Terms Starting with "F"

883 terms

f

f in mathematics, symbol for function. f 1. in an analysis of variance or an analysis of covariance, an effect size index that represents the standard deviation of a set of group means divided by the average standard deviation of scores across the set of groups. Its value ranges from 0 to 1, with small, medium, and large effect size values suggested as .10, .25, and .40, respectively. 2. in a table or distribution, symbol for frequency. 3. in vision science, symbol for focal length. F symbol for F ratio.

F

F -to-enter

F -to-enter n. in model-building procedures such as forward selection, the specific ratio of variances needed to justify adding a variable as a predictor. Generally, an F-to-enter value around 4.0 is sufficient to allow a variable to be included in an analysis.

F -to-remove

F -to-remove n. in model-building procedures such as backward elimination or stepwise regression, the specific ratio of variances needed to justify keeping a variable as a predictor. Generally, an F-to-remove value around 4.0 is sufficient to allow a variable to be retained in an analysis.

F distribution

F distribution a theoretical probability distribution widely used in the analysis of variance, multiple regression, and other statistical tests of hypotheses about population variances. It is the ratio of the variances of two independent random variables each divided by its degrees of freedom. In an analysis of variance, for example, the F distribution is used to test the hypothesis that the variance between groups is significantly greater than the variance within groups, thus demonstrating evidence of some differences among the means. See F ratio; F test.

F max statistic

F max statistic in an analysis of variance, a value formed from the ratio of the largest variance over the smallest variance from the set of groups being assessed. The Fmax statistic is assessed for significance by looking up the critical value in a statistical table for the relevant number of groups and degrees of freedom. If the calculated Fmax statistic is larger than the critical valve, then there is evidence of heterogeneity of variance, which violates one of the assumptions of the analysis and renders its results invalid.

F ratio

F ratio (symbol: F) in an analysis of variance or a multivariate analysis of variance, the amount of explained variance divided by the amount of the error variance; that is, the ratio of between-groups variance to within-group variance. Its value determines whether to accept the null hypothesis stating that there is no difference between the treatment and control conditions, with a large value indicating the presence of a significant effect. Ideally, a researcher prefers to have rather small variation within each group and maximal variation between the groups in order to demonstrate significant group differences. Also called F statistic; F value.

F Scale (Fascism Scale)

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F statistic

F statistic see F ratio.

F test

F test any of a class of statistical procedures, such as analysis of variance or multiple regression, that rely on the assumption that the calculated statistic—the F ratio—follows the F distribution when the null hypothesis is true. F tests are tests of hypotheses about population variances or of whether regression coefficients are zero.

F value

F value see F ratio.

F1

F1 abbreviation for first filial generation.

F2

F2 abbreviation for second filial generation.

FA

FA abbreviation for factor analysis.

FAAH

FAAH abbreviation for fatty acid amide hydrolase. See endogenous cannabinoid.

FABBS

FABBS abbreviation for Federation of Associations in Brain and Behavioral Sciences.

fabrication

fabrication n. 1. the act of concocting or inventing a whole or part of a story, often with the intention to deceive. 2. a story concocted in this way.

fabulation

fabulation n. random speech that includes the recounting of imaginary incidents by a person who believes these incidents are real. See also delusion. [first described by Adolf Meyer]

face perception

face perception neurocognitive processes involved in the recognition of individual faces and the interpretation of facial expression. Face perception is an early and highly developed human social skill. See also Facial Action Coding System.

face recognition

face recognition the identification of a specific face. A specialized face-recognition region in the temporal lobe has been demonstrated by brain imaging; injury to this region results in such deficits as prosopagnosia, a failure to recognize previously familiar faces.

face saving

face saving an act in which one attempts to uphold one’s dignity, as by redressing a social blunder or compensating for a poor impression one has made. Face-saving behavior is an aspect of impression management. See also facework.

face validity

face validity the apparent soundness of a test or measure. The face validity of an instrument is the extent to which the items or content of the test appear to be appropriate for measuring something, regardless of whether they actually are. A test with face validity, however, may lack empirical validity.

face-ism

face-ism n. the alleged tendency for advertisements and other visual media to represent men by their faces (symbolizing their intellectual nature) but women by their whole bodies (symbolizing their sensual nature). It is thus a form of sexism. —face-ist adj.

face-to-face group

face-to-face group any group whose members are in personal contact and, as a result, are able to perceive each other’s needs and responses and carry on direct interaction. Examples include T-groups and psychotherapy groups. Also called direct-contact group.

face-to-face interaction

face-to-face interaction a direct encounter between two or more individuals, as opposed to one involving communication by writing, telephone, or some other medium or intercession by third parties.

face–hand test

face–hand test a test of tactile extinction (see double-simultaneous tactile sensation) in which the examiner touches the individual’s face and the back of his or her hand at the same time.

facework

facework n. 1. in social interactions, a set of strategic behaviors by which people attempt to maintain both their own dignity (“face”) and that of the people with whom they are dealing. Facework strategies include politeness, deference, tact, avoidance of difficult subjects, and the use of half-truths and “white lies.” The conventions governing facework differ widely between cultures. 2. formal face-to-face interactions between people engaged in business, politics, diplomacy, and other goal-directed activities. Such interactions may involve a certain amount of small talk and personal conversation as well as discussion of the official agenda.

Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

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facial affect program

facial affect program a hypothetical set of central nervous system structures that accounts for the patterning of universal, basic facial expressions of emotion in humans. Such a program could provide the link between a specific emotion and a given pattern of facial muscular activity.

facial angle

facial angle any of various angles that quantify facial protrusion, established by using a set of craniometric reference points, such as the juncture of the frontal and nasal bones, the foremost projection point of the chin, and the horizontal eye–ear plane.

facial disfigurement

facial disfigurement any distortion, malformation, or abnormality of facial features due to injury, disease, or congenital anomaly. Because of a common tendency to assign traits to individuals on the basis of their facial features, people with facial disfigurements are particularly vulnerable to social, psychological, and economic discrimination and unfavorable stress effects.

facial electromyography

facial electromyography a technique for measuring the endogenous electrical activity of any muscle or muscle group in the face by the appropriate placement of electrodes (see electromyography). This procedure is usually carried out to detect subtle facial movements related to emotion or speech.

facial expression

facial expression a form of nonverbal signaling using the movement of facial muscles. An integral part of communication, facial expression also reflects an individual’s emotional state. Charles Darwin suggested that facial expressions are innate reactions that possess specific survival value; for example, a baby’s smile evokes nurturing responses in parents. Although controversial, this theory has been supported by cross-cultural research, which indicates that certain facial expressions are spontaneous and universally correlated with such primary emotions as surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and happiness. Display rules, however, can modify or even inhibit these expressions, as can physical conditions such as parkinsonism, which produces an expressionless, masklike countenance.

facial feedback hypothesis

facial feedback hypothesis the hypothesis that sensory information provided to the brain from facial muscle movements is a major determinant of intrapsychic feeling states, such as fear, anger, joy, contempt, and so on. This idea was introduced by Charles Darwin and developed by Silvan S. Tomkins and Carroll E. Izard.

facial muscle

facial muscle any one of the numerous muscles in the human face that control not only functional movements (e.g., biting, chewing) but also a variety of facial expressions.

facial nerve

facial nerve the seventh cranial nerve, which innervates facial musculature and some sensory receptors, including those of the external ear and the tongue. Also called cranial nerve VII. See greater superficial petrosal nerve.

facies

facies n. facial characteristics, particularly those of an unusual nature or associated with a medical condition (e.g., Williams syndrome, parkinsonism). [Latin, “face”]

facilitated communication

facilitated communication 1. communication that is made more effective or efficient (e.g., easier to understand, faster), often with the aid of a technological device or process. Examples include the captioning of TV broadcasts for the benefit of viewers with hearing loss (see closed-captioned television) and the use of speech synthesizers by people who are unable to talk. See also augmentative communication. 2. a controversial method of communication in which a person with a severe developmental disability (e.g., autism) is assisted by a facilitator in typing letters, words, phrases, or sentences on a keyboard. Facilitated communication involves a graduated manual prompting procedure, with the intent of supporting a person’s hand sufficiently to make it more feasible to strike the keys he or she wishes to strike, without influencing the key selection. The procedure is often claimed to produce unexpected literacy, revealed through age-normative or superior communication content, syntax, and fluency. Scientific research findings, however, indicate that the content of the communication is being determined by the facilitator via nonconscious movements. [developed in the 1970s by Australian educator Rosemary Crossley (1945– )]

facilitation

facilitation n. 1. the strengthening or increased occurrence of a response resulting from environmental support for the response. See also social facilitation. 2. in neuroscience, the phenomenon in which the threshold for propagation of the action potential of a neuron is lowered because of repeated signals at a synapse or the summation of subthreshold impulses. 3. see occasion setting. —facilitate vb.

facilitative anxiety

facilitative anxiety a level of anxiety that an individual (e.g., a musician, an athlete) perceives as assisting performance.

facilitator

facilitator n. 1. a professionally trained or lay member of a group who fulfills some or all of the functions of a group leader. The facilitator encourages discussion among all group members, without necessarily entering into the discussion. 2. see facilitated communication.

FACM

FACM abbreviation for functional analytic causal model.

FACS

FACS acronym for Facial Action Coding System.

fact finder

fact finder see trier of fact.

fact memory

fact memory memory for specific items of factual knowledge. Compare source memory.

fact retrieval

fact retrieval the retrieval of a fact directly from long-term memory without using great mental effort.

factitious disorder

factitious disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a disorder in which the patient intentionally produces or feigns physical or psychological symptoms solely so that he or she may assume the sick role. Physical symptoms may include pain, vomiting, blackouts, seizures, or infections (see Münchausen syndrome). Psychological symptoms may include depression, suicidal thoughts following the (unconfirmed) death of a spouse, hallucinations, or delusions. DSM–5 defines the disorder similarly but divides it into two subtypes characterized by (a) the falsification of symptoms or induction of injury or disease imposed on oneself, and (b) the same deceptions or harm imposed on others (e.g., a dependent). The latter is a proxy disorder that is synonymous with Münchausen syndrome by proxy. Compare malingering.

factitious disorder by proxy

factitious disorder by proxy see Münchausen syndrome by proxy.

factor

factor n. 1. anything that contributes to a result or has a causal relationship to a phenomenon, event, or action. 2. an underlying influence that accounts in part for variations in individual behavior. 3. in analysis of variance and other statistical procedures, an independent variable. 4. in factor analysis, an underlying, unobservable latent variable thought (together with other factors) to be responsible for the interrelations among a set of variables. 5. in mathematics, a number that divides without remainder into another number.

factor analysis

factor analysis (FA) a broad family of mathematical procedures for reducing a set of interrelations among manifest variables to a smaller set of unobserved latent variables or factors. For example, a number of tests of mechanical ability might be intercorrelated to enable factor analysis to reduce them to a few factors, such as fine motor coordination, speed, and attention. See confirmatory factor analysis; exploratory factor analysis; principal components analysis.

factor loading

factor loading in factor analysis, the correlation between a manifest variable and a latent variable (factor). The factor loading reflects the degree to which a manifest variable is said to be “made up of” the factor being examined.

factor method

factor method any means by which latent variables (factors) are extracted or identified in factor analysis. Widely used factor methods include principal components analysis, which seeks to find a set of linear combinations called components that help explain the correlations among variables; and principal-axis factor analysis, in which underlying dimensions or factors are sought to explain the correlations among variables after separating out communality and putting aside the error variance in a set of variables.

factor of similarity

factor of similarity see similarity.

factor reflection

factor reflection changing the signs of a set of factor loadings from positive to negative, or vice versa. For example, researchers studying a newly revised scale to measure a positive emotion such as happiness might use factor reflection to change a negative sign on the factor loadings for positive items as well as to change a positive sign for sadness items. The resulting pattern of loadings thus shows positively focused items as having a positive sign and sadness-focused items as having a negative sign, such that the entire scale could accurately be said to measure the positive state of happiness.

factor rotation

factor rotation in factor analysis, the repositioning of latent variables (factors) to a new, more interpretable configuration by a set of mathematically specifiable transformations. Factors initially are extracted to meet a mathematical criterion of maximal variance explanation, which often does not result in a scientifically meaningful representation of the data. Indeed, for any one factor solution that fits the data to a specific degree, there will exist an infinite number of equally good mathematical solutions. Thus, rotation is required to obtain a solution that is both mathematically viable and logically sound. See oblique rotation; orthogonal rotation.

factor score

factor score an estimate of the quantitative value that an individual would have on a latent variable were it possible to measure this directly; the latent variable or factor is determined through factor analysis.

factor theory

factor theory in classical test theory, the supposition that a set of correlated variables can be reduced to a smaller set of underlying dimensions or factors. It follows that each person’s observed score can be represented by a factor loading times a factor plus error variance.

factor theory of intelligence

factor theory of intelligence any of various theories postulating that intelligence consists of a number of latent variables (factors) that cannot be measured directly but whose existence is proposed on the basis of factor analysis; it is the individual’s ability in these factors that underpins his or her test scores. For example, a factor theory of intelligence might hold that underlying scores on the many different tests of intelligence are verbal and nonverbal factors.

factor theory of personality

factor theory of personality an approach to the discovery and measurement of personality components through factor analysis. The components are identified primarily by a statistical study of the differences between people as revealed by tests covering various aspects of behavior. The factor-analytic method is central to such personality models as the Big Five personality model, Cattell’s personality trait theory, and Eysenck’s dimensions.

factor-comparison method

factor-comparison method a method of evaluating jobs for the purpose of setting wage or salary levels in which positions are compared to certain benchmark jobs in terms of compensable job factors. The factors usually include mental requirements, skill requirements, physical requirements, responsibility, and working conditions. Compare classification method; Hay method; job-component method; point method; ranking method. See job evaluation.

factorial analysis of covariance

factorial analysis of covariance a statistical procedure to understand the effect on a dependent variable of two or more independent variables that are categorical in nature, plus one or more additional correlated variables that are quantitative in nature. For example, a researcher may use a factorial analysis of covariance to understand reading performance by examining the effect of phoneme training (i.e., yes vs. no) and gender (male vs. female), after taking into account the intelligence scores of the research participants.

factorial analysis of variance

factorial analysis of variance a statistical procedure to understand the effect on a dependent variable that is quantitative in nature of two or more independent variables that are categorical in nature. For example, a health researcher may use a factorial analysis of variance to examine the effects of diet (e.g., high vs. low carbohydrates) and exercise (e.g., 3 hours per week vs. 1 hour per week) on weight.

factorial design

factorial design an experimental study in which two or more categorical variables are simultaneously manipulated or observed in order to study their joint influence (interaction effect) and separate influences (main effects) on a separate dependent variable. For example, a researcher could use a factorial design to investigate treatment type (e.g., new exercise procedure vs. traditional procedure) and age (＜ 40 vs. ＞ 40). The primary advantages of factorial designs are that they allow for the evaluation of interrelationships and that they are more efficient than conducting multiple studies with one variable at a time. See also fractional factorial design; two-by-two factorial design.

factorial invariance

factorial invariance the situation in which the pattern of factor loadings on a latent variable in a factor analysis remains identical from sample to sample. For example, if the same factor loading values were obtained for a measure of general intelligence whether a researcher tested men or women, the general intelligence test would be said to demonstrate factorial invariance by gender. In other contexts, factorial invariance is referred to more broadly as measurement invariance.

factual knowledge

factual knowledge knowledge of specific factual items of information, without memory of when each fact was learned. Factual knowledge is technically referred to as semantic knowledge or generic knowledge.

facultative polyandry

facultative polyandry see polyandry.

faculty

faculty n. 1. generally, any intrinsic mental or physical power, such as reason, sight, or will. See also cognitive faculty. 2. the body of the teaching, research, and administrative staff of an educational institution.

faculty psychology

faculty psychology any approach to psychological issues based on the idea that mental processes can be divided into separate specialized abilities or powers, which can be developed by mental exercises in the same way that muscles can be strengthened by physical exercises. Faculty psychology was formulated in the 18th century by Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid (1710–1796) and Dugald Stewart (1753–1828), who held that will, judgment, perception, conception, memory, and so forth could be explained simply by referring to their active powers; for example, individuals remember because they possess the faculty of memory.

fad

fad n. an abrupt but short-lived change in the opinions, behaviors, or lifestyles of a large number of widely dispersed individuals. Preoccupations with new products, dances, television programs, and fashions can be considered fads when many people quickly embrace the trend but then lose interest just as rapidly. Fads often pertain to relatively trivial matters and thus disappear without leaving any lasting impact on society. Extremely irrational, expensive, or widespread fads are termed crazes.

fading

fading n. in conditioning, the gradual changing of one stimulus to another, which is often used to transfer stimulus control. Stimuli can be faded out (gradually removed)—as in, for example, the gradual removal of extrinsic feedback so that an athlete becomes more dependent on sensory feedback while learning a skill—or faded in (gradually introduced).

FAE

FAE abbreviation for fetal alcohol effects (see fetal alcohol syndrome).

fail-safe

fail-safe adj. 1. describing or relating to a feature by which the failure of a component or subsystem of a machine or work system results in automatic shutdown or switch to a safer mode of operation. This fail-safe design reduces the chance that an operator will be exposed to hazards related to the malfunction or that machinery will be damaged. Fail-safe designs do not, however, reduce the likelihood of an accident or failure. See also exclusion design; prevention design. 2. more generally, having no or an extremely low probability of failure.

failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA)

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failure to thrive (FTT)

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failure-to-inhibit hypothesis

failure-to-inhibit hypothesis a theory of cognitive aging that attributes attention and memory problems in older adults to their increasing inability to select relevant information and suppress irrelevant information when performing a cognitive task. [developed by U.S.-born Canadian psychologist Lynn Ann Hasher (1944– ) and U.S. psychologist Rose T. Zacks (1941– )]

fainting

fainting n. see syncope.

faintness

faintness n. 1. absence of loudness, distinctness, or intensity, especially with reference to auditory stimuli. 2. a sudden sensation of dizziness and weakness. See syncope.

Fairbairnian theory

Fairbairnian theory the psychoanalytic concepts of British psychoanalyst W. Ronald D. Fairbairn (1889–1964), which form a part of object relations theory. Fairbairn saw personality structure developing in terms of object relationships rather than in terms of Sigmund Freud’s id, ego, and superego. Fairbairn proposed the existence of an ego at birth, which then splits apart during the paranoid-schizoid position to form the structures of personality. In response to frustrations and excitement experienced in the relationship with the mother, the infant’s ego is split into (a) the central ego, which corresponds to Freud’s concept of the ego; (b) the libidinal ego, which corresponds to the id; and (c) the antilibidinal ego, which corresponds to the superego.

fairness

fairness n. the equitable treatment of test takers in order to eliminate systematic variance in outcome scores among people with different racial or cultural experiences and other background influences. Fundamentally a sociocultural (rather than a technical) issue, fairness is a broad area encompassing quality management in test design, administration, and scoring; adequate coverage of relevant content; sufficient work to establish construct validity; equal learning opportunities and access to testing; and items measuring only the skill or ability under investigation without being unduly influenced by construct-irrelevant variance introduced through test-taker background factors. See also culture-fair test.

faith

faith n. unwavering loyalty, belief, and trust. See also religious faith. —faithful adj.

faith healing

faith healing 1. the treatment of physical or psychological illness by means of religious practices, such as prayer or “laying on of hands.” Adherents hold that this may be effective even when those being prayed for have no knowledge of the fact and no belief in the process themselves. Also called faith cure; religious healing; spiritual healing. 2. any form of unorthodox medical treatment whose efficacy is said to depend upon the patient’s faith in the healer or the healing process (see placebo effect). In such cases, any beneficial effects may be attributed to a psychosomatic process rather than a paranormal or supernatural one. See also mental healing; psychic healing.

faithful participant

faithful participant a research participant who cooperates fully with the explicit and implicit wishes of the experimenter. Also called faithful subject.

faking

faking n. the practice of some participants in an evaluation or psychological test who either (a) “fake good” by choosing answers that create a favorable impression, as may occur, for example, when an individual is applying for a job or admission to an educational institution; or (b) “fake bad” by choosing answers that make them appear disturbed or incompetent, as may occur, for example, when an individual wishes to be exempted from military service or exonerated in a criminal trial. —fake vb.

fallacy

fallacy n. 1. an error in reasoning or argument that leads to a conclusion that may appear valid but is actually invalid. A fallacy may be formal or informal. A formal fallacy involves a violation of a principle of formal logic. An informal fallacy leads to an invalid conclusion because it is misleading in its language or appears to apply to a situation when it does not really apply. See also either–or fallacy; false analogy; false authority; false cause; historical fallacy. 2. more generally, any mistaken idea. —fallacious adj.

fallacy of personal validation

fallacy of personal validation see Barnum effect.

falling out

falling out a culture-bound syndrome found in the United States and the Caribbean. Symptoms include sudden collapse, sometimes preceded by feelings of dizziness or “swimming” in the head. Although their eyes are usually open, patients claim to be unable to see; they usually hear and understand what is occurring around them but feel powerless to move. The condition may be associated with conversion disorder or dissociative disorder. Also called blacking out.

falling sickness

falling sickness see epilepsy.

fallopian tube

fallopian tube either of the slender fleshy tubes in mammals that convey ova (egg cells) from each ovary to the uterus and where fertilization may occur. [Gabriele Fallopius (1523–1562), Italian anatomist]

fallopian-tube pregnancy

fallopian-tube pregnancy see tubal pregnancy.

false alarm

false alarm in signal detection tasks, an incorrect observation by the participant that a signal is present in a trial when in fact it is absent. The false-alarm rate is the proportion of incorrect yes responses in such a task. See also signal detection theory. Compare miss.

false analogy

false analogy a type of informal fallacy or a persuasive technique in which the fact that two things are alike in one respect leads to the invalid conclusion that they must be alike in some other respect. For example, The brain is in some respects like a computer: Computers receive and store input in discrete bits: Therefore, ideas in the brain are formed from discrete bits of information. See analogy.

false authority

false authority a type of informal fallacy or a persuasive technique in which it is assumed that the opinions of a recognized expert in one area should be heeded in another area. For example, Mr. X should know how to deal with government deficits because he is a successful businessman. Also called expert fallacy.

false belief

false belief a mental proposition that is asserted with high confidence but lacks a basis in reality.

false cause

false cause a type of informal fallacy or a persuasive technique in which a temporal sequence of events is assumed to be a causal sequence of events. Thus, because B follows A, A is considered the cause of B. For example, Because Smith became angry after being frustrated, Smith’s frustration caused Smith’s anger. See also causal ordering; reverse causality.

false dementia

false dementia a condition that mimics the symptoms of dementia but is a normal response to certain environmental conditions, such as sensory deprivation, restricted movement, or institutionalization with prolonged administration of medication.

false detection

false detection the incorrect detection of a signal in the presence of noise. See also false alarm.

false memory

false memory a distorted recollection of an event or, most severely, recollection of an event that never actually happened. False memories are errors of commission, because details, facts, or events come to mind, often vividly, but the remembrances fail to correspond to prior events. Even when people are highly confident that they are remembering “the truth” of the original situation, experimental evidence shows that they can be wrong. For example, one quarter of adults in a particular experiment who were told an untrue story about being lost in a mall as a child—ostensibly obtained from their family members—adopted the story, sometimes embellishing it with vivid sensory detail (e.g., the clothes that the rescuer was wearing). The phenomenon is of particular interest in legal cases, specifically those involving eyewitness memories and false memory syndrome (FMS), in which adults seem to recover memories of having been physically or sexually abused as children, with such recoveries often occurring during therapy. The label is controversial, as is the evidence for and against recovery of abuse memories; false memory syndrome is not an accepted diagnostic term, and some have suggested using the more neutral phrase recovered memory. Also called illusory memory; paramnesia; pseudomemory.

false negative

false negative a case that is incorrectly excluded from a group by the test used to determine inclusion. In diagnostics, for example, a false negative is an individual who, in reality, has a particular condition but whom the diagnostic instrument indicates does not have the condition. In inferential statistics, a false negative is also referred to as a Type II error.

false positive

false positive a case that is incorrectly included in a group by the test used to determine inclusion. In diagnostics, for example, a false positive is an individual who, in reality, does not have a particular condition but whom the diagnostic instrument indicates does have the condition. In inferential statistics, a false positive is also called a Type I error.

false pregnancy

false pregnancy see pseudocyesis.

false rejection

false rejection the inability to detect a signal when it is presented with noise. In signal detection theory, false rejection is known as a miss. Compare false alarm.

false self

false self in the object relations theory of British psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1896–1971), the self that develops as a defense against impingements and in adaptation to the environment. This contrasts with the true self, which develops in an environment that adapts to the infant and allows him or her to discover and express true impulses.

false-belief task

false-belief task a type of task used in theory of mind studies in which children must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that they possess. For example, children shown that a candy box contains pennies rather than candy are asked what someone else would expect to find in the box. Children of about 3 years or younger would say pennies, whereas older children would correctly reply candy.

false-consensus effect

false-consensus effect the tendency to assume that one’s own opinions, beliefs, attributes, or behaviors are more widely shared than is actually the case. A robustly demonstrated phenomenon, the false-consensus effect is often attributed to a desire to view one’s thoughts and actions as appropriate, normal, and correct. Compare false-uniqueness effect.

false-uniqueness effect

false-uniqueness effect the tendency to underestimate the extent to which others possess the same beliefs and attributes as oneself or engage in the same behaviors, particularly when these characteristics or behaviors are positive or socially desirable. It is often attributed to a desire to view one’s thoughts and actions as unusual, arising from personal, internal causes. Compare false-consensus effect.

falsetto

falsetto n. a thin, high-pitched voice in which vocal register is extended upward beyond the normal range when a reduced surface of the expanded and separated vocal cords is activated by the airstream. This quality of vocal resonance can be used by men to extend the normal range of their singing voice.

falsifiability

falsifiability n. the condition of admitting falsification: the logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment. The most important properties that make a statement falsifiable in this way are (a) that it makes a prediction about an outcome or a universal claim of the type “All Xs have property Y” and (b) that what is predicted or claimed is observable. Austrian-born British philosopher Karl Popper (1902–1994) argued that falsifiability is an essential characteristic of any genuinely scientific hypothesis. Also called disconfirmability; refutability. See risky prediction. —falsifiable adj.

falsificationism

falsificationism n. the position that (a) the disproving, rather than proving, of hypotheses is the basic procedure of scientific investigation and the chief means by which scientific knowledge is advanced; and (b) falsifiability is the property that distinguishes scientific claims from truth claims of other kinds, such as those of metaphysics or political ideology. [introduced by Austrian-born British philosopher Karl Popper (1902–1994)] —falsificationist adj.

familial dysautonomia

familial dysautonomia an autosomal recessive disorder (see recessive allele) affecting nerve function throughout the body and characterized by insensitivity to pain, feeding difficulties, seizures, deficient tear production, excessive sweating, drooling, and blotchy skin. Mental impairment may be associated with the disorder, but most patients have normal intelligence. Also called Riley–Day syndrome.

familial factor

familial factor an element or condition in a family that accounts for a certain disease, disorder, or trait. A familial factor may or may not be inherited.

familial Portuguese polyneuritic amyloidosis

familial Portuguese polyneuritic amyloidosis see Andrade’s syndrome.

familial tremor

familial tremor see essential tremor.

familial Turner syndrome

familial Turner syndrome see Noonan syndrome.

familiar

familiar n. in folklore and demonology, a supernatural spirit that supposedly lives with somebody and acts as a servant, often taking the form of an animal (e.g., a witch’s cat).

familiarity

familiarity n. a form of remembering in which a situation, event, place, person, or the like provokes a subjective feeling of recognition and is therefore believed to be in memory, although it is not specifically recalled.

familism

familism n. a cultural value common in collectivist or traditional societies that emphasizes strong interpersonal relationships within the extended family, together with interdependence, collaboration, and the placing of group interests ahead of individual interests. —familistic adj.

family

family n. 1. a kinship unit consisting of a group of individuals united by blood or by marital, adoptive, or other intimate ties. Although the family is the fundamental social unit of most human societies, its form and structure vary widely. See biological family; extended family; nuclear family; permeable family; stepfamily. 2. in biological taxonomy, a main subdivision of an order, consisting of a group of similar, related genera (see genus). 3. a collection of mathematically or statistically related entities. For example, a set of statistical tests conducted when there are more than two groups for an independent variable within an analysis of variance constitutes a family of tests. See also family-wise alpha level; family-wise error rate. —familial adj.

Family and Medical Leave Act

Family and Medical Leave Act see family leave.

family bed

family bed see bed-sharing.

family constellation

family constellation the total set of relationships within a particular family, as characterized by such factors as the number and birth order of members and their ages, roles, and patterns of interaction. The term is associated with Alfred Adler.

family counseling

family counseling counseling of parents or other family members by psychologists, social workers, licensed counselors, or other professionals, who provide information, emotional support, and practical guidance on problems faced in the family context, such as raising a child who is disabled, family planning, or substance abuse. See also genetic counseling.

family dynamics

family dynamics see intrafamily dynamics.

family group psychotherapy

family group psychotherapy therapeutic methods that treat a family as a system rather than concentrating on individual family members. The various approaches may be psychodynamic, behavioral, systemic, or structural, but all regard the interpersonal dynamics within the family as more important than individual intrapsychic factors.

family interaction method

family interaction method a study technique for investigating family behavior by observing the interaction of its members in a controlled situation, such as a clinic or laboratory.

family intervention

family intervention 1. a synonym for family therapy. 2. an intervention taught by a therapist to one family member (e.g., parent) who then delivers the intervention to another family member (e.g., child) in the home. It is frequently used as an early intervention for a variety of disorders, such as autism, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, speech and language pathology, and disruptive behavior disorders. 3. see intervention.

family leave

family leave time off (paid or unpaid) from work to address family responsibilities, such as the birth or adoption of a child or the care of an immediate family member with a serious health condition. In the United States, the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 provides eligible full-time employees with up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave per year. Globally, the majority of developed countries have legislated parental leave policies with varying periods of paid time off to care for children after birth.

family life cycle

family life cycle the series of stages that occur in the life history of any given family, with such stages typically including marriage (or coupling), raising children to independent young adulthood, and retirement.

family life education

family life education any initiative or effort intended to ameliorate widespread societal issues by fostering healthy relationships within families. The approach is preventive; it provides family members at risk of various problems (e.g., substance abuse, domestic violence, teenage pregnancy, school or career failure) with information and resources to encourage, for example, good communication, strong decision-making and problem-solving skills, positive self-esteem, and understanding of others’ differences and respect for their points of view. For example, a family life education program for stepfamilies might use behavior-modeling videos to demonstrate effective parenting practices, and a program for low-achieving students in families might use a job-shadowing exercise to aid in vocational planning. Professionals in the field, known as family life educators, are not licensed but may be certified from any of several organizations worldwide.

family mediation

family mediation a structured process in which a neutral third party, typically an attorney or a mental health practitioner with training in negotiation, helps individuals or families to resolve conflicts and reach agreements in such areas as divorce and child custody.

family medicine

family medicine the practice of treating a wide variety of illnesses and disorders in individuals and family members of all ages. Physicians now specializing in this area (called family practice doctors) must first undergo special training and become certified or board-eligible in family medicine in order to practice; such requirements did not apply until the 1970s. Family physicians trained before family medicine became a certifiable specialty are usually called general practitioners or GPs (labels sometimes also used by osteopaths). Both types of family physician are considered primary care providers.

family mythology

family mythology the shared stories, norms, and beliefs within a family system. The mythology can be used to deny trauma or pathology within the family or to ascribe meaning to events in ways that suggest their inevitability or importance.

family of origin

family of origin the family in which an individual was raised, which may or may not be the individual’s biological family.

family pattern

family pattern a characteristic quality of the relationship between the members of a particular family (e.g., between parents and children). Family patterns vary widely in emotional tone and in the attitudes of the members toward each other. Some families are warm, others cool; some are extremely close and symbiotic, in others the members keep each other at a distance; some are open to friends and relatives, others are not; in some, one or more children are accepted and loved, in others one or more children are distanced or otherwise rejected. Such patterns or elements of such patterns may range from nonconscious to fully realized. See also pathogenic family pattern.

family planning

family planning controlling the size of the family, especially through the use of birth-control measures for determining the number and spacing of children. See also population research.

family psychology

family psychology a basic and applied specialty in psychology that focuses on interactions within the family and developmentally influential contexts (e.g., neighborhoods, schools.). Research and clinical intervention in this specialty are taught in doctoral psychology programs, either within a specified family curriculum or more often within broader programs, such as clinical research and applied clinical and counseling programs.

family resemblance

family resemblance in studies of categorization, the idea that a set of instances may form a category or give rise to a concept even though there is no single attribute common to all the instances: It is sufficient that each instance should have one or more attributes in common with one or more other instances. The members of the category that have the most attributes in common with other members are said to have the highest family resemblance. The category prototype will be based on those members with the highest family resemblance and the lowest resemblance to members of other categories. See also disjunctive concept.

family romance

family romance a common childhood fantasy in which a child imagines that he or she is the offspring not of his or her biological parents but of a noble or royal personage. Sigmund Freud saw this as rooted in the Oedipus complex. See foster-child fantasy.

family sculpting

family sculpting a technique in family therapy in which the therapist asks one or more members of the family to arrange the other members (and lastly themselves) in relation to one another in terms of posture, space, and attitude so as to portray the arranger’s perception of the family, either in general or with regard to a particular situation or conflict. This technique often reveals family dynamics visually in a way that may not be adequately captured in verbal descriptions by family members.

family study

family study research conducted among siblings, parents, or children to assess evidence for genetic links for characteristics or outcomes, often related to health or disease. For example, a family study might be conducted to assess whether individuals from the same family who share a similar genetic structure also have similar responses to a health-promotion intervention such as diet, exercise, or medication. The extent to which performance on a given measure varies as a function of genetic similarity is used as an indication of the heritability of that measure.

family support services

family support services periodic services provided to families of a person with a disability or chronic illness for the purpose of enhancing their ability to care for the person or alleviating stress associated with family living. Examples include day and overnight respite care, caregiver training and education, behavioral consultation, transportation to appointments, and sibling services (e.g., counseling).

family systems theory

family systems theory a broad conceptual model that focuses on the relationships between and among interacting individuals in a family and combines core concepts from general systems theory, cybernetics, family development theory, object relations theory, and social learning theory. Underlying various family therapies, the theory stresses that therapists must see the whole family, rather than work only with individual members, to create constructive, systemic, and lasting changes in the family. Also called Bowen family systems theory; family systems model. [developed by U.S. psychiatrist Murray Bowen (1913–1990)]

family therapy

family therapy a form of psychotherapy that focuses on the improvement of interfamilial relationships and behavioral patterns of the family unit as a whole, as well as among individual members and groupings, or subsystems, within the family. Family therapy includes a large number of treatment forms with diverse conceptual principles, processes and structures, and clinical foci. Some family therapy approaches (e.g., object relations theory) reflect extensions of models of psychotherapy with individuals in the interpersonal realm, whereas others (e.g., structural family therapy) evolved in less traditional contexts. Most approaches emphasize contexts in which clinical problems arise. This accompanying systemic view potentially allows clinical attention to all levels of the organization of behavior, from the individual, to the family, and to the community. Family therapy models vary enormously in terms of length, past versus present orientation, techniques used, and treatment goals. See also conjoint therapy; couples therapy; family group psychotherapy; family systems theory.

family values

family values moral and social values attributed to the traditional nuclear family. In some Christian contexts, for example, these typically include discipline, respect for authority, heterosexuality, and sexual abstinence outside marriage. The term is now primarily associated with political or religious conservatism.

family-wise alpha level

family-wise alpha level a set value of the probability of making a Type I error when carrying out a set of hypothesis tests (e.g., when conducting multiple comparisons within a data set). In many studies, family-wise alpha is kept at .05, such that there is only a 5% total chance of rejecting a null hypothesis when it should be retained over a set of tests.

family-wise error rate

family-wise error rate the probability of making a Type I error when conducting multiple comparisons among groups within a data set. Although similar to the family-wise alpha level, which is a predetermined probability value to keep the amount of false-positive errors at a manageable level, the family-wise error rate is assessed after a set of hypothesis tests have been conducted. Researchers often like to keep this value at .05. See also testwise error rate.

fan effect

fan effect the finding that as the number of relations between one concept and others increases, the time required to make a decision about one of those relations increases. For example, if John has one brother and Bill has six, it would take longer to verify that Joe is Bill’s brother than it would to verify that Ted is John’s brother.

Fanapt

Fanapt n. a trade name for iloperidone.

fanaticism

fanaticism n. excessive and often irrational zeal or devotion to a cause or set of beliefs. —fanatic adj., n.

fantasy

fantasy n. 1. any of a range of mental experiences and processes marked by vivid imagery, intensity of emotion, and relaxation or absence of logic. Fantasizing is normal and common and often serves a healthy purpose of releasing tension, giving pleasure and amusement, or stimulating creativity. It can also be indicative of pathology, as in delusional thinking or significant disconnection from reality. 2. in psychoanalytic theories, a figment of the imagination: a mental image, night dream, or daydream in which a person’s conscious or unconscious wishes and impulses are fulfilled (see wish fulfillment). Followers of Melanie Klein use the spelling phantasy to denote specifically unconscious wishes. —fantasize vb.

fantasy play

fantasy play pretend or make-believe play that includes an as-if orientation to actions, objects, and peers. It often involves playing a distinct role, such as mother, teacher, or doctor. Fantasy play also involves taking a stance that is different from reality and using a mental representation of a situation as part of an enactment. Also called pretend play. See also symbolic play.

FAP

FAP 1. abbreviation for fixed action pattern. 2. abbreviation for functional analytic psychotherapy.

FAR

FAR abbreviation for fetus at risk.

far point

far point the farthest point at which an object can be seen clearly under conditions of relaxed accommodation. Compare near point.

Farber’s lipogranulomatosis

Farber’s lipogranulomatosis a disorder of lipid metabolism characterized by the development of nodules and pigmentation of the skin. The upper extremities are affected, with arthritic swelling and erosion of the bones. Normal body tissues are infiltrated and replaced by foam cells. Respiratory distress and intellectual disability appear at a very early age. [Sydney Farber (1903–1973), U.S. pediatric pathologist]

farsightedness

farsightedness n. see hyperopia.

fartlek training

fartlek training athletic training or exercise characterized by alternating intervals of intense activity (e.g., running) followed by periods of less intense activity (e.g., walking), creating both aerobic and anaerobic stress. The length and speed of each interval are determined by the individual according to his or her perceived endurance and needs. [Swedish fartlek, “speed play”]

FAS

FAS abbreviation for fetal alcohol syndrome.

FAS Test

FAS Test see Controlled Oral Word Association Test.

fascia

fascia n. (pl. fasciae) a sheet or band of fibrous tissue covering, separating, or binding together muscles, organs, and other soft-tissue structures of the body. —fascial adj.

fasciculus

fasciculus n. (pl. fasciculi) a bundle of nerve fibers, muscle fibers, or tendon fibers. —fascicular adj.

fasciculus cuneatus

fasciculus cuneatus see cuneate fasciculus.

fasciculus gracilis

fasciculus gracilis see gracile fasciculus.

fascination

fascination n. 1. profound interest in, attraction to, or enchantment with a person, object, activity, or phenomenon. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, an infant’s primitive attempt to master what is perceived (e.g., a light) by identifying with it. —fascinate vb.

fasciolus gyrus

fasciolus gyrus a brain convolution that is a part of the hippocampal formation, appearing as a delicate band of tissue that communicates with a thin sheet of gray matter, the indusium griseum, on the surface of the corpus callosum. It is associated with olfactory functions. Also called gyrus fasciolaris.

Fascism Scale

Fascism Scale see F Scale.

fashion

fashion n. the styles of artistic and cultural expression, garments, manners, and customs prevalent in a particular time and place. Fashion may be transient and irrational but often reflects the Zeitgeist or mood of society.

fast mapping

fast mapping the ability of young children to learn new words quickly on the basis of only one or two exposures to these words. See also Quinian bootstrapping. [coined in 1978 by U.S. developmental psychologist Susan E. Carey (1942– ) and Elsa Bartlett]

fast muscle fiber

fast muscle fiber a type of muscle fiber found in skeletal muscle that contracts rapidly but fatigues readily. Compare slow muscle fiber.

fastigial nucleus

fastigial nucleus a nucleus deep in the cerebellum that projects to the vestibular nuclei and the reticular formation of the pons and midbrain.

fat

fat n. a mixture of lipids, mainly triglycerides, that is typically solid at room temperature. In mammals (including humans), it serves as the most concentrated store of food energy and is deposited primarily beneath the skin and around certain organs. In many animals, it also serves as a primary source of insulation. See adipose tissue; brown fat; fat metabolism.

fat cell

fat cell see adipocyte.

fat metabolism

fat metabolism all the biochemical processes involved in the breakdown, manufacture, or storage of fat in the body. Excess dietary carbohydrates (in the form of glucose) can be converted to fat (in the form of glycerides) and stored in specialized adipose tissue at sites distributed around the body. Excess dietary fat is also stored in this way. Following a meal, uptake of glucose into fat cells (adipocytes) and manufacture of fat are promoted by the hormone insulin. Mobilization of fat occurs during fasting, exercise, and in response to stress and is triggered by the hormone epinephrine and by norepinephrine released by nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system. Stored fat is mobilized by being broken down to its constituents—fatty acids and glycerol—which are released into the bloodstream to provide fuel for other tissues, especially liver and muscle. Here, the fatty acids are converted into the energy carrier ATP by means of beta oxidation. However, fatty acids cannot be converted (at least in appreciable amounts) into glucose, which is the fuel required by the brain.

fatal familial insomnia

fatal familial insomnia a genetic disorder caused by a mutation of the prion protein in the brain. It affects the thalamus, causing progressive insomnia and eventually dementia; death occurs about 18 months after onset of symptoms.

fatalistic suicide

fatalistic suicide one of four types of suicide proposed in 1897 by Émile Durkheim, involving excessive social regulations that restrict individuation. Feeling controlled by the values and norms of society, the person becomes hopeless and despairs of ever escaping these oppressive external forces. Durkheim associated fatalistic suicide with preindustrial social orders, citing suicides of slaves and of older childless married women as examples, and believed it to be of little contemporary relevance. Indeed, fatalistic suicide often is omitted from modern discussions of Durkheim’s typology. See also altruistic suicide; anomic suicide; egoistic suicide.

fate control

fate control the circumstance in which a person or group has absolute control over the fate or outcomes of another person or group. Fate control exists when the other’s behavior plays no role in determining what outcomes are to be received. This is in contrast to behavior control, in which the other’s behavior does affect outcomes and the other is induced to behave in the desired direction. Fate control can, under certain circumstances, induce learned helplessness. [introduced by Harold H. Kelley and John W. Thibaut in their interdependence theory]

fate neurosis

fate neurosis in psychoanalytic theory, a compulsive, unconscious, and self-punitive need to arrange life experiences in such a way that failure and defeat are inevitable.

father figure

father figure see father surrogate.

father fixation

father fixation in psychoanalytic theory, an abnormally strong emotional attachment to the father.

father surrogate

father surrogate a substitute for a person’s biological father, who performs typical paternal functions and serves as an object of identification and attachment. Father surrogates may include such individuals as adoptive fathers, stepfathers, older brothers, teachers, and others. Also called father figure; surrogate father.

father-ideal

father-ideal n. in psychoanalytic theory, the father component of the ego-ideal, which is formed through identification with the parents.

fatigability

fatigability n. the susceptibility of an organ or an individual to fatigue, as compared with other organs or individuals.

fatigue

fatigue n. 1. a state of tiredness and diminished functioning. Fatigue is typically a normal, transient response to exertion, stress, boredom, or inadequate sleep but also may be unusually prolonged and indicative of disorder (e.g., chronic fatigue syndrome, anemia, hypothyroidism). 2. reduced response of a receptor cell or sense organ resulting from excessive stimulation.

fatigue checklist

fatigue checklist a list of symptoms and causes of fatigue developed to assess a person’s ability to carry out a job or task safely. Fatigue checklists may survey lack of energy, poor endurance, difficulty concentrating, muscle weakness, moodiness, number of hours worked, difficulty of work, and so on. They have been developed for nurses, drivers of heavy vehicles, soldiers, and pilots, among others.

fatigue effect

fatigue effect a decline in performance on a prolonged or demanding research task that is generally attributed to the participant becoming tired or bored with the task. The fatigue effect is an important consideration when administering a lengthy survey or test in which participants’ performance may worsen simply due to the challenges of an extended task.

fatigue studies

fatigue studies research on factors that cause both mental and physical fatigue, such as job stress, caregiving, chronic illness, and ergonomic design.

fatty acid

fatty acid an organic acid with a long, usually unbranched hydrocarbon chain and an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are the fundamental constituents of many important lipids, including triglycerides. Some fatty acids can be synthesized by the body, but others—the essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid—must be obtained from the diet. See fat metabolism.

fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH)

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fault tree analysis (FTA)

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FBA

FBA abbreviation for functional behavioral assessment.

FDA

FDA 1. abbreviation for functional data analysis. 2. abbreviation for U.S. Food and Drug Administrationus-food-and-drug-administration.

fear

fear n. a basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilizes the organism by triggering a set of physiological changes. These include rapid heartbeat, redirection of blood flow away from the periphery toward the gut, tensing of the muscles, and a general mobilization of the organism to take action (see fear response; fight-or-flight response). Fear differs from anxiety in that the former is considered an appropriate short-term response to a present, clearly identifiable threat, whereas the latter is a future-oriented, long-term response focused on a diffuse threat. Some theorists characterize this distinction more particularly, proposing that fear is experienced when avoiding or escaping an aversive stimuli and that anxiety is experienced when entering a potentially dangerous situation (e.g., an animal foraging in a field where there might be a predator). Whatever their precise differences in meaning, however, the terms are often used interchangeably in common parlance. See also fright.

fear appeal

fear appeal a persuasive message that is designed to alter attitudes by producing fear in the recipient. Such messages are most effective when they provide compelling arguments for the likelihood of negative outcomes if a certain advocated measure is not adopted, and when the arguments make a strong case that adopting the measure will eliminate the threat. See also affectively based persuasion.

fear drive

fear drive the learned aversion to a situation or other stimulus that motivates escape from or avoidance of the stimulus.

fear of commitment

fear of commitment feelings of anxiety and uncertainty related to the decision to become bound to a course of action. Such feelings are commonly aroused by the decision to become emotionally or legally committed to a long-standing relationship with another person and often stem from problems with intimacy and attachment; in an extreme form, fear of commitment may lead to social maladjustment.

fear of darkness

fear of darkness normal or pathological anxiety about darkness or night. Fear of darkness is associated with feelings of helplessness and a sense of unfamiliarity. The fear first occurs normally at about 3 years of age but may develop into a specific phobia in which darkness is associated with danger and threat.

fear of failure

fear of failure persistent and irrational anxiety about failing to measure up to the standards and goals set by oneself or others. This may include anxiety over academic standing, losing a job, sexual inadequacy, or loss of face and self-esteem. Fear of failure may be associated with perfectionism and is implicated in a number of psychological disorders, including eating disorders and some anxiety disorders.

fear of flying

fear of flying a persistent and irrational fear of traveling by airplane or other airborne vehicle, also called aviophobia (although this name is now seldom used). In DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, fear of flying is classified as a specific phobia, situational type.

fear of rejection

fear of rejection a persistent and irrational fear of being socially excluded or ostracized, which is often a feature of social phobia.

fear of strangers

fear of strangers see stranger anxiety.

fear of success

fear of success a fear of accomplishing one’s goals or succeeding in society, or a tendency to avoid doing so. Fear of success was originally thought to be experienced primarily by women, because striving for success was held to place a woman in conflict between a general need for achievement and social values that tell her not to achieve “too much.” It is now thought that men and women are equally likely to experience fear of success. Also called fear of success syndrome; Horner effect. See also Jonah complex. [first proposed in 1969 by U.S. psychologist Matina Horner (1939– )]

fear response

fear response a response to a threat in which the threatened organism attempts to guard vulnerable vital organs and to protect itself. In addition to these protective functions, the fear response is aimed at removing the person or animal from the threatening situation, by overt withdrawal, by coping behaviors (e.g., shutting the eyes to avoid seeing the fear stimulus), or by remaining motionless. Physiological responses vary depending on the situation and the proximity of the threat. See also fight-or-flight response; freezing behavior.

fear structure

fear structure see emotional processing theory.

Fear Survey Schedule (FSS)

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fear-induced aggression

fear-induced aggression a form of aggression in which an animal attacks after it has been severely threatened or cornered.

feared self

feared self in analyses of self-concept, a mental representation of psychological attributes that one might possess in the future, in which thoughts about the acquisition of these attributes elicit a sense of anxiety or dread.

fearful attachment

fearful attachment an adult attachment style characterized by a negative internal working model of attachment of oneself and of others. Individuals with fearful attachment doubt both their own and others’ competence and efficacy and are presumed not to seek help from others when distressed. Compare dismissive attachment; preoccupied attachment; secure attachment.

feasibility standards

feasibility standards criteria used to judge the practical, feasible, and cost-effective nature of any enterprise or project. For example, the feasibility of an evaluation research study is determined on the basis of its pragmatic implementation, its political viability among various stakeholders, and the cost of the resources necessary to carry out the research. See also accuracy standards; propriety standards; utility standards.

feasibility test

feasibility test an investigation conducted prior to a study in order to establish properties of response measures and to determine the successfulness of the study’s design. It is used to establish the validity of response measures, to provide early information on the probable level of effects, or to try out new methodologies. See also evaluability assessment; feasibility standards.

feature

feature n. 1. an attribute of an object or event that plays an important role in distinguishing it from other objects or events and in the formation of category judgments. For example, a particular nose is a feature of one person’s face, wings are a feature of the category bird, particular lines and angles are features of a particular shape, line segments of various types are features of letters, and so on. 2. in phonemics, an attribute of a speech sound, such as whether it is voiced or unvoiced, that plays a critical role in distinguishing one phoneme from another. See binary feature; minimal pair.

feature abstraction

feature abstraction a hypothetical process by which people learn from their experience with exemplars of different categories to determine the features that might be used to define membership in these categories.

feature attention

feature attention a form of selective attention in which the unit of selection is a distinguishing feature or property of a target item (e.g., the red hair of the person one is looking for in a crowd). Numerous studies have confirmed that focusing on one such feature enhances the discriminability of the item being sought. See also focal attention.

feature detection theory

feature detection theory the theory that all complex stimuli can be broken down into individual parts (features), each of which is analyzed by a specific feature detector.

feature detector

feature detector any of various hypothetical or actual mechanisms within the human information-processing system that respond selectively to specific distinguishing features. For example, the visual system has feature detectors for lines and angles of different orientations as well as for more complex stimuli, such as faces. Feature detectors are also thought to play an important role in speech perception, where their function would be to detect those binary features that distinguish one phoneme from another. Also called feature analyzer.

feature indicator

feature indicator any aspect of an object that provides visual cues to feature detectors in the visual cortex. Examples of feature indicators include boundaries between dark and light regions, straight or curved edges or surfaces, and connecting features (e.g., crossbars).

feature model

feature model a model of general knowledge or semantic memory suggesting that information can be described as sets of features (e.g., the features that define bird).

feature-integration theory (FIT)

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feature-negative discrimination

feature-negative discrimination a go/no-go discrimination procedure, based on a distinctive feature of one of two similar stimuli, in which the feature is part of the negative, or no-go, stimulus—that is, the stimulus associated with extinction.

feature-positive discrimination

feature-positive discrimination a go/no-go discrimination procedure, based on a distinctive feature of one of two similar stimuli, in which the feature is part of the positive, or go, stimulus—that is, the stimulus associated with reinforcement.

febrile delirium

febrile delirium delirium associated with or caused by fever.

febrile seizure

febrile seizure a seizure arising from a high fever. It is the most common type of seizure in childhood and 20 to 30% of them recur. Febrile seizure is a benign condition for most children, but experiments with nonhuman animals and neuroimaging studies in humans suggest some febrile seizures may damage the hippocampus.

fecal incontinence

fecal incontinence the involuntary passage of flatus and feces in inappropriate places (clothing, floor, etc.) resulting from loss of bowel control due to an injury or physiological condition. Also called bowel incontinence. Compare encopresis.

feces

feces n. waste matter expelled from the bowels. In psychoanalytic theory, a child’s interest in feces is one of the earliest expressions of curiosity, and withholding feces is one of the earliest expressions of the drive for aggression and independence. Also called excrement; fecal matter. See also anal personality; anal stage; sphincter control. —fecal adj.

Fechner’s colors

Fechner’s colors illusory sensations of color that arise when a disk with black and white sectors is spun about its axis. The appearance of these subjective colors is widely believed to be governed by local interactions in early, and likely retinal, mechanisms. See also Benham’s top. [Gustav Theodor Fechner]

Fechner’s law

Fechner’s law a mathematical formula relating subjective experience to changes in physical stimulus intensity: Specifically, the sensation experienced is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus magnitude. It is derived from Weber’s law and expressed as Ψ = k logS, where Ψ is the sensation, k is a constant, and S is the physical intensity of the stimulus. Also called Weber–Fechner law. See also Stevens law. [Gustav Theodor Fechner]

Fechner’s paradox

Fechner’s paradox the apparent increase in the brightness of a figure caused by closing one eye after viewing the figure with both eyes open. [Gustav Theodor Fechner]

fecundity

fecundity n. 1. in biology, a measure of the number of offspring produced by an individual organism over a given time. 2. in demography, the general capacity of a human population to have offspring. A below-average capacity is termed subfecundity. Compare birth rate; fertility. —fecund adj.

Federation of Associations in Brain and Behavioral Sciences (FABBS)

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fee-for-service

fee-for-service adj. denoting the traditional method of payment for health care services, in which physicians or other providers set their own fees for services, and patients or insurance companies pay all or a percentage of these charges. This is the system of reimbursement used by indemnity insurance plans. Compare pay-for-performance.

feeblemindedness

feeblemindedness n. an obsolete name for intellectual disability or learning disability.

feedback

feedback n. information about a process or interaction provided to the governing system or agent and used to make adjustments that eliminate problems or otherwise optimize functioning. It may be stabilizing negative feedback or amplifying positive feedback. The term’s origins in engineering and cybernetics lend it a distinct connotation of input–output models that is not as strictly applicable to the wide variety of usages found in psychology, such as biofeedback, information feedback, and social feedback. Compare feedforward.

feedback device

feedback device a device that presents a visual, auditory, or tactile signal to communicate to the operator of an environmental control device the status of actions taken. See also control device; switch device; target device.

feedback evaluation

feedback evaluation see formative evaluation.

feedback loop

feedback loop in cybernetic theory, a self-regulatory model that determines whether the current operation of a system is acceptable and, if not, attempts to make the necessary changes. Its operation is summarized by the acronym TOTE (test-operate-test-exit). The two test phases compare the current reality against the goal or standard. The operate phase involves any processes or interventions designed to resolve unacceptable discrepancies between the reality and the standard. In the exit phase, the supervisory feedback loop is closed down because the circumstances have been brought into agreement with the standard. Also called TOTE model. See also negative feedback.

feedback system

feedback system a circuit in which output information (e.g., biological, mechanical) is used to modulate the input to the same circuit. In a negative feedback system, the output is used to reduce the input; such systems play important roles in maintaining equilibrium of processes within organisms. See homeostasis; positive feedback.

feedforward

feedforward n. 1. information or control signals sent to a part of the body or other system in order to prepare it for future motor activity or expected sensory input. 2. information that can be used to forecast the performance of a person, group, product, or system so that adjustments can be made to avoid problems before they occur. Compare feedback.

feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood

feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood in DSM–IV–TR, a category of disorders characterized by pathological feeding or eating behaviors that are usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence. They include pica, rumination, and feeding disorder of infancy or early childhood.

feeding behavior

feeding behavior the behavior involved in taking nourishment. In humans, the development of feeding behavior includes (a) stimulation and coordination of the sucking and swallowing reflexes in early infancy, (b) adaptation to breast or bottle and to scheduled or self-demand feeding, (c) biting at about the 4th month, (d) anticipatory chewing movements, (e) actual chewing when the teeth are developed, and (f) transferring from finger feeding to the use of various utensils.

feeding center

feeding center a traditional name for the region of the lateral hypothalamus in the brain that, when stimulated, produces eating behavior. Also called hunger center.

feeding disorder of infancy or early childhood

feeding disorder of infancy or early childhood in DSM–IV–TR, a disorder with an onset before the age of 6 (but typically within the 1st year following birth), characterized by persistent failure to eat adequately that results in significant failure to gain weight or significant loss of weight over a period of 1 month or more. The cause of the disorder is unknown.

feeding problem

feeding problem a form of behavior disorder in children that is characterized by refusal to eat, persistent failure to eat adequate amounts or types of food, or failure to hold down the food ingested. It is not due to a gastrointestinal or other medical condition or lack of available food, and it is not an eating disorder. Also called feeding disturbance. Compare oral–motor feeding problem. See also rumination.

feeling

feeling n. 1. a self-contained phenomenal experience. Feelings are subjective, evaluative, and independent of the sensations, thoughts, or images evoking them. They are inevitably evaluated as pleasant or unpleasant, but they can have more specific intrapsychic qualities, so that, for example, the affective tone of fear is experienced as different from that of anger. The core characteristic that differentiates feelings from cognitive, sensory, or perceptual intrapsychic experiences is the link of affect to appraisal. Feelings differ from emotions in being purely mental, whereas emotions are designed to engage with the world. 2. any experienced sensation, particularly a tactile or temperature sensation (e.g., pain, coldness).

feeling of knowing (FOK)

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feeling of reality

feeling of reality the sense that the world is actual, which may be lost in mild dissociative conditions (e.g., derealization) and in more serious disorders (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder, psychosis).

feeling of unreality

feeling of unreality see depersonalization; derealization.

feeling tone

feeling tone see affective tone.

feeling type

feeling type in Carl Jung’s analytic psychology, a functional type characterized by a dominance of feeling or affects. Feeling types evaluate their experiences and the world in terms of how these make them feel. The feeling type is one of Jung’s two rational types, the other being the thinking type. See also intuitive type; sensation type.

Feighner criteria

Feighner criteria a set of formal diagnostic descriptions published in 1972 for 15 mental disorders. Developed to improve reliability in psychiatric diagnosis by standardizing the definition of specific disorders, the Feighner criteria were the first symptom-based diagnostic system to be used in psychiatric research and signaled a major shift away from the then-dominant psychoanalytic approach to mental illness. They became widely cited and used in research and played an influential role in the revival of biological thinking in U.S. psychiatry. See Research Diagnostic Criteria. [developed by a team of researchers led by U.S. psychiatrist John P. Feighner (1937– ) at Washington University, St. Louis]

felbamate

felbamate n. an anticonvulsant drug, structurally related to meprobamate, that is thought to work by both enhancing the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid and inhibiting the effects of the excitatory amino acid glutamate (see NMDA receptor). Due to the increased incidence of aplastic anemia and hepatitis associated with this drug, it is less commonly used than other anticonvulsants; it is generally reserved for patients with severe epilepsy who respond inadequately to other treatments. U.S. trade name: Felbatol.

Feldenkrais method

Feldenkrais method a process of body movements that are designed to enhance psychological functioning. The method is used by certified practitioners and may be interpreted in numerous ways, but it always involves a dynamic interaction between bodily movements and psychological awareness. [Moshe Feldenkrais (1904–1984), physicist and engineer]

fellatio

fellatio n. the use of the mouth in sexual stimulation of the penis. Also called fellation; oral coitus. See also orogenital activity. —fellate vb.

felt need

felt need a consciously experienced need that may relate to a sense of deprivation or a discrepancy with an affective ideal.

felt sense

felt sense in focusing therapy, vague bodily feelings that are thought to correspond to unresolved emotional conflicts, which tend to resolve when one simply pays attention to them. [defined by U.S. philosopher and psychologist Eugene T. Gendlin (1926– )]

female choice

female choice the selectivity displayed by females in choosing a mate. Because females often expend much more energy than males in the production and care of the young, females are thought to be more careful than males in choosing their mates. See also cryptic female choice; mate selection; multiple mating.

female circumcision

female circumcision see female genital mutilation.

female ejaculation

female ejaculation expulsion of a lubricating fluid by the vestibular glands of a woman during sexual stimulation and orgasm. The fluid may reach peak flow before orgasm, often increasing when stimulation is prolonged. Some researchers deny the existence of female ejaculation; however, it has been written about since the 4th century, and many women attest to having experienced it. See also Graefenberg spot.

female genital mutilation (FGM)

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female genitalia

female genitalia see genitalia.

female Oedipus complex

female Oedipus complex see Oedipus complex.

female orgasmic disorder

female orgasmic disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a condition in which a woman recurrently or persistently has difficulty obtaining orgasm or is unable to reach orgasm at all following sexual stimulation and excitement, causing marked distress or interpersonal difficulty.

female sexual arousal disorder

female sexual arousal disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a condition in which a woman recurrently or persistently is unable to attain or maintain adequate vaginal lubrication and swelling during sexual excitement, causing marked distress or interpersonal difficulty. It is a prevalent sexual problem for women and has a complex etiology involving a variety of physiological and psychological factors. It is identified as female sexual interest/arousal disorder in DSM–5.

female sexual dysfunction (FSD)

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female sperm

female sperm spermatozoa that bear an X chromosome and therefore determine that an ovum they fertilize will become a female embryo.

female–female competition

female–female competition see male–male competition.

femaleness

femaleness n. the quality of being female in the anatomical and physiological sense by virtue of possessing the female complement of a pair of X chromosomes. Compare femininity.

femininity

femininity n. possession of social-role behaviors that are presumed to be characteristic of a girl or woman, as contrasted with femaleness, which is genetically determined. —feminine adj.

femininity complex

femininity complex in psychoanalytic theory, a man’s envy of women’s procreative powers that has its roots in the young boy’s envy of the mother’s body. Some psychoanalysts see the femininity complex as the male counterpart to the female castration complex and penis envy. [first used in 1930 by German psychoanalyst Felix Boehm (1881–1958)]

femininity phase

femininity phase in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, a period during the early phases of the Oedipus complex in which both boys and girls are posited to adopt a feminine attitude toward the father and to desire a child by him. Klein saw this turning to the father as an object of desire and away from the mother as the child’s first object.

feminism

feminism n. any of a number of perspectives that take as their subject matter the problems and perspectives of women or the nature of biological and social phenomena related to gender. Feminism has evolved from a largely political movement in the 19th century, focused (in the United States) on women’s suffrage and political and economic opportunities, into broader and more comprehensive academic, philosophical, and social movements. Although some feminist perspectives continue to focus on issues of fairness and equal rights, other approaches emphasize what are taken to be inherent and systematic gender inequities in Western society (see patriarchy). In psychology, feminism has focused attention on the nature and origin of gender differences in psychological processes. See women’s liberation movement. See also ecofeminism; erotic feminism; individualist feminism; lesbian feminism; Marxist feminism; material feminism; radical feminism. —feminist adj., n.

feminist family therapy

feminist family therapy an intervention, informed by feminist therapy, that is used by therapists to reorganize the family so that no one is entrapped in dysfunctional roles or patterns of interaction based on the politics of power, particularly with regard to patriarchal roles.

feminist psychology

feminist psychology an approach to psychological issues that emphasizes the role of the female perspective in thought, action, and emotion in the life of the individual and in society. It is seen by its proponents as an attempt to counterbalance traditional male-oriented and male-dominated psychology, as well as a model for similar approaches for other less represented groups. See also engendering psychology; woman-centered psychology.

feminist therapy

feminist therapy an eclectic approach to psychotherapy based conceptually in feminist political analyses and scholarship on the psychology of women and gender. In this orientation, the ways in which gender and gendered experiences inform people’s understanding of their lives and the development of the distress that serves as a catalyst for seeking therapy are central. Race, class, sexual orientation, age cohort, and ability, as they interact with gender, are explored. Feminist therapy attempts to create an egalitarian therapeutic relationship in which intentional efforts are made by the therapist to empower and define the client as an authority equal in value to the therapist. Feminist therapy can be indicated for both female and male clients.

feminization

feminization n. the process of acquiring femininity, regardless of the sex of the individual. —feminize vb.

feminization of poverty

feminization of poverty the trend for a disproportionate number of the poorest people in Western societies to be women. This can be attributed to a range of factors, including the growing number of families that are headed by a single mother, often with no financial support from the father, and the continuing tendency for occupations with a largely female workforce to pay lower wages. See also underclass.

feminizing testes syndrome

feminizing testes syndrome see androgen-insensitivity syndrome.

fenestration

fenestration n. 1. see blood–brain barrier. 2. the surgical creation of an opening, as in the procedure, now rarely used, in which an opening is formed in the bony wall of the middle ear and into the semicircular canal in order to improve hearing loss caused by otosclerosis.

fenfluramine

fenfluramine n. a sympathomimetic agent, structurally related to the amphetamines, that functions as a serotonin agonist and was formerly used for management of obesity (see appetite suppressant). It was withdrawn from the U.S. market in 1997 due to the incidence of heart-valve abnormalities associated with its use.

fentanyl

fentanyl n. a highly potent opioid analgesic that is used for anesthesia during surgery, for the management of severe cancer pain in patients resistant to other opioids, and (as a lozenge or sucker) for the relief of severe anxiety in children prior to surgical procedures. Its toxicity is similar to that of other opioids, with respiratory and circulatory depression predominating. It is known as China white in illicit use. Analogs of fentanyl in current use include sufentanil, alfentanil (U.S. trade name: Alfenta), and remifentanil (U.S. trade name: Ultiva). U.S. trade names: Sublimaze (injectable form); Actiq, Fentora, and Oralet (oral forms); Duragesic (transdermal form, i.e., applied to the skin).

FEPSAC

FEPSAC see European Federation of the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity.

feral children

feral children children who reportedly have been raised by wild animals and isolated from human contact and care and, consequently, from social norms and behavior. Famous examples include the wild boy of Aveyron and the wolf children of India.

Fernald method

Fernald method an approach to reading based on the idea that students learn best when material is presented to several different senses. These methods, which employ tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing, are often referred to as VAKT (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile). The Fernald method teaches whole words. [Grace Fernald (1879–1950), U.S. psychologist]

Ferree–Rand double broken circles

Ferree–Rand double broken circles a figure used to test simultaneously for visual acuity and astigmatism. Outlines of circles are interrupted by two small gaps, 90° apart, and the minimum gap size that can be detected is a measure of acuity (similar to Landolt circles). If one gap is more detectable than the other, it suggests that astigmatism is present. [Clarence Ferree (1877–1942) and Gertrude Rand (1886–1970), U.S. psychologists]

Ferry–Porter law

Ferry–Porter law see Porter’s law.

fertility

fertility n. 1. in biology, the potential of an individual to have offspring. Although most frequently applied to females, it may also refer to reproductive capacity in males. 2. in demography, the number of live children born to an individual or within a population. Compare birth rate; fecundity.

fertilization

fertilization n. the fusion of a sperm and an egg cell to produce a zygote. External fertilization occurs outside the female’s body, as in fish and amphibians. Mammals, birds, and reptiles have internal fertilization (i.e., within the body of the female). In humans, fertilization occurs in a fallopian tube.

FES

FES abbreviation for functional electric stimulation.

festinating gait

festinating gait a gait disturbance often seen in individuals with Parkinson’s disease, marked by short, shuffling steps that begin slowly but increase in rapidity until the walk becomes a half run. The body leans stiffly forward to maintain balance, and there is an associated risk of falling. Also called festination; propulsive gait.

fetal activity

fetal activity the activity level of the fetus during intrauterine development, such as kicking or other movements.

fetal age

fetal age see gestational age.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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fetal cephalometry

fetal cephalometry see cephalometry.

fetal distress

fetal distress the condition of a fetus whose life or health is threatened, most commonly by an inadequate supply of oxygen via the placenta. Signs of fetal distress include abnormal heart rate, elevated blood acidity, and absence of movement. This term has been criticized as being imprecise and nonspecific; it is recommended that the specific symptoms be described, assessed, and treated. Also called nonreassuring fetal status.

fetal hypoxia

fetal hypoxia a significant reduction in oxygen to the fetus, which is believed to be a risk factor for severe mental illness, such as schizophrenia.

fetal infection

fetal infection any disease that may affect a fetus as a result of an infectious agent transmitted from the mother via the placenta. Fetal infections are usually caused by viruses; other agents may include tuberculosis bacteria, the syphilis spirochete, or the toxoplasmosis protozoa. Rubella is a common viral fetal infection, resulting in various congenital defects (see congenital rubella syndrome).

fetal monitoring

fetal monitoring measurement of the physiological characteristics (e.g., heart rate) of a fetus. Fetal monitoring is used to assess the well-being of the fetus before and during childbirth.

fetal presentation

fetal presentation the way the fetus is oriented during the birth process, specifically whether or not the fetus is exiting the birth canal head first. If the fetus is oriented so that it will be delivered buttocks first, this is known as a breech birth (or breech presentation); breech births are associated with risks to mother and baby (see birth injury).

fetal programming

fetal programming during prenatal development, a fetus’s physiological adaptation in utero to changing environmental conditions or stimuli (e.g., maternal stress, poor maternal nutrition, environmental toxins) and the long-term consequences of this adaptation on the child’s postnatal development into adulthood. It is believed that the effects of fetal programming may predispose individuals to later health and mental health disorders. See Dutch Hunger Winter.

fetal response

fetal response a response of a fetus to environmental conditions. For example, there is an increase in the fetal heart rate when the mother smokes, and some investigators believe that there is an increase in fetal activity when the mother is undergoing severe emotional stress. See prenatal influence.

fetal stage

fetal stage the final stage of human prenatal development, from the 8th or 9th week after fertilization to the time of birth. It is preceded by the embryonic stage.

fetal tobacco syndrome (FTS)

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fetal–maternal exchange

fetal–maternal exchange the exchange of substances between mother and fetus, via the placenta, during gestation. The fetus is thereby supplied with nutrients and oxygen, and its waste products (e.g., carbon dioxide, urea) are eliminated. Substances of low molecular weight cross the placental barrier easily, but large molecules (e.g., proteins) do not; therefore, the fetus manufactures its own proteins from amino acids supplied by the mother. Some drugs (e.g., alcohol, opioids) as well as disease agents (e.g., the rubella virus) may cross the placental barrier and produce congenital defects.

fetation

fetation n. see pregnancy.

feticide

feticide n. destruction of the embryo or fetus in the uterus. See also abortion.

fetish

fetish n. 1. a material object (e.g., a shoe, an undergarment, an animal fur or hide) or nonsexual part of the body (e.g., a foot, lock of hair) that arouses sexual interest or excitement. 2. any object, idea, or behavior that is the focus of irrational devotion or excessive attention, such as punctuality or the pursuit of wealth. 3. in anthropology, an object, such as a talisman or amulet, that is believed to embody a supernatural spirit or exert magical force.

fetishism

fetishism n. a type of paraphilia in which inanimate objects—commonly undergarments, stockings, rubber items, shoes, or boots—are repeatedly or exclusively used in achieving sexual excitement. Objects designed for use in stimulating the genitals (e.g., vibrators) are not considered to be involved in fetishism. Fetishism occurs primarily among males and may compete or interfere with sexual contact with a partner. See also partialism. —fetishistic adj.

fetoscopy

fetoscopy n. a procedure for observing the fetus in which a viewing instrument (fetoscope) is passed through a pregnant woman’s abdomen and into the amniotic sac.

fetus

fetus n. an animal embryo in the later stages of development. In humans, the fetal period is from the end of the 8th week after fertilization until birth. —fetal adj.

fetus at risk (FAR)

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FFA

FFA abbreviation for fusiform face area. See fusiform gyrus.

FFDE

FFDE abbreviation for fitness for duty evaluation.

FFFS

FFFS abbreviation for fight–flight–freeze system. See reinforcement sensitivity theory.

FFM

FFM abbreviation for five-factor personality model.

FFS

FFS abbreviation for fight–flight system. See reinforcement sensitivity theory.

FGM

FGM abbreviation for female genital mutilation.

FI

FI abbreviation for fixed interval. See fixed-interval schedule.

fiat

fiat n. in ideomotor theory, the intuitive sense of allowing an action to execute when it is felt to be ready. [from Latin: “let it be done” or “let it happen”; originally defined by William James]

fibril

fibril n. any small anatomical fiber or threadlike structure.

fibrillation

fibrillation n. an involuntary contraction of muscle due to unprompted activation of muscle cells or fibers with damaged source nerves, especially the rapid, abnormal contraction of individual muscle fibers of the heart.

fibromyalgia

fibromyalgia n. a syndrome of uncertain origin that is characterized by widespread musculoskeletal pain and chronic fatigue. Pain may be triggered by pressure on numerous tender points on the body. Other commonly associated symptoms are muscle stiffness, headaches, sleep disturbance, and depression. Symptoms overlap with those of chronic fatigue syndrome, and fibromyalgia often occurs simultaneously with other disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome and migraine. The condition was formerly called fibromyositis–fibromyalgia syndrome. See also chronic myofascial pain.

fiction

fiction n. 1. in psychology, an unproven or imaginary concept that may be accepted by an individual as if it were true for pragmatic reasons. See als ob; as-if hypothesis. 2. see guiding fiction. —fictional adj.

fictional finalism

fictional finalism in the psychoanalytic theory of Alfred Adler, the belief that human beings are more strongly motivated by the goals and ideals—realizable or unattainable—that they create for themselves and more influenced by future possibilities than by past events such as childhood experiences. This is in strong contrast to the emphasis of classical Freudian psychoanalytic theory. See also guiding fiction; individual psychology.

fidelity

fidelity n.1. faithfulness to a person, group, belief, or the like. 2. the degree of accuracy of a measuring instrument or statistical model. For example, a representation derived from structural equation modeling that depicts a pattern of relationships between health attitudes and behaviors could be said to have fidelity if it accurately explains the variation and covariation in the data. 3. the degree of accuracy of sound or visual reproduction in an electronic device (e.g., a sound system, television).

fidgetiness

fidgetiness n. a state of increased motor activity, which is associated with anxiety, tics, chorea, or boredom.

fiduciary

fiduciary 1. adj. describing a relationship in which one person holds a position of trust in relation to another and is required to apply his or her skill and effort in the best interests of that other. A psychologist and client have a fiduciary relationship in that the psychologist is assumed to place the welfare and best interests of the client above all else. 2. n. a person who holds a position of trust in a fiduciary relationship.

field

field n. 1. a defined area or region of space, such as the visual field. 2. a complex of personal, physical, and social factors within which a psychological event takes place. See field theory. 3. an area of human activity or knowledge or a division of such an area. 4. somewhere other than a laboratory, library, or academic setting in which experimental work is carried out or data collected. See field experiment.

field defect

field defect see visual field defect.

field dependence

field dependence a cognitive style in which the individual consistently relies more on external referents (environmental cues) than on internal referents (bodily sensation cues). The opposite tendency is field independence. Discovered during experiments conducted in the 1950s to understand the factors that determine perception of the upright in space, field dependence–independence typically is measured using the Rod-and-Frame Test or Embedded Figures Test.

field experiment

field experiment a study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting. Participants are exposed to one of two or more levels of an independent variable and observed for their reactions; they are likely to be unaware of the research. Such research often is conducted without random selection or random assignment of participants to conditions and without deliberate experimental manipulation of the independent variable by the researcher. See field research; quasi-experimental research.

field independence

field independence a cognitive style in which the individual consistently relies more on internal referents (bodily sensation cues) than on external referents (environmental cues). Field-independent people tend to be able to disregard deceptive environmental cues, particularly in tasks requiring the performance of simple actions or the identification of familiar elements in unfamiliar contexts. Compare field dependence.

field memory

field memory an autobiographical memory that one remembers from a first-person perspective; that is, one remembers the event as if viewing it with one’s own eyes. Also called first-person perspective memory. Compare observer memory.

field notes

field notes notes on observations made in natural settings (i.e., the field) rather than in laboratories. Field notes comprise the data for subsequent analysis in field experiments and field research.

field of consciousness

field of consciousness the total awareness of an individual at a given time. See consciousness.

field of regard

field of regard the total space and all the objects within that space that can be seen at one time by the moving eye.

field research

field research studies conducted outside the laboratory, in a “real-world” setting, which typically involve observing or interacting with participants in their typical environments over an extended period of time. Field research has the advantages of ecological validity and the opportunity to understand how and why behavior occurs in a natural social environment; it has the disadvantages of loss of environmental control and ability to do precise experimental manipulations. Thus, field research is often said to have more external validity and less internal validity than laboratory-based research. In studies of the behavior of nonhuman animals, field research stands in contrast to studies conducted on animals in captivity. See also field experiment.

field survey

field survey an assessment that involves collecting information on specific individuals or entities, usually in their natural environment. For example, a field survey could be conducted on a sample of students from underrepresented groups to assess their attitudes, experience, and performance regarding quantitative methods, before providing an intervention to increase their quantitative reasoning. See also field research.

field theory

field theory 1. in psychology, a systematic approach describing behavior in terms of patterns of dynamic interrelationships between individuals and the psychological, social, and physical situation in which they exist. This situation is known as the field space or life space, and the dynamic interactions are conceived as forces with positive or negative valences. [proposed by Kurt Lewin] 2. in physics, the theory that forces acting at a distance between bodies not in contact do so by means of a field of force that fills the space between them. See action at a distance.

field theory of personality

field theory of personality a theory in which personality is understood in terms of dynamic interrelations among a field of intrapsychic forces. [devised by Kurt Lewin]

field work

field work 1. a less common name for field research. 2. in clinical practice education, a practicum in which the student supplements and applies classroom theory by taking responsibility for actual cases under the tutelage of experienced, qualified supervisors.

fifth cranial nerve

fifth cranial nerve see trigeminal nerve.

fight-or-flight response

fight-or-flight response a pattern of physiological changes elicited by activity of the sympathetic nervous system in response to threatening or otherwise stressful situations that leads to mobilization of energy for physical activity (e.g., attacking or avoiding the offending stimulus), either directly or by inhibiting physiological activity that does not contribute to energy mobilization. Specific sympathetic responses involved in the response include increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and sweat gland activity; elevated blood pressure; decreased digestive activity; pupil dilation; and a routing of blood flow to skeletal muscles. In some theories, such changes are the basis of all human emotions. Also called emergency reaction; emergency syndrome. See also Cannon–Bard theory. [first described by Walter B. Cannon]

fight–flight system (FFS)

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fight–flight–freeze system (FFFS)

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fighting

fighting n. direct physical aggression between two individuals. In nonhuman animals, much aggression can be communicated through threat displays and submissive signals; fighting typically occurs only when signals alone do not resolve the encounter.

figural aftereffect

figural aftereffect a gestalt-type perceptual phenomenon in which the perceived location or shape properties of an object may be influenced by prolonged viewing of that or another object.

figural cohesion

figural cohesion the tendency for parts of a figure to be perceived as a whole figure even if the parts are disjointed.

figural fluency test

figural fluency test see design fluency test.

figural synthesis

figural synthesis the creation of a meaningful figure from the synthesis of selected portions of the incoming stimulus input. [proposed in 1967 by Ulric Neisser]

figurative knowledge

figurative knowledge knowledge about static things, acquired by attending to and remembering specific factual information or perceptual details (e.g., vocabulary words, dates, colors, shapes). Compare operative knowledge. [first described by Jean Piaget]

figurative language

figurative language language in which meaning is extended by analogy, metaphor, or personification or emphasized by such devices as antithesis, alliteration, and so forth. Figurative language is most important in poetry and rhetoric but extends into almost all areas of language use.

figure

figure n. a graph, drawing, or other depiction used to convey the essential findings from a research study. Common figures used in psychological research include bar graphs, which show the frequency of endorsement for several categories (e.g., the number of individuals who have various diseases), and Venn diagrams, which use overlapping circles to show how much shared variance there is between two or more variables.

figure-drawing test

figure-drawing test any test in which the participant draws a human figure, used as a measure of intellectual development or as a projective technique. See Machover Draw-a-Person Test.

figure–ground

figure–ground adj. relating to the principle that perceptions have two parts: a figure or object that stands out in good contour and an indistinct, homogeneous background.

figure–ground distortion

figure–ground distortion the interference of an object’s background with the perception of the object itself, rendering the viewer unable to focus on the object.

file-drawer analysis

file-drawer analysis a statistical procedure for addressing the file-drawer problem by computing the number of unretrieved studies, averaging an effect size of .00, that would have to exist in file drawers before the overall results of a meta-analysis would become nonsignificant at p > .05, that is, would exceed an acceptable probability level (.05) of occurring by chance. A small computed value indicates a weak finding, that may just be due to chance. Conversely, a large value suggests that the finding is rather robust, as it would take a large number of nonsignificant findings to provide enough evidence to refute the results.

file-drawer problem

file-drawer problem the fact that a large proportion of all studies actually conducted are not available for review because they remain unpublished in “file drawers,” having failed to obtain positive results. Thus, the results of a meta-analysis may not yield reliable effect size estimates since only studies that have been published or otherwise are widely available to researchers can be included in the analysis. See file-drawer analysis.

filial anxiety

filial anxiety fear and apprehension in children caused by their relationships with their parents, often in anticipation of caregiving responsibility by adult children of older parents.

filial generation

filial generation any of the successive generations of descent from an original parental generation. The immediate descendants of the initial parents are the first filial generation (denoted F1), their descendants are the second filial generation (denoted F2), and so on.

filial imprinting

filial imprinting a process in which a young animal develops a strong bond with and learns to recognize its parent (see imprinting).

filial maturity

filial maturity a mutual caring relationship between adult children and older parents, involving an understanding of each other’s needs, responsibilities, and desires. [proposed by U.S. social worker Margaret Blenkner (1909–1973)]

filial responsibility

filial responsibility a sense of duty toward family members, with particular reference to child–parent obligations. Also called filial duty.

filicide

filicide n. the intentional killing of one’s children, a very rare event that is sometimes associated with severe major depressive disorder or certain psychotic disorders. Cultural and socioeconomic factors may also contribute.

filiform papillae

filiform papillae the most common of the four types of papillae, covering most of the surface of the human tongue and giving that organ its rough surface. They have no taste buds and are not involved in gustation.

fill-in questions

fill-in questions a testing method in which students are provided with incomplete sentences relating to concepts or terms and are required to supply the missing words or phrases.

filled-space illusion

filled-space illusion a source of distortion in estimating distance: Estimates increase as a linear function of the number of intervening points (as on a map).

film color

film color a filmlike, texture-free soft color that lacks localization, as contrasted with the color of a surface, which is an example of object color.

filopodium

filopodium n. (pl. filopodia) a very fine, tubular outgrowth from a cell, for example, from the growth cone of a neuron.

filter

filter n. 1. a device or material that allows some elements of a mixture (e.g., of light, a liquid, or a gas) to pass through but not others. In acoustics, a low-pass filter passes all components below a specified cut-off frequency while attenuating higher frequencies, thus altering the amplitude spectrum of the input; a high-pass filter performs the opposite spectral alteration. A bandpass filter transmits the range of frequencies (passband) lying between specified high-pass and low-pass cut-off frequencies. 2. a hypothetical construct applied to cognitive channels of information that allow only certain aspects of a stimulus to pass into sensory consciousness. Filter metaphors aim to explain the ability to focus selectively on local and precise aspects of the environment (e.g., a conversation in a noisy room). 3. any analytical procedure used in time-series analysis to remove fluctuations from the data and separate out its trend and cyclical components.

filter theory

filter theory 1. an early theory of attention proposing that unattended channels of information are filtered prior to identification. This theory continues to be influential in the form of its successor, the attenuation theory. See also early-selection theory. [proposed in 1958 by Donald E. Broadbent] 2. any explanation of mate selection that postulates a series of steps that rule out more and more potential mates until only one is left.

filtered speech

filtered speech words that have been filtered to allow only specific frequency bands to pass through. Filtered speech is presented to the ear at a comfortably loud level to measure auditory processing abilities. See also distorted speech test.

FIM

FIM abbreviation for Functional Independence Measure.

fimbria

fimbria n. (pl. fimbriae) 1. a structure that resembles a fringe. 2. the band of white matter along the medial edge of the ventricular surface of the hippocampus. Also called fimbria hippocampi.

final cause

final cause see cause.

final common path

final common path see motor neuron.

final free recall

final free recall an unexpected test of memory given at the end of a memory assessment session, asking the individual to recall all of the materials that were studied and tested in the session.

finasteride

finasteride n. see antiandrogen.

fine motor

fine motor describing activities or skills that require coordination of small muscles to control small, precise movements, particularly in the hands and face. Examples of fine motor skills include handwriting, drawing, cutting, and manipulating small objects. Compare gross motor.

fine tremor

fine tremor see tremor.

finger agnosia

finger agnosia see tactile agnosia.

Finger Localization Test

Finger Localization Test a 60-item neuropsychological test consisting of three parts: (a) The participant is asked to identify which finger is touched by the examiner; (b) the participant is blindfolded or otherwise prevented from using vision and then asked to identify which finger is touched; and (c) the participant again is blindfolded or otherwise prevented from using vision and then asked to identify which two fingers are simultaneously touched. Each hand is tested in each part of the test, which is scored for the number of correct identifications. It currently appears in a variety of forms and as part of several neuropsychological test batteries. Also called Tactile Finger Recognition. [originally developed in 1983 by Arthur L. Benton and colleagues]

Finger Oscillation Test

Finger Oscillation Test see Finger Tapping Test.

Finger Tapping Test

Finger Tapping Test a measure of fine motor speed in which the individual taps an index finger as quickly as possible against a response key. The test is part of the Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery. It was originally called the Finger Oscillation Test.

fingerspelling

fingerspelling n. the representation of the letters of the alphabet by shapes formed with the hand. Fingerspelling is used in conjunction with sign language to spell names and other words for which conventional signs do not exist. Many different manual alphabets are available, including the one-handed American Manual Alphabet, which is used in the United States and Canada, and the two-handed British Manual Alphabet, used in Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand, each specifying distinct shapes for the different letters.

finite-state grammar

finite-state grammar a simple model of generative grammar discussed by Noam Chomsky in his Syntactic Structures (1957). In this model, it is supposed that the grammar generates sentences one unit at a time in strict linear sequence (i.e., working from left to right); once the first unit has been selected, the choice of subsequent units will be circumscribed at each stage by the sum of the previous choices. Chomsky presented this model, with its obvious inadequacy as an account of sentence generation, to demonstrate the need for the more complex explanations provided by phrase-structure grammar and especially by transformational generative grammar. Psychological interest in finite-state grammar stems largely from its similarity to certain principles of behaviorism and operationalism.

FINST theory

FINST theory a theory of visual attention that posits a preconceptual mechanism by which a small number of items in the visual field (usually about four) are “indexed”—that is, marked out as discrete—so that they can be accessed by higher order cognitive functions at subsequent stages of processing. The name is a contraction of fingers of instantiation: The visual indexes are proposed to aid orientation and tracking in a manner analogous to physical fingers. Also called visual indexing theory. [proposed in 1989 by Canadian cognitive scientist and philosopher Zenon W. Pylyshyn (1937– )]

fire-setting behavior

fire-setting behavior a tendency to set fires. In young children, the behavior is often associated with curiosity and a lack of understanding of the consequences. In older children and adults, it is associated with a variety of disorders, such as conduct disorder, schizophrenia, and antisocial personality disorder. See also pyromania.

FIRO theory

FIRO theory acronym for fundamental interpersonal relations orientation theory.

FIRO-B

FIRO-B abbreviation for Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–Behavior Scale.

first admission

first admission a patient admitted for the first time to a mental institution.

first cranial nerve

first cranial nerve see olfactory nerve.

first impression

first impression one’s initial perception of another person, typically involving a positive or negative evaluation as well as a sense of physical and psychological characteristics. Such impressions are based on the earliest information received about a person, often through a direct encounter, and tend to persist, even in the face of later information that outside observers would consider inconsistent with the initial perception. That is, there is a primacy effect in the impression formation. Some theoretical analyses account for this effect by holding that the first received information is given greater weight in the perceiver’s mind than is the later information; others propose that the initial information shapes the meaning subsequently given to the later information.

first moment

first moment see moment.

first quartile

first quartile see quartile.

first sleep

first sleep see segmented sleep.

first-degree relative

first-degree relative a parent, sibling, son, or daughter. Compare second-degree relative.

first-episode schizophrenia

first-episode schizophrenia the first time that the criteria for a diagnosis of schizophrenia are met in an individual. First episodes are considered to be a critically important period during which prompt management of symptoms through drug treatment and psychosocial intervention can improve the course of the illness and mitigate its long-term impact on the individual.

first-generation antipsychotic

first-generation antipsychotic see antipsychotic.

first-impression bias

first-impression bias see primacy effect.

first-line medication

first-line medication a drug that is the first choice for treating a particular condition because it is considered a very effective treatment for that condition with the least likelihood of causing side effects. A first-line medication may be a class of drugs (e.g., SSRIs for depression) as well as a single drug.

first-order factor

first-order factor in factor analysis, any of the latent variables (factors) that are derived from the correlation (or covariance) among the manifest variables, as opposed to second-order factors, which are determined from the correlation (or covariance) among the factors. Also called primary factor.

first-order interaction

first-order interaction an effect in which the pattern of values on one variable changes depending on the combination of values on two other variables. For example, an analysis could reveal that although gender and teaching style may each have some effect on performance, the specific degree or amount of the performance effect changes depending on the particular combination of gender and teaching method. Thus, male students may show moderately high performance regardless of teaching style, whereas female students may show high performance with a hands-on teaching style and low to moderate performance with a lecture teaching style. See also higher order interaction.

first-order neuron

first-order neuron the first neuron in a chain or tract of neurons. For example, in the somatosensory system, a first-order neuron receives peripheral input (e.g., sensations from the skin) and transmits it to the spinal cord. See also second-order neuron.

first-person perspective

first-person perspective the subjective point of view of a particular individual. Compare second-person perspective; third-person perspective.

first-person perspective memory

first-person perspective memory see field memory.

first-rank symptoms

first-rank symptoms symptoms originally proposed by German psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (1887–1967) for the differential diagnosis of schizophrenia. They are audible thoughts; hearing voices arguing or commenting on one’s actions; thought withdrawal, diffusion, and other disturbances; delusional perceptions; somatic passivity (experiencing external forces as influencing or controlling one’s body); and other external impositions on feelings, inputs, and actions. It is now known that these symptoms can also occur in other psychotic disorders, in mood disorders, and in neurological disorders. Compare second-rank symptoms.

fishbowl technique

fishbowl technique a procedure used in a growth group in which participants form two concentric circles. The individuals in the inner group (the fishbowl) engage in a discussion or other form of interaction while the members in the outer group observe. When the interaction has concluded, the outer group provides information and feedback to the inner group. Later, the groups may exchange places and repeat the exercise.

Fisher exact test

Fisher exact test a statistical procedure to determine whether two categorical variables are related. Appropriate for small samples, it examines the associations between the rows and columns of data in a fourfold (2 × 2) contingency table. For example, the Fisher exact test could be used to assess whether there is a relationship between gender (male or female) and pizza topping preference (cheese or multitopping) in a group of 20 individuals. [Ronald Aylmer Fisher]

Fisher least significant difference test

Fisher least significant difference test a statistical procedure to compare pairs of means, conducted after an F test has revealed that at least one pair of means is significantly different. The test calculates the smallest value that would be significantly different from chance when subtracting one mean from another mean. If the absolute value of the actual difference between a pair of means is larger than this least significant difference (LSD), a researcher can reject a null hypothesis that the means are equal and conclude that they are significantly different. Also called protected t test. [Ronald Aylmer Fisher]

Fisher’s r to z transformation

Fisher’s r to z transformation a statistical procedure that converts a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient to a standardized z score in order to assess whether the correlation is statistically different from zero. The test is useful in providing a normally distributed statistic (called the Fisher transformed value or Fisher’s z) that can be used in hypothesis testing or in forming a confidence interval. Also called Fisher transformation; Fisher z transformation; z transformation. [Ronald Aylmer Fisher]

fission

fission n. 1. in biology, the reproduction of a cell or unicellular organism by splitting into two independent parts. 2. in audition, the separation of two simultaneous sounds into separate perceptual streams or auditory objects. When two streams are perceived as one, auditory fusion is said to occur (see also fusion).

fissure

fissure n. a cleft, groove, or indentation in a surface, especially any of the deep grooves in the cerebral cortex. See also sulcus.

fissure of Rolando

fissure of Rolando see central sulcus. [Luigi Rolando (1773–1831), Italian anatomist]

fissure of Sylvius

fissure of Sylvius see lateral sulcus. [Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672), Dutch physician and anatomist]

fistula

fistula n. an abnormal passageway between two internal organs or between an internal organ and the outside of the body. A fistula may develop as a result of an injury or infection, as a congenital defect, or as a result of a surgical procedure. Sexual violence may result in traumatic fistula (or traumatic gynecologic fistula).

fit

fit 1. n. the degree to which values predicted by a model correspond with empirically observed values. For example, in structural equation modeling, a researcher may want to see how well his or her hypothesized model of the relationships among a set of variables actually fits the variation and covariation in the data. 2. n. a lay term for an epileptic seizure. 3. n. a colloquial name for an emotional outburst. 4. adj. see fitness. FIT abbreviation for feature-integration theory.

FIT

fit index

fit index a quantitative measure of how well a statistical model corresponds to the variation and covariation in a set of data. An index value greater than .90 (or preferably .95) indicates a model that explains the pattern of relationships in the data reasonably well. If the fit of a model is poor, then the model needs to be respecified and then reanalyzed. See goodness of fit.

Fit to Win Health Promotion Program

Fit to Win Health Promotion Program a U.S. Department of Defense educational program designed to promote health in Army personnel by reducing behavioral risk factors, such as smoking, excessive alcohol intake, and overconsumption of fatty foods.

fitness

fitness n. 1. a set of attributes that people have or are able to achieve relating to their ability to perform physical work and to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue, and with ample energy to enjoy leisure pursuits. 2. in biology, the extent to which an organism or population is able to produce viable offspring in a given environment or ecological niche, which is a measure of that organism’s or population’s adaptation to that environment. Compare unfitness. See Darwinian fitness; inclusive fitness; reproductive success. —fit adj.

fitness for duty evaluation (FFDE)

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Fitts movement task

Fitts movement task a motor-skills test that illustrates the relationship between speed and accuracy of movement. If a participant is asked to tap a pencil 20 times within the outline of a circle (the discrete version of the test), more pencil marks will fall outside the circle when the participant is asked to do the task quickly than when urged to be accurate. If a participant is asked to tap a pencil 20 times alternating between two circular outlines a fixed distance apart (the continuous version), accuracy will be similarly decreased. In current practice, the discrete version is almost always used in basic research, because the modeling issues are more straightforward, and the continuous version is usually used in neuropsychological testing and other more applied settings. The relationship between speed and accuracy for movement is formalized as Fitts’s law. [Paul Morris Fitts (1912–1965), U.S. psychologist]

Fitts’s law

Fitts’s law the principle of motor control that activities that are performed more quickly tend to be done less accurately (see speed–accuracy tradeoff). It is formulated as MT = a + b f(DW), observed under a wide array of conditions to relate movement time (MT) linearly to a function f(DW) of the ratio of movement distance (D) and target size (W). [Paul Morris Fitts]

five-factor personality model (FFM)

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five-number summary

five-number summary in exploratory data analysis, the characterization of a data set through the use of five summary statistics: the two extreme scores, the upper and lower quartiles, and the median or middle quartile. For example, suppose the scores on a test are 100, 93, 90, 82, 76, 72, 64, 61, 60, and 47. The five-number summary from highest to lowest numbers would be 100, 90, 74, 61, and 47—that is, 100 is the highest extreme score, 90 is the highest quartile (the midpoint in the top half of the data), 74 is the middle point, 61 is the lowest quartile (the midpoint in the bottom half of the data), and 47 is the lowest extreme score. These values provide the basic highlights of a set of data and can be used to create a box-and-whisker plot.

five-to-seven shift

five-to-seven shift the striking progress in children’s cognitive development between the ages of 5 and 7, when very significant advances in such areas as reasoning and logic, linguistic ability, memory, and problem solving occur. [introduced in 1965 by Sheldon H. White]

fixation

fixation n. 1. an obsessive preoccupation with a single idea, impulse, or aim, as in an idée fixe. 2. a shortened name for visual fixation. 3. in psychoanalytic theory, the persistence of an early stage of psychosexual development or the inappropriate attachment to an early psychosexual object or mode of gratification, such as anal or oral activity; this fixation limits the person’s ability to negotiate the tasks of later psychosexual stages. —fixate vb.

fixation pause

fixation pause a period during which the eyes are focused directly on an object.

fixation point

fixation point the point in space on which the eyes are focused. In experimental studies of visual perception, a specific fixation point is often provided while vision is tested in some other location in the visual field.

fixation reflex

fixation reflex a reflexive orienting of the eyes to maintain fixation on a target. It involves cortical and subcortical regions. Also called fixation response. See optokinetic reflex; vestibulo-ocular reflex.

fixed action pattern (FAP)

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fixed belief

fixed belief see idée fixe.

fixed class society

fixed class society a society with very little or no social mobility, as in the Hindu caste system. Compare open class society.

fixed effect

fixed effect an independent variable whose levels are specified by the researcher rather than randomly chosen within some level of permissible values. For example, a health researcher who specifically chose to examine the effect on weight loss of no exercise, 1 hour of exercise, or 3 hours of exercise per week would be treating time spent exercising as a fixed effect. In other words, all levels of interest are included in the design, and thus anyone wanting to replicate the study would have to use the same levels of exercise as in the original. Also called fixed factor. See fixed-effects model; random-effects model. Compare random effect.

fixed factor

fixed factor see fixed effect.

fixed idea

fixed idea see idée fixe.

fixed parameter

fixed parameter a specific value assigned (as opposed to estimated) by a researcher when testing a statistical model. For example, in structural equation modeling, researchers may use a fixed parameter of 1.0 for one of the factor loadings or variances of each latent variable in a model. Compare free parameter.

fixed variable

fixed variable a variable whose value is specified by a researcher or otherwise predetermined and not the result of chance. Compare random variable.

fixed-alternative question

fixed-alternative question a test or survey item in which several possible responses are given and participants are asked to pick the correct response or the one that best matches their preference. An example of a fixed-alternative question is “Which of the following most closely corresponds to your age: 12 or younger, 13 to 19, 20 to 39, 40 to 59, 60 to 79, or 80 or older?” A fixed-alternative question is sometimes referred to as a closed question, although this can also refer to any inquiry requesting a short definite answer (e.g., “How old are you?”). Also called fixed-choice question; forced-choice question; multiple-choice question. Compare free-response question; open question.

fixed-effects analysis of variance

fixed-effects analysis of variance a statistical procedure to determine whether means for an outcome or dependent variable differ across a specific set of conditions (i.e., levels of the independent variable) that have been selected by a researcher. This is contrasted with a random-effects analysis of variance, in which the conditions have been randomly selected from a wide range of possible choices before any mean differences are examined.

fixed-effects model

fixed-effects model any statistical procedure or experimental design that uses independent variables whose levels are specifically selected by the researcher for study rather than randomly chosen from a wide range of possible values. For example, a researcher may wish to investigate the effects of the available dosages of a certain drug on symptom alleviation. Fixed-effects models generally are intended to make inferences solely about the specific levels of the independent variables actually used in the experiment. Compare mixed-effects model; random-effects model.

fixed-interval schedule (FI schedule)

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fixed-ratio schedule (FR schedule)

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fixed-time schedule (FT schedule)

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fixedness

fixedness n. in problem solving, see functional fixedness.

FJA

FJA abbreviation for functional job analysis.

flaccid paralysis

flaccid paralysis a condition resulting from damage to lower motor neurons and marked by loss of muscle tone and absence of tendon reflexes. Compare spastic paralysis.

flagellation

flagellation n. whipping another person or oneself or submitting to whipping. Flagellation may be a form of penitence (as a religious ritual) or a means of achieving sexual excitement. Flagellation is a common practice among those who engage in bondage and discipline. Also called flagellantism.

flanker task

flanker task a task in which stimuli are assigned one of two responses and the participant is required to respond to the target stimulus when this is flanked by other stimuli. The stimuli are presented at a known location (usually at fixation), and the flanking stimuli are associated with a response that is either the same as or different from that assigned to the target. Reaction time is slower if the stimuli flanking the target are assigned the alternative response than if they are assigned the same response as the target. This is known as the flanker compatibility effect. Also called Eriksen flankers task. [devised by U.S. psychologist Charles W. Eriksen (1923– )]

flapping tremor

flapping tremor see asterixis.

flash card

flash card one of a series of small pieces of cardboard or paper with questions and answers written or printed on them, used as a learning aid. Often, a question is on the front of the flash card and the answer is on the back. A student reads the question, gives an answer, and then is able to turn the card over to see the correct answer. Flash cards are commonly used in rapid succession and aid memorization of a fact or concept.

flashback

flashback n. 1. the reliving of a traumatic event after at least some initial adjustment to the trauma appears to have been made. Memories may be triggered by words, sounds, smells, or scenes that are reminiscent of the original trauma (as in a backfiring car triggering a flashback to being in combat). Flashbacks may be associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. 2. the spontaneous recurrence of the perceptual distortions and disorientation to time and place experienced during a previous period of hallucinogen intoxication. Flashbacks may occur months or even years after the last use of the drug and are associated particularly with LSD.

flashbulb memory

flashbulb memory a vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally significant and emotional event, often including such details as where the individual was or what he or she was doing at the time of the event. People often believe that such memories have the quality of a photograph taken at the moment they experienced the event, and they believe with high confidence that these memories are accurate. However, recent research has shown that although flashbulb memories are more likely to be retained than the memory of an everyday event, they are not always accurate. [first described in 1977 by U.S. psychologists Roger Brown and James Kulik (1940– ) in their study of people’s recollection of public events, such as U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s assassination]

flat affect

flat affect total or near absence of appropriate emotional responses to situations and events. See also shallow affect.

flat organizational structure

flat organizational structure an organization in which there are relatively few levels of management.

flavor

flavor n. a sensation produced by a combination of aroma, taste, texture, and temperature and involving olfactory, gustatory, and tactile sense organs.

flehmen

flehmen n. a distinctive posture of nonhuman animals in which the head is raised and lips curled (from German, “to bare the upper teeth”), often accompanied by a snort or deep inhalation of air. Flehmen serves to deliver chemical cues to the vomeronasal system, an accessory olfactory organ that appears specialized to process species-specific olfactory cues. Flehmen is often seen in male ungulates inspecting female urine to determine if the female is in estrus.

Flesch index

Flesch index a system used for evaluating readability and reading level of a document by examining word and sentence length, vocabulary, and phrases. [Rudolph Flesch (1911–1986), U.S. philologist and psychologist]

Flexeril

Flexeril n. a trade name for cyclobenzaprine.

flexibilitas cerea

flexibilitas cerea see catalepsy.

flexible correction model

flexible correction model a theory postulating that corrections to bias in judgments occur when people are motivated and able to adjust their assessments of targets according to their naive theories of how the context influences their judgments. This may result in either assimilation or contrast effects depending on their perceptions of the magnitude and direction of bias. See also inclusion/exclusion model; set/reset model. [proposed by U.S. social psychologists Duane T. Wegener (1966– ) and Richard E. Petty (1951– )]

flexion

flexion n. the bending of a joint in a limb (e.g., the elbow joint) so that two parts of the limb (e.g., the forearm and upper arm) are brought toward each other.

flexion reflex

flexion reflex the abrupt withdrawal of a limb in response to painful stimulation. Compare extension reflex.

flexor

flexor n. a muscle whose contraction bends a part of the body, such as the biceps muscle of the upper arm. Compare extensor.

flextime

flextime n. an arrangement that gives employees a certain amount of discretion over when they arrive at and leave work, provided that an agreed period of core hours is spent in the workplace. Flextime allows workers to adjust their work schedules to nonwork demands, such as parental responsibilities. Also called flexitime.

flicker discrimination

flicker discrimination the ability to perceive a change in brightness of a light source. The ability varies with the frequency of alternating changes in brightness until critical flicker frequency is reached, when the observer sees an apparently steady level of brightness.

flicker fusion frequency

flicker fusion frequency see critical flicker frequency.

flicker stimulus

flicker stimulus a periodically changing visual or auditory stimulus that produces a rapidly alternating sensation.

flight

flight n. 1. a form of locomotion that allows some animals (notably birds, bats, and insects) to become airborne and travel varying distances. It has several forms: active flight, gliding, and hovering. Bones of flying vertebrates must be light and rigid. Flight is used for escaping danger, locating food, and migrating from one location to another as seasons change (see migration). 2. rapid departure as a means of escape from danger, whether by flying or some other form of locomotion. See also fight-or-flight response.

flight from reality

flight from reality a defensive reaction involving withdrawal into inactivity, detachment, or fantasy as an unconscious defense against anxiety-provoking situations. This may be expressed as a number of defensive behaviors, such as rationalization, daydreaming, or substance abuse. It may include a retreat into psychotic behavior as a means of avoiding real or imagined problems. Also called retreat from reality. See also escape from reality. Compare flight into fantasy; flight into reality.

flight into disease

flight into disease see flight into illness.

flight into fantasy

flight into fantasy a defensive reaction in which individuals experiencing disturbing thoughts and impulses retreat into fantasy (e.g., through daydreams) as a means of avoiding harming themselves or others by acting on these impulses. In this way, they can maintain control over their impulses. Compare flight from reality; flight into reality.

flight into health

flight into health in psychotherapy, an abrupt “recuperation” by a prospective client after or during intake interviews and before entry into therapy proper or, more commonly, by a client in ongoing therapy in order to avoid further confrontation with cognitive, emotional, or behavioral problems. Psychoanalytic theory interprets the flight into health as an unconscious defense mechanism. Also called transference cure; transference remission.

flight into illness

flight into illness 1. a tendency to focus on or exaggerate minor physical complaints as an unconscious means of avoiding stressful situations and feelings. 2. in psychotherapy, the sudden development of neurotic or physical symptoms by a client or prospective client. Psychoanalytic theory interprets this as an unconscious defense mechanism that is used to avoid examination of a deeper underlying conflict. Also called escape into illness; flight into disease.

flight into reality

flight into reality a defensive reaction in which an individual becomes overinvolved in activity and work as an unconscious means of avoiding threatening situations or painful thoughts and feelings. Compare flight from reality; flight into fantasy.

flight of colors

flight of colors a succession of colored afterimages seen following exposure to a brief intense flash of light in a dark environment.

flight of ideas

flight of ideas a rapid, continuous succession of superficially related thoughts and ideas, manifest as hurried speech with frequent abrupt shifts in topic. A common symptom of a manic episode, such disturbed thinking occasionally is seen in other disorders as well, including schizophrenia.

floaters

floaters pl. n. see detached retina.

floating-limb response

floating-limb response in standard hypnotic inductions, a positive response to the suggestion to allow the hand and arm to float upward. See also Kohnstamm test.

floccillation

floccillation n. aimless grasping and plucking at clothing or bedding, typically associated with dementia, delirium, and high fever. It is sometimes a sign of extreme exhaustion and is considered a serious symptom, often associated with a poor prognosis. Also called carphology.

flocculonodular lobe

flocculonodular lobe one of the divisions of the cerebellum, lying below the posterior lobe. The flocculonodular lobe projects to the vestibular nuclei of the brainstem and is mainly involved with vestibular functions (posture and eye movements).

flocking

flocking n. the grouping of birds due to social attraction and interaction. It is related to colonial nesting (see colonial species) and contrasts with aggregation, which is due to some independent factor. The equivalent of flocking in mammals is known as herding (see herd instinct).

flooding

flooding n. a technique in behavior therapy in which the individual is exposed directly to a maximum-intensity anxiety-producing situation or stimulus, either described or real, without any attempt made to lessen or avoid anxiety or fear during the exposure. An individual with claustrophobia, for example, might be asked to spend extended periods of time in a small room. Flooding techniques aim to diminish or extinguish the undesired response to a feared situation or stimulus and are used primarily in the treatment of individuals with phobias and similar disorders. It is distinct from systematic desensitization, which involves a gradual, step-by-step approach to encountering the feared situation or stimulus while attempting throughout to maintain a nonanxious state. See also implosive therapy.

floor effect

floor effect the situation in which a large proportion of participants perform very poorly on a task or other evaluative measure, thus skewing the distribution of scores and making it impossible to differentiate among the many individuals at that low level. For example, a test whose items are too difficult for those taking it would show a floor effect because most people would obtain or be close to the lowest possible score of 0. Compare ceiling effect.

floral

floral adj. denoting one of the seven classes of odorants in the stereochemical smell theory.

flotation tank

flotation tank an enclosed container filled with water (usually highly concentrated salt water) and insulated from all incoming stimuli (e.g., light, sound). It is used for both experimental and clinical purposes (see restricted environmental stimulation technique; sensory deprivation). Originally called isolation tank; sensory deprivation tank. [developed by U.S. physician John C. Lilly (1915–2001)]

flotation-REST

flotation-REST n. see restricted environmental stimulation technique.

flourishing

flourishing n. a condition denoting good mental and physical health: the state of being free from illness and distress but, more important, of being filled with vitality and functioning well in one’s personal and social life. Compare languishing. —flourish vb.

flow

flow n. a state of optimal experience arising from intense involvement in an activity that is enjoyable, such as playing a sport, performing a musical passage, or writing a creative piece. Flow arises when one’s skills are fully utilized yet equal to the demands of the task, intrinsic motivation is at a peak, one loses self-consciousness and temporal awareness, and one has a sense of total control, effortlessness, and complete concentration on the immediate situation (the here and now). [proposed in 1990 by Hungarian-born U.S. psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1934– )]

flow pattern

flow pattern see optic flow.

flower-spray ending

flower-spray ending a type of nerve-fiber ending at the thin ends of a muscle spindle in which the fiber branches out across the surface of the spindle. Also called secondary sensory ending. Compare annulospiral ending.

flowery

flowery adj. denoting one of the primary odor qualities in Henning’s odor prism.

fluctuating asymmetry

fluctuating asymmetry the degree to which the symmetry of body parts of individuals varies from the norm for a given species. This provides information to others about the relative health or well-being of an individual: It is assumed that those with more symmetrical bodies are healthier and more vigorous than those with more asymmetry. Thus, fluctuating asymmetry is an important cue in mate-selection decisions.

fluctuation

fluctuation n. 1. variation in size or value. 2. a slight change that is associated with environmental factors rather than being an inherited trait. 3. in time-series analyses, an irregularity that is not related to any trend and is thus often removed via smoothing.

fluctuation of attention

fluctuation of attention the tendency for objects or stimuli to pass in and out of attention even though stimulation is constant.

fluctuation of perception

fluctuation of perception a tendency for perception to alternate between competing stimuli that cannot be integrated or synthesized. See bistable perceptual events.

fluency

fluency n. 1. the ability to generate ideas, words, mental associations, or potential solutions to a problem with ease and rapidity. It is usually considered to be an important dimension of creativity. See associative fluency. 2. facility in speaking or writing, as in a language that is not one’s native language. —fluent adj.

fluent aphasia

fluent aphasia see aphasia.

fluent speech

fluent speech speech that is essentially normal in quantity, stress, pitch, rhythm, and intonation.

fluid intelligence (fluid ability)

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flumazenil

flumazenil n. a drug used for the emergency reversal of symptoms of benzodiazepine overdose and in anesthesia to reverse benzodiazepine-induced sedation. It acts by displacing benzodiazepine (which acts as a GABA agonist) from binding sites on the GABA receptor complex (see benzodiazepine antagonist; GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor). Because it is a short-acting agent, multiple doses may be required. It is not effective in managing benzodiazepine dependence, because its rapid action may precipitate a sudden withdrawal syndrome, nor does it antagonize the central nervous system effects of other GABA agonists (e.g., barbiturates) or reverse their effects. U.S. trade name: Romazicon.

flunitrazepam

flunitrazepam n. a benzodiazepine that is legally prescribed in some countries (but not the United States) for the short-term treatment of insomnia and as a preanesthetic medication. It is also used as a drug of abuse for its sedating and disinhibiting effects. When combined with alcohol, like many other CNS depressants, it can cause serious problems (see date-rape drug). Also known colloquially as roofie. Trade name: Rohypnol.

fluorescein angiography

fluorescein angiography a diagnostic procedure used to examine the retinal vasculature. A fluorescent compound, fluorescein, is injected into the systemic circulation; as it flows through the blood vessels on the surface of the retina, these are photographed with a special camera.

fluoxetine

fluoxetine n. an antidepressant that is the prototype of the SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). It acts by inhibiting the serotonin transporter, preventing reuptake of serotonin into the terminal button (see axon) of the presynaptic neuron. This presumably results in higher levels of available neurotransmitter to interact with postsynaptic receptors. Fluoxetine differs from other SSRIs in that it and its biologically active metabolic product, norfluoxetine, have a prolonged half-life of 5 to 7 days after a single dose; thus, it takes 20 to 35 days for the drug to reach steady-state concentrations. Like other SSRIs, it should not be used with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. U.S. trade names: Prozac; Sarafem.

fluphenazine

fluphenazine n. a high-potency antipsychotic of the piperazine phenothiazine class. It is as potent as haloperidol and has similar side effects, with neuromuscular and extrapyramidal symptoms predominating. Like haloperidol, it is also available in an oil-based injectable form. These so-called depot preparations are injected intramuscularly and are very slowly absorbed, allowing periods of several weeks between doses. U.S. trade name: Prolixin.

flurazepam

flurazepam n. a benzodiazepine derivative used in the short-term treatment of insomnia. U.S. trade name: Dalmane.

flutamide

flutamide n. see antiandrogen.

flutter

flutter n. see roughness.

flutter dysmetria

flutter dysmetria see ocular flutter.

fluttering hearts

fluttering hearts a visual illusion in which figures of one color (typically red), presented on a background of the same brightness but a different color (typically blue), will appear to dance when the whole image is moved. The different response speeds of the retinal cones encoding the two colors is thought to be the basis of this illusion.

fluvoxamine

fluvoxamine n. a potent SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor). Although its mechanism of action and antidepressant efficacy match those of other SSRIs, it is approved for and largely marketed for treating obsessive-compulsive disorder (see also clomipramine) and social anxiety disorder. U.S. trade name: Luvox.

fly agaric

fly agaric the highly poisonous mushroom Amanita muscaria, so called because it was once used as an insecticide to kill flies. Muscarine was the first active ingredient to be identified, but it is now known that ibotenic acid and its metabolite muscimol, which is similar in structure to the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and acts as a GABA agonist, are the principal active components. Effects on humans are initially stimulating, ranging from euphoria through hallucinations to hyperactivity or excitement, and then sedating, inducing deep sleep. Symptoms of poisoning include dizziness, abdominal pains, vomiting, muscle cramps, and movement difficulties; at higher doses, these symptoms may be followed by unconsciousness, asphyxiation, coma, and potentially death. Fly agaric has been variously identified as the substance taken by Norse berserkers before battle, as the plant soma worshipped in ancient times, and, in fiction, as the mushroom eaten by Alice before she perceived objects larger than life in Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland.

flying flies

flying flies see muscae volitantes.

Flynn effect

Flynn effect the gradual cross-cultural rise in raw scores obtained on measures of general intelligence. These increases have been roughly 9 points per generation (i.e., 30 years). The gains have been unequally distributed across the different kinds of abilities, with fluid abilities showing substantially greater gains than crystallized abilities (see Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence). [James Flynn (1934– ), New Zealand philosopher who first documented its occurrence]

FMEA

FMEA abbreviation for failure modes and effects analysis.

fMRI

fMRI abbreviation for functional magnetic resonance imaging.

fMRI measures of intelligence

fMRI measures of intelligence measures of intelligence yielded by functional magnetic resonance imaging methods, which enable investigators to obtain relatively precise indications of which part or parts of the brain are being utilized in the solution of a cognitive task. Thus, the typical goal is to pinpoint that part of the brain in which processing is taking place for a given task at a given point in information processing for that task.

FMS

FMS abbreviation for false memory syndrome.

focal attention

focal attention active concentration on particular stimuli to the exclusion of others. Information that is within one’s scope of attention is said to be in focal attention. Much research is devoted to determining the information capacity of focal attention and to understanding how it interacts with various memory systems after its capacity is exceeded. Also called focused attention. See also selective attention.

focal consciousness

focal consciousness those contents of experience that are the focus of attention at any given moment. The focal components of consciousness will typically be clear, discriminable, and detailed. Compare fringe consciousness.

focal degeneration

focal degeneration the development of a lesion or dysfunction in a specific area of the brain due to a degenerative process, such as dementia. The lesion may remain limited in focus or spread into neighboring regions.

focal dermal hypoplasia

focal dermal hypoplasia see Goltz syndrome.

focal length

focal length (symbol: f) the distance between the surface of a lens and the point at which it focuses the light passing through the lens.

focal lesion

focal lesion a lesion that is restricted to a specific area (e.g., of the brain).

focal motor seizure

focal motor seizure a simple partial seizure that results in motor abnormalities and is due to localized seizure activity in brain areas important for movement.

focal pathology

focal pathology the study of changes in body tissues and organs involved in a disease at the focal point of the diseased area.

focal psychotherapy

focal psychotherapy a form of brief psychotherapy in which a single problem (e.g., excessive anxiety) is made the target of the entire course of treatment. The therapist continually redirects the process to avoid deviations from this specifically identified aim.

focal seizure

focal seizure see partial seizure.

focal symptoms

focal symptoms symptoms limited to a specific area.

focus

focus n. the concentration or centering of attention on a stimulus.

focus gambling

focus gambling in a task that requires the generation of hypotheses about what combination of features defines a concept, a strategy in which the participant changes more than one feature from one hypothesis to the next. Focus gambling contrasts with the more conservative strategy of varying one feature at a time to determine its relevance to the concept. See concept-discovery task.

focus group

focus group a small set of people, typically 8 to 12 in number, who share characteristics (e.g., working parents with 5- to 8-year-old children) and are selected to discuss a topic of which they have personal experience (e.g., their children’s reading abilities and school performance). A leader conducts the discussion and keeps it on target while also encouraging free-flowing, open-ended debate. Originally used in marketing to determine consumer response to particular products, focus groups are now used for determining typical reactions, adaptations, and solutions to any number of issues, events, or topics and are associated particularly with qualitative research.

focus of attention

focus of attention that aspect of an internal or external event to which attention is directed.

focus of convenience

focus of convenience in the personality theory of George A. Kelly, the set of phenomena to which a given theory best applies.

focused attention

focused attention see focal attention.

focusing

focusing n. in experiential psychotherapy, a process in which the therapist guides a client to focus silently on the experience of a problem or symptom in a relaxed and nonjudgmental way, often with eyes closed. The client explores intuitively what the problem or symptom is about, without attempting to analyze or control thought processes. The method is believed to lead the client to deeper feelings and greater insight about and peace with the problem or symptom. [developed by U.S. philosopher and psychologist Eugene T. Gendlin (1926– )]

focusing effect

focusing effect the ostensible phenomenon in which performance is better for trials in which the target is the object of special attentional focus (perhaps because it has particular significance for the participant). The phenomenon is of particular interest in studies of extrasensory perception and psychokinesis. See also decline effect; differential effect; position effect; preferential effect; sheep–goat effect; Zener cards.

focusing mechanism

focusing mechanism the system of ciliary muscles, lens elasticity, and ocular-fluid pressure that enables the eye to focus an image sharply on the retina. The natural shape of the lens is spherical, which is required to focus near objects. When focusing distant objects, the lens is flattened by tension exerted on the zonules as the ciliary muscles are relaxed and by fluid pressure within the eye.

focusing power

focusing power the degree to which a converging lens causes parallel rays of light to be refracted (see refraction). A high focusing power will cause light to be focused to a point close to the lens; a low focusing power causes the light to be focused farther from the lens. The focusing power of a lens is measured in diopters. The magnification power of a lens indicates how many times an object is enlarged when viewed through the lens; for example, a 4× lens will produce an image four times the actual size of the object.

FOK

FOK abbreviation for feeling of knowing.

foliate papillae

foliate papillae swellings along the lateral margins (sides) of the tongue, in humans numbering 5 to 7 on each side, each shaped like a leaf. The groove between each pair of papillae contains about 100 taste buds. See also papilla.

folie à deux

folie à deux a rare psychotic disorder in which two intimately related individuals simultaneously share similar or identical delusions (French, “double insanity”). It is the most common form of shared psychotic disorder. Rarer forms involving more than two intimately related individuals or members of the same family are called folie à trois (a delusion shared by three people), folie à quatre (a delusion shared by four people), and so on.

folium

folium n. (pl. folia) a leaflike structure, especially one of the leaflike folds of the cerebellar cortex.

folk bilingualism

folk bilingualism a type of bilingualism associated mainly with working-class immigrant communities, in which the native language is primarily oral and its use is unsupported by formal education. Also called circumstantial bilingualism. Compare elite bilingualism.

folk medicine

folk medicine health and healing strategies based on cultural tradition, usually practiced by people within the culture who have experience in applying these remedies but no formal training. Folk medicine is most strongly associated with herbal remedies, but animal, mineral, and spiritual remedies also fall into this category. When folk medicine is used outside of its originating culture, it is considered part of complementary and alternative medicine. Also called traditional medicine.

folk psychology

folk psychology 1. the everyday, commonsense, implicit knowledge that enables the prediction or explanation of the behavior of others (and of oneself) by reference to the mental states involved. Although such an understanding is accepted in much of social and personality psychology, there are those who view it as illusory or mythological and hold its tenets unworthy of scientific consideration. In eliminativism, the term folk psychology is used pejoratively for any explanatory language that refers to mental states, such as beliefs and intentions, rather than to biological states. See also commonsense psychology; popular psychology. 2. an obsolete name for a branch of psychology that deals with the influence of specific cultural experiences (e.g., legends, religious rituals, indigenous healing practices) on human behavior and psychological constructs. It is essentially equivalent to modern cross-cultural psychology. 3. a branch of the psychological system of Wilhelm Wundt, who believed that an understanding of higher mental processes could be deduced from the study of such cultural products as language, history, myths, art, government, and customs. As such, it is the historical predecessor to modern multicultural psychology.

folk soul

folk soul in the folk psychology of Wilhelm Wundt, a group’s perpetual and fundamental characteristics, moralities, norms, and values, which cannot be explained solely in terms of the characteristics of the individual members of the group. Belief in a folk soul is usually seen as an example of the group fallacy. See also group mind.

folklore

folklore n. the body of beliefs, legends, tales, songs, and other traditions transmitted orally from generation to generation in a specific culture.

folkways

folkways pl. n. the traditional modes of behavior in a particular culture, society, or group.

follicle

follicle n. a cluster of cells enclosing, protecting, and nourishing a cell or structure within, such as a hair follicle or a graafian follicle. —follicular adj.

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

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follicular phase

follicular phase see menstrual cycle.

follow-back study

follow-back study research that collects earlier data in order to understand the causes of an event of interest. For example, a researcher might conduct a follow-back study of deceased hospital patients, gathering additional information regarding cause of death so as to understand the progress of different diseases.

follow-up counseling

follow-up counseling 1. the measures taken by a counselor or clinician in helping a client with ongoing problems or new manifestations of the original problems. 2. an evaluation of a client’s progress and the effectiveness of counseling to date.

follow-up history

follow-up history see catamnesis.

follow-up study

follow-up study a long-term research project designed to examine the degree to which effects seen shortly after the imposition of an intervention persist over time. Follow-up studies are also used for the long-term study of participants in a laboratory experiment to examine the degree to which effects of the experimental conditions are lasting.

follow-up test

follow-up test see post hoc test.

following behavior

following behavior a species-specific trait of certain young animals that run or swim after a parent or surrogate parent. It is a manifestation of imprinting.

Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination

Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination see Mini-Mental State Examination.

fontanel (fontanelle)

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food addiction

food addiction an eating disturbance characterized by a preoccupation with one’s body image and weight, obsessive thoughts about food, the use of food as a source of pleasure, and compulsive eating. In addition, the individual may experience symptoms of withdrawal during attempts to reduce food intake or abstain from particular types of food. See also binge-eating disorder; bulimia nervosa.

food caching

food caching the hiding or storing of food by a nonhuman animal for later use. Clark’s nutcracker, a bird of the southwestern United States, is said to cache up to 30,000 pine nuts each year and to retrieve enough of these to survive over winter. Food-caching birds have good spatial memory and an enlarged hippocampus. See hoarding.

food faddism

food faddism any dietary practice based on exaggerated and often incorrect beliefs about the effects of food or nutrition on health, particularly for the prevention or cure of illness. This is often expressed as strange or inappropriate eating habits and the adoption of cult diets; it may lead to unhealthy weight loss or side effects arising from poor nutrition. It is sometimes associated with eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa.

food-intake regulation

food-intake regulation the ability to adjust daily intake of calories and other nutrients according to the temperature of the environment, energy expended at various tasks, and other factors, so that calorie intake and calorie loss, as well as other nutritional components (e.g., proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals), are constantly in balance. Food-intake regulation is one example of homeostasis.

foot anesthesia

foot anesthesia see stocking anesthesia.

foot drop

foot drop a characteristic of certain neuromuscular disorders in which the muscles that control movement of the foot or toes are weakened or paralyzed. The affected foot may fall toward and slap against the floor or ground, or the affected toes may tilt forward and drag along the floor or ground.

foot fetishism

foot fetishism a form of fetishism in which sexual excitement is achieved through contact with or masturbation near a shoe or foot. Shoes or feet are among the most common varieties of fetish, but there is little understanding of why this occurs. The condition is also called retifism, named for French writer Nicolas-Edme Rétif (1734–1806), also known as Rétif de la Bretonne, who is said to have had a sexual interest in women’s footwear.

foot-candle

foot-candle n. a former unit of illuminance now replaced by the lux (1 foot-candle = 10.764 lux). Average street lights are approximately 1 foot-candle.

foot-in-the-door technique

foot-in-the-door technique a two-step procedure for enhancing compliance in which a minor initial request is presented immediately before a more substantial target request. Agreement to the initial request makes people more likely to agree to the target request than would have been the case if the latter had been presented on its own. See also door-in-the-face technique; low-ball technique; that’s-not-all technique.

footedness

footedness n. preferential use of one foot rather than the other, for example, in kicking. See handedness; lateralization.

foraging

foraging n. the process of searching for, locating, capturing, and processing food for ingestion or for provisioning young. For example, fruit-eating animals must locate trees containing fruit ripe enough to eat and often process the fruit by removing husks or seeds prior to ingestion. Optimal foraging theory provides a framework for predicting the costs and benefits of different decisions about where to forage and for how long.

foramen

foramen n. (pl. foramina) an anatomical opening or hole, particularly in a bone. For example, the foramen magnum is a large opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord and the vertebral arteries pass.

foramen of Monro

foramen of Monro see interventricular foramen. [Alexander Monro Jr. (1733–1817), Scottish anatomist]

foraminotomy

foraminotomy n. the surgical enlargement of one of the foramina (openings) between adjacent vertebrae through which a spinal nerve passes, usually by enlarging the opening above the nerve root. The procedure is done to relieve nerve pressure, such as that causing lower back pain.

force field

force field in field theory, the totality at any instant of coexisting factors that influence change (e.g., behavioral change).

forced compliance effect

forced compliance effect the tendency of a person who has behaved in a way that contradicts his or her attitude to subsequently alter the attitude to be consistent with the behavior. It is one way of reducing cognitive dissonance. Also called induced compliance effect. See also dissonance reduction.

forced copulation

forced copulation copulation of a male with a female against her choice. In scorpion flies, males have several tactics for obtaining mates: Larger males can monopolize resources and offer food to females that accept copulation; smaller males without access to food can use forced copulation, which leads to much less reproductive success. See also rape.

forced distribution

forced distribution a rating system in which raters must make a prescribed number of entries for each level of the rating scale used. For example, in employee evaluation, a forced distribution might be used in which it is required that 5% of employees are categorized as poor, 15% as below average, 60% as average, 15% as above average, and 5% as excellent.

forced treatment

forced treatment therapy administered without the informed consent of the recipient, such as to an individual with a mental disorder. Forced treatment may include court-ordered administration of psychoactive drugs to a person to restore his or her competency to stand trial or the involuntary hospitalization of a person considered dangerous to himself or herself or others. Many question the ethical acceptability of the practice, citing its infringement of autonomy and the right to refuse treatment and its lack of scientifically demonstrated effectiveness; such controversy has intensified in recent decades. Also called coercive treatment; involuntary treatment.

forced-choice question

forced-choice question see fixed-alternative question.

forceps injury

forceps injury a defect, temporary or permanent, induced by the use of forceps to extract a newborn infant from the mother’s uterus during labor. Forceps injury is one of the causes of cerebral palsy.

forebrain

forebrain n. the part of the brain that develops from the anterior section of the neural tube in the embryo, containing the cerebrum and the diencephalon. The former comprises the cerebral hemispheres with their various regions (e.g., basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus); the latter comprises the thalamus and hypothalamus. Also called prosencephalon.

foreclosure

foreclosure n. see identity foreclosure; identity status model.

foreground–background

foreground–background n. in perception, the distinction between the object of attention, which is in the subjective foreground, and the vague texture of the background, which is less likely to receive individual attention. See also figure–ground.

foregrounding

foregrounding n. the process or technique of highlighting certain aspects of a complex stimulus to make them the focus of attention. Foregrounding occurs, for example, when a speaker or writer gives prominence to some elements in a communication rather than others, usually by a combination of word order, sentence construction, and more explicit pointers. Discourse analysis is much concerned with the ways in which speakers and writers tend nonconsciously to foreground certain categories of information (see given–new distinction).

foreigner talk

foreigner talk a speech register commonly adopted when speaking to those perceived as foreigners not competent in the language being used, typically characterized by short sentences, simplified grammar and vocabulary, and slow, loud delivery.

forensic assessment

forensic assessment systematic evaluation by a mental health practitioner of a defendant, witness, or offender for the purpose of informing the court about such issues as competency to stand trial, criminal responsibility, and risk assessment.

forensic neuropsychology

forensic neuropsychology the application of clinical neuropsychology to issues of both civil and criminal law, particularly those relating to claims of brain injury.

forensic neuroscience

forensic neuroscience an emerging field in which the regulation of certain behaviors, including criminal, antisocial, sociopathic, and psychopathic, is viewed in light of neural mechanisms that may determine such behaviors. Theoretically, these behaviors are seen as arising not from an individual’s failure to know right from wrong but from neural mechanisms that may be functioning improperly.

forensic psychiatry

forensic psychiatry the branch of psychiatry concerned with abnormal behavior and mental disorders as they relate to legal issues, hearings, and trials. Major areas of concern include insanity pleas (see insanity defense) and the legal definition of insanity; procedures to commit individuals to mental hospitals; and questions of criminal responsibility, competency to stand trial, guardianship, conservatorship, and confidentiality. Also called legal psychiatry.

forensic psychology

forensic psychology the application of psychological principles and techniques to situations involving the civil and criminal legal systems. Its functions include assessment and treatment services, provision of advocacy and expert testimony, policy analysis, and research on such topics as eyewitness accounts, offender behavior, interrogations, and investigative practices. Also called legal psychology. See also correctional psychology.

forensic social work

forensic social work the application of social work principles and techniques to legal issues or situations involving the law or legal systems (both criminal and civil). Its functions include providing consultation, education, or training to various individuals within the legal and correctional systems; making recommendations regarding child custody and related issues; providing expert testimony and advocacy; and conducting research and policy analysis.

foreplay

foreplay n. activity engaged in prior to coitus, marked by psychological as well as physical stimulation. The purpose of foreplay, which includes kissing, stroking, fantasizing, and similar activities, is to encourage sexual arousal in the participants. It may last from a few minutes to several hours.

foreshortening

foreshortening n. the illusion that the length of a line appears shorter when viewed lengthwise.

foreskin

foreskin n. a loose fold of skin that normally covers the glans penis but can retract during erection or coitus. It is a continuation of the skin covering the rest of the penis. It is synonymous with prepuce, a term also used to denote the clitoral hood. Also called preputium penis. See also circumcision.

forest plot

forest plot a graph, often used in meta-analyses, in which the authors or titles of the studies are listed along the left side, and the corresponding effect size for each is given on the right. The effect sizes for the individual studies are usually indicated by squares in which the size of the square is proportional to the size of the effect for a specific study. At the bottom, the overall effect size is given, usually in a diamond shape whose width indicates the outer points of a confidence interval for the overall effect across all of the studies listed.

forethought

forethought n. the ability of an individual to anticipate the consequences of his or her actions and the actions of others. In social-cognitive theory, forethought is a key element in learning behavior.

forewarning of persuasive intent

forewarning of persuasive intent the receipt of information that a subsequent communication is intended to change the attitude of the recipient. This forewarning tends to decrease attitude change by predisposing elaboration against what is advocated in the message. See also biased elaboration; biasing factor.

forewarning of persuasive position

forewarning of persuasive position the receipt of information that a subsequent communication will contain arguments for a particular attitudinal position. Forewarning that a communication will be a counterattitudinal advocacy tends to decrease attitude change by predisposing elaboration against the message. See also biased elaboration; biasing factor.

forget cue

forget cue see directed forgetting.

forgetting

forgetting n. the failure to remember material previously learned. Numerous processes and theories have been proposed throughout the long history of study to account for forgetting, including decay theory and interference theory. Forgetting typically is a normal phenomenon but it may also be pathological, as, for example, in amnesia.

forgetting curve

forgetting curve a graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place. In his pioneering studies of forgetting, which involved lists of nonsense syllables, Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to show that there is generally a sudden drop in retention shortly after learning, followed by a more gradual decline thereafter. Also called Ebbinghaus curve.

forgiveness

forgiveness n. willfully putting aside feelings of resentment toward an individual who has committed a wrong, been unfair or hurtful, or otherwise harmed one in some way. Forgiveness is not equated with reconciliation or excusing another, and it is not merely accepting what happened or ceasing to be angry. Rather, it involves a voluntary transformation of one’s feelings, attitudes, and behavior toward the individual, so that one is no longer dominated by resentment and can express compassion, generosity, or the like toward the individual. Forgiveness is sometimes considered an important process in psychotherapy or counseling.

form discrimination

form discrimination the ability to use one’s senses, primarily vision and touch, to judge the shape, size, texture, and other features of an object.

form distortion

form distortion a change in an image that results from the optical qualities of the eye or an artificial lens, so that the image appears different from the stimulus that gave rise to it.

form perception

form perception the process by which the component elements of an object are bound together and perceived as a coherent entity that stands apart from the background and from other objects.

form quality

form quality the holistic character of a gestalt, or whole, that makes it recognizable even after transformations. For example, a melody remains recognizable even after being transposed to a different key. [coined in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels]

form–function distinction

form–function distinction a distinction between two fundamentally different ways of analyzing language, one with respect to its structural properties (form) and the other with respect to its communicative properties (function). For example, a formal analysis of the utterance Where are the pencils? would point to the use of where and the auxiliary verb be to frame a wh- question and the agreement between that verb and the subject pencils; a functional analysis would need to judge whether the utterance is a request for information or a request for action. See formal grammar; functional grammar.

formal cause

formal cause see cause.

formal discipline

formal discipline a concept that certain subjects (e.g., mathematics and foreign languages) should be studied for the primary purpose of exercising and developing the mind.

formal fallacy

formal fallacy see fallacy.

formal grammar

formal grammar a description of language in terms of its form and structure as opposed to its function and meaning. Compare functional grammar. See form–function distinction.

formal group

formal group any group that is deliberately formed by its members or an external authority for some purpose. Unlike an accidental group, a formal group is likely to use explicit terms to define its membership criteria, operating procedures, role structure, and goals. Also called planned group.

formal language

formal language see artificial language.

formal logic

formal logic a system of prescribed rules for generating valid conclusions or predictions from initial axiomatic assumptions or knowledge. It is often contrasted with more intuitive forms of thought, such as common sense. See deductive reasoning; logic; symbolic logic.

formal operational stage

formal operational stage the fourth and final stage in the Piagetian theory of cognitive development, beginning around age 12, during which complex intellectual functions, such as abstract thinking, logical processes, conceptualization, and judgment, develop. See also concrete operational stage; preoperational stage; sensorimotor stage.

formal organizational structure

formal organizational structure the official patterns of coordination and control, workflow, authority, and communication that channel the activity of members of an organization. The formal structure is embedded in the design of the organization and is seen as the pattern that should be followed by employees. It can be contrasted with the informal organizational structure, which is defined by patterns that are not officially recognized but that emerge from the daily interactions of employees.

formal parallelism

formal parallelism a comparative approach to the concept of development that relates multiple modes of functioning (i.e., different modes of animal life, different kinds of sociocultural organization, or different types of consciousness) to different levels of organization and integration, rather than relating them to a single line of chronological development, as in the recapitulation theory. [proposed by Heinz Werner]

formal reasoning

formal reasoning reasoning that entails the use of formal logical operations. See deductive reasoning; logic.

formal theory

formal theory a model or set of rules and assumptions used to understand various behaviors in mathematical terms. Formal theories often are developed and studied in the field of political science and psychology. An example of a formal theory is the so-called prisoner’s dilemma model, which can be applied to various situations in which participants have to decide between the costs and benefits of cooperating or competing. The model uses a series of rules to determine the outcomes of various behaviors when two suspects separately have the option to confess or refuse to speak about a potential crime.

formal thought disorder

formal thought disorder disruptions in the form or structure of thinking. Examples include derailment and tangentiality. It is distinct from thought disorder, in which the disturbance relates to thought content.

formal universal

formal universal see language universal.

formalism

formalism n. the study of the outward form of works of art and literature, as opposed to their content or meaning. —formalist n. —formalistic adj.

formants

formants pl. n. the frequency bands of speech sounds produced by the vocal cords and other physical features of the head and throat. A simple sound, such as the vowel /a/, may span several kilohertz of frequencies when recorded by a sound spectrograph.

formative evaluation

formative evaluation a process intended to improve or guide the development of a program in its early stages through the use of qualitative or quantitative research methodology. Ideally, the individual performing a formative evaluation will repeatedly interact, often informally, with the program personnel from the outset of the work to clarify goals, monitor implementation, and assess staff and resource requirements. Also called feedback evaluation. See also process evaluation; summative evaluation.

formative tendency

formative tendency the general drive toward self-improvement, growth, and self-actualization hypothesized by Carl Rogers in his client-centered therapy.

formboard test

formboard test a type of performance test in which the individual fits blocks or cut-outs of various shapes into depressions in a board.

formication

formication n. an acutely distressing sensation of ants or other insects crawling on the skin. It is a tactile (haptic) hallucination that occurs with cocaine abuse and in delirious states associated with acute alcoholic hallucinosis, meningitis, rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and other infectious disorders. See also delusional parasitosis.

formicophilia

formicophilia n. sexual interest in and pleasure derived from small animals, insects, or snails crawling over one’s body.

forms of address

forms of address conventional verbal formulas by which individuals address one another in written or spoken communication, such as Sir, Your Excellency, Mrs. Jones, and Darling. The forms used will reflect the relationship of those using them in various ways, such as whether they are of equal or unequal status; whether they are strangers, acquaintances, or intimates; and whether they wish to signal warmth, politeness, or displeasure. Certain forms of address may also be prescribed in specific situations, such as a courtroom. Very hierarchical and conservative societies (or parts of society) will often have elaborate conventions about the correct form to use when addressing those holding particular ranks or offices. In some languages, such as French and German, the form of the second person pronoun used (tu or Du as opposed to vous or Sie) will also be significant.

formula

formula n. a precise statement about how two pieces of information, usually mathematical, are related. The most common type of formula is a mathematical equation in which one variable is a weighted function of another variable plus a constant. For example, the formula for a straight line is y = mx + b, where y is an outcome plotted on a vertical or y-axis, m is the slope of the line, x is the value of a variable along the horizontal or x-axis, and b is where the straight line crosses the vertical axis.

fornication

fornication n. consensual sexual intercourse between any two people who are not married to each other. The legal definition varies in different locales.

fornix

fornix n. (pl. fornices) any arch-shaped structure, especially the long tract of white matter in the brain arching between the hippocampus and the hypothalamus, projecting chiefly to the mammillary bodies.

FORTRAN

FORTRAN n. FOR(mula) TRAN(slation) (language): the oldest high-level computer programming language still in use, originally developed at IBM in the late 1950s. Its primary application is the intensive mathematical modeling and problem solving needed for supercomputing in areas such as weather and climate modeling, computational physics, and plant and animal breeding. [created by U.S. computer scientist John Backus (1924–2007) and colleagues]

forward association

forward association the formation of an associative link between one item and an item that follows it in a series or sequence. Compare backward association.

forward chaining

forward chaining see chaining.

forward conditioning

forward conditioning in classical conditioning, the pairing of two stimuli such that the conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus. Also called forward pairing. Compare backward conditioning.

forward displacement

forward displacement in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, a result in which the participant’s “call,” or guess, matches the outcome of the next trial in the series rather than the current one. If this occurs consistently, it may be cited as evidence of precognition. Compare backward displacement.

forward masking

forward masking see masking.

forward pairing

forward pairing see forward conditioning.

forward selection

forward selection a technique used in creating multiple regression models in which independent variables from a large set of such variables are added to the regression equation in the order of their predictive power (i.e., largest to smallest increase in the coefficient of multiple determination) until a preset criterion is reached and there is no further significant change in the model’s predictive power. Also called forward inclusion; forward stepwise regression; stepup selection. See also F-to-enter; F-to-remove.

forward-conduction law

forward-conduction law see law of forward conduction.

fossa

fossa n. (pl. fossae) a hollow or depressed area. In neuroanatomy, fossae range from relatively large areas, such as the anterior cranial fossa, middle cranial fossa, and posterior cranial fossa in the base of the cranium for the lobes of the brain, to small regions, such as the ethmoid fossa for the olfactory bulb and the hypophyseal fossa for the pituitary gland.

fossil

fossil n. the remains or traces of an organism that lived in the past, often the remote past. Usually only the hard parts of organisms become fossilized (e.g., bones, shells, wood), but under certain circumstances, an entire organism is preserved. In some cases, the organism has been turned into stone, a process called petrification.

fossilization

fossilization n. in second-language acquisition, an intermediate state at which the learner’s development ceases short of the attainment of full nativelike proficiency. See also idiolect; interlanguage; language transfer. —fossilize vb.

foster care

foster care temporary care provided to children in settings outside their family of origin and by individuals other than their natural or adoptive parents. Foster care is intended to protect children whose parents are unavailable, abusive, or incapable of proper care, with the ultimate goal being to find a secure and permanent home. Typically, a child is placed with a family approved for foster care and paid a fee for such by a public child welfare agency. Although these foster home arrangements are most common, children may also be placed in group homes or institutions. See also adult foster care.

foster-child fantasy

foster-child fantasy the childhood belief or fantasy that the parents are actually adoptive or foster parents. See family romance.

fostering

fostering n. the process in which one provides care in a family environment to vulnerable children or adults to whom one is not related. See adult foster care; foster care.

foul

foul adj. 1. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality that is associated with bedbugs and French marigolds. 2. denoting one of the primary odor qualities in Henning’s odor prism.

founder effect

founder effect the occurrence of a gene at increased frequency in a group or colony that was initially established by a small number of members of a larger population. The limited number of founders results in limited genetic diversity and a nonrandom genetic sample of the original population. The presence of a founder effect leads to a characteristic genetic makeup, which can allow the tracing of the migration of a particular ethnic group or population over time. Its presence is also associated with the predisposition of some groups to certain diseases. A founder effect has been identified for mutations predisposing to breast cancer among Eastern European Jews, for example.

FOUR

FOUR abbreviation for Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score.

Four As

Four As see fundamental symptoms.

four-card problem

four-card problem see Wason selection task.

four-fifths rule

four-fifths rule an arbitrary rule of thumb for determining a prima facie case of discrimination, as set forth in the Uniform Guidelines for Employee Selection Procedures. If the employer hires a protected group (e.g., an ethnic minority, women) at a rate that is less than four fifths the rate at which the majority group (i.e., White males) is hired, the company must justify its hiring procedures by showing that they are job-related or of business necessity. If justification cannot be provided, the employer may be open to a charge of violating civil rights laws. See also adverse impact; affirmative action; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission; equal opportunity.

fourfold table

fourfold table see two-by-two table.

Fourier analysis

Fourier analysis the mathematical analysis of complex waveforms using the fact that they can be expressed as an infinite sum of sine and cosine functions (a Fourier series). It is accomplished via a Fourier transform, a mathematical operation that analyzes any waveform into a set of simple waveforms with different frequencies and amplitudes. The reconstruction of complex waveforms from simple components is called Fourier synthesis. Fourier analysis is particularly important in the study of sound (see sound spectrum), and Fourier analysis and synthesis are important for the theoretical understanding of visual analysis. [Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), French mathematician and physicist]

Fourier spectrum

Fourier spectrum a graph of amplitude as a function of frequency for all the sine waves that comprise a Fourier analysis of an image. [Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier]

fourth cranial nerve

fourth cranial nerve see trochlear nerve.

fourth moment

fourth moment see moment.

fourth ventricle

fourth ventricle see ventricle.

fovea centralis

fovea centralis a small depression in the central portion of the retina in which retinal cone cells are most concentrated and an image is focused most clearly. Also called fovea. —foveal adj.

foveal sparing

foveal sparing see visual field sparing.

foveal vision

foveal vision see central vision.

FR

FR abbreviation for fixed ratio. See fixed-ratio schedule.

fractal

fractal n. a geometric shape that can be divided into parts that each resemble the pattern of the whole shape. Thus, a fractal is a shape possessing the quality of self-similarity.

fractile

fractile n. see quantile.

fractional antedating goal response

fractional antedating goal response a reaction that develops progressively earlier in conditioning a series of responses and may become a conditioned stimulus for subsequent responses.

fractional escape

fractional escape see escape titration.

fractional factorial design

fractional factorial design a type of experimental design in which some conditions are omitted, such that not all levels of one or more of the independent variables are combined with all other levels of the other variables. A Latin square is an example. Fractional factorial designs might be used because of a small overall sample available for study or because of difficulty obtaining participants or assigning them to some conditions. Additionally, there may simply be too many combinations to study (e.g., in a 3 × 4 × 2 × 5 design, there are 120 combinations of levels). Also called incomplete factorial design. Compare complete factorial design.

fractionation

fractionation n. a psychophysical procedure to scale the magnitude of sensations in which an observer adjusts a variable stimulus to be half that of a standard stimulus.

fragile X syndrome

fragile X syndrome a genetic condition that causes a range of developmental problems, including learning disabilities and cognitive impairment. The disorder is so named because of alterations in the FMR1 gene, on the arm of the X chromosome, that abnormally expand and destabilize it. Males with fragile X syndrome have characteristic physical features that become more apparent with age, such as large ears, prominent jaw and forehead, a long and narrow face, and enlarged testicles. Both males and females with fragile X may exhibit hyperactivity, social anxiety, and attention deficits; some males also show autistic behavior.

fragmentary delusion

fragmentary delusion a disorganized, undeveloped false belief or a series of such beliefs that are disconnected, inconsistent, and illogical. Compare systematized delusion.

fragmentation

fragmentation n. division or separation into pieces or fragments. For example, fragmentation of thinking (typically termed loosening of associations) is a disturbance in which thoughts become disjointed to such an extent as to no longer be unified, complete, or coherent; fragmentation of personality (typically termed personality disintegration) occurs when an individual no longer presents a unified, predictable set of beliefs, attitudes, traits, and behavioral responses.

fragrant

fragrant adj. 1. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality that is smelled in flowers and vanilla. 2. denoting one of the four primary odor qualities in the Crocker–Henderson odor system.

frail elderly

frail elderly older adults who are infirm and experience significant difficulties in performing activities of daily living, resulting in a lack of independence and the need for extensive assistive care.

frame

frame n. 1. in cognitive psychology, a set of parameters defining either a particular mental schema or the wider cognitive structure by which an individual perceives and evaluates the world. See also conceptual system; perceptual set. 2. in artificial intelligence, a knowledge representation scheme, much like an object system, used to represent and structure knowledge for a computational system. [first proposed in 1981 by U.S. mathematician and computer scientist Marvin Minsky (1927– )] 3. in education, see programmed instruction; linear program.

frame of reference

frame of reference in social psychology, the set of assumptions or criteria by which a person or group judges ideas, actions, and experiences. A frame of reference can often limit or distort perception, as in the case of prejudice and stereotypes.

frame problem

frame problem a technical difficulty arising in artificial intelligence and computational models of human cognition and involving the specification of the persistence of states that form the context in which thought takes place. The frame problem is essentially a question of how to use formal logic to specify or describe efficiently what remains unchanged in a given situation involving change, that is, what are the noneffects of a particular action on the properties of a situation (e.g., painting an object will not alter its position). In cognitive psychology and cognitive science, the term has been extended to the difficulty of modeling the human ability to quickly generate reasonable hypotheses that make sense of events in the environment and to respond sensibly to incoming information, using relevant knowledge to guide the formation of new beliefs. [described by U.S. philosopher and psychologist Jerry Alan Fodor (1935– )]

frame-of-reference training

frame-of-reference training training provided to those responsible for employee evaluation with the aim of improving the accuracy of their performance ratings. It involves providing raters with (a) a common reference standard to be used in performing evaluations and (b) practice in identifying good, average, and poor performances as defined by this standard.

framing

framing n. the process of defining the context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived and evaluated. Also called framing effect. See also reframing.

framing effect

framing effect 1. see atmosphere effect. 2. see framing.

Framingham Heart Study

Framingham Heart Study an ongoing large-scale, long-range survey focused on understanding, preventing, and treating cardiovascular disease. Begun in 1948, the study has involved data collection from three generations of residents of the town of Framingham, Massachusetts. The data have identified primary risk factors involved with heart disease and stroke, such as cigarette smoking, physical inactivity, obesity, high cholesterol levels, diabetes, and hypertension. The study is regarded as one of the most reliable of its kind because it is of prospective design; that is, it enrolled people who were originally free of heart disease and recorded the dietary and other habits of the participants before signs of heart disease appeared.

Franceschetti–Zwahlen–Klein syndrome

Franceschetti–Zwahlen–Klein syndrome see Treacher Collins syndrome. [Adolphe Franceschetti (1896–1968), Swiss ophthalmologist]

Fraser syndrome (Fraser–François syndrome)

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fraternal twins

fraternal twins see dizygotic twins.

fraternalistic relative deprivation

fraternalistic relative deprivation see relative deprivation.

free and appropriate public education

free and appropriate public education provisions of U.S. educational law requiring that special education and related services be provided to each student with a disability at no extra cost to the student or parents. The services provided must meet standards established by the student’s state of residence and be consistent with decisions that are made at an individualized education program (IEP) meeting and specified in a written IEP plan.

free association

free association a basic process in psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy, in which the patient is encouraged to verbalize without censorship or selection whatever thoughts come to mind, no matter how embarrassing, illogical, or irrelevant. The object is to allow unconscious material, such as inhibited thoughts and emotions, traumatic experiences, or threatening impulses, to come to the surface where they can be interpreted. Free association is also posited to help the patient discharge some of the feelings that have given this material excessive control over him or her. See basic rule; verbalization.

free energy

free energy in classical psychoanalytic theory, psychic energy that is located in the id, is mobile, and is associated with primary processes. Compare bound energy.

free field

free field in acoustics, a sound field that has no reflective boundaries.

free love

free love the practice of engaging in sexual relationships without legal ties or any other commitment to fidelity or permanence. Advocates of free love emphasize the individual’s right to sexual expression and have sometimes argued for alternative forms of marriage and family relationships.

free morpheme

free morpheme in linguistics, a morpheme that can stand alone, as a word in its own right. Free morphemes are contrasted with bound morphemes, such as the plural -s, which can only appear in combination.

free nerve ending

free nerve ending a highly branched terminal portion of a sensory neuron. Found particularly in the different layers of skin, free nerve endings are the most common type of nerve ending and act as pain and temperature receptors.

free operant

free operant in operant conditioning, a response to a situation that may occur freely at any time.

free parameter

free parameter a value that is estimated from data, usually in a modeling procedure such as structural equation modeling. A free parameter contrasts with a fixed parameter, which is kept at a known, specific value. For example, in confirmatory factor analysis, one factor loading for each latent variable is usually a fixed parameter of 1.0 and the other loadings are free parameters that are estimated.

free play

free play spontaneous, unstructured play that is not controlled or directed by an adult. The various activities of a child at a playground provide an example. Compare structured play.

free radical

free radical an atom or molecule that has at least one “unpaired” electron in its outer shell. This makes it highly reactive and able to engage in rapid chain reactions that destabilize the molecules around it, thus causing the formation of more free radicals. Free radicals can damage cells and have been implicated in aging, inflammation, and the progression of various pathological conditions, including cancer.

free recall

free recall a type of memory task in which participants attempt to remember previously studied information in any order. One common finding in free-recall studies is that the first and last items that are presented in a study list are best remembered. Proponents of the dual-store model of memory attribute this to the fact that the last items are still in short-term memory, and hence recoverable, whereas the first items received the most rehearsal and were transferred to long-term memory.

free rider

free rider an individual who contributes little or nothing to a joint endeavor but nonetheless garners the same benefits as others who contribute their fair share. The resentment caused by free riders can hamper the efficiency of a group working on a collective task (the free-rider effect).

free variation

free variation in linguistics, the state in which variant forms of the same linguistic unit appear on an apparently random basis. The term is most often used in phonology. For example, in colloquial speech, many speakers will articulate or not articulate the final stop consonant of the past-tense morpheme -ed (as in walked, stalked, etc.) in an entirely arbitrary way. Compare complementary distribution.

free will

free will the power or capacity of a human being for self-direction. The function of the will is to be inclined or disposed toward an idea or action. The concept of free will thus suggests that inclinations, dispositions, thoughts, and actions are not determined entirely by forces over which people have no independent directing influence. Free will is generally seen as necessary for moral action and responsibility and is implied by much of our everyday experience, in which we are conscious of having the power to do or forbear (see paradox of freedom). However, it has often been dismissed as illusory by advocates of determinism, who hold that all occurrences, including human actions, are predetermined. See also agent; volition.

free-association test

free-association test a test in which participants are offered a stimulus word and are expected to respond as quickly as possible with a word they associate with the stimulus.

free-feeding weight

free-feeding weight see ad lib.

free-floating anxiety

free-floating anxiety 1. a diffuse, chronic sense of uneasiness and apprehension not directed toward any specific situation or object. It may be a characteristic of a number of anxiety disorders, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. 2. in psychoanalysis, general feelings of distress that have been disconnected from the original circumstances that caused them.

free-floating attention

free-floating attention in psychoanalysis and in other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy, the analyst’s or therapist’s state of evenly suspended attention during the therapeutic session. This attention does not focus on any one thing the client says, but it allows the analyst or therapist to listen to all the material being presented and tune into the client’s affects and unconscious ideas. Also called evenly hovering attention.

free-floating emotion

free-floating emotion a diffuse, generalized emotional state that does not appear to be associated with any specific cause. A common example is free-floating anxiety.

free-operant avoidance

free-operant avoidance see Sidman avoidance schedule.

free-response question

free-response question a test or survey item that allows the respondent to answer entirely as he or she pleases, as opposed to a fixed-alternative question, in which the respondent must choose from several provided options.

free-running rhythm

free-running rhythm a cycle of behavior or physiological activity that occurs if external stimuli do not provide entrainment. See also biological rhythm.

freebase

freebase 1. n. a highly concentrated, chemically altered form of cocaine that is prepared by treating cocaine with ether and ammonia. It is ingested by smoking. Although purer than crack cocaine, its effects are similar. 2. vb. to smoke this form of cocaine.

Freedom From Distractibility Index

Freedom From Distractibility Index an index historically calculated on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children that measures short-term attention and concentration. In recent years, this index has been renamed the Working Memory Index to be more consistent with contemporary research and the adult versions of the Wechsler scales.

freedom from harm

freedom from harm one of the basic rights of research participants that is ensured by an institutional review board. Freedom from harm states that a research participant should not incur undue risk as a result of taking part in a study. See also participants’ rights.

freedom to withdraw

freedom to withdraw one of the basic rights of research participants that is ensured by an institutional review board. Freedom to withdraw allows a research participant to drop out of a study at any time without penalty. See also participants’ rights.

freezing behavior

freezing behavior a form of passive avoidance in which the individual remains motionless and makes no effort to run or hide. The behavior is most often observed as a severe reaction or fear response to a threatening situation. Freezing behavior occurs in wild animals in response to alarm calls signifying the approach of a predator or other risk. See also immobility.

Fregoli’s phenomenon

Fregoli’s phenomenon a misidentification syndrome in which an individual identifies a persecutor successively in different people known to him or her (e.g., a neighbor, doctor, attendant), on the delusional assumption that the persecutor is capable of changing faces. [first identified in 1927 and named for Italian actor Leopoldo Fregoli (1867–1936), who was renowned for his ability to alter his appearance]

French kiss

French kiss a type of sexual interaction in which the participants kiss with their mouths open so that their tongues can touch. Also called soul kiss; tongue kiss.

frenulum

frenulum n. (pl. frenula) any membranous fold that supports or restrains an anatomical part, such as the membrane under the tongue (lingual frenulum) or the fold of tissue that limits the backward movement of the foreskin. Also called frenum.

frenzy

frenzy n. a temporary state of wild excitement and mental agitation, at times including violent behavior. It has been associated with mania and is sometimes considered synonymous with this term.

frequency

frequency n. 1. (symbol: f) the number of occurrences of a phenomenon, particularly a categorical variable such as sex. For example, it is often of interest to find the frequencies or counts of the men and women who are participating in a research study. See also relative frequency. 2. the number of repetitions of a periodic waveform in a given unit of time. In acoustics, the frequency of a pure tone is the number of cycles of a sinusoidal pressure variation that occur in 1 second. The standard measure of frequency is the hertz (Hz); this replaces, and is equivalent to, cycles per second (cps). For complex periodic waveforms, that is, those consisting of more than one frequency component (e.g., a square wave), the “frequency” is the rate of repetition of the waveform and is more appropriately called the fundamental frequency (or fundamental tone, or simply the fundamental). The period of a waveform is the time to complete one repetition and is the reciprocal of the frequency (or fundamental frequency). For waveforms that are not periodic, such as white noise, the frequency is undefined. In such cases, the spectral characteristics should be described. See also sound spectrum.

frequency analysis

frequency analysis analysis of the frequency changes in event-related potentials.

frequency discrimination

frequency discrimination see auditory discrimination.

frequency distribution

frequency distribution a tabular representation of the number of times a specific value or datum point occurs. The left column lists the different categories of a categorical variable or scores of a continuous variable, and the right column lists the number of occurrences of each. When a frequency distribution is plotted on a graph, it is often called a frequency curve, frequency diagram, or frequency polygon. When represented mathematically via an equation, it is called a frequency function. Also called frequency table. See also cumulative frequency distribution; relative frequency distribution.

frequency judgment

frequency judgment a participant’s judgment of how many times a particular stimulus was presented during a test. Such judgments are used in research on memory and sensory thresholds. See also word-frequency study.

frequency law

frequency law see law of frequency.

frequency modulation

frequency modulation see modulation.

frequency of response

frequency of response the number of countable responses per unit of time. For example, if an individual pressed a telegraph key 500 times in 5 minutes, the frequency of response would be 100 per minute.

frequency polygon

frequency polygon a graph depicting a statistical distribution, made up of lines connecting the peaks of adjacent intervals. A line graph connecting the midpoints of the bars of a histogram is a frequency polygon.

frequency principle

frequency principle the principle that the greater the intensity of stimulation, the greater the frequency of nerve impulses elicited and the more intense the response of the organism.

frequency selectivity

frequency selectivity the property of a system that enables it to be “tuned” to respond better to certain frequencies than to others. The degree of selectivity of such filtering is sometimes specified as Q, which is the center or best frequency of a filter divided by its bandwidth: Higher values of Q correspond to higher frequency selectivity. The frequency selectivity of the auditory system is a fundamental aspect of hearing and has been a major research theme for many decades. Also called bandwidth selectivity. See auditory filter; critical band; tonotopic organization; tuning curve.

frequency table

frequency table see frequency distribution.

frequency test

frequency test a statistical procedure for assessing data that contain counts or the numbers of occurrences of various categories or classes. A common example of a frequency test is a chi-square test that compares the pattern of observed counts or frequencies to those that are expected to occur.

frequency theory

frequency theory a late 19th-century theory specifying that pitch is coded by the rate at which action potentials are generated by auditory neurons within the basilar membrane of the ear. According to this theory, the wavelength (frequency) of a tone is precisely replicated in the electrical impulses transmitted through the auditory nerve. For example, a 100 Hz tone would be signaled by 100 impulses per second in the auditory nerve. However, frequency theory cannot explain the perception of sounds above 500 Hz because the refractory period of a neuron renders it incapable of firing at a rate greater than 500 impulses per second. This discrepancy was accounted for by the later volley theory. Also called telephone theory. [proposed in 1886 by William Rutherford (1839–1899), British physiologist]

frequentist

frequentist n. a researcher who approaches issues of probability in terms of the frequency (number of occurrences) for a particular parameter over a period of time. This approach is contrasted with that of a Bayesian, who examines the data and assesses whether particular values are more credible or believable than others.

frequentist inference

frequentist inference an approach to drawing conclusions from statistical samples that is based on the number of times an event is expected to occur in the long run if conditions for observing the event are held constant. It considers any research study to be one of a very large possible number of replications. Also called classical inference. Compare Bayesian inference.

Freudian approach (Freudianism)

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Freudian slip

Freudian slip in the popular understanding of psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious error or oversight in writing, speech, or action that is held to be caused by unacceptable impulses breaking through the ego’s defenses and exposing the individual’s true wishes or feelings. See parapraxis; slip of the tongue; symptomatic act. [Sigmund Freud]

Freudian theory of personality

Freudian theory of personality the general psychoanalytic concept that character and personality are the product of experiences and fixations stemming from the early stages of psychosexual development. See psychoanalysis. [Sigmund Freud]

Frey esthesiometer

Frey esthesiometer see esthesiometry. [Maximilian von Frey (1852–1932), German physiologist]

fricative

fricative 1. adj. denoting a speech sound made by forcing a stream of air through a narrow opening of the vocal tract against one or more surfaces, particularly the hard palate, alveolar ridge, teeth, or lips. A fricative has high-frequency vibrations. It may be voiced (e.g., [v], [z], [zh]) or unvoiced (e.g., [f], [s], [sh]). 2. n. a fricative speech sound.

Friedreich’s ataxia

Friedreich’s ataxia a hereditary, progressive form of ataxia (muscular incoordination) that results from the degeneration of nerves in the spinal cord and nerves that connect the spinal cord to the arms and legs. Symptoms typically appear in childhood or early adolescence and may include clumsiness, balance problems, difficulty walking, unsteady gait, slurred speech, hearing and vision loss, and rapid involuntary eye movements. [Nikolaus Friedreich (1825–1882), German neurologist]

friend with benefits

friend with benefits see hookup.

friendship

friendship n. a voluntary relationship between two or more people that is relatively long-lasting and in which those involved tend to be concerned with meeting the others’ needs and interests as well as satisfying their own desires. Friendships frequently develop through shared experiences in which the people involved learn that their association with one another is mutually gratifying.

fright

fright n. the emotional reaction that arises in the face of a dangerous or potentially dangerous situation or encounter. Fright differs from fear in that the danger is usually immediate, physical, concrete, and overwhelming. Physiological changes in the body associated with fright include trembling, widening of the eyes, and drawing away from the fear-producing stimulus.

frigidity

frigidity n. in women, impairment of sexual desire or inability to achieve sexual arousal or orgasm. This term is considered offensive and has largely been abandoned in favor of female sexual dysfunction. —frigid adj.

fringe consciousness

fringe consciousness those aspects of experience that lack focal qualities (e.g., clarity, discriminability) but are nevertheless usually reported with a high degree of confidence. Fringe experiences vary widely, from effortfulness and feelings of knowing to mystical experiences. Compare focal consciousness.

fringe–focus structure

fringe–focus structure a model of consciousness in which conscious experiences typically have a momentarily clear, discriminable, focal component (see focal consciousness), along with a vaguer component (see fringe consciousness).

fringer

fringer n. a person on the margins of a social group, who is neither genuinely accepted nor clearly excluded.

Fröbelism

Fröbelism n. a method of education developed by German educator Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852), the originator of the kindergarten system. He believed that it was important for a child’s development to have an open environment that encouraged learning and physical activity.

frog-pond effect

frog-pond effect the tendency of high-performing individuals in a generally inferior group to evaluate themselves more favorably than do low-performing individuals in a generally superior group. Originally used to describe academic self-evaluations, the term has recently been broadened to refer to any appraisals that compare the self with local, as opposed to more general, standards. For example, a person might take particular pride in considering himself the best player on his office softball team of colleagues who are mediocre players. Yet the worst performer on an Olympic softball team might feel incompetent, even though he is among the best softball players in the world. See self-concept; social comparison theory. [term derived from the common phrase, big fish in a small pond]

Fröhlich’s syndrome

Fröhlich’s syndrome a disorder caused by underfunctioning of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (hypopituitarism), often because of tumors on the hypothalamus. Major symptoms are underdeveloped genital organs and secondary sexual characteristics, general sluggishness, and obesity; in some cases, those with Fröhlich’s syndrome exhibit polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (frequent consumption of liquids), and intellectual disabilities. Also called Launois–le Cleret syndrome. [Alfred Fröhlich (1871–1953), Austrian neurologist]

front-clipping

front-clipping n. see clipping.

frontal

frontal adj. 1. pertaining to the front, or anterior, portion of the body or of an organ. 2. pertaining to the frontal bone of the skull, or forehead.

frontal association area

frontal association area see prefrontal cortex.

frontal cortex

frontal cortex the cerebral cortex of the frontal lobe. It is associated with decision making, planning, insight, judgment, the ability to concentrate, and impulse control. See also prefrontal cortex.

frontal eye field

frontal eye field a region of the brain anterior to the motor area involved in head and eye movements. A lesion in this region may result in unilateral blindness, with the effect observed on the side opposite the lesion.

frontal gyrus

frontal gyrus the ridge or convolution on the frontal region of a cerebral hemisphere, including the inferior, middle, and superior frontal gyri. See also inferior frontal gyrus.

frontal lisp

frontal lisp see lisp.

frontal lobe

frontal lobe one of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain, lying in front of the central sulcus. It is concerned with motor and higher order executive functions. See also prefrontal lobe.

frontal lobe syndrome

frontal lobe syndrome deterioration in personality and behavior resulting from lesions in the frontal lobe. Typical symptoms include loss of initiative, inability to plan activities, difficulty with abstract thinking, perseveration, impairments in social judgment and impulse control, and mood disturbances such as apathy or mania.

frontal lobotomy

frontal lobotomy see lobotomy.

frontal plane

frontal plane see coronal plane.

frontal release signs

frontal release signs the appearance in adults with frontal lobe lesions of certain primitive reflexes that are normally present only in infants and disappear within the first few months of life. These include the grasp, rooting, and sucking reflexes.

frontal section

frontal section see coronal section.

frontalis muscle

frontalis muscle a muscle that covers the scalp beneath the skin of the forehead.

frontometaphyseal dysplasia

frontometaphyseal dysplasia see otopalatodigital spectrum disorders.

frontonasal dysplasia

frontonasal dysplasia a congenital disorder characterized by defective fusion of structures in the midline of the face. The cleft may involve the eyes, the tip of the nose, the palate, and the premaxilla. About 20% of affected individuals have some degree of intellectual disability. Also called median-cleft-face syndrome.

frontotemporal dementia (FTD)

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frotteurism

frotteurism n. in DSM–IV–TR, a paraphilia in which an individual deliberately and persistently seeks sexual excitement by rubbing against other people. This may occur as apparently accidental contact in crowded public settings, such as elevators or lines. The person displaying this type of behavior is called a frotteur or a rubber. It is identified as frotteuristic disorder in DSM–5. Also called frottage.

frozen form

frozen form see idiom.

frozen noise

frozen noise a recorded sample of noise.

fruity

fruity adj. denoting one of the primary odor qualities in Henning’s odor prism.

frustration

frustration n. 1. the thwarting of impulses or actions that prevents individuals from obtaining something they have been led to expect based on past experience, as when a hungry animal is prevented from obtaining food that it can see or smell or when a child is prevented from playing with a visible toy. Internal forces can include motivational conflicts and inhibitions; external forces can include the actions of other individuals, admonitions of parents or others, and the rules of society. 2. the emotional state an individual experiences when such thwarting occurs. 3. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the damming up of psychic energy, which then seeks an outlet in wish-fulfilling fantasies and dreams or in various neurotic symptoms. —frustrate vb.

frustration effect

frustration effect see frustrative nonreward hypothesis.

frustration tolerance

frustration tolerance the ability of an individual to delay gratification or to preserve relative equanimity when encountering obstacles. The growth of adequate frustration tolerance generally occurs as part of a child’s cognitive and affective development but may also be strengthened to more adaptive levels later in life through therapeutic intervention.

frustration–aggression hypothesis

frustration–aggression hypothesis the theory, proposed in 1939 by John Dollard and colleagues, that (a) frustration always produces an aggressive urge and (b) aggression is always the result of prior frustrations. Neal E. Miller, one of the proponents of this theory, later noted that frustration can lead to several kinds of actions but maintained that the urge to aggression will become more dominant as the thwarting continues. In 1989, U.S. psychologist Leonard Berkowitz (1926– ) proposed that the frustration must be decidedly unpleasant to evoke an aggressive urge. Also called aggression–frustration hypothesis.

frustrative nonreward hypothesis

frustrative nonreward hypothesis the proposition that withholding previously given reinforcement of responses during operant or instrumental conditioning leads to an internal state of frustration, which sometimes paradoxically motivates the subject (the frustration effect), at least for a while. [proposed by Abraham Amsel (1922–2006), U.S. behavioral psychologist]

fry

fry n. a tobacco cigarette or marijuana joint dipped into a liquid containing PCP (see embalming fluid) and then dried and smoked. This is known by various other names, including illy (or illie) and sherm. A wet is a similarly treated cigarette or joint that is smoked before it dries.

Frye test

Frye test a test for the admissibility of scientific evidence in U.S. courts, derived from the case Frye v. United States (1923) in which an early form of lie-detector evidence (see polygraph) was ruled inadmissible because it had not yet “gained general acceptance in the field in which it belongs.” This “general acceptance” test became the chief standard for ruling on admissibility of scientific evidence in both state and federal courts until 1993, when it was replaced by the Daubert test in most jurisdictions.

FSD

FSD abbreviation for female sexual dysfunction.

FSH

FSH abbreviation for follicle-stimulating hormone.

FSS

FSS abbreviation for Fear Survey Schedule.

FT

FT abbreviation for fixed time. See fixed-time schedule.

FTA

FTA abbreviation for fault tree analysis.

FTD

FTD abbreviation for frontotemporal dementia.

FTS

FTS abbreviation for fetal tobacco syndrome.

FTT

FTT abbreviation for failure to thrive.

fugitive literature

fugitive literature see gray literature.

fugue

fugue n. 1. see dissociative fugue. 2. a brief period in which an individual appears to be in a semiconscious state, sometimes engaging in routine activity, and subsequently has no memory for events during that period. This condition is typically associated with epilepsy but may occur in other conditions, such as alcohol intoxication and catatonic excitement.

fulfillment

fulfillment n. the actual or felt satisfaction of needs and desires, or the attainment of aspirations. See also wish fulfillment. —fulfill vb.

fulfillment model

fulfillment model a basic type of personality theory based on the assumption that the primary motivation for behavior is self-fulfillment, as manifest in a drive to realize one’s innate potential. Humanistic approaches to psychology, as exemplified by the work of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, are prominent examples of the fulfillment model. [introduced by U.S. psychologist Salvatore R. Maddi (1933– )]

full inclusion

full inclusion the practice of providing children with disabilities with services in their home school and of educating them in a regular classroom on a permanent, full-time basis. See also least restrictive environment; mainstreaming.

full model

full model a statistical representation that includes all of the variables of interest, or all of the main parameters (e.g., regression coefficients), among a set of variables. For example, in structural equation modeling, a full model might include estimated regression parameters between a set of independent variables, mediators, and dependent variables. When there are as many parameters estimated in a full model as there are degrees of freedom, it is said to be a saturated model. Also called unrestricted model.

Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score (FOUR)

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full term

full term see term.

Fullerton–Cattell law

Fullerton–Cattell law a psychophysical generalization regarding the difference threshold, stating that errors of observation are proportional to the square root of the magnitude of the stimulus. The Fullerton–Cattell law was proposed in 1892 as a replacement for Weber’s law. [George S. Fullerton (1859–1925), U.S. philosopher; James McKeen Cattell]

fully functioning person

fully functioning person a person with a healthy personality, who experiences freedom of choice and action, is creative, and exhibits the qualities of existential living. [as defined in the client-centered therapy of Carl Rogers]

fulvestrant

fulvestrant n. see antiestrogen.

fun

fun n. a perception of pleasure and happiness brought on by achieving one’s desires from an activity.

fun-seeking

fun-seeking n. see Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales.

function

function n. 1. the use or purpose of something. 2. in biology, an activity of an organ or an organism that contributes to the organism’s fitness, such as the secretion of a sex hormone by a gonad to prepare for reproduction or the defensive behavior of a female with young toward an intruder. 3. (symbol: f) a mathematical procedure that relates or transforms one number, quantity, or entity to another according to a defined rule. For example, if y = 2x + 1, y is said to be a function of x. This is often written y = f(x). Here y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable.

function allocation

function allocation the systematic process of applying a knowledge of human factors to determine those system functions that can be performed by human operators and those that require automation, or that require an interaction between the human operator and the equipment. Function allocation is carried out early in the system development cycle. See also adaptive task allocation; clumsy automation.

function coefficient

function coefficient a quantitative value that multiplies a variable and that can change depending on other variables or covariates. A function coefficient differs from other coefficients (e.g., a regression coefficient) in that it can vary, whereas the others are constant over all entities or participants. A function coefficient is often used in such statistical methods as regression analysis and time-series analysis, particularly when the data change over time or space.

function word

function word in a language, a word that has little or no meaning of its own but plays an important grammatical role: Examples include the articles (a, an, the), prepositions (in, of, etc.), and conjunctions (and, but, etc.). Function words are of high frequency, are typically short, and do not generally admit new members (see closed-class words). The distinction between function words and content words is of great interest to the study of language disorders, language acquisition, and psycholinguistic processing. Psycholinguists are especially interested in function words because of their role in facilitating sentence parsing. In combination with nonsense words, they can be used to create sentence frames whose grammaticality can be recognized but whose content is meaningless, such as He zibbed from the fluv by sibbing the flix. Also called empty word; functional moneme; functor; relational word; structure word.

functional

functional adj. 1. denoting or referring to a disorder for which there is no known physiological or structural basis. In psychology and psychiatry, functional disorders are improperly considered equivalent to psychogenic disorders. 2. based on or relating to use rather than structure.

functional activities

functional activities actions associated with basic daily home and work requirements: an umbrella term encompassing both activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living.

functional age

functional age an individual’s age as determined by measures of functional capability indexed by age-normed standards. Functional age is distinct from chronological age and represents a combination of physiological, psychological, and social age. The functional age of a child is measured in terms of the developmental level he or she has reached. It may be compared with his or her chronological age as a means of gauging the existence and extent of any impairment or developmental problem. In older adults, it is calculated by measuring a range of variables that correlate closely with chronological age, such as eyesight, hearing, mobility, cardiopulmonary function, concentration, and memory. Following the passing of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, functional age, rather than chronological age, has been made a criterion for employment in some jobs.

functional amblyopia

functional amblyopia poor vision that occurs in an otherwise normal eye because of disuse or improper use of the eye during early life. Causes of functional amblyopia include strabismus, anisometropia, and sensory deprivation, when no image is allowed to reach the eye (e.g., in unilateral cataract).

functional amnesia

functional amnesia loss of memory for events one has personally experienced that occurs in the absence of any identifiable neurological pathology. Functional amnesia is thought to arise as a defense against anxiety and distress or as a way of escaping from specific situations. It is often used as a synonym of psychogenic amnesia and dissociative amnesia.

functional analysis

functional analysis 1. the detailed analysis of a behavior to identify contingencies that sustain the behavior. 2. a synthesis of a client’s behavior problems and the variables that are associated with or hypothesized to cause them.

functional analytic causal model (FACM)

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functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP)

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functional approach to attitudes

functional approach to attitudes a theoretical perspective postulating that attitudes are formed to serve one or more different functions and that these functions can influence such processes as attitude change and attitude–behavior consistency. See also ego-defensive function of an attitude; knowledge function of an attitude; social-adjustive function of an attitude; utilitarian function of an attitude; value-expressive function of an attitude.

functional asymmetry

functional asymmetry activity-related differences between the two cerebral hemispheres, as demonstrated by disparities in various behavioral competencies such as task performance. For example, studies have shown a right-ear advantage for word stimuli, indicating left-hemisphere superiority for language processing.

functional autonomy

functional autonomy 1. the ability of a person to perform independently the various tasks required in daily life, a core concept in rehabilitation. See activities of daily living; instrumental activities of daily living. 2. as defined in 1973 by Gordon W. Allport, a general principle of motivation stating that during the performance of purposeful, goal-oriented behavior, various derivative drives emerge as independent units from the original drive that inspired the behavior. For example, studying motivated by the desire to obtain high grades may be gradually replaced by the desire for (and therefore pursuit of) knowledge for its own sake.

functional behavioral assessment (FBA)

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functional blindness

functional blindness visual deterioration without any apparent change or disease affecting the structural integrity of the visual system: one of the most frequent symptoms in somatization disorder. In addition to loss of acuity, visual functional phenomena may include photophobia; burning, painful, or tired eyes; monocular diplopia (double vision); ptosis; blepharospasm; convergence problems; and severe concentric visual field constriction in one or both eyes. Despite the symptoms, the pupils continue to react to light, and the patient automatically avoids (i.e., is able to detect and thereby avoid) objects that would cause injury. Complete functional blindness is rare. The condition was formerly known as hysterical blindness or psychic blindness.

functional brain imaging

functional brain imaging the use of brain imaging techniques to localize areas of cognitive or emotional activation. See functional magnetic resonance imaging; positron emission tomography.

functional classification

functional classification see complementary classification.

functional communication training

functional communication training a behavior therapy technique used with children and adults diagnosed with developmental impairments, such as autism or intellectual disability, who are exhibiting aggressive, self-injurious, or highly disruptive behavior. The technique assesses the function that the negative behavior serves and uses positive reinforcement to replace it with more appropriately adaptive communication or behavior that meets the same need.

functional conformance

functional conformance in environmental design, the provision of the objects and equipment required to adapt an environment to a given set of functional uses, as, for example, by furnishing a study with a desk, lights, and a comfortable chair.

functional connectivity mapping

functional connectivity mapping recording (e.g., via functional magnetic resonance imaging or positron emission tomography) the connections between noncontiguous brain regions during particular activities or at rest. A variety of statistical methods have been developed to analyze the resultant maps.

functional data analysis (FDA)

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functional deafness

functional deafness loss of hearing that is not associated with any known structural abnormality in the auditory system.

functional disorder

functional disorder a disorder for which there is no known physiological basis. In psychology and psychiatry, functional disorders are improperly considered equivalent to psychogenic disorders.

functional distance

functional distance the degree to which the arrangement or configuration of residential facilities influences the probability of unplanned social interaction. Physical distance can affect functional distance, as can the juxtaposition of entrances and proximity to gathering points (e.g., a lounge, common mailboxes, the intersection of hallways).

functional dyspareunia

functional dyspareunia a sexual dysfunction of men or women in which there is recurrent and persistent genital pain during coitus but no structural genital abnormality to account for the pain.

functional dyspepsia

functional dyspepsia see dyspepsia.

functional dyspnea

functional dyspnea see dyspnea.

functional electric stimulation (FES)

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functional family therapy

functional family therapy a type of family therapy that focuses on family interaction patterns and on the benefits family members may derive from problem behavior. Using reframing and cognitive behavior therapy methods, functional family therapy focuses primarily on at-risk and behaviorally troubled youth and their families.

functional fixedness

functional fixedness the tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common use. For example, people generally perceive cardboard boxes as containers, thus hindering them from potentially flipping the boxes over for use as platforms upon which to place objects (e.g., books). See alternate-uses test.

functional grammar

functional grammar an approach to grammar using categories that reflect nonlinguistic factors, such as intention and social context, rather than categories based solely on a formal linguistic analysis. Compare formal grammar. See also form–function distinction; pragmatics.

functional hyperinsulinism

functional hyperinsulinism see hypoglycemia.

functional illiteracy

functional illiteracy see illiteracy.

Functional Independence Measure (FIM)

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functional invariant

functional invariant in the Piagetian theory of cognitive development, either of the processes of accommodation and assimilation, which are conceptualized as characterizing all biological systems and operating throughout the lifespan.

functional job analysis (FJA)

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functional leader

functional leader any member of a group, whether a designated leader or not, who performs the activities associated with a leadership role, including developing and maintaining communication; recruiting members and satisfying their interpersonal needs; defining purposes, objectives, and goals; and assigning task roles to improve team performance. Compare nominal leader.

functional level

functional level see optimal level.

functional limitation

functional limitation restriction or lack of ability in performing an action as a result of a disability. For example, a person who is unable to move safely about his or her home or community or is otherwise unable to travel independently has a functional limitation in mobility.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; functional MRI)

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functional measurement

functional measurement a procedure that measures the subjective experience of stimuli as that experience changes across different contexts. Two or more stimuli are presented in various combinations to an observer who assigns ratings to each. These ratings are then integrated according to a simple arithmetical law discovered by examining the way in which the observer’s ratings change when the combination of stimuli is changed.

functional moneme

functional moneme see function word.

functional neurological symptom disorder

functional neurological symptom disorder see conversion disorder.

functional operant

functional operant the class of responses whose probability is changed by the imposition of an operant contingency. For example, lever presses with a force greater than 0.2 N may be required for reinforcement. Presses with forces greater than 0.2 N will increase in frequency, as will the frequency of presses just (but not far) below that value. These latter presses are part of the functional operant class. Compare descriptive operant.

functional pain

functional pain pain with no known physiological cause.

functional plasticity

functional plasticity the ability of the brain to adapt to loss of or damage to tissue by transferring all or part of the functions previously performed by those injured areas to other regions. The degree to which the brain is able to do this successfully has been called functional reserve and is thought to depend on several factors, including age and the health status of the brain.

functional plateau

functional plateau a relatively stable level of physical or psychological functioning, characteristic of a person in a given developmental state or set of environmental circumstances.

functional psychology

functional psychology see functionalism.

functional psychosis

functional psychosis 1. a psychotic state for which no specific neurological or other physical pathology has been demonstrated. 2. an obsolete name for any severe mental disorder for which no specific neurological or other physical pathology has been demonstrated.

functional reorganization

functional reorganization changes that occur after a brain injury to enable other areas of the brain to take over all or part of the functions performed by the injured area. See also functional plasticity.

functional selection

functional selection the survival, over time, of capacities that are more useful to the individual, coupled with the disappearance of capacities that are less useful.

functional skills

functional skills activities that develop from aptitudes, such as mechanical ability, artistic talent, and writing.

functional status

functional status a measure of an individual’s ability to perform activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living independently, used as an assessment of the severity of that individual’s disability.

functional stimulus

functional stimulus in stimulus–response experiments, the characteristic of the stimulus that actually produces a particular effect on the organism and governs its behavior. This may be different from the nominal stimulus as defined by the experimenter. For example, if an experimenter presents a blue square to a pigeon as a nominal stimulus, the functional stimulus may simply be the color blue. Also called effective stimulus.

functional types

functional types in Carl Jung’s analytic psychology, four personality types based on functions of the ego. Jung identified four functions, one of which typically dominates the conscious ego while the others remain unconscious. The individuated person (see individuation) will have integrated all the functions into his or her conscious personality. The functional types are (a) the feeling type; (b) the thinking type; (c) the sensation type; and (d) the intuitive type. See quaternity. See also attitudinal types.

functional unity

functional unity the state or condition in which a set of parts, traits, or processes work together as an integrated unit.

functional universal

functional universal see psychological universal.

functional vaginismus

functional vaginismus a sexual dysfunction characterized by recurrent and persistent involuntary spasms of the musculature of the outer third of the vagina, which interfere with coitus and are not caused by a physical disorder.

functionalism

functionalism n. a general psychological approach that views mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to environmental challenges and opportunities. Functionalism was developed at the University of Chicago by psychologists John Dewey, James R. Angell, and Harvey A. Carr at the beginning of the 20th century as a revolt against the atomistic point of view of structuralism, which limited psychology to the dissection of states of consciousness and the study of mental content rather than mental activities. The focus of functionalism reveals its debt to evolutionary concepts, to the act psychology of Franz Brentano, and to the approach detailed by William James. Functionalism emphasizes the causes and consequences of human behavior; the union of the physiological with the psychological; the need for objective testing of theories; and the applications of psychological knowledge to the solution of practical problems, the evolutionary continuity between animals and humans, and the improvement of human life. Also called functional psychology. See also Chicago school.

functionalist approach to emotion

functionalist approach to emotion the view that emotional behavior adaptively serves the function of establishing, maintaining, or altering the relation between an organism and its environment. For example, a hiker’s startled reaction to losing footing on a rocky path is an affective response that helps to focus the hiker’s attention and efforts to reestablish footing in the environment. [proposed in 1984 by U.S. developmental psychologists Joseph J. Campos and Karen Caplovitz Barrett]

fundamental attribution error

fundamental attribution error in attribution theory, the tendency to overestimate the degree to which an individual’s behavior is determined by his or her abiding personal characteristics, attitudes, or beliefs and, correspondingly, to minimize the influence of the surrounding situation on that behavior (e.g., financial or social pressures). There is evidence that this tendency is more common in some societies than in others. Also called correspondence bias; overattribution bias. See also ultimate attribution error. [coined by U.S. social psychologist Lee D. Ross (1942– )]

fundamental frequency

fundamental frequency see frequency.

fundamental interpersonal relations orientation theory (FIRO theory)

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Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–Behavior Scale (FIRO–B)

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fundamental lexical hypothesis

fundamental lexical hypothesis see lexical hypothesis.

fundamental need

fundamental need see physiological need.

fundamental rule

fundamental rule see basic rule.

fundamental science

fundamental science see basic science.

fundamental skill

fundamental skill 1. the ability that is necessary in order to perform a task or understand an idea because it is a foundation for other skills or ideas. 2. a basic ability usually considered necessary for competent functioning in society (e.g., reading, basic mathematics, essential communication skills).

fundamental symptoms

fundamental symptoms according to Eugen Bleuler, the four primary symptoms of schizophrenia: abnormal associations in thinking, autistic behavior and thinking, abnormal affect (including flat and inappropriate affect), and ambivalence. These symptoms are also known as the Four As. Compare secondary symptoms.

fundamental tone

fundamental tone see frequency.

fungiform papillae

fungiform papillae swellings on the anterior surface (front) of the tongue, in humans numbering about 200 and each shaped like a mushroom. About half the fungiform papillae lack taste buds; the others each contain from 1 to 36 taste buds, with a mean of 3. Receptors in fungiform papillae are particularly sensitive to salty and sweet chemicals. See also papilla.

funnel interview

funnel interview see aided recall.

furor

furor n. a sudden outburst of rage or excitement during which an irrational act of violence may be committed. In rare cases of epilepsy, the occurrence of furor takes the place of a tonic–clonic or complex partial seizure; this is known as epileptic furor. See also explosive personality; intermittent explosive disorder; isolated explosive disorder.

fusiform gyrus

fusiform gyrus a spindle-shaped ridge on the inferior (lower) surface of each temporal lobe in the brain. It lies between the inferior temporal gyrus and the parahippocampal gyrus and is involved in high-level visual processing. The fusiform face area (FFA), for example, is believed to specialize in face recognition. See also occipital lobe.

fusion

fusion n. the blending into a unified whole of two or more components or elements. This general meaning is applied in a variety of different psychological contexts. In perception, for example, it may denote a blending of sounds received by the two ears (binaural fusion) or of images falling on the two retinas (binocular fusion), whereas in psychoanalytic theory, it denotes instinctual fusion, the merging of different instincts, as in the union of sexual and aggressive drives in sadism. The term is also sometimes applied to a state in which the normal differentiation between the self and the environment seems to recede or disappear, so that the individual experiences a sense of oneness with other individuals or with nature. —fuse vb.

fusion frequency

fusion frequency see critical flicker frequency.

fusional language

fusional language in linguistic typology, a language that forms words by the fusion (rather than the agglutination) of morphemes, so that the constituent elements of a word are not kept distinct. Fusional languages, such as Latin and Greek, tend to have numerous grammatical inflections, with each form serving several distinct functions. Also called synthetic language. Compare agglutinative language; isolating language.

future lives

future lives in perspectives deriving from a belief in reincarnation, those of a human being’s multiple lives that have yet to be lived. See also metempsychosis.

future orientation

future orientation a time perspective that is focused on the future, especially on how to achieve one’s desired goals.

future shock

future shock the personal confusion and social disorientation that accompany very rapid technological and social change. [defined by U.S. futurist Alvin Toffler (1928– )]

future-mindedness

future-mindedness n. the ability to engage in means–ends thinking about the future, that is, to think ahead to what the future may hold and how it might come to pass.

fuzzy logic

fuzzy logic a logic-based knowledge representation scheme founded on the axiom that set membership is based on a probability distribution (as opposed to traditional set theory, in which an element is either in a set or not in that set). An example of fuzzy logic is that a certain person can be a member of the set of tall people with 75% confidence and also be a member of the set of short people with 5% confidence. Fuzzy logic also breaks the assumption of the excluded middle in philosophy, in that an element can be a member of both a set and the opposite of that set at the same time. Fuzzy logic is often used to support the design of expert systems as well as to control algorithms. [first proposed in 1965 by Romanian-born computer engineer Lotfi A. Zadeh (1921– )]

fuzzy set theory

fuzzy set theory an approach to set theory that allows gradations of membership in a set, instead of only assigning a 0 or a 1 that would indicate nonmembership or absolute membership, respectively. Some phenomena are more readily modeled with fuzzy set theory than conventional binary set theory. For example, in designation of a mental illness, fuzzy set theory may be employed to allow for cases in which individuals could be classified somewhere between having an absence and a full diagnosis of a particular condition.

fuzzy trace theory

fuzzy trace theory a theory proposing that information is encoded on a continuum from precise, literal memory representations (verbatim traces) to gistlike, imprecise representations (fuzzy traces), with verbatim traces less easily accessed, generally requiring more effort to use, and more susceptible to interference and forgetting than fuzzy traces. The theory also proposes that developmental differences in many aspects of cognition can be attributed to age differences in encoding and to differences in sensitivity to output interference. [proposed by U.S. psychologists Charles Brainerd (1944– ) and Valerie Reyna (1955– )]

Psychology Terms Starting With 'F'