according to equality and equity. In the equality stage (ages 8 to 10), children demand that everyone be treated in the same way. In the equity stage (ages 11 and older), children make allowances for subjective considerations, personal circumstances, and motive. Compare immanent justice. [postulated by Jean Piaget] 2. see organizational justice.

disturbance of association

disturbance of association interruption of a logical chain of culturally accepted thought, leading to apparently confused and haphazard thinking that is difficult for others to comprehend. It is one of the fundamental symptoms of schizophrenia described by Eugen Bleuler. See also schizophrenic thinking; thought disorder.

disturbance term

disturbance term see error term.

disulfiram

disulfiram n. a drug used as an aversive agent in managing alcohol abuse or dependence. Disulfiram inhibits the activity of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme responsible for the metabolism of alcohol (ethanol) in the liver. Consumption of alcohol following administration of disulfiram results in accumulation of acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolic product of ethanol, with such unpleasant effects as nausea, vomiting, sweating, headache, a fast heart rate, and palpitations. Because of the serious nature of some of these effects (which can include damage to the liver and heart), informed consent is required before use of disulfiram. Disulfiram by itself is rarely effective in managing alcoholism and should be administered only in concert with a carefully designed behavioral regimen. U.S. trade name: Antabuse.

disuse supersensitivity

disuse supersensitivity a condition in which target cells, on losing neural input through either denervation or chronic application of an antagonist drug, produce more than the normal number of receptor molecules, resulting in an exaggerated response when a neurotransmitter is applied. When this condition results from denervation, it is also called denervation sensitivity.

disuse theory of aging

disuse theory of aging the theory that some decline in psychological abilities with aging may be due to the lack of use of those abilities. According to this theory, as adults grow older, they engage their minds less and less with the types of tasks that are found on most psychological tests, particularly tests assessing cognitive functioning.

disynaptic arc

disynaptic arc a neural arc in which there is an interneuron between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron, requiring a neural signal to cross two synapses to complete the arc. See also reflex arc.

diuretic

diuretic n. a substance that increases the flow of urine. Diuretics may be endogenous agents (e.g., dopamine) or prescription or nonprescription drugs (e.g., thiazide diuretics). Many diuretics (including thiazides) work by inhibiting or blocking the reabsorption of sodium and potassium ions from the kidney filtrate, so that less water is reabsorbed across the kidney tubules. Others, called osmotic diuretics, increase the osmolality of the filtrate. Both mechanisms result in increased urine volume. Some diuretics may produce adverse effects with psychological implications, for example, lassitude, weakness, vertigo, sexual impotence, headaches, polydipsia (intense thirst), irritability, or excitability.

diurnal

diurnal adj. 1. daily; that is, recurring every 24 hours. See biological clock; circadian rhythm. 2. occurring or active during daylight hours. Compare nocturnal. —diurnality n.

diurnal enuresis

diurnal enuresis see enuresis.

diurnal mood variation

diurnal mood variation a feature of some bipolar disorders and depressive disorders in which daily, predictable emotional fluctuations occur. Typically, this pattern consists of an elevation of mood during the daytime and evening hours and a depression of mood during the overnight and morning hours. See also seasonal affective disorder.

diurnal rhythm

diurnal rhythm see circadian rhythm.

divagation

divagation n. rambling, digressive speech, writing, or thought. See also disorganized speech.

divalproex sodium

divalproex sodium an anticonvulsant drug, derived from valproic acid, originally used in the treatment of absence seizures and now used primarily for the stabilization of mania and for prophylaxis in individuals with bipolar disorder. It has also been used in the treatment of various other conditions, including autism, migrainous neuralgia and other forms of head pain, other chronic pain syndromes, and mood symptoms associated with borderline personality disorder. Liver damage and reduction in blood platelets (thrombocytopenia) may occur with use of the drug, so blood count and liver function should be monitored, particularly in the early course of treatment and particularly in children, as most fatalities due to liver failure have occurred in children. Because of its possible association with neural tube defects, divalproex sodium should not be prescribed during pregnancy. The drug has significant interactions with antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, and numerous other classes of medication. U.S. trade name: Depakote.

divergence

divergence n. the rotation of the two eyes outward when shifting fixation from a nearby target object to one that is far away. A permanent divergence of one eye is termed exotropia. See also vergence. —divergent adj.

divergent evolution

divergent evolution the process by which populations become increasingly different from each other through different selection pressures acting in different habitats. Divergent evolution is a major way in which new species are formed. It contrasts with convergent evolution, in which different species become more similar to each other through adaptation to similar habitats.

divergent production

divergent production the capacity to produce novel solutions to a problem. It is one of the abilities recognized in the structure of intellect model. Compare convergent production.

divergent strabismus

divergent strabismus see exotropia; strabismus.

divergent thinking

divergent thinking creative thinking in which an individual solves a problem or reaches a decision using strategies that deviate from commonly used or previously taught strategies. This term is often used synonymously with lateral thinking. Compare convergent thinking. [defined in 1967 by Joy Paul Guilford]

divergent validity

divergent validity see discriminant validity.

diversion program

diversion program a program that may be available in some circumstances for individuals, especially juveniles and young adults, who have been arrested for the first time or for certain crimes. After the defendant has been formally charged with a crime and has entered a plea, he or she may be sent to a diversion program (e.g., for drug treatment) instead of proceeding to trial; the charges are dropped or reduced if the individual successfully completes the program. Under federal sentencing guidelines a diversion program, for adults, counts as a sentence if the defendant guilty or the defendant pleaded guilty, whereas juveniles who have successfully completed diversion programs do not have their crimes included in their permanent record. In deferred prosecution, individuals may be required to complete the same types of programs (e.g., alcohol treatment, community service), but they are granted a conditional amnesty by the prosecutor before they enter a plea; if they do not complete the agreed-upon programs, they return to court for a trial and sentencing for the original crime, but if they do, the charges are dropped and are not made part of the defendant’s police record.

diversity

diversity n. the wide range of variation of living organisms in an ecosystem. When describing people and population groups, diversity can include such factors as age, gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, nationality, and religion, as well as education, livelihood, and marital status. See cultural diversity.

diversity training

diversity training personnel training programs that help employees to appreciate and deal effectively with cultural, ethnic, racial, gender, sexual orientation, and other differences among people.

diversive exploration

diversive exploration exploratory behavior used as a means of seeking novel or otherwise activating stimuli and thus increasing arousal. Compare inspective exploration. [defined by Daniel E. Berlyne]

divided attention

divided attention attention to two or more channels of information at the same time, so that two or more tasks may be performed concurrently. It may involve the use of just one sense (e.g., hearing) or two or more senses (e.g., hearing and vision).

divided brain

divided brain see split brain.

divided consciousness

divided consciousness Ernest R. Hilgard’s characterization of dissociation as a state in which one stream of mental activity (e.g., perception, memory, planning) proceeds outside of phenomenal awareness and apparently outside of voluntary control. In his neodissociation theory, Hilgard proposed that this state could be best studied through hypnosis. See also coconsciousness; unity of consciousness.

divination

divination n. the purported art or practice of discerning future events or hidden knowledge by supernatural means. The numerous forms of divination include astrology, augury, crystal gazing, lecanomancy, necromancy, numerology, oneiromancy, palmistry, and rhabdomancy. —divinatory adj. —divine vb.

divine right

divine right the theory or presumption that monarchs derive their authority to govern directly from God and not from the governed or any entity representative of them. The theory saw its heyday under the reigns of the English kings James I (1603–1625) and Charles I (1625–1649) and the French king Louis XIV (1643–1715). Also called divine right of kings. See also social contract.

diviner’s sage

diviner’s sage see Salvia.

divorce

divorce n. the legal dissolution of marriage, leaving the partners free to remarry. Divorce may significantly influence well-being, with many individuals experiencing depression, loneliness and isolation, self-esteem difficulties, or other psychological distress. Parental divorce also has been shown to have negative consequences on the psychosocial adjustment of children and adolescents. See also emotional divorce; marital separation. —divorcee n.

divorce counseling

divorce counseling counseling provided to individuals and their family members to help them cope with the problems resulting from divorce. In either family or individual sessions, family members may be encouraged to let go of the past and learn to deal with their present emotions. Spouses seen either individually or together may explore what their own contributions to the breakup may have been so as to decrease blame and increase probability that they can interact effectively in the future.

divorce mediation

divorce mediation counseling aimed at resolving issues for couples facing separation or divorce. The mediator remains impartial while assisting in negotiations to come to an agreed settlement over such issues as financial arrangements, child custody and visitation, and child support. Divorce mediation attempts to avoid confrontation and undue litigation prior to final settlement.

dizygotic twins (DZ twins)

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dizziness

dizziness n. a sensation of light-headedness or unsteadiness, sometimes with nausea and a fear of fainting. See vertigo.

DL

DL abbreviation for difference limen. See difference threshold.

DLPFC

DLPFC abbreviation for dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

DMN

DMN 1. abbreviation for default-mode network. 2. abbreviation for dorsomedial nucleus.

dMRI

dMRI abbreviation for diffusion magnetic resonance imaging.

DMS

DMS abbreviation for diacritical marking system.

DMT

DMT dimethyltryptamine: a hallucinogen belonging to the indolealkylamine family, to which LSD, psilocin, and DET also belong.

DMTS

DMTS abbreviation for delayed matching to sample.

DNA

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid: one of the two types of nucleic acid found in living organisms; it is the principal carrier of genetic information in chromosomes and, to a much lesser extent, in mitochondria. Certain segments of the DNA molecules constitute the organism’s genes. Structurally, DNA consists of two intertwined, helically coiled strands of nucleotides—the double helix. The nucleotides each contain one of four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. Each base forms hydrogen bonds with the adjacent base on the other, sister strand, producing consecutive base pairs arranged rather like the “rungs” on a helical ladder. Adenine (A) is always paired with thymine (T), and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). DNA can undergo self-replication in such a way that each strand serves as the template for the assembly of a complementary matching strand, resulting in two molecules exactly like the original helix in terms of base pairing. The sequence of bases in the DNA of genes contains information according to the genetic code. Each gene specifies the manufacture of a particular protein or ribosome. Because of DNA’s ability to conserve its base sequence when replicating, the genetic instructions it carries are also conserved, both during cell division within a single organism and for that organism’s offspring following reproduction. Compare RNA. See also recombinant DNA.

DNA methylation

DNA methylation an epigenetic mechanism that involves the addition of a methyl group to the cytosine or adenine bases of DNA and that suppresses expression of particular genes under particular circumstances. It is crucial in normal cellular development and differentiation. Errors in DNA methylation have been associated with cancer and other diseases. See epigenetics.

DNR

DNR abbreviation for do not resuscitate. See advance directive; informed consent.

docility

docility n. the state of being passive or calm, easy to handle, or unlikely to attack. Docility can be induced in a strain of animals through selective breeding but may also occur as part of natural variation within a population. —docile adj.

doctor shopping

doctor shopping visiting a number of different physicians in an attempt to obtain prescriptions for a drug or drugs that one abuses.

doctrine

doctrine n. a teaching, dogma, or tenet of a system of belief or a body of such teachings. —doctrinal adj.

doctrine of causes

doctrine of causes the belief of Aristotle that causality of an object had four different modes or types—formal, final, material, and efficient—corresponding roughly to its form, its goal, the substance of which it was made, and the work done to produce it.

doctrine of double effect (DDE)

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doctrine of formal discipline

doctrine of formal discipline a pedagogical theory, now discredited, that was based on the old idea that the mind is divided into general faculties (e.g., reasoning, memory, attention) that, like muscles, could be strengthened through exercise. Training that strengthened a particular faculty was thought to benefit performance on any task that relied on that faculty. For example, students memorized texts and poems because training in memorization, regardless of the content, was thought to increase general memory capacity. See also transfer of training.

Doerfler–Stewart test

Doerfler–Stewart test a test originated during World War II for screening for functional hearing loss. It is used to examine a person’s ability to respond to selected two-syllable words in quiet and in the presence of a masking noise. [Leo G. Doerfler (1919–2004), U.S. audiologist; J. P. Stewart]

DOES

DOES acronym for disorders of excessive somnolence.

dogmatism

dogmatism n. 1. the tendency to act in a blindly certain, assertive, and authoritative manner in accordance with a strongly held set of beliefs. 2. a personality trait characterized by this tendency. The belief system of such an individual is strongly held and resistant to change. Nevertheless, it often contains elements that are isolated from one another and thus may contradict one another. See Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. [first proposed by U.S. psychologist Milton Rokeach (1918–1988)] —dogmatic adj.

dol

dol n. a unit of pain sensation. One dol equals twice the threshold value.

dolichocephalic

dolichocephalic adj. see cephalic index. —dolichocephaly n.

dolichomorphic

dolichomorphic adj. denoting a body that is tall and thin. —dolichomorphy n.

doll play

doll play in play therapy, the use of dolls and figurines, which may represent individuals familiar to the child, to facilitate the expression of feelings, to enact stories that express emotional needs, or to reveal significant family relationships. Also called projective doll play.

Dolophine

Dolophine n. a trade name for methadone.

dolorimeter

dolorimeter n. a device for the measurement of pain. —dolorimetry n.

DOM

DOM dimethoxymethylamphetamine: a synthetic hallucinogen that is also called STP for serenity, tranquility, and peace, which the substance is said to induce. It is a member of the phenylisopropylamine family, to which MDA and MDMA also belong.

domain

domain n. 1. the class of entities or events that constitutes the subject matter of a science or other discipline. 2. a field of mastery, dominance, or endeavor. 3. in biological taxonomy, the highest category used in some classification systems, comprising one or more kingdoms. Three domains are recognized: Archaea (archaebacteria), Bacteria, and Eukarya (including animals, plants, fungi, and protists). 4. in set theory, the set of elements over which a function is defined.

domain identification

domain identification the process by which individuals tacitly form a relationship between themselves and some field or pursuit, such as the academic, occupational, or athletic domain. Identification with the academic domain, for example, occurs for adolescents who value the rewards offered by success in educational settings, who feel they have the skills and resources needed in school, and who feel that others value achievements in this domain.

domain-free problem

domain-free problem in the literature on problem solving, a problem that can be solved without knowledge of a particular content domain, such as mathematics or science.

domain-general ability

domain-general ability a cognitive ability, such as general intelligence or speed of information processing, that influences performance over a wide range of situations and tasks. Compare domain-specific ability.

domain-referenced test

domain-referenced test an assessment that covers a specific area of study such that a score will reveal how much of this area has been mastered. This is similar to a criterion-referenced test, in which a content area is mapped and scores reflect whether a particular standard or criterion has been achieved. Thus, if an individual got 90% of the items correct in a domain-referenced or criterion-referenced test, this would be a high score indicative of his or her deep knowledge and understanding of the content covered in the test. These kinds of tests are contrasted with norm-referenced tests, in which scores indicate how well a test taker performed on the items relative to others who took the test.

domain-specific ability

domain-specific ability a cognitive ability, such as face recognition, that is specific to a task and under control of a specific function of the mind, brain, or both. Compare domain-general ability.

domain-specific knowledge

domain-specific knowledge specialized knowledge of a topic, such as knowledge of chess, baseball, or music.

domestic partnership

domestic partnership two people who live together in a stable, intimate relationship and share the responsibilities of a household in the same way that a married couple would. Some states and companies in the United States and some other countries provide legal and economic rights to domestic partners (e.g., insurance and death benefits) that are similar to those granted to married couples. See common-law marriage; same-sex marriage.

domestic violence

domestic violence any action by a person that causes physical harm to one or more members of his or her family unit. For example, it can involve battering of one partner by another (partner abuse), violence against children by a parent, or violence against elders by younger family members. See also battered women; child abuse; elder abuse; intimate partner violence.

domestication

domestication n. the selective breeding of animals so that they can live in close association with human beings. All domestic livestock, as well as pets and laboratory mice and rats, have been selectively bred to exhibit features that allow close association with human beings, typically by becoming more docile and less aggressive than wild animals. —domesticate vb.

domiciliary care

domiciliary care inpatient institutional care provided because care in the individual’s home is not available or not suitable. See also residential care.

dominance

dominance n. 1. the exercise of influence or control over others. Compare submission. See also animal dominance. 2. an older term for the tendency for one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex to exert greater influence than the other over certain key functions, such as speech production or manual tasks. Also called hemispheric dominance; lateral dominance. See hemispheric lateralization. 3. in genetics, the ability of one allele to determine the phenotype of a heterozygous individual. See dominant allele. —dominant adj.

dominance aggression

dominance aggression a form of aggression in nonhuman animals that involves one individual maintaining a higher status over another through threats or actual attacks. See animal dominance.

dominance hierarchy

dominance hierarchy 1. a system of stable linear variations in prestige, status, and authority among group members. It is the pecking order of the group, which describes who is influential and who submits to that influence. See also status relations. 2. any ordering of motives, needs, or other psychological or physical responses based on priority or importance. An example is Maslow’s motivational hierarchy.

dominance need

dominance need the need to dominate, lead, or otherwise control others. It is motivated by the desire for power, knowledge, prestige, or creative achievement. [proposed by Henry Alexander Murray]

dominance–submission

dominance–submission a key dimension of interpersonal behavior, identified through factor analysis, in which behavior is differentiated along a continuum ranging from high dominance (active, talkative, extraverted, assertive, controlling, powerful) to high subordination (passive, quiet, introverted, submissive, weak). Also called ascendance–submission.

dominance–subordination

dominance–subordination a form of social relationship within groups with a leader or dominant member who has priority of access to resources over other, subordinate members of the community. Among nonhuman animals, dominance–subordination relationships are highly organized in troops of baboons, in which dominant males have more access to food resources and mates than do subordinate males and all males often appear to have dominance over females. In hyena groups, the relationship is reversed, with males subordinate to females.

dominant allele

dominant allele the version of a gene (see allele) whose effects are manifest in preference to another version of the same gene (the recessive allele) when both are present in the same cell. Hence, the trait determined by a dominant allele (the dominant trait) is apparent even when the allele is carried on only one of a pair of homologous chromosomes. The term autosomal dominant is used to describe this pattern; for example, Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant disorder.

dominant eye

dominant eye the eye that is used preferentially or through which stimulation is preferentially effective.

dominant hemisphere

dominant hemisphere formerly, the hemisphere regarded as having primary control of speech or manual preference (handedness). See hemispheric lateralization.

dominant ideology thesis

dominant ideology thesis in Marxist theory, the view that the ruling class consolidates its position in society by enforcing its ideology on subordinate classes, who come to accept it uncritically. See hegemony.

dominant wavelength

dominant wavelength a single wavelength that when mixed with white will match a given hue.

dominatrix

dominatrix n. a woman who takes the dominant role in sexual activity, often associated with bondage and discipline or sadomasochism.

Don Juan

Don Juan a man who ruthlessly seduces women, concerned only with sexual conquest, after which he loses interest in them (Don Juanism). The original Don Juan was a legendary Spanish libertine, the subject of literature and Mozart’s opera Don Giovanni. In contrast to men with a Casanova complex, who adore women, a Don Juan may think of women as prey. See also satyriasis.

don’t-hold functions

don’t-hold functions cognitive abilities, such as those involved in digit–symbol association (see Digit Symbol), that often decline in normative aging as observed on intellectual or cognitive tests (e.g., the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale). They also show declines in conditions that affect cognitive functioning, such as traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, or dementia. In these conditions, don’t-hold functions are much more likely to be affected, or to be affected first, than are hold functions, which often rely on long-term knowledge such as vocabulary.

Donders’s law

Donders’s law the principle that the position of the eyes in looking at an object is independent of their movement to that position. [Franciscus Cornelis Donders]

Donders’s method

Donders’s method a method of separating out hypothetical stages of mental processing by requiring participants to perform a set of reaction time tasks in which each successive task differs from its predecessor by the addition of a single mental stage. The time required to complete a particular stage of processing can be inferred by subtracting from the reaction time in one task the reaction time in the preceding task. For example, Task A, in which a person responds to one signal by pressing one key and to another by pressing another key, adds a response-decision stage to Task B, in which a person responds to one signal by pressing a key and makes no response to the other signal. Also called subtraction method. See also chronometric analysis; choice reaction time. [Franciscus Cornelis Donders]

donepezil

donepezil n. an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as a cognitive enhancer in the management of mild to moderate dementia. By inhibiting the degradation of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, donepezil increases available levels of acetylcholine in the basal nucleus of Meynert, thought to be associated with improved memory and other aspects of cognitive functioning. U.S. trade name: Aricept.

dong quai

dong quai an herbal agent derived from the plant Angelica sinensis, native to mountainous regions of China, Korea, and Japan, with extensive folk use in Asia, America, and western Europe for a variety of conditions but particularly as a remedy for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and other menstrual irregularities. It also is reputed to ameliorate the physical and psychological symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome and menopause. The limited research that has been done on dong quai is inconclusive, providing conflicting results on its effectiveness for any of these uses. Side effects include abdominal bloating, diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disturbances, fever, photosensitivity, and increased bleeding. Additionally, the plant contains numerous phytoestrogens (see estrogen) and coumarin-like compounds and may therefore interact with pharmaceutical estrogenic compounds and prescribed blood thinners.

donor insemination

donor insemination see artificial insemination.

door-in-the-face technique

door-in-the-face technique a two-step procedure for enhancing compliance in which an extreme initial request is presented immediately before a more moderate target request. Rejection of the initial request makes people more likely to accept the target request than would have been the case if the latter had been presented on its own. See also foot-in-the-door technique; low-ball technique; that’s-not-all technique.

DOP

DOP abbreviation for dermo-optical perception.

dopa (DOPA)

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dopa decarboxylase

dopa decarboxylase the intermediate enzyme in the metabolism of catecholamines from the dietary amino acid tyrosine. Tyrosine is transformed to L-dopa by tyrosine hydroxylase. L-dopa is in turn converted to dopamine by dopa decarboxylase, which also transforms a number of other aromatic amino acids. Dopamine is the final product in dopaminergic neurons; in adrenergic neurons, dopamine is transformed by the enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase to norepinephrine and subsequently—in specialized cells in the adrenal medulla and other sites, via the action of the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase—to epinephrine. Also called aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase.

dopac (DOPAC)

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dopamine (DA)

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dopamine hypothesis

dopamine hypothesis the influential theory that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine in the brain, due either to an overproduction of dopamine or a deficiency of the enzyme needed to convert dopamine to norepinephrine (adrenaline). There is some supporting pharmacological and biochemical evidence for this hypothesis, and it is still widely discussed and promoted, particularly in a revised form that postulates the involvement in schizophrenia of both an increased mesolimbic and a decreased prefrontal dopaminergic activity. See also glutamate hypothesis.

dopamine receptor

dopamine receptor a receptor molecule that is sensitive to dopamine and chemically related compounds. Dopamine receptors are located in parts of the nervous system, such as the basal ganglia, and also in blood vessels of the kidneys and mesentery, where binding of dopamine to its receptors results in widening (dilation) of the arteries. There are several subtypes of dopamine receptors, designated D1, D2, and so on. See DRD2 gene.

dopamine system

dopamine system a richly defined and extensive neurochemical regulatory system in the mammalian brain. There are four identified dopamine subdivisions: tuberoinfundibular (hormonal regulation); nigrostriatal (motor function); mesolimbic (reinforcement of behavior); and mesocortical (higher order cognitive activities).

dopamine-receptor agonist

dopamine-receptor agonist any drug or other agent that binds to and directly activates dopamine receptors, producing physiological effects that mimic those of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Bromocriptine is an example. Because parkinsonism is associated with a deficiency of dopamine in the brain, drugs that help to maintain adequate levels of dopamine are valuable in treating the disorder. Dopamine-receptor agonists are used to manage some of the drug-induced parkinsonian symptoms associated with use of antipsychotic drugs; they are also used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, galactorrhea, and prolactin-secreting tumors of the pituitary gland. Also called dopaminergic agent.

dopamine-receptor antagonist

dopamine-receptor antagonist any substance that reduces the effects of the neurotransmitter dopamine by competitively binding to, and thus blocking, dopamine receptors. Classically, the clinical use of dopamine antagonists in mental health has been to modulate the symptoms of schizophrenia and other psychotic conditions. All conventional (typical or first-generation) antipsychotic drugs are thought to act via antagonism or partial agonism of the postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptor. Most second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics possess some degree of antagonistic activity at that receptor. Other dopamine-receptor antagonists are used to prevent or treat nausea and vomiting.

dopaminergic

dopaminergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving dopamine. For example, a dopaminergic neuron is any neuron in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system for which dopamine serves as the principal neurotransmitter. Four major tracts (called dopaminergic pathways) of dopamine-containing neurons are classically described: the mesocortical pathway (see mesocortical system), damage to which is associated with depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; the mesolimbic system, in which excess dopamine activity is hypothesized to be associated with positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia; the nigrostriatal tract, which is involved in motor functions and Parkinson’s disease; and the tuberoinfundibular tract, a local circuit from the hypothalamus to the pituitary that is involved in the regulation of the pituitary hormone prolactin.

dopaminergic agent

dopaminergic agent see dopamine-receptor agonist.

Dopar

Dopar n. a trade name for levodopa.

Doppelganger phenomenon

Doppelganger phenomenon the delusion that one has a double or twin, who looks and acts the same as oneself (German, “double walker”). See also autoscopy.

Doppler effect

Doppler effect the apparent increase or decrease in wavelength or frequency observed when a source of electromagnetic radiation or sound approaches or recedes from the observer or listener, producing a change in hue or pitch. The total Doppler effect may result from motion of the source, observer, or medium (such as a sound wave). [Christian Andreas Doppler (1803–1853), Austrian mathematician]

Dora case

Dora case one of Sigmund Freud’s earliest and most celebrated cases, reported in Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (1905). The study of this woman’s multiple symptoms (headaches, loss of speech, suicidal thoughts, amnesic episodes) contributed to his theory of repression and the use of dream analysis as an analytic tool. It was also the first case in which he suggested the concept of transference.

Doral

Doral n. a trade name for quazepam.

Doriden

Doriden n. a trade name for glutethimide.

dorsal

dorsal adj. denoting the hind region or the back surface of the body. In reference to the latter, this term sometimes is used interchangeably with posterior. Compare ventral. —dorsally adv.

dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

dorsal anterior cingulate cortex see anterior cingulate cortex.

dorsal column

dorsal column any of various tracts of sensory nerve fibers that run through the white matter of the spinal cord on its dorsal (back) side. See cuneate fasciculus; gracile fasciculus. See also lemniscal system.

dorsal column system

dorsal column system a somatosensory system that transmits most touch information via the dorsal columns of the spinal cord to the brain.

dorsal horn

dorsal horn either of the upper regions of the H-shaped pattern formed by the periaqueductal gray in the spinal cord. The dorsal horns extend toward the dorsal roots and mainly serve sensory mechanisms. Also called posterior horn. Compare ventral horn.

dorsal posterior cingulate cortex

dorsal posterior cingulate cortex see posterior cingulate cortex.

dorsal root

dorsal root any of the spinal roots that convey sensory nerve fibers and enter the spinal cord dorsally on the back surface of each side. Also called posterior root; sensory root. Compare ventral root. See also Bell–Magendie law.

dorsal stream

dorsal stream a series of cortical maps that originate in the striate cortex (primary visual cortex) of the occipital lobe and project forward and upward into the parietal lobe. Known informally as the “where” or “how” pathway, the dorsal stream is involved in processing object motion and location in space. Also called action stream. Compare ventral stream.

dorsal tegmental bundle

dorsal tegmental bundle a bundle of nerve fibers from the locus ceruleus that, together with the central tegmental tract, forms the medial forebrain bundle.

dorsiflexion

dorsiflexion n. flexing the ankle or wrist so that the foot or hand moves toward its upper (dorsal) surface.

dorsolateral

dorsolateral adj. located both dorsally (toward the back) and laterally (toward the side). —dorsolaterally adv.

dorsolateral column

dorsolateral column a tract of motor fibers that descend in the dorsolateral part of the spinal cord, terminating on motor neurons. The cell bodies of these fibers lie in the motor cortex, and the fibers descend on the same side until they cross over (decussate) at the pyramids of the medulla oblongata.

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)

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dorsomedial nucleus (DMN)

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dorsoventral

dorsoventral adj. oriented or directed from the back (dorsal) region of the body to the front (ventral) region. Compare ventrodorsal. —dorsoventrally adv.

dose–response relationship

dose–response relationship a principle relating the potency of a drug to the efficacy of that drug in affecting a target symptom or organ system. Potency refers to the amount of a drug necessary to produce the desired effect; efficacy refers to the drug’s ability to act at a target receptor or organ to produce the desired effect. Dose–response curves may be graded, suggesting a continuous relationship between dose and effect, or quantal, wherein the desired effect is an either–or phenomenon, such as prevention of arrhythmias. There is considerable variability among individuals in response to a given dose of a particular drug.

dot figure

dot figure an arrangement of dots that is interpreted as forming a structure that changes shape over time, depending on which dots are seen as grouped together.

dot plot

dot plot see scatterplot.

dotting test

dotting test a pencil-and-paper motor test in which the participant makes as many dots as possible in a given time period, either randomly (tapping test) or within small circles (aiming test).

double

double n. in psychodrama, an individual, one of the auxiliary egos, who speaks or acts out the presumed inner thoughts of the protagonist (i.e., the person presenting the problem to be explored). The technique is known as doubling.

double alternation

double alternation in experimental research, a pattern in which two consecutive events of one kind alternate with two consecutive events of another kind. For example, in an operant conditioning experiment, two consecutive reinforced (R) trials may alternate with two consecutive nonreinforced (N) trials, yielding the pattern RRNNRRNN… . See also single alternation.

double approach–avoidance conflict

double approach–avoidance conflict a complex conflict situation arising when a person is confronted with two goals or options that each have significant attractive and unattractive features. See also approach–avoidance conflict.

double bind

double bind a situation in which an individual receives contradictory messages from another person. For example, a parent may respond negatively when his or her child approaches or attempts to engage in affectionate behavior but then, when the child turns away or tries to leave, reaches out to encourage the child to return. Double-binding communication was once considered a causative factor in schizophrenia. [proposed by British anthropologist Gregory Bateson (1904–1980)]

double blind

double blind see blind.

double bootstrapping

double bootstrapping a procedure in which samples are randomly drawn, with replacement, from an initial data set and their parameters and standard errors estimated and averaged across the set of samples. This is then followed by another random sampling of the data, again with replacement, after which parameter estimates and standard errors are obtained a second time. Double bootstrapping usually is less biased than using a single set of bootstrapping samples.

double consciousness

double consciousness 1. a condition in which two distinct, unrelated mental states coexist within the same person. This may occur, for example, in an individual with a dissociative identity disorder. Also called dual consciousness. 2. a condition described by U.S. educator, scholar, and activist W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963) as one in which African Americans experience themselves through their own consciousness as well as through their awareness of how they are perceived by White Americans.

double deception

double deception in deception research, an apparent debriefing after the experiment, which is itself a further ploy.

double depression

double depression a condition in which a person with dysthymic disorder—chronically low or irritable mood—experiences a concurrent major depressive episode. Symptoms commonly include hopelessness, low internal locus of control, low self-esteem, difficulty sleeping, and anhedonia. Severe hopelessness in particular has been implicated as the key distinguishing feature of double depression. Other distinctions (e.g., from dysthymic disorder alone, minor depressive disorder, single-episode depression), however, are more controversial among researchers and practitioners. Some claim that there are few if any legitimate clinical differences between double depression and other depressive conditions, whereas others argue that individuals with double depression have more severe symptoms, greater comorbidity, greater psychopathology in first-degree relatives, and a poorer prognosis; are less responsive to psychotherapy and other treatment; and otherwise differ in psychosocial functioning, family history, and degree of impairment.

double dissociation

double dissociation a research process for demonstrating the action of two separable psychological or biological systems, such as differentiating between types of memory or the function of brain areas. One experimental variable is found to affect one of the systems, whereas a second variable affects the other. The differentiating variables may be task related, pharmacological, neurological, or individual differences. For example, double dissociation has been used to separate declarative memory from procedural learning. [developed by Hans-Lukas Teuber]

double entendre

double entendre a word, phrase, or sentence that could be interpreted in two ways, especially when one of the possible meanings is a sexual one. See also ambiguity; pun. [French: “double understanding” or “double meaning”]

double helix

double helix see DNA.

double image

double image 1. a duplicate retinal image that occurs as a result of eye defects. 2. a duplicate image of a distant object when fixating on near objects or of a near object when fixating on distant objects. See also diplopia; double vision.

double insanity

double insanity see folie à deux.

double personality

double personality see dual personality.

double predestination

double predestination see predestination.

double standard

double standard the hypocritical belief that a code of behavior is permissible for one group or individual but not for another. For example, a double standard is held by the man who believes that free sexual expression is acceptable only for males, thus insisting on his daughter’s virginity while encouraging or ignoring his son’s philandering.

double vision

double vision the perception of a single object as a separate image by each eye. Double vision is referred to medically as diplopia.

double-approach conflict

double-approach conflict see approach–approach conflict.

double-aspect theory

double-aspect theory the position that mind and body are two attributes of a single substance (see mind–body problem). This view is particularly associated with Baruch Spinoza, who held that there is one (and only one) infinite substance, which he identified as God (see pantheism).

double-avoidance conflict

double-avoidance conflict see avoidance–avoidance conflict.

double-simultaneous stimulation

double-simultaneous stimulation a test used in studies of parietal lobe lesions in which two sensory stimuli (typically one on each side of the body) are presented to an individual simultaneously.

double-simultaneous tactile sensation

double-simultaneous tactile sensation the ability of a person to perceive two tactile sensations in different areas at the same time, for example, when touched simultaneously on the left and right hands or the right hand and left side of the face. An inability to perceive one or both of the simultaneous tactile sensations is referred to as tactile extinction. See also face–hand test.

double-Y condition

double-Y condition see XYY syndrome.

doubling

doubling n. see double.

doubt

doubt n. 1. lack of confidence or an uncertainty about something or someone, including the self. Doubt may center on everyday concerns (Can I accomplish this task?), issues of daily living (Can I change this ingrained habit?), or the very meaning of life itself (see existential anxiety; existential crisis). It is a perception, typically with a strong affective component, that is frequently a focus during psychotherapeutic intervention. 2. in Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, see autonomy versus shame and doubt.

doubting obsession

doubting obsession extreme feelings of uncertainty about even the most obvious matters. Doubting obsession is commonly associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder and often results in checking rituals (e.g., repeatedly looking to see if the door is locked) as a means of reducing doubt-related anxiety. It was originally named doubting mania by French psychiatrist Jean-Pierre Falret (1794–1870).

doula

doula n. a professional trained in giving social support to families before, during, and after the birth of a child—that is, during pregnancy, labor, and birth and at home during the first few days or weeks after birth. Unlike a midwife, a doula is not a medical professional and acts only as a labor coach during the actual delivery.

Down syndrome

Down syndrome a chromosomal disorder characterized by an extra chromosome 21 and manifested by a round flat face and eyes that seem to slant (the disorder was formerly known as mongolism). Brain size and weight are below average; affected individuals usually have mild to severe intellectual disability and have been characterized as having docile, agreeable dispositions. Muscular movements tend to be slow, clumsy, and uncoordinated. In many cases, growth is stunted, the tongue is thick, and the fingers are stubby. Affected individuals may have heart defects and respiratory insufficiencies or anomalies that are often corrected during infancy by surgery. However, lifespan is reduced compared with that in the general population, and affected individuals typically show early onset of Alzheimer’s disease. Down syndrome is one of the most common physiological causes of intellectual disability. Also called Langdon Down’s disease; trisomy 21. See also autosomal trisomy of group G. [described in 1866 by John Langdon Haydon Down (1828–1896), British physician]

down through

down through a technique for testing clairvoyance in which the participant is asked to state the order of a stacked deck of Zener cards from top to bottom. Compare up through. See also basic technique; screen touch matching.

down-regulation

down-regulation n. a decrease in the number of receptor molecules in a given area. Compare up-regulation.

downer

downer n. slang for a sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic drug.

downward communication

downward communication the transmission of information from individuals who occupy relatively high-status positions within a group or organization to those who occupy subordinate positions. Such communications tend to be informational and directive, whereas upward communications request information, provide factual information, or express grievances. Communication tends to flow downward in hierarchically organized groups. See channels of communication; communication network.

downward drift hypothesis

downward drift hypothesis see drift hypothesis.

downward mobility

downward mobility the movement of a person or group to a lower social class. See also social mobility. Compare upward mobility.

downward social comparison

downward social comparison see social comparison theory.

dowry

dowry n. in some cultures, money or assets bestowed on the groom by the bride’s family on marriage. Compare bride price.

dowsing

dowsing n. a purported technique for finding sites to dig for water or minerals. A forked stick (divining rod) is held by a person in such a way that a downward movement of the stick indicates a likely site. See also rhabdomancy. —dowse vb. —dowser n.

doxepin

doxepin n. a tricyclic antidepressant, among the most sedating and most anticholinergic of these agents. Although it currently has little use as an antidepressant, it may be used in relatively low doses as a hypnotic, for treatment of insomnia, or in the management of neuromuscular or musculoskeletal pain. It is also available as a topical treatment for management of dermatologic conditions. U.S. trade names: Adapin; Silenor; Sinequan.

doxylamine

doxylamine n. an ethanolamine antihistamine with significant sedative properties that is included in numerous nonprescription sleep aids. Like all antihistamines, it may lose its efficacy with repeated use. Overdose is characterized by symptoms of anticholinergic toxicity, including raised temperature, a rapid heart rate, and delirium.

dPCC

dPCC abbreviation for dorsal posterior cingulate cortex.

DPE

DPE abbreviation for deliberate psychological education.

DQ

DQ abbreviation for developmental quotient.

DRA

DRA abbreviation for differential reinforcement of alternative behavior.

drama therapy

drama therapy in group therapy, the use of theater techniques to gain self-awareness and increase self-expression.

Dramamine

Dramamine n. a trade name for dimenhydrinate.

dramatics

dramatics n. 1. the art or practice of stagecraft and theatrical performance. 2. the use of drama as a rehabilitation technique, using published or original scripts with patients as performers. See also psychodrama. 3. see creative dramatics.

dramatization

dramatization n. 1. attention-getting behavior, such as exaggerating the symptoms of an illness to make it appear more important than the occurrence of the same illness in another person. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, the expression of repressed wishes or impulses in dreams. —dramatize vb.

drawing disability

drawing disability see constructional apraxia.

DRC

DRC abbreviation for damage-risk criteria.

DRD2 gene

DRD2 gene a gene that codes for the dopamine receptor D2 subtype. Variants of this gene have been associated especially with craving-based disorders such as substance dependence (e.g., alcoholism), obesity, and pathological gambling. Variants have also been implicated in schizophrenia, both in its pathophysiology and in the treatment response of those with the disorder to antipsychotic medications. In addition, the gene recently has been linked to an expression of “harsh parenting” by human mothers in response to adverse economic conditions, a finding that suggests the gene may play a significant role in translating environmental responses into biochemical brain events.

dread

dread n. 1. intense fear or fearful anticipation. 2. in psychoanalysis, anxiety elicited by a specific threat, such as going out on a dark night, as contrasted with anxiety that does not have a specific object. See also existential dread.

dream

dream n. a physiologically and psychologically conscious state that occurs during sleep and is often characterized by a rich array of endogenous sensory, motor, emotional, and other experiences. Dreams occur most often, but by no means exclusively, during periods of REM sleep. Those that occur during NREM sleep are characterized primarily by thoughts and emotions, whereas REM dreams are characterized primarily by (a) visual imagery along with a sense of motion in space; (b) intense emotion, especially fear, elation, or anger; (c) belief that dream characters, events, and situations are real; and (d) sudden discontinuities in characters, situations, and plot elements. Because it is generally difficult to recall such dreams in detail more than a dozen seconds after waking, REM dream reports are optimally obtained immediately after waking an individual in whom rapid eye movements and electroencephalographic arousal have been observed. Individuals awakened during NREM sleep report fewer dreams. Theories about the nature, meaning, and function of dreams are diverse. The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 377 bce), for example, suggested that dreams provide early evidence of disease. Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as symbolic condensations of conflicting impulses that are rejected from waking consciousness to avoid emotional distress. Carl Jung proposed a problem-solving function for dreams, in which archetypal symbols convey prototypical life conflicts and their possible resolutions. Alfred Adler advanced the view that inferiority conflicts are played out in dreams. The discovery in the early 1950s of REM sleep, as well as findings in the 1960s about NREM sleep, initiated the scientific study of dreaming as a neurocognitive process, and various hypotheses have since emerged about that process (e.g., activation–synthesis hypothesis; AIM model). The physiology of REM dreaming is routinely observable in many nonhuman animals as well, following the same circadian timing as in humans. It is therefore considered to be a product of evolution, though additional function may accrete in humans. See also lucid dream; nightmare. —dream vb. —dreamlike adj. —dreamy adj.

dream analysis

dream analysis a technique, originally used in psychoanalysis but now also used in some other psychotherapies, in which the content of dreams is interpreted to reveal underlying motivations or symbolic meanings and representations (i.e., latent content). Dream analysis is aided by such techniques as free association. Also called dream interpretation.

dream anxiety disorder

dream anxiety disorder see nightmare disorder.

dream censorship

dream censorship in psychoanalytic theory, the disguising in dreams of unconscious wishes that would be disturbing to the ego if allowed conscious expression. According to Sigmund Freud, the thoroughness of dream disguise varies directly with the strictness of the censorship. See censor.

dream content

dream content the images, ideas, and impulses expressed in a dream. See latent content; manifest content.

dream deprivation

dream deprivation a research technique designed to study the effects of reduced REM sleep on REM dreaming. After being routinely awakened during this stage of sleep, participants tend to compensate with longer periods of REM sleep on subsequent nights, a finding that may point to homeostatic compensation for REM-dream deprivation. The technique is a specifically focused subtype of REM-sleep deprivation.

dream ego

dream ego in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, a fragment of the conscious ego that is active during the dream state.

dream incorporation

dream incorporation the integration of a stimulus, such as a muscle cramp or the sound of a telephone ringing, into the content of a dream. Such a dream is referred to as an incorporation dream.

dream interpretation

dream interpretation see dream analysis.

dream stimulus

dream stimulus any of various stimuli that may initiate dream content, such as external stimulation, internal sensory stimulation, mental images, feelings, or memories.

dream suggestion

dream suggestion a specialized hypnotic technique in which the client is instructed to dream about a problem or its source, either during the hypnotic state or posthypnotically, during natural sleep. The technique is sometimes used as an aid in hypnotherapy.

dream-work

dream-work n. in psychoanalytic theory, the transformation of the latent content of a dream into the manifest content experienced by the dreamer. This transformation is effected by such processes as condensation, symbolization, displacement, and dramatization.

dreamy state

dreamy state a brief altered state of consciousness similar to a dream, during which the individual experiences visual, olfactory, or auditory hallucinations.

dressing aid

dressing aid an assistive technology device that helps people with disabilities to dress independently. Dressing aids include buttonhooks, specially designed fasteners (e.g., Velcro strips), grabbers, and other devices.

dressing apraxia

dressing apraxia an inability to dress oneself normally, sometimes associated with brain damage. For example, an individual may put on clothing so that it covers only the right side of the body, neglecting the left side.

DRGs

DRGs abbreviation for diagnosis-related groups.

DRH

DRH abbreviation for differential reinforcement of high rate.

drift

drift n. 1. a reduction in variation in genetic traits that can occur when sampling from continually smaller groups, such that some traits ultimately become excluded from possibility. 2. a reduction in the reliability of technical instruments orin the accuracy of observers over time. See instrument drift; observer drift.

drift hypothesis

drift hypothesis a sociological concept purporting to explain the higher incidence of schizophrenia in urban poverty centers, suggesting that during the preclinical phase people tend to drift into poverty and social isolation. Also called downward drift hypothesis. See also sociogenic.

drifting attention

drifting attention a disorder marked by a tendency to maintain attention for a short period, when alerted, but then to drift back to a somnolent state. It is caused by disturbance of the subcortical alerting mechanisms, which usually indicates pathological involvement of the midbrain or thalamic portion of the reticular activating system. See also wandering attention.

drill

drill n. the methodical repetition of a physical or mental response or response sequence for the purpose of learning. Drill may be necessary when the material to be learned does not yet represent to the individual an integrated or internally coherent entity. For example, an individual learning a foreign language may need to use drill. Drill is also necessary to produce automatization of a behavior or skill.

drinking aid

drinking aid an assistive technology device that permits an individual with a disability to ingest liquids without the help of another person. Drinking aids include terry-cloth tumbler jackets, wooden or metal glass holders, various built-in and flexible sipping straws, coasters with suction-cup attachments, and cups designed for drinking while lying down.

drinking episode

drinking episode a continuous period of drinking, often but not always short-lived.

drinkometer

drinkometer n. a device used in nonhuman animal experiments to record the number of times an animal licks a drinking tube. Also called lickometer.

drive

drive n. 1. a generalized state of readiness precipitating or motivating an activity or course of action. Drive is hypothetical in nature, usually created by deprivation of a needed substance (e.g., food), the presence of negative stimuli (e.g., pain, cold), or the occurrence of negative events. Drive is said to be necessary for stimuli or events to serve as reinforcers. 2. in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, a concept used to understand the relationship between the psyche and the soma (mind and body); drive is conceived as having a somatic source but creating a psychic effect. Freud identified two separate drives as emerging from somatic sources: libido and aggression. See also motivation; object relations. 3. see Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales.

drive discrimination

drive discrimination the ability of an organism to differentiate between various psychological, emotional, and physiological needs and to direct responses accordingly, such as drinking when thirsty or eating when hungry. [defined by Edward C. Tolman]

drive displacement

drive displacement the activation of one drive when another drive is thwarted; for example, eating chocolate when one is prohibited from smoking a cigarette.

drive state

drive state see drive.

drive stimulus

drive stimulus in Clark L. Hull’s theories of learning, any of the hypothetical nerve impulses produced by a drive state. Behaviors that reduce these impulses are reinforced or strengthened. See drive-reduction theory; Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning.

drive strength

drive strength the intensity of a drive, particularly as quantified in Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning as the number of hours of deprivation of a need.

drive theory

drive theory see classical psychoanalysis.

drive-induction theory

drive-induction theory the theory that reinforcement is a function of the degree of drive induced by a given reinforcer. According to this theory, it is the arousal or excitement produced by consummating a reinforcer (e.g., eating, drinking, mating) that produces reinforcement of behavior, not the reduction of the drive state that the reinforcer may produce. Drive-induction theory was proposed as an alternative to drive-reduction theory. Also called consummatory response theory of reinforcement. [introduced by U.S. learning theorist Frederick Sheffield (1914–1994)]

drive-reduction theory

drive-reduction theory a theory of learning in which the goal of motivated behavior is a reduction of a drive state. It is assumed that all motivated behavior arises from drives, stemming from a disruption in homeostasis, and that responses that lead to reduction of those drives tend to be reinforced or strengthened. See also Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning. Compare drive-induction theory. [proposed by Clark L. Hull]

driver training

driver training in rehabilitation, the training of individuals with disabilities to operate an automobile equipped with assistive technology devices, such as customized or adapted controls. For example, a previously trained driver may have to learn to maneuver a vehicle with hand-operated accelerator and brakes or a gearshift extension for left-hand rather than right-hand use.

DRL

DRL abbreviation for differential reinforcement of low rate.

DRO

DRO abbreviation for differential reinforcement of other behavior.

dromomania

dromomania n. an abnormal drive or desire to travel that involves spending beyond one’s means and sacrificing job, partner, or security in the lust for new experiences. People with dromomania not only feel more alive when traveling but also start planning their next trip as soon as they arrive home. Fantasies about travel occupy many of their waking thoughts and some of their dreams. The condition was formerly referred to as vagabond neurosis.

dronabinol

dronabinol n. see tetrahydrocannabinol.

drone

drone n. see mephedrone.

drop-in center

drop-in center a facility, often associated with a substance abuse program, where professional support and advice can be obtained without an advance appointment. A drop-in center also serves as a gathering place providing social, educational, and recreational activities.

droperidol

droperidol n. an antipsychotic agent of the butyrophenone class that is used in premedication for surgery and to maintain surgical anesthesia. It is occasionally used for the emergency treatment of acute psychotic agitation. Because of its extremely rapid onset of action, it has few other mental health applications. U.S. trade name: Inapsine.

dropout

dropout n. 1. a student who leaves school before graduating. 2. a patient or client who terminates treatment before it is completed.

Drosophila

Drosophila n. a genus of small fruit flies consisting of about a thousand species commonly known as vinegar flies. The species Drosophila melanogaster is used extensively in genetic investigations, including studies of the genetic components of behavior; for example, U.S. behavioral geneticist Jerry Hirsch (1922–2008) studied the relationship between variations in certain chromosomes in D. melanogaster and differences in geotaxis.

drowsiness

drowsiness n. a state of low alertness characterized by lowered frontal lobe (executive) functioning, difficulty in exerting mental effort, and an involuntary tendency for rapid skeletal muscle inhibition to occur. Electroencephalography shows intermittent sleep brain waves, including delta waves. See also hypersomnia; somnolence.

DRS

DRS 1. abbreviation for Dementia Rating Scale. 2. abbreviation for Disability Rating Scale.

drug

drug n. any substance, other than food, that influences motor, sensory, cognitive, or other bodily processes. Drugs generally are administered for experimental, diagnostic, or treatment purposes but also tend to be used recreationally to achieve particular effects.

drug abuse

drug abuse see substance abuse.

Drug Abuse Resistance Education

Drug Abuse Resistance Education see D.A.R.E.dare

Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST)

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drug abuse treatment

drug abuse treatment see substance abuse treatment.

drug addiction

drug addiction see addiction; substance dependence.

drug court

drug court an alternative to the usual legal processing and penalties for nonviolent drug offenders. Drug court focuses on treatment and rehabilitation rather than punishment.

drug culture

drug culture the activities and way of life of people who habitually use one or more kinds of drugs of abuse, usually illicit drugs such as hashish, cocaine, heroin, LSD, or other substances that produce altered states of consciousness. Also called drug subculture.

drug dealer

drug dealer a person who sells illegal substances or sells legal substances in an illegal manner (e.g., without a license). Also called a drug pusher.

drug dependence

drug dependence see substance dependence.

drug discrimination

drug discrimination the ability of an organism to distinguish between the internal states produced by different drugs (or by a particular drug and saline). In a typical experimental procedure, a nonhuman animal is injected with one drug, and a certain response (e.g., pressing the left-hand lever in a two-lever apparatus) is reinforced. When injected with a different drug (or with saline), a different response (e.g., pressing the right-hand lever) is reinforced. Thus, the animal must discriminate between the internal cues produced by the drugs in order to make the correct response.

drug education

drug education the process of informing individuals or groups about the effects of various chemical agents on the human body, usually with a special emphasis on the effects of mind-altering substances.

drug holiday

drug holiday discontinuance of a therapeutic drug for a limited period in order to control dosage and side effects and to evaluate the patient’s response with and without it. At one time commonly recommended for children taking methylphenidate, drug holidays on weekends or school vacations were thought to prevent growth suppression that was tentatively associated with this agent. Drug holidays are infrequent in modern clinical practice.

drug interactions

drug interactions the effects of administering two or more drugs concurrently, which alters the pharmacological action of one or more of them. Pharmacokinetic interactions alter the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of the drugs; they may induce or inhibit the elimination of these drugs, leading to unexpected increases or decreases in their concentrations in the body. Pharmacodynamic interactions affect the drugs’ activities at target organs or receptor sites; they may be synergistic, enhancing the effectiveness of a drug at a target receptor or organ (see drug synergism), or antagonistic, in which the presence of one drug reduces the effectiveness of another (see antagonist).

drug interdiction

drug interdiction the interception and confiscation, by police or other law enforcement officials, of illegal drugs while they are being transported.

drug metabolism

drug metabolism the process by which a drug is transformed in the body (in the liver and other organs), usually from a more lipid-soluble form, which makes it more readily absorbed into the body, to a more water-soluble form, which facilitates its excretion. Two phases of drug metabolism are recognized. In Phase I metabolism, the drug is oxidized, reduced, or hydrolyzed—that is, oxygen is added, oxygen is removed, or hydrogen is added, respectively (see cytochrome P450). In Phase II metabolism, functional groups (specific clusters of atoms) are added to drug molecules (e.g., by glucuronidation).

drug rehabilitation

drug rehabilitation a combination of interventions designed to enable a person with substance dependence to achieve and maintain abstinence. Also called drug rehab; drug treatment.

drug screening instrument

drug screening instrument a brief interview, such as CAGE, or a brief self-report instrument, such as the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (MAST) or Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST), that is designed to identify individuals who should be assessed thoroughly for the possibility of substance abuse.

drug self-administration

drug self-administration see self-administration.

drug subculture

drug subculture see drug culture.

drug synergism

drug synergism an enhancement of efficacy occurring when two or more drugs are administered concurrently, so that their combined pharmacological or clinical effects are greater than those occurring when the drugs are administered individually. Drug synergism can be metabolic, when the administration of one agent interferes with the metabolism of another, or it can be pharmacological, when the administration of two or more agents results in enhanced receptor binding or other activity at target sites. The enhanced antimicrobial activity of two antibiotics administered together is an example of positive synergism; negative synergism can be seen when the administration of a nontoxic agent with a toxic drug worsens the toxicity of the latter.

drug therapy

drug therapy see pharmacotherapy.

drug tolerance

drug tolerance see tolerance.

drug trafficking

drug trafficking see trafficking.

drug withdrawal

drug withdrawal see substance withdrawal.

drug-induced amnesia

drug-induced amnesia see amnesia.

drug-induced lactation

drug-induced lactation see galactorrhea.

drug-induced parkinsonism

drug-induced parkinsonism see parkinsonism.

drug-induced psychosis

drug-induced psychosis a psychotic state resulting from use or abuse of a variety of illicit or therapeutic substances. Well-described drug-induced psychoses may result from excessive or chronic use of amphetamines, cocaine, or other stimulants; cannabis; LSD, PCP (phencyclidine), or other hallucinogens; and other illicit substances. A variety of medications may produce psychotic symptoms, including anticholinergic drugs at therapeutic doses in susceptible individuals. See also substance-induced psychotic disorder.

drug-seeking behavior

drug-seeking behavior an attempt to attain a drug or drugs that a person abuses or on which he or she is dependent. Such behavior may include doctor shopping, forging prescriptions, and trading sex for drugs.

dry eyes

dry eyes see xerophthalmia.

DS

DS abbreviation for dual scaling.

DSH

DSH abbreviation for deliberate self-harm.

DSM–5

DSM–5 the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, prepared by the DSM–5 Task Force of the American Psychiatric Association and published in 2013. Changes from the DSM–IV–TR include use of a nonaxial approach to diagnosis with separate notations for psychosocial and contextual factors and disability; organization of diagnoses according to the period (i.e., childhood, adolescence, adulthood, later life) during which they most frequently first manifest; clustering of disorders within chapters according to internalizing factors (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalizing factors (e.g., impulsive, disruptive conduct); replacement of the not otherwise specified label with clinician choice of other specified disorder or unspecified disorder; replacement of the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale with the World Health Organization’s Disability Assessment Schedule for further study; and consolidation of separate diagnostic areas into spectra (e.g., autism spectrum disorder). The structure and content of the DSM–5 was coordinated with that of the forthcoming 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), although the DSM–5 retains diagnostic codes from both the ICD–9–Clinical Modification and ICD–10–CM. In addition, the Roman numerals used in previous DSM editions were replaced with an Arabic numeral to allow clearer labeling of future updates (e.g., DSM–5.1, DSM–5.2). Several diagnostic changes in the DSM–5 have met with controversy. Its consolidation of Asperger’s disorder into autism spectrum disorder, for example, has raised concerns that those who would meet prior criteria for Asperger’s will now instead be diagnosed as having ASD, which many consider a more serious disorder, or not having either disorder, thereby losing eligibility for certain medical and educational services. Moreover, a criticism of its immediate predecessor has been lodged against the DSM–5 as well—that it retains some diagnostic criteria that pathologize normal behaviors (e.g., temper tantrums, overeating) and emotions (e.g., grief, worrying).

DSM–IV–TR

DSM–IV–TR the text revision of the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, prepared by the DSM–IV Task Force of the American Psychiatric Association and published in 2000. The classification presents descriptions of diagnostic categories without favoring any particular theory of etiology. It is largely modeled on the International Classification of Diseases (9th edition, 1978), developed by the World Health Organization and modified for use in the United States (ICD–9–CM), but it contains greater detail as well as a method of coding on different axes (see multiaxial classification). Previous editions were published in 1952 (DSM–I), 1968 (DSM–II), 1980 (DSM–III, a revision of which, DSM–III–R, was published in 1987), and 1994 (DSM–IV). Over that period, the number of identified disorders increased from about 100 to more than 300.

DST

DST abbreviation for dexamethasone suppression test.

DTD

DTD abbreviation for developmental trauma disorder.

DTI

DTI abbreviation for diffusion tensor imaging.

DTPS

DTPS abbreviation for diffuse thalamic projection system.

DTs

DTs abbreviation for delirium tremens.

dual careers

dual careers the situation in which both spouses or partners in a family or other domestic unit are committed to their careers, rather than one being regarded as the main breadwinner and the other as the main homemaker.

dual coding theory

dual coding theory 1. the theory that linguistic input can be represented in memory in both verbal and visual formats. Concrete words that readily call to mind a picture, such as table or horse, are remembered better than abstract words, such as honesty or conscience, which do not readily call to mind a picture, because the concrete words are stored in two codes rather than one. [proposed by Canadian cognitive psychologist Allan U. Paivio (1925– )] 2. the theory that linguistic knowledge in bilingual people is stored in two distinct codes. See coordinate bilingual. 3. a theory for explaining the relationship between imagery and performance that suggests there are two ways of gaining information about a skill: the motor channel for encoding human actions and the verbal channel for encoding speech. Using auditory imagery linked with visual imagery is suggested to be the most effective in performance enhancement.

dual consciousness

dual consciousness see double consciousness.

dual diagnosis

dual diagnosis the identification of two distinct disorders that are present in the same person at the same time, for example, the coexistence of depression and a substance dependence disorder (e.g., alcohol or drug dependence). See also comorbidity.

dual encoding

dual encoding see dual representation.

dual instinct theory

dual instinct theory in classical psychoanalytic theory, the view that human life is governed by two antagonistic forces: the life instinct, or Eros, and the death instinct, or Thanatos. This was a late theoretical formulation by Sigmund Freud, who held that “the interaction of the two basic instincts with or against each other gives rise to the whole variegation of the phenomena of life” (Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 1920).

dual memory theory

dual memory theory see dual-store model of memory.

dual orientation

dual orientation see dual representation.

dual personality

dual personality a personality that is divided into two relatively independent and generally contrasting systems. See dissociative identity disorder.

dual process model of persuasion

dual process model of persuasion any of various persuasion theories postulating that attitude change can occur as a result of strategies for processing attitude-relevant information that involve either a very high degree of effort or very little effort. The most prominent theories of this type are the elaboration-likelihood model and the heuristic-systematic model.

dual process theory

dual process theory 1. the theory that the response made by an individual to a stimulus that permits behavioral control involves two stages: (a) a decision as to whether or not to respond and (b) a choice between alternative responses. 2. in theories of memory, the operation of two different cognitive processes (e.g., recollection and familiarity) in recognition memory. 3. a decision-making theory stating that judgment and reasoning involve two separate processes: intuitive decision making and rational decision making. See System 1. [proposed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky]

dual process theory of color vision

dual process theory of color vision see opponent process theory of color vision.

dual relationship

dual relationship in a therapeutic context, a situation in which a psychologist has more than one type of relationship with a client:The psychologist (a) is concurrently in both a professional role and another role with the same client, (b) is concurrently in a relationship with a person closely associated with or related to the client, or (c) promises to enter into another relationship in the future with the client or a person closely associated with or related to the client. Psychologists are ethically expected to refrain from entering into a dual relationship because it might impair their objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing their functions as a psychologist or exploit or harm the client with whom the professional relationship exists. Also called multiple relationship.

dual representation

dual representation the ability to comprehend an object simultaneously as the object itself and as a representation of something else. For example, a photograph of a person can be represented both as the print itself and as the person it depicts. Also called dual encoding; dual orientation.

dual scaling

dual scaling (DS) a method of assessing relationships and patterns among categorical data that involves assigning scale values to the elements of the data set. For example, DS may be useful when assessing the relationship between achievement motivation and performance. When achievement motivation is low or high, performance is expected to be low; however, when achievement motivation is moderate, performance is expected to be high. This curvilinear relationship can be analyzed more effectively with DS than with conventional statistical methods (e.g., correlation, regression), as the latter require assumptions of linearity and would reveal no apparent association between the variables. Also called optimal scaling.

dual thresholds

dual thresholds a stimulus threshold theory in which high and low thresholds are postulated. When the lower threshold is exceeded, the observer may believe a stimulus is present but is not sure. When the higher threshold is exceeded, the observer is certain that the stimulus is present.

dual trace hypothesis

dual trace hypothesis a restatement of the perseveration–consolidation hypothesis of memory formation specifying that short-term memory is represented neurally by activity in reverberating circuits and that stabilization of these circuits leads to permanent synaptic change, reflecting the formation of long-term memory. See Hebbian synapse. [proposed in 1949 by Donald O. Hebb]

dual-action antidepressant

dual-action antidepressant see multifunctional antidepressant.

dual-aspect physicalism

dual-aspect physicalism a philosophical answer to the mind–body problem claiming that there are two aspects of reality—physical and experiential—but that the more fundamental aspect is physical.

dual-attitude model

dual-attitude model the hypothesis that a new attitude toward an object does not replace a former one but rather overrides it, such that two contradictory attitudes about the same object are then held simultaneously by the same individual. One attitude is held explicitly and the other implicitly. The attitude that people endorse depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude (e.g., egalitarianism) and whether this overrides their original implicit view (e.g., prejudice toward certain racial groups). [proposed in 2000 by U.S. psychologists Timothy D. Wilson and Samuel Lindsey and U.S. behavioral oncologist Tonya Y. Schooler]

dual-store model of memory

dual-store model of memory the concept that memory is a two-stage process, comprising short-term memory, in which information is retained for a few seconds, and long-term memory, which permits the retention of information for hours to many years. William James called these stages primary memory and secondary memory, respectively. Also called dual memory theory. See also modal model of memory; multistore model of memory.

dual-task competition

dual-task competition a phenomenon observed in experimental techniques examining dual-task performance, in which participants are asked to perform two tasks (e.g., speeded reaction time and mental arithmetic) simultaneously. Such tasks require effort (see effortfulness) and tend to compete against each other (see resource competition), resulting in increased error rates and longer reaction time. The decrease in performance is often taken as an index of conscious, voluntary, and attentional capacity limits (see central limited capacity).

dual-task performance

dual-task performance the concurrent performance of two tasks. In the study of attention, dual-task performance is often examined to explore the nature of processing limitations and the strategies used to coordinate performance. See dual-task competition; secondary task methodology.

dualism

dualism n. the position that reality consists of two separate substances, defined by René Descartes as thinking substance (mind) and extended substance (matter). In the context of the mind–body problem, dualism is the position that the mind and the body constitute two separate realms or substances. Dualistic positions raise the question of how mind and body interact in thought and behavior. Compare monism. See also Cartesian dualism. —dualist adj., n. —dualistic adj.

duality of language

duality of language the concept that language can be represented at two levels: (a) phonology, which is the sound that a speaker produces; and (b) meaning, which is a function of syntax and semantics.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy see muscular dystrophy. [Guillaume Benjamin Armand Duchenne (1806–1875), French neurologist]

Duchenne smile

Duchenne smile a smile characterized by bilaterally symmetrical upturning of the lips and activation of the orbicularis oculi muscles surrounding the eyes, which creates a crow’s-foot effect at the corners of the eyes. Duchenne smiles are believed to be authentic smiles, as opposed to posed, voluntary non-Duchenne smiles that lack the orbicularis oculi component. [Guillaume Duchenne]

duct

duct n. in anatomy, a tubular canal or passage, especially one that transports a secretion, such as a bile duct or tear duct. Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands. —ductal adj.

ductless gland

ductless gland see endocrine gland.

ductus deferens

ductus deferens see vas deferens.

due process

due process the administration of the law according to established and accepted principles, especially those upholding natural justice and the rights of the accused. In the United States, due process of law is guaranteed by the 5th and 14th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Also called due process rights.

due process model

due process model a view of legal process that places a premium on the rights of the accused and the maintenance of fair procedures by which such people are processed within the criminal justice system. Compare crime control model.

dull normal

dull normal see below average.

dummy

dummy n. in double-blind drug trials, an inert substance that appears identical in all aspects (e.g., dosage form, method of administration) to the active drug under investigation, thereby helping to preserve experimental blinds for both patients and clinical investigators. Since a dummy is completely inert, it has no pharmacological activity, unlike an active placebo, which may produce side effects.

dummy variable

dummy variable 1. in regression analysis, a numerical variable that is created to represent a qualitative fact, which is done by giving a variable a value of 1 or 0 to indicate the presence or absence of a categorical trait. A dummy variable usually represents a dichotomous variable, that is, one that can have only two categories. For example, gender could be coded as a 1 to represent female and a 0 to represent male. When a measure has more than two categories, a researcher creates k − 1 dummy variables to represent the total number of different categories, k, with one of the categories indicated by 0. 2. in mathematics and computer science, a variable that can stand for or be bound to any element from its domain. Also called indicator variable.

dummy variable coding

dummy variable coding a method of assigning numerical values to a categorical variable in such a way that the variable reflects class membership. The values of 0 and 1 often are used, with 0 typically representing nonmembership and 1 typically representing membership. Compare contrast coding; effect coding.

Duncan’s multiple range test (Duncan’s MRT)

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Dunn–Bonferroni procedure

Dunn–Bonferroni procedure a statistical method for assessing whether multiple pairs of samples are significantly different from each other, while protecting the overall Type I error rate by dividing the alpha or significance level by the number of comparisons made. For example, if a researcher wants to investigate whether three samples are significantly different using an alpha of .05, three t tests could be conducted (i.e., between groups 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 1 and 3) using an alpha level of .05/3 = .0167 for each comparison; this approach would hold the overall Type I error rate at .05. Also called Bonferroni t test; Dunn’s multiple comparison test. [Olive Jean Dunn, U.S. mathematician; Carlo Emilio Bonferroni (1892–1960), Italian mathematician]

Dunn–Šidák procedure

Dunn–Šidák procedure a statistical technique that uses multiple comparisons to assess whether three or more samples are significantly different. More powerful (requiring a less stringent significance level) than the Dunn–Bonferroni procedure, it assumes that each of the comparison tests is independent of all the others. Also called Dunn–Šidák method; Dunn–Šidák test. [Olive Jean Dunn, U.S. mathematician; Zbynek Šidák (1933–1999), Czech statistician]

Dunn’s multiple comparison test

Dunn’s multiple comparison test see Dunn–Bonferroni procedure.

Dunnett’s multiple comparison test

Dunnett’s multiple comparison test a statistical method for assessing whether a control group is significantly different from each of several treatment groups. It is similar to the Dunn–Bonferroni procedure but not as stringent in that it does not require the significance level per comparison to be as small. The index of difference that is obtained from this test is called Dunnett’s t. [Charles W. Dunnett (1921–2007), Canadian statistician]

duplex theory

duplex theory the theory that vision depends on the activity of two types of receptors: the retinal rods, which are active in dim light; and the retinal cones, which are active in brighter light. Also called duplicity theory.

dura mater

dura mater the outermost and strongest of the three layers of membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord.

durable power of attorney

durable power of attorney see advance directive.

Duragesic

Duragesic n. a trade name for fentanyl.

duration of untreated illness

duration of untreated illness the length of time that an illness is present before drug treatment or other forms of therapy are initiated. Such periods are studied to determine the effect, for example, of untreated schizophrenia on symptom severity and the likelihood that specific treatments will be effective.

duress

duress n. acts or threats (e.g., the threat of confinement) that compel people to act or speak against their will (e.g., to make a coerced confession).

Durham rule

Durham rule a 1954 ruling by the U.S. Court of Appeals in a case involving a defendant named Durham. It stated that “an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act was the product of mental disease or mental defect.” This rule has been replaced by the American Law Institute Model Penal Code insanity test. Also called Durham decision; Durham test; product rule.

Dusky standard

Dusky standard an influential 1960 U.S. Supreme Court ruling establishing that defendants’ competency to stand trial must be related to their ability to understand and appreciate the criminal proceedings against them and to whether they can reasonably assist their own counsel by making choices among available options (e.g., pleas).

dustbowl empiricism

dustbowl empiricism an approach to science and the social sciences that consists primarily of making empirical observations and collecting data rather than establishing a theoretical framework. The “dustbowl” refers to certain campuses in the center of the United States, where this approach was once considered to be widespread.

Dutch Hunger Winter

Dutch Hunger Winter during World War II, a Nazi-imposed famine in the Netherlands from October 1944 to May 1945, the effects of which were later associated with an increased risk of mental illness in the offspring born to Dutch women who were pregnant at the time. In particular, evidence from epidemiological studies of the Dutch Hunger Winter and of a similarly severe famine in China from 1959 to 1961 suggests that prenatal exposure to maternal starvation and nutritional deficiency plays a role in an offspring’s later development of schizophrenia. Also called Hunger Winter. See also fetal programming.

duty to protect

duty to protect the obligation of mental health professionals to protect their clients from self-harm as well as to protect third parties from harm or violence that may result from their clients’ actions. This obligation may involve but is not necessarily restricted to a duty to warn. See Tarasoff decision.

duty to warn

duty to warn the obligation of mental health professionals to warn third parties whom their clients intend to harm or who might be able to protect a suicidal client from self-harm. See also duty to protect; Tarasoff decision.

DV

DV abbreviation for dependent variable.

DVD

DVD abbreviation for developmental verbal dyspraxia. See developmental apraxia of speech.

Dvorak keyboard

Dvorak keyboard a keyboard layout based upon the frequency with which letters appear in the English language. Keys are placed such that the most frequently occurring keys are all in the main or home row (the row upon which the fingers rest) and are therefore the easiest to reach. Also called Dvorak simplified keyboard. See also chord keyboard. [invented in 1936 by August Dvorak (1894–1975), U.S. educator]

DVT

DVT abbreviation for deep vein thrombosis.

dwarfism

dwarfism n. a condition of underdeveloped body structure due to a developmental defect, a hereditary trait, hormonal or nutritional deficiencies, or disease. The relative size of the body, head, and limbs may be proportionate or disproportionate. A perfectly proportioned individual with this condtion was formerly called a midget, a term now considered offensive; dwarf is preferred instead. Some forms of dwarfism, such as that due to thyroid-hormone deficiency, are associated with intellectual disability. Individuals with achondroplastic dwarfism (see achondroplasia) usually have normal intelligence. See also pseudoachondroplasia; pygmyism.

Dx

Dx abbreviation for diagnosis.

dyad (diad)

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dyadic accuracy

dyadic accuracy see social relations model.

dyadic effect

dyadic effect that part of the behavior of two interacting individuals that is the product of their particular interaction and that is distinct from the way in which each characteristically relates to others.

dyadic relationship

dyadic relationship 1. any committed, intimate two-person relationship. 2. in psychotherapy and counseling, the relationship between therapist and patient or counselor and client.

dyadic session

dyadic session a meeting of a therapist with only one particular client, as opposed to a couple or a family.

dyadic therapy

dyadic therapy see individual therapy.

dying phobia

dying phobia see thanatophobia.

dying process

dying process a progressive and nonreversible loss of vital functions that results in the end of life. The transition from health to death can be swift or extended, predictable or unpredictable, depending on the specific life-threatening condition, the vigor of the patient, and the treatment available. See also end of life; stages of grief; trajectories of dying.

dynamic

dynamic adj. 1. pertaining to force. 2. continuously changing or in flux. 3. describing systems of psychology that emphasize motivation, mental processes, and the complexities of force and interaction. See also dynamic psychology; psychodynamics.

dynamic anthropometry

dynamic anthropometry design practice that takes into account the actions and movements expected of product or system users, with the goal of shifting adjustment demands from the user to the product, so that, for example, the angle of a backrest changes automatically when the user moves.

dynamic assessment

dynamic assessment 1. a process that uses formal dynamic testing as well as essays and the like to assess learning ability. 2. an assessment that has the goal of elaborating on the complex reasons for dysfunctions, especially with regard to conflicts.

dynamic calculus

dynamic calculus a model of motivation based on measurements of innate drives (ergs) and sentiments. [proposed by Raymond B. Cattell]

dynamic core

dynamic core a postulated brain basis for conscious events, involving a subset of neurons in the thalamocortical system that enables specific conscious experiences. The most information-rich subset of neurons involved may vary dynamically from moment to moment, but the core always maximizes high integration and differentiation of information. See complexity hypothesis. [proposed by U.S. neuroscientist Gerald M. Edelman (1929–2014) and Italian–U.S. neuroscientist Giulio Tononi (1960– )]

dynamic effect law

dynamic effect law the theory that goal-directed behaviors become habitualized as they effectively attain the goal. [proposed by Raymond B. Cattell]

dynamic equilibrium

dynamic equilibrium the state of a system in which different (often opposing) reactions or other processes occur at the same rate and thus balance each other, such that there is no net change to the overall system. See also dynamic system.

dynamic formulation

dynamic formulation the ongoing attempt to organize the clinical material elicited about a client’s behavior, traits, attitudes, and symptoms into a structure that helps the therapist understand the client and plan his or her treatment effectively.

dynamic interactionism

dynamic interactionism a model of personality and behavior in which individual development depends upon continuous, reciprocal interaction with the environment.

dynamic kinesthetic imagery

dynamic kinesthetic imagery see kinesthetic imagery.

dynamic model

dynamic model in psychoanalytic theory, the view that the psyche can be explained in terms of underlying, unconscious drives and instincts that mold the personality, motivate behavior, and produce emotional disorder. Compare economic model; topographic model. See also metapsychology.

dynamic psychology

dynamic psychology 1. any system of psychology that emphasizes motivation or drive. 2. a theory of psychology emphasizing causation and motivation in relation to behavior, specifically the stimulus–organism–response chain in which the stimulus–response relationship is regarded as the mechanism of behavior and the drives of the organism are the mediating variable. See S–O–R psychology.

dynamic psychotherapy

dynamic psychotherapy see psychodynamic psychotherapy.

dynamic self-distribution

dynamic self-distribution in Gestalt psychology, the tendency of the constituents of a whole to arrange themselves in a way that is influenced by the totality and the role of each part in that totality. [attributed to Wolfgang Köhler]

dynamic skill theory

dynamic skill theory see skill theory.

dynamic social impact theory

dynamic social impact theory an extension of social impact theory that seeks to explain the changes in physiological states, subjective feelings, emotions, cognitions, and behavior that occur as a result of social influence. The model assumes that this influence is a function of the strength, immediacy, and number of people (or, more precisely, sources) present, and that this influence results in consolidation (growth of the majority), clustering (the emergence of small groups whose members hold similar opinions), correlation (the convergence of group members’ opinions on a variety of issues), and continuing diversity (the maintenance of the beliefs of the members of the minority) in groups that are spatially distributed and interacting repeatedly over time. [developed by U.S. social psychologist Bibb Latané (1937– )]

dynamic system

dynamic system a system in which a change in one part influences all interrelated parts. Such a system is described by a set of quantitative variables changing continuously and interdependently in time in accordance with laws captured by some set of equations. Dynamic system models provide an important alternative to symbolic models as a way to understand many psychological phenomena (e.g., coordinated movements, developmental phenomena, and decision making).

dynamic systems theory

dynamic systems theory a theory, grounded in nonlinear systems principles, that attempts to explain behavior and personality in terms of constantly changing, self-organizing interactions among many organismic and environmental factors that operate on multiple timescales and levels of analysis. See chaos theory; complexity theory.

dynamic testing

dynamic testing an approach to the measurement of learning (i.e., both the ability and the potential to learn) that attempts to identify and quantify through progressively more difficult tasks the degree to which an individual’s developed ability reflects underlying capacity. [introduced by Lev Vygotsky]

dynamic touch

dynamic touch the perception of the characteristics of an object by wielding and manipulating it. People can perceive length and shape by dynamic touch.

dynamic trait

dynamic trait a personality trait that involves motivation or putting the individual into action. It is one of three classes of source traits in Cattell’s personality trait theory, the others being ability traits and temperament traits.

dynamic unconscious

dynamic unconscious see unconscious.

dynamic visual display

dynamic visual display in ergonomics, a visual display that is designed to present fluctuating information, such as changes in temperature, speed, or volume.

dynamics

dynamics n. 1. the study of motion in terms of the forces involved. 2. the forces that bring about motion. See also kinematics.

dynamogenesis

dynamogenesis n. 1. the development of force, especially in the muscles or nerves. 2. the sensorimotor principle that changes in motor responses are correspondent and proportional to changes in sensory activities. 3. the idea that motor responses are evoked by sensory stimulation. Also called dynamogeny.

dynamometry

dynamometry n. the measurement of force expended or power, especially muscular effort or strength. A dynamometer usually consists of a spring that can be compressed by the force applied. For example, a hand dynamometer is a device for measuring manual grip strength by the amount of force applied to a spring by the hands. See Grip Strength Test. —dynamometric adj.

dynorphin

dynorphin n. see endogenous opioid.

dys-

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dysacusis

dysacusis n. a distressing sensation of tones or noises of peripheral origin, such as tinnitus from cochlear or tympanic disease. Also called dysacousia; dysacusia. —dysacusic adj.

dysaesthesia

dysaesthesia n. see dysesthesia.

dysarthria

dysarthria n. a motor speech disorder characterized by difficulty speaking coherently because of impairment in the central or peripheral nervous system. There are four main types usually described: dyskinetic, spastic, peripheral, and mixed. Dyskinetic dysarthria includes hypokinetic dysarthria, in which the rate and rhythm of speech are affected, and hyperkinetic dysarthria, in which articulation is poor due to problems controlling the rate and range of movement in ongoing speech. In spastic dysarthria, respiration is poor, intonation patterns are restricted, and spasticity in the vocal folds causes hoarseness. Peripheral dysarthria involves continual breathiness with audible inspiration, distortion of consonants, and often a need to speak in short phrases. Mixed dysarthria includes cymptoms of more than one of the other types of dysarthria andresults from tumors, degenerative diseases, trauma, or other conditions that cause multiple neurological impairments. It is important to distinguish dysarthria from anarthria, which is the complete inability to speak. —dysarthric adj.

dysautonomia

dysautonomia n. see autonomic dysfunction.

dysbasia

dysbasia n. distorted or difficult walking due to either neurological disease or psychological disorder.

dysbulia

dysbulia n. 1. difficulty in thinking, maintaining attention, or maintaining a train of thought. 2. lack of willpower or weakness of volition.

dyscalculia

dyscalculia n. an impaired ability to perform simple arithmetic operations that results from a congenital deficit. It is a developmental condition, whereas acalculia is acquired.

dyscheiria (dyschiria)

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dyschromatopsia

dyschromatopsia n. a congenital or acquired defect in the discrimination of colors.

dysconjugate gaze

dysconjugate gaze a condition in which the motion of the two eyes is uncoordinated.

dyscontrol

dyscontrol n. an impaired ability to direct or regulate ovolition, emotion, behavior, or cognition, or some other area, which often entails inability to resist impulses and leads to abnormal behaviors without significant provocation.

dysdiadochokinesis

dysdiadochokinesis n. loss of ability to perform rapid alternating movements (e.g., repeatedly slapping one’s palm and then the back of one’s hand against the knee). Also called dysdiadochokinesia.

dyseidetic dyslexia

dyseidetic dyslexia a type of dyslexia that is marked by difficulty in recognizing whole words and thus by an overreliance on sounding out words each time they are encountered. It is supposedly due to deficits in visual memory and visual discrimination. There is, however, no reliable empirical evidence for this form of dyslexia. See also dysphonetic dyslexia. [proposed in 1973 by U.S. psychologist Elena Boder (1907–1995)]

dysesthesia (disesthesia; dysaesthesia)

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dysexecutive syndrome (DES)

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dysfluency

dysfluency n. any disturbance in the normal flow or patterning of speech, marked by repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations. See also stuttering.

dysfunction

dysfunction n. any impairment, disturbance, or deficiency in behavior or operation. —dysfunctional adj.

dysfunctional family

dysfunctional family a family in which relationships or communication are impaired and members are unable to attain closeness and self-expression. Members of a dysfunctional family often develop symptomatic behaviors, and often one individual in the family presents as the identified patient.

dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals

dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals one of four basic types of sleep disorders, differentiated from the other types by the presence of physiological activations at inappropriate times during sleep rather than by abnormalities in the mechanisms involved in the timing of sleep and wakefulness. This type of sleep disorder includes nightmare disorder, sleep terror disorder, and sleepwalking disorder; in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, these are classified as parasomnias.

dysgenic

dysgenic adj. describing a factor or influence that may be detrimental to heredity. Compare eugenic.

dysgeusia

dysgeusia n. abnormalities of the sense of taste. These gustatory distortions may occur during pregnancy, prior to an epileptic seizure, or as a symptom of psychosis or an eating disorder. See also hypogeusia.

dysgnosia

dysgnosia n. a mild form of agnosia.

dysgrammatism

dysgrammatism n. see agrammatism.

dysgraphia

dysgraphia n. see agraphia. —dysgraphic adj.

dyskinesia

dyskinesia n. any involuntary (unintended) movement, such as a tic or spasm. The term also is used more imprecisely to denote distorted or impaired voluntary movement. Also called dyskinesis. —dyskinetic adj.

dyskinetic dysarthria

dyskinetic dysarthria see dysarthria.

dyslexia

dyslexia n. a neurologically based learning disability manifested as severe difficulties in reading, spelling, and writing words and sometimes in arithmetic. Dyslexia is characterized by impairment in the ability to process sounds, that is, to make connections between written letters and their sounds; written work is often characterized by reversal errors. It can be either acquired (in which case it is often referred to as alexia) or developmental (see developmental dyslexia), is independent of intellectual ability, and is unrelated to disorders of speech and vision that may also be present. It is not the result of lack of motivation, sensory impairment, inadequate instructional or environmental opportunities, emotional disturbances, or other such factors. Since the 1960s, information-processing and other psychological accounts of acquired dyslexia have prompted investigators to subdivide it into two general classes: (a) visual word-form dyslexia, which is characterized by difficulty in the visual analysis of written words; and (b) central dyslexia, which is characterized by difficulty in later stages of the reading process (i.e., pronunciation and comprehension). Various types and subtypes of dyslexia, both acquired and developmental, have also been proposed, but there is no universally accepted system of classification. See also reading disability; reading disorder. —dyslexic adj.

dyslogia

dyslogia n. see alogia.

dysmenorrhea

dysmenorrhea n. difficult or painful menstruation. The cause may be an obstruction in the cervix or vagina that traps menstrual blood, or the condition may be secondary to an infection or tumor. More than three fourths of cases are a primary, or functional, form of the disorder for which no physiological cause can be found. Dysmenorrhea may be characterized by cramplike pains in the lower abdomen, headache, irritability, depression, and fatigue. —dysmenorrheic adj.

dysmetria

dysmetria n. an impaired ability to control the distance, speed, or power of one’s body movements. It is a key sign of cerebellar damage.

dysmetropsia

dysmetropsia n. impairment in the ability to judge the size or shape of objects, although the objects may be recognized for what they are.

dysmnesia

dysmnesia n. an impairment of memory, which may occur as a discrete episode or persist as a chronic condition and may be caused by any of a number of problems, such as delirium, acute or chronic brain disorders, or brain injury. Also called dysmnesic syndrome. —dysmnesic adj.

dysmorphism

dysmorphism n. an abnormality in the shape or structure of some part of the body.

dysmorphophobia

dysmorphophobia n. a former name for body dysmorphic disorder.

dysnomia

dysnomia n. a semantic memory deficit that impairs word retrieval and object naming, as seen in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and temporal lobe epilepsy.

dysorexia

dysorexia n. any distortion of normal appetite or disturbance in normal eating behavior. See also eating disorder.

dysorthographia

dysorthographia n. an impairment in the ability to spell.

dysosmia

dysosmia n. any disorder or disability in the sense of smell. See anosmia; hyperosmia; hyposmia; parosmia; phantosmia; troposmia.

dysostosis

dysostosis n. the defective development of the skeleton of an individual, either because of hereditary factors or because of improper care following birth. The genetic causes are usually expressed in faulty development of the bones of the face and skull. Examples of dysostosis include Crouzon’s syndrome and Treacher Collins syndrome.

dyspareunia

dyspareunia n. painful sexual intercourse, particularly in women. If there are no medical causes for the pain, the diagnosis is functional dyspareunia.

dyspepsia

dyspepsia n. abdominal pain or discomfort that may be caused by ulcers; gastroesophageal reflux (i.e., acid reflux, acid indigestion, or heartburn); gallstones; and, rarely, stomach or pancreatic cancer, although in a majority of cases the cause is unknown. Functional dyspepsia (formerly called nonulcer dyspepsia) describes the condition when other medical illnesses have been excluded; it may be experienced, for example, after eating too much or too quickly or eating during stressful situations. See also gastroduodenal ulceration.

dysphagia

dysphagia n. an impaired ability to swallow. It may be due to damage to the cranial nerves or to muscle problems.

dysphagia spastica

dysphagia spastica a somatic or, more often, psychological symptom in which the act of swallowing is painful or difficult because of throat-muscle spasms. In psychological cases, it is a symptom of somatization disorder.

dysphasia

dysphasia n. see aphasia. —dysphasic adj.

dysphemia

dysphemia n. a disorder of phonation, articulation, or hearing associated with emotional or mental disturbance and, frequently, a predisposition to a neurological disorder. —dysphemic adj.

dysphonetic dyslexia

dysphonetic dyslexia a type of dyslexia that is marked by an inability to sound out the individual letters and syllables of words (see phonics) and is supposedly due to difficulty with sound–symbol correspondences. There is, however, no reliable empirical evidence for this form of dyslexia. See also dyseidetic dyslexia. [proposed in 1973 by U.S. psychologist Elena Boder (1907–1995)]

dysphonia

dysphonia n. any dysfunction in the production of sounds, especially speech sounds (see phonation; vocalization), which may affect pitch, intensity, or resonance. See also spasmodic dysphonia; voice disorder.

dysphoria

dysphoria n. a mood characterized by generalized discontent and agitation. —dysphoric adj.

dysphrasia

dysphrasia n. an older, less common name for dysphasia. See aphasia.

dysplastic type

dysplastic type the disproportioned type of an individual who, according to Kretschmer typology, presents a combination of traits but frequently tends toward the introversive, seclusive temperament. See also constitutional type.

dyspnea

dyspnea n. shortness of breath or difficulty in breathing. When not accounted for by high altitude, exertion, or any identifiable physiological cause, the condition is referred to as functional dyspnea.

dysponesis

dysponesis n. in biofeedback and relaxation training, a state of habitual tension that generates hypertension, migraine headaches, bruxism (teeth grinding), or related disorders.

dyspraxia

dyspraxia n. an impaired ability to perform skilled, coordinated movements that is neurologically based and not due to any muscular or sensory defect. See acquired dyspraxia; developmental dyspraxia. See also apraxia. —dyspraxic adj.

dysprosody (dysprosodia)

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dysregulation

dysregulation n. any excessive or otherwise poorly managed mechanism or response. For example, emotional dysregulation is an extreme or inappropriate emotional response to a situation (e.g., temper outbursts, deliberate self-harm); it may be associated with bipolar disorders, borderline personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, psychological trauma, or brain injury.

dysrhythmia

dysrhythmia n. any rhythmic abnormality, as might be detected in speech or in brain waves.

dyssemia

dyssemia n. difficulty in receiving or sending nonverbal cues. More specifically, people with dyssemia have trouble interpreting (decoding) or producing (encoding) interpersonal information in the form of facial, postural, gestural, and paralinguistic expressions. For example, a person with dyssemia might fail to recognize the wide eyes of someone who is fearful. This nonverbal processing deficit is associated with a variety of social difficulties, including problems forming and maintaining friendships, conflict with others, and isolation or rejection. Innate or acquired damage to the amygdala or other limbic system structures is the most common contributing factor. See also Emory Dyssemia Index. [coined in 1992 by U.S. clinical psychologists Stephen Nowicki Jr. (1941– ) and Marshall Duke (1942– )]

dyssocial behavior

dyssocial behavior a former name for behavior associated with delinquent or criminal activities, such as gangsterism, racketeering, prostitution, or illegal gambling. It was attributed to distorted moral and social influences, frequently aggravated by a broken home or a deprived environment. Such behavior is now regarded as an aspect of antisocial personality disorder. Also called sociopathic behavior.

dyssocial personality

dyssocial personality see antisocial personality disorder.

dyssomnia

dyssomnia n. any of various sleep disorders marked by abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. In DSM–IV–TR, for example, dyssomnias include primary insomnia, primary hypersomnia, narcolepsy, circadian rhythm sleep disorder, breathing-related sleep disorder, and dyssomnia not otherwise specified, which may be due to excessive noise, light, or other environmental factors; ongoing sleep deprivation; Ekbom’s syndrome; or nocturnal myoclonus.

dysspermia

dysspermia n. an impairment in the structure or functioning of the spermatozoa.

dystaxia

dystaxia n. a mild degree of ataxia, marked by difficulty in performing coordinated muscular movements.

dysthymia

dysthymia n. 1. generally, any depressed mood that is mild or moderate in severity. Also called minor depression. 2. more specifically, dysthymic disorder. —dysthymic adj.

dysthymic disorder

dysthymic disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a mood disorder characterized by symptoms that are less severe but more enduring than those in major depressive disorder. It is identified as persistent depressive disorder in DSM–5. Also called dysthymia.

dystocia

dystocia n. abnormal labor or childbirth.

dystonia

dystonia n. impairment of normal muscle tone, causing prolonged muscle contraction that results in abnormal posture, twisting, or repetitive movements. See also atonia. —dystonic adj.

dystopia

dystopia n. see utopia. —dystopian adj.

dystrophia myotonica

dystrophia myotonica see myotonic muscular dystrophy.

dystrophin

dystrophin n. a protein that is needed for normal muscle function. Dystrophin is deficient or lacking in some forms of muscular dystrophy.

dystrophy

dystrophy n. 1. any degenerative disorder arising from faulty or defective nutrition. 2. any disorder involving atrophy (wasting) and weakening of the muscles. See muscular dystrophy.

dysuria

dysuria n. difficult or painful urination. A frequent cause is a bacterial infection that produces irritation or inflammation of the urethra or the neck of the bladder.

DZ twins

DZ twins abbreviation for dizygotic twins.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'D'

Terms Starting with "D"

d

D

d prime

D trisomy syndrome

D-cognition

D-love

D–KEFS

D.A.R.E.

D’Acosta’s syndrome

d′

DA

Da Costa’s syndrome

DABS

dACC

dactylology

DAF

DAH Test

DAI

daily stressor

daily-living aid

DAISY

Dale’s law

Dallenbach stimulator

Dalmane

DALYs

damage-risk criteria (DRC)

damped regression

damping

dance therapy

dancing language

dancing madness

dancing mania

dancing mouse

Dandy–Walker syndrome

dangerousness

dantrolene

Daoism

DAP Test

dark adaptation

dark cell

dark light

dark-adaptation curve

darkness fear

Darvocet

Darvon

Darwinian algorithm

Darwinian fitness

Darwinian reflex

Darwinism

DAS

Dasein

Dasein analysis

DAST

DAT

data

data analysis

data collection

data dredging

data mining

data point

data pooling

data reduction

data screening

data set

data snooping

data types

data-driven processing

database

date rape

date-rape drug

dative

Daubert test

Dauerschlaf

day blindness

day camp

day care center

day habilitation

day hospital