Terms Starting with "S"

2928 terms

s

s symbol for specific factor. S abbreviation for spatial intelligence. See primary ability.

S

s symbol for specific factor. S abbreviation for spatial intelligence. See primary ability.

s 2

s 2 symbol for sample variance.

S and M

S and M abbreviation for sadism and masochism. See sadomasochism.

S data

S data see Q data.

s factor

s factor abbreviation for specific factor.

S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)

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S-shaped curve

S-shaped curve see ogive.

s-structure

s-structure abbreviation for surface structure.

S–

s symbol for specific factor. S abbreviation for spatial intelligence. See primary ability.

S–(R–O) model

S–(R–O) model stimulus–(response–outcome) model: in instrumental conditioning, the hypothesis that a stimulus activates an association between the response to and the outcome of reinforcement or punishment.

S–O association

S–O association see S–S learning model.

S–O–R psychology

S–O–R psychology stimulus–organism–response psychology: an extension of the S–R psychology of behaviorists incorporating the notion of Robert S. Woodworth that factors within the organism help determine what stimuli the organism is sensitive to and which responses may occur. The O factors could be biological or psychological. S–O–R psychology has been extended beyond classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning to encompass areas such as marketing and consumer behavior. For example, an individual’s emotional state when shopping may influence how many products he or she purchases and the particular types or brands.

S–R

S–R abbreviation for stimulus–response.

S–R learning model

S–R learning model the hypothesis that learning leads to the formation of stimulus–response connections. In classical conditioning, this connection is between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response (e.g., between the tone and salivation in Ivan Pavlov’s procedure); in instrumental conditioning, the connection is between the discriminative stimulus and the response (e.g., between a tone and bar pressing).

S–R psychology

S–R psychology an approach to psychology in which behavior is conceptualized in terms of stimulus and response. The fundamental goal of adherents is therefore describing functional relationships between stimulus and response—that is, manipulating a stimulus and observing the response. S–R psychology developed from Edward L. Thorndike’s connectionism and John B. Watson’s behaviorism, and S–R theories thus tend to be behavioral rather than cognitive. Examples include Clark L. Hull’s reinforcement theory (see Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning) and Edwin R. Guthrie’s contiguity learning theory. S–R theories are sometimes contrasted with cognitive theories of learning (see S–S learning model), such as purposive behaviorism or Gestalt psychology. See also S–O–R psychology.

S–R–O learning model

S–R–O learning model stimulus–response–outcome learning model: in instrumental conditioning, the hypothesis that associations are acquired between a discriminative stimulus, the instrumental response, and the outcome of reinforcement or punishment.

S–S learning model

S–S learning model stimulus–stimulus learning model: any learning theory that is cognitive in nature and emphasizes the formation of associations between stimuli, in contrast to theories based on stimulus–response connections (see S–R psychology). Examples include purposive behaviorism and Gestalt learning theory. In classical conditioning, the S–S learning model postulates associations between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli; in instrumental conditioning, the association is between the discriminative stimulus and the reinforcing stimulus or outcome (i.e., the S–O association).

S/N

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S+

s symbol for specific factor. S abbreviation for spatial intelligence. See primary ability.

S1

S1 abbreviation for primary somatosensory area.

S2

S2 abbreviation for secondary somatosensory area.

SA

SA abbreviation for social age.

SAB

SAB abbreviation for standard application blank.

saccade

saccade n. a rapid eye movement that allows visual fixation to jump from one location to another in the visual field. Once initiated, a saccade cannot change course. See also microsaccades. Compare smooth-pursuit eye movement. —saccadic adj.

saccadic dysmetria

saccadic dysmetria see ocular dysmetria.

saccadic speed

saccadic speed the speed of the rapid, ballistic eye movement known as a saccade. Human saccades reach speeds of 700° of visual angle per second.

saccadic time

saccadic time the duration of a saccade. Saccades last 15 to 100 ms, and approximately 150 ms must elapse before the next saccade can be initiated.

saccule

saccule n. the smaller of the two vestibular sacs of the inner ear, the other being the utricle. Like the utricle, it contains a sensory structure called a macula. Movements of the head relative to gravity exert a momentum pressure on hair cells within the macula, which then fire impulses indicating a change in body position. —saccular adj.

sacral division

sacral division the nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system that arise from the spinal cord in the sacral (lower back) region. Compare cranial division.

sacral nerve

sacral nerve see spinal nerve.

sacred disease

sacred disease a name for epilepsy used by the ancient Greeks based on the belief that seizures were evidence of divine visitation. Hippocrates, however, rejected this view, saying “Surely it, too, has its nature and causes whence it originates, just like other diseases, and is curable by means comparable to their cure.”

SAD

SAD acronym for seasonal affective disorder.

sadism

sadism n. the derivation of pleasure through cruelty and inflicting pain, humiliation, and other forms of suffering on individuals. The term generally denotes sexual sadism. In the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, sadism is attributed to the working of the death instinct and is manifested in innate aggressive tendencies expressed from the earliest stages of development. For example, during the oral-biting phase, the infant expresses sadism by taking pleasure in biting. See also anal sadism; oral sadism. [Donatien Alphonse François, Comte (Marquis) de Sade (1740–1814), French soldier and writer] —sadist n. —sadistic adj.

sadness

sadness n. an emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g., by the rupture of a relationship). Persistent sadness is one of the two defining symptoms of a major depressive episode, the other being anhedonia. —sad adj.

sadomasochism

sadomasochism n. 1. sexual activity between consenting partners in which one partner enjoys inflicting pain (see sexual sadism) and the other enjoys experiencing pain (see sexual masochism). 2. a paraphilia in which a person is both sadistic and masochistic, deriving sexual arousal from both giving and receiving pain. —sadomasochist n. —sadomasochistic adj.

sadomasochistic personality

sadomasochistic personality formerly, in psychoanalysis, the characterization of people who enjoy both exhibiting and being the recipient of aggressive behavior.

SADS

SADS abbreviation for Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia.

Saethre–Chotzen syndrome

Saethre–Chotzen syndrome see Chotzen’s syndrome.

safe compartment

safe compartment in a two-compartment conditioning apparatus, the compartment that is not associated with an aversive stimulus.

safe sex

safe sex sexual activity in which the exchange of bodily fluids is inhibited as much as possible to help reduce the risk of unwanted pregnancy or of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. Precautions may include avoidance of high-risk sexual behaviors, careful selection of one’s partners, and the use of preventive barriers (e.g., condoms, dental dams). The practice is also called safer sex in recognition that 100% safety is not possible with, for example, condoms.

safety and health education

safety and health education instruction regarding health-related matters, including the causes and prevention of malnutrition, alcoholism, drug addiction, and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as safety on the roads, in the workshop, at home, and on the playing field. See also accident prevention.

safety behavior

safety behavior a behavior performed by an anxious individual in an attempt to minimize or prevent a feared catastrophe. For example, a person with panic disorder might only go out when accompanied, and a person with social phobia might wear sunglasses indoors to avoid eye contact. Safety behaviors may also include internal mental processes: A person with social phobia might memorize what he or she plans to say at a social gathering. Safety behavior contributes to the maintenance of anxiety disorders when people believe that the behavior, rather than the lack of actual danger, is what prevents the feared catastrophe. Also called safety cues; safety-seeking behavior; safety signals. [first defined in 1991 by British psychologist Paul M. Salkovskis]

safety device

safety device in the therapeutic approach of Karen D. Horney, any psychic means used by an individual to protect himself or herself from threats, particularly the hostile elements of the environment. As such, the concept is similar to the classical psychoanalytic concept of the defense mechanism. See also basic anxiety.

safety engineering

safety engineering a discipline in which multiple approaches are applied to the design and evaluation of work systems and processes with the aim of eliminating or reducing hazards. See also hazard control.

safety need

safety need a desire for freedom from illness or danger and for a secure, familiar, and predictable environment. Safety needs comprise the second level of Maslow’s motivational hierarchy, after basic physiological needs.

safety psychology

safety psychology a subdiscipline of applied psychology involving the study of behavioral aspects of hazardous situations in human–environment systems, particularly within occupational contexts. Safe and unsafe behavior of employees is studied systematically to derive guidelines that can be translated into practical actions to ensure safety.

safety signal

safety signal a stimulus that indicates to an organism that an aversive event will not occur.

sagittal

sagittal adj. describing or relating to a plane that divides the body or an organ into left and right portions. A midsagittal (or medial sagittal) plane divides the body centrally into halves, whereas a parasagittal plane lies parallel but to one side of the center. —sagittally adv.

sagittal fissure

sagittal fissure see longitudinal fissure.

Saint Dymphna’s disease

Saint Dymphna’s disease an early name for mental illness, deriving from the name of the patron saint of those with nervous disorders or mental illness. According to legend, Dymphna, a medieval Irish princess, fled to Belgium to escape the incestuous advances of her mad father, who later put her to death near Gheel. See Gheel colony.

Saint Vitus’s dance

Saint Vitus’s dance an archaic name for Sydenham’s chorea.

salary compression

salary compression see wage compression.

salicylate

salicylate n. any of a group of drugs that are based on salicin, a compound obtained from the bark of willow trees (Salix), and that include salicylic acid and its derivatives. The latter are used as analgesics, antipyretics, and anti-inflammatory agents. They act on both the peripheral and central nervous systems, particularly the thalamus, but also mimic some aspects of the adrenal hormones. The best known member is aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), introduced in 1899. Other salicylates include salicylamide and compounds used in topical formulations for the relief of muscle and joint pain.

salicylism

salicylism n. poisoning with salicylates, the most common form of which is due to overdosage of aspirin. Symptoms of mild salicylism include tinnitus, confusion, headache, nausea, and vomiting. More severe forms of salicylism are characterized by severe acidosis, hemorrhage, and changes in mental status that may lead to convulsions, coma, and death.

salience hypothesis

salience hypothesis a theory of perception according to which motivationally significant stimuli (objects, people, meanings, etc.) are perceived more readily than are stimuli with little motivational importance. It has relevance in social perception, advertising, and linguistics.

salient

salient adj. distinctive or prominent. A salient stimulus in a multielement array will tend to be easily detected and identified. The noun form, salience (or saliency), denotes a parameter of a stimulus that indexes its effectiveness. See conspicuity; pop-out; stimulus salience.

saline

saline adj. consisting of salt or having a salty taste.

saliromania

saliromania n. sexual interest and arousal associated with objects that are filthy, disgusting, or deformed.

salivary gland

salivary gland any of several glands located in the wall of the mouth that secrete a fluid (saliva) containing the enzyme gamma-amylase (ptyalin). The major salivary glands are the paired parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual glands; smaller glands are scattered over the cheeks and tongue. See also salivation.

salivary reflex

salivary reflex a change in the secretion of the salivary glands caused by unconditioned or conditioned stimulation of their effector nerves. See conditioned response; unconditioned response.

salivation

salivation n. the secretion of saliva by the salivary glands, typically as a reflex response to stimuli associated with food.

Salpêtrière

Salpêtrière n. an institution founded in Paris in 1656 as an asylum for the infirm, aged, and insane. At one time, it contained nearly 10,000 people, and treatment was proverbially brutal. The Salpêtrière was transformed during the regime of Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), who became its director in 1794 and introduced many pioneering reforms in the treatment of people with mental illnesses. From the 1860s, the hospital became the center for the psychopathological investigations of Jean-Martin Charcot, which involved the use of hypnosis; in 1885, one of Charcot’s students was the young Sigmund Freud.

salpingectomy

salpingectomy n. the surgical removal of one or both fallopian tubes. A salpingectomy may be performed as a sterilization measure or because of an infection or malignant growth in the reproductive tract. Also called tubectomy. See also tubal ligation.

saltation

saltation n. 1. a dancing or leaping motion, specifically one seen as a result of chorea. 2. the mode of conduction of nerve impulses along myelinated nerve fibers. See saltatory conduction. 3. the phenomenon in which a sensation is felt at a site other than that where it was evoked. For example, auditory saltation is an illusion in which a train of clicks, the first half of which is presented at one location and the other half of which is presented at a second location, is perceived as originating not only from the anchor points but also from locations between them. 4. a sudden evolutionary variation or modification of a species due to large-scale genetic mutation. 5. an abrupt transition or sudden development in the course of an illness. [from Latin saltatio, “dance”]

saltatory conduction

saltatory conduction a type of conduction of nerve impulses that occurs in myelinated fibers, in which the impulses skip from one node of Ranvier to the next. This permits much faster conduction velocities compared with those of unmyelinated fibers.

salty

salty adj. denoting the taste elicited by sodium chloride or lithium chloride, by other sodium and lithium salts, and by the amino acid arginine. Sodium is the primary ion for generating osmotic forces in an organism and is an essential carrier of electrical potentials; it cannot be produced in the body and therefore must be ingested. —saltiness n.

Salvia

Salvia n. a genus of plants in the mint family. The species Salvia miltiorrhiza is red sage. The species Salvia divinorum is a kappa opioid agonist hallucinogen used as a recreational drug known as diviner’s sage or by its genus name, Salvia. Users chew, smoke, or place it under the tongue and may experience visions, uncontrollable laughter, loss of speech and coordination, anxiety, and nausea, although these effects are short-lived. It is illegal in many U.S. states.

SAM

SAM 1. abbreviation for S-adenosylmethionine. 2. abbreviation for search of associative memory. 3. abbreviation for sympathetic–adrenal–medullary axis.

same-sex marriage

same-sex marriage a long-term, intimate, stable, and in some jurisdictions legally recognized relationship between two people of the same sex. It is less frequently called homosexual marriage. Also called gay marriage. See also domestic partnership.

SAMHSA

SAMHSA abbreviation for Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

sample

sample n. a subset of a population of interest that is selected for study with the aim of making inferences to the population. It is important to ensure that a sample is representative of the larger population. Characteristics that describe observations in this subset, such as the mean, median, or standard deviation, are called statistics.

sample correlation coefficient

sample correlation coefficient (symbol: r) an index of the degree of association between two variables based on the data in a studied subset (sample) of cases from a larger group of interest. It is a variant of the product-moment correlation coefficient, and the same symbol is used for both statistics. See also population correlation coefficient.

sample distribution

sample distribution the distribution of scores in a particular subset (sample) drawn from a larger population. Of interest is the general shape of the distribution, reflecting the frequency of particular scores (its kurtosis, skewness, etc.). Compared to the theoretical population distribution, the distribution of scores in a sample is often jagged and not smooth.

sample mean

sample mean (symbol: X̄, M) the arithmetic average (mean) of a set of scores from cases or observations in a subset drawn from a larger population. Because each score contributes equally to this index of central tendency, it can be affected greatly by outliers. Many widely used statistical tests are based on the comparison of sample means.

sample reliability

sample reliability the degree to which a subset of items (sample) is representative of the population from which it is drawn. It is typically indexed by the standard error of the mean.

sample size

sample size the number of observations (cases, individuals, units) included in a selection of items to be studied. This is usually denoted N (for the study as a whole) or n (for subgroups from the study).

sample space

sample space the collection of all possible outcomes of an experiment of chance. For example, for a toss of a single coin, the sample space is heads and tails, whereas for a toss of two coins, the sample space is heads–heads, heads–tails, tails–tails, and tails–heads.

sample standard deviation

sample standard deviation (symbol: s) see standard deviation.

sample variance

sample variance (symbol: s2) the dispersion of scores within a group selected for study, as opposed to the population variance. It is calculated by determining each score’s difference from the average for the set, squaring and summing these differences, and then dividing by the total number of scores minus one.

sampling

sampling n. the process of selecting for study a limited number of units from a larger set. The term most often refers to the selection of respondents, observations, or cases for inclusion in experiments, surveys, interviews, or other research. However, sampling can also involve selecting theoretical constructs to study, selecting measurement instruments from a broad set of potential options, or selecting time points at which to observe individuals or cases. There are various different selection methods, including simple random sampling, stratified sampling, convenience sampling, and quota sampling. Each approach has a different potential of obtaining a sample appropriately representative of the population under study.

sampling bias

sampling bias a systematic and directional error involved in the choice of units, cases, or participants from a larger group for study. Sampling bias can threaten the internal validity of a study if there is a possibility that preexisting differences arising from the sampling process may interact with the variable of interest. Similarly, if the procedure used to choose participants tends to favor specially motivated individuals or people from a certain segment of society, there would be a threat to the study’s external validity (i.e., inferences to a larger population would not be viable). Sampling bias is associated with a lack of random sampling and with nonrandom assignment to conditions. Also called recruitment bias; selection bias. See also self-selection bias.

sampling design

sampling design the specific approach, method, or strategy that a researcher decides to use for selecting a sample from the larger population. Formulating a design involves determining the nature of the target population, a suitable sampling frame for drawing the cases, the desired sample size, whether random or nonrandom selection will be used, and whether there are any important variables on which to stratify selection. Also called sampling plan.

sampling distribution

sampling distribution the distribution of a statistic, such as the mean, obtained with repeated samples drawn from a population. Simulation studies allow researchers to specify known population information, conduct a very large number of repeated draws on the population, and build an empirical distribution of the statistic based on these draws (e.g., t, F, or χ2 distributions). For example, the means calculated from samples of 100 observations, repeatedly and randomly drawn from the population, yield a sampling distribution for the mean. Knowledge about the distribution of a statistic allows researchers to say when a finding from a sample is unusual (e.g., statistically significant) and when it would be expected from the statistic’s known behavior, thus enabling the sampling distribution of a statistic to be used in testing hypotheses about variables and their relationships. See also inferential test.

sampling error

sampling error the predictable margin of error that occurs in studies of samples of cases or observations from a larger population: It indicates the possible variance between the true value of a parameter in the population and the estimate of that value made from the sample data. For example, a sampling error of 3% in a large national survey finding that 65% of citizens prefer a particular policy means that the true figure could be anywhere between 62% and 68%.

sampling frame

sampling frame the specific source used in drawing a subset of cases or individuals from larger population. In many cases, the sampling frame will be a complete list of all of the elements in a population (e.g., the electoral register). In other cases, this will be impossible or the issue may be less straightforward than it appears. The key point is that any sampling frame should be representative of the target population as a whole. In a study of college students’ aspirations for life after graduation, for example, the researchers might decide to use a listing of students obtained from the institution’s office of evaluation and assessment as their sampling frame and randomly select from this list every fifth student.

sampling theory

sampling theory the body of principles underlying the drawing of samples that accurately represent the population from which they are taken and to which inferences will be made. This conceptualization of the sampling process provides guidance to researchers about which sampling design to choose in the particular circumstances and how best to account for subsets of cases that are not well represented (or are overrepresented) in the population (e.g., by using weights).

sampling unit

sampling unit any of the elements selected from a population to make up a sample. For instance, if classrooms are selected at random from the population, then the classroom—not the individual student—is the sampling unit. See unit of analysis.

sampling variability

sampling variability the extent to which the value of a statistic differs across a series of samples, such that there is some degree of uncertainty involved in making inferences to the larger population. See sampling error.

sampling with replacement

sampling with replacement a sampling technique in which each item selected from the larger set is returned to the general pool. This means that a particular case may be drawn more than once for a given sample.

sampling without replacement

sampling without replacement a sampling technique that involves selecting an item from the larger set and removing it from the general pool; thus, this particular case cannot be redrawn.

samsara

samsara n. see metempsychosis.

sanatorium

sanatorium n. formerly, an institution for the treatment and convalescence of individuals with chronic diseases, such as rheumatism, tuberculosis, neurological disorders, or mental disorders. Also called sanitarium.

sanction

sanction n. 1. authoritative approval or permission for an action. 2. a punishment or other coercive measure, usually administered by a recognized authority, that is used to penalize and deter inappropriate or unauthorized actions. See also social sanction.

Sandimmune

Sandimmune n. a trade name for cyclosporine.

sandwich generation

sandwich generation midlife adults who simultaneously care for dependent children and ailing parents or other older relatives. Being a multigenerational caregiver has been shown to negatively affect health and behavior by decreasing one’s level of exercise, increasing one’s frequency of cigarette smoking, and increasing one’s risk of depression. See also caregiver burden.

Sanfilippo syndrome

Sanfilippo syndrome an autosomal recessive, lysosomal storage disease caused by an inability of the body to break down heparan sulphate, a complex carbohydrate (see mucopolysaccharidosis). Affected individuals can have severe neurological symptoms, including progressive dementia, aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, seizures, deafness, loss of vision, and an inability to sleep for more than a few hours at a time. Sanfilippo syndrome is divided into four subtypes: A, B, C, and D. The different types have similar signs and symptoms, but Type A is the most severe. Also called mucopolysaccharidosis Type III; Sanfilippo (A, B, C, D). [described in 1963 by Sylvester Sanfilippo (1926–2013), U.S. pediatrician]

sangue dormido

sangue dormido a culture-bound syndrome found among inhabitants (indigenous and immigrant) of Cape Verde. Symptoms include pain, numbness, tremor, paralysis, convulsions, stroke, blindness, heart attack, infection, and miscarriage. [Portuguese, literally: “sleeping blood”]

sanguine type

sanguine type one of the four temperamental types established by Galen, who believed that the ruddy complexion and cheerful outlook displayed by such individuals was due to the predominance of blood over other body fluids. See humoral theory.

sanitarium

sanitarium n. see sanatorium.

sanity

sanity n. 1. in law, the state of not suffering from a mental disorder or neurological defect that impairs one’s ability to understand or appreciate one’s acts or to conform to the requirements of the law. Thus, it is the opposite of insanity. 2. more generally, soundness of mind or judgment. —sane adj.

Sansert

Sansert n. a trade name for methysergide.

Saphris

Saphris n. a trade name for asenapine.

sapid stimulus

sapid stimulus see gustatory stimulus.

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis see linguistic determinism. [Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941), U.S. linguists]

Sapphism

Sapphism n. see lesbianism.

SAR workshop

SAR workshop abbreviation for sexual attitude reassessment workshop.

Sarafem

Sarafem n. a trade name for fluoxetine.

sarcoma

sarcoma n. see cancer.

SAS

SAS abbreviation for Supervisory Attentional System.

SAT

SAT acronym for Scholastic Assessment Test.

Satanism

Satanism n. a religion based on the worship of Satan, the supreme personification of evil in Christian tradition, whether as a deity or a concept. Satanist cults vary from neopagan groups that revere Satan as a benevolent force of energy in nature to those that pay some kind of allegiance to Satan as an evil principle. In the latter case, worship takes the form of magical rituals that may involve an element of deliberate transgression (e.g., by parodies of Christian ceremonies or taboo sexual practices). Satanic ritual abuse (SRA) is the alleged psychological, sexual, or physical abuse of humans or animals committed as part of a religious ritual involving worship of Satan. See ritual abuse. See also demonology. —Satanic adj. —Satanist n.

satellite clinic

satellite clinic a freestanding outpatient facility that is physically separate from but administratively attached to a parent medical facility. Staff interaction and delivery of services occur between the clinic and parent facility.

satellite male

satellite male in animal behavior, a male peripheral to a territorial male or present in a group of displaying males that does not call or display. A satellite male will rapidly replace a territorial male that disappears and will often intercept females attracted to nearby displaying males to engage in sneak mating.

satiation

satiation n. 1. the satisfaction of a desire or need, such as hunger or thirst; another name for satiety. 2. the temporary loss of effectiveness of a reinforcer due to its repeated presentation. —satiate vb.

satiety

satiety n. the state of being fully satisfied to or beyond capacity, as, for instance, when hunger or thirst have been fully assuaged, which inhibits any desire to eat or drink more. Ingested food, for example, provides two signals of inhibition, one reflecting the bulk of a consumed meal and associated with gastric distension and the other reflecting the chemical content of the meal and associated with numerous peptides, hormones, and cytokines in the intestines and liver (notably including cholecystokinin, ghrelin, and leptin). Satiety signals from the gastrointestinal tract travel via different branches of the vagus nerve to act through the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and the solitary nucleus of the brainstem, where neuronal networks mediating food intake and eating behavior are activated.

satiety center

satiety center see ventromedial nucleus.

satiety mechanism

satiety mechanism any of the bodily processes or systems involved in regulating food and fluid intake. See also appetitive behavior.

satisfaction of instincts

satisfaction of instincts in classical psychoanalytic theory, the gratification of basic needs, such as hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression, which discharges tension, eliminates unpleasure, and restores the organism to a balanced state. Satisfaction may occur on a conscious, preconscious, or unconscious level. Also called gratification of instincts. See also libido.

Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS)

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satisfice

satisfice vb. to choose an option that meets the requirements of a particular situation but that may not be the optimal choice when considered in the abstract. In economics, the hypothesis of satisficing behavior proposes that, given the constraints of bounded rationality, economic agents seek a level of profit or utility that they find satisfactory rather than one that is optimal. [coined by Herbert A. Simon as a blend of satisfy and suffice]

satisficer

satisficer n. a type of consumer who is happy with a good-enough choice. For example, a satisficer on a shopping trip in a grocery store is likely to buy the first box of reasonably priced cereal he or she sees. Compare maximizer. [defined in 2002 by U.S. psychologist Barry Schwartz (1946– )]

satori

satori n. in Zen Buddhism, the state or moment of spiritual awakening (Japanese, “awakening”) or enlightenment in which reality is perceived.

saturated model

saturated model a model that fits the data perfectly because it has as many estimated parameters as there are values to be fitted. In structural equation modeling, this type of model poses a problem because a researcher cannot evaluate fit. Relatedly, the unsaturated model has more parameters than can be estimated from the available data. In factor analysis, the problem of saturation occurs when the number of factors that will be estimated is the same as the number of variables in the data set.

saturation

saturation n. the purity of a color and the degree to which it departs from white. Colors with high saturation are intense and brilliant (e.g., fuchsia), whereas colors of low saturation are diluted and dull (e.g., pastel pink).

saturation scale

saturation scale an index of the purity of a color, ranging from gray to the pure color. It is used in psychophysics to relate the perceived purity of a color to the percentage of light of a given wavelength that is present.

satyriasis

satyriasis n. excessive or insatiable desire in a male for sexual gratification. Sexual activity with one person is found to be inadequate, and many other sexual partners are sought. See also Don Juan.

sauce béarnaise effect

sauce béarnaise effect a colloquial term referring to a conditioned taste aversion. If a person happens to become ill after tasting a new food, such as sauce béarnaise, he or she may subsequently dislike and avoid that food. Regardless of the actual cause of the illness, the sauce will be identified with it. See also preparedness.

savant

savant n. a person with an intellectual disability or an autism spectrum disorder (autistic savant) who demonstrates exceptional, usually isolated, cognitive abilities, such as rapid calculation, identifying the day of the week for any given date, or musical talent. The term idiot savant initially was used to denote such a person but has been discarded as pejorative.

savings method

savings method a way of measuring quantitatively, without relying on an individual’s conscious memory, how much learned material is retained. In an initial learning session, the number of trials or the amount of time until the individual can achieve a goal, such as one perfect recitation of a list of nonsense syllables, is recorded. At a later time, he or she is retaught the same material. The difference in number of trials or time taken to achieve the goal is compared between the first and second sessions; this is the savings value (or savings score). Even if the individual has no conscious recollection of the original learning experience (e.g., because of a large time delay between the two sessions), the measurement can still be obtained. Also called relearning method. [introduced by Hermann Ebbinghaus]

sawtooth waves

sawtooth waves a series of pointed electrical waveforms recorded on an electroencephalogram just before the onset of rapid eye movements in phasic REM sleep. Sawtooth waves occur in bursts, with a frequency range of 1.5 to 5 Hz, and last an average of 7 seconds.

saxitoxin (STX)

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SB

SB abbreviation for Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale.

SBS

SBS abbreviation for shaken baby syndrome.

scaffolding

scaffolding n. in education, a teaching style that supports and facilitates the student as he or she learns a new skill or concept, with the ultimate goal of the student becoming self-reliant. Derived from Lev Vygotsky’s theories, in practice it involves teaching material just beyond the level at which the student could learn alone. Technologies (e.g., computer software) that may be used to assist in this process are known as scaffolded tools.

scala media

scala media one of the three canals that run the length of the cochlea in the inner ear. Located between the scala vestibuli and scala tympani, it is filled with fluid (endolymph) and is delimited by Reissner’s membrane, the highly vascular stria vascularis, and the basilar membrane, which supports the organ of Corti. Also called cochlear duct.

scala tympani

scala tympani one of the three canals within the cochlea in the inner ear. It is located below the scala media, from which it is separated by the basilar membrane, and contains perilymph. At its basal end is the round window.

scala vestibuli

scala vestibuli one of the three canals within the cochlea in the inner ear. It is located above the scala media, from which it is separated by Reissner’s membrane, and contains perilymph. At its basal end is the oval window.

scalability

scalability n. the usefulness of an item on a test or scale in eliciting responses that represent identifiable positions on an ordered progression of scores or values describing an underlying construct, such as an ability or attitude. See Guttman scale.

scalar

scalar 1. n. a quantity having only magnitude and not direction. Compare vector. 2. n. in matrix algebra, a quantity that can multiply a vector in a vector space to produce another vector. 3. adj. describing a variable that can be represented by positions on a scale. 4. adj. describing a matrix in which the entries along the main diagonal are equal and all other entries are zero.

scale

scale n. 1. a system for ordering test responses in a progressive series, so as to measure a trait, ability, attitude, or the like. For example, an agreement scale used on an attitude survey might have seven response options ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7), with neither disagree nor agree (4) as the middle point. See Likert scale; rating scale. 2. a sequence of ordered values used as a reference in measuring a physical property (e.g., weight, temperature). See interval scale; ratio scale. See also measurement level. 3. more generally, any test or other assessment instrument as a whole.

scale attenuation

scale attenuation the situation in which the response format on a measure includes too few options to reflect a respondent’s actual behavior, opinion, or belief. For example, if an item pertains to average time spent watching television each day and a scale ranging from none (1) to 1 hour or more (5) is used, the upper end of the scale is likely to be selected by the great majority of sampled respondents, some of whom watch many hours per day; this results in little ability to differentiate the sample in terms of how many hours are actually watched. See ceiling effect; floor effect.

scale development

scale development the process of creating a new instrument for measuring an unobserved or latent construct, such as depression, sociability, or fourth-grade mathematics ability. The process includes defining the construct and test specifications, generating items and response scales, piloting the items in a large sample, conducting analyses to fine-tune the measure, and then readministering the refined measure to develop norms (if applicable) and to assess aspects of reliability and validity.

scale error

scale error a child’s attempt to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible because of the size discrepancy between the child and the object (e.g., the child tries to get into a toy car).

Scale of Prodromal Symptoms (SOPS)

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scale parameter

scale parameter see dispersion parameter.

scaling

scaling n. the process of constructing an instrument to measure, assess, and order some quantity or characteristic (e.g., height, weight, happiness, empathy). A researcher must evaluate how a given construct of interest should be measured and how optimally to obtain scores for individuals on these measures. See scale development.

scalogram

scalogram n. see Guttman scale.

Scanlon plan

Scanlon plan a type of gainsharing program in which employees are motivated to improve productivity by monetary bonuses and participation in solving production problems. A production committee made up of supervisors and employees is formed within each unit in an organization; this committee screens suggestions from employees for reducing costs and improving productivity. Gains, such as cost savings or the value of improved production, are shared with the whole group, not just the individuals making the suggestions. See also industrial democracy; participative decision making; quality circle. [Joseph Scanlon (1899–1956), U.S. union leader]

scanning

scanning n. in medicine, the process of using radiological, magnetic, or other means to visualize and examine the body or a portion of it to diagnose a disease or disorder.

scanning hypothesis

scanning hypothesis the speculative notion that rapid eye movements during REM sleep may correspond to subjective gaze shifts of the sleeper looking at a dream scene. Such eye movement are, however, generally very repetitive, unlike normal eye movements in an awake individual who is visually fixating on a specific object or scene.

scanning speech

scanning speech speech that is slow with variable intonations and involuntary interruptions between syllables. It results from cerebellar lesions or other neuromuscular damage.

scapegoat theory

scapegoat theory 1. an analysis of violence and aggression in which individuals undergoing negative experiences (such as failure or abuse by others) are assumed to blame an innocent individual or group for causing the experience. Subsequent mistreatment of this scapegoat then serves as an outlet for individuals’ frustrations and hostilities (see displaced aggression). It has also been suggested that when scapegoats have been targets for aggression over the years they may thus acquire the quality of a stimulus for aggression. 2. an analysis of prejudice in which intergroup conflict is assumed to be caused, in part, by the tendency of individuals to blame their negative experiences on other groups. The theory is supported by studies suggesting that racial prejudice increases during periods of economic downturn and high unemployment. See realistic group conflict theory. See also frustration–aggression hypothesis.

scapegoating

scapegoating n. blaming: the process of directing one’s anger, frustration, and aggression onto others and targeting them as the source of one’s problems and misfortunes. See also displacement. —scapegoat n., vb.

scapular reflex

scapular reflex an involuntary contraction of the scapular muscle when the skin over the scapula (shoulder blade) is irritated.

SCAT

SCAT acronym for School and College Ability Test.

scato- (scat-)

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scatologia

scatologia n. preoccupation with obscenities, lewdness, and filth, mainly of an excremental nature. The term is derived from the Greek word for dung. In psychoanalytic theory, scatologia is usually associated with anal eroticism. Also called scatology. —scatological adj.

scatophilia

scatophilia n. sexual interest and arousal derived from talking about excrement and using obscene language.

scatter

scatter n. 1. the tendency of data points to diverge from each other. An example is the variation in scores across a set of tests on the same individual; another is the variation among test takers on a particular test. See also dispersion; variance. 2. in profile analysis, the tendency for a set of scores for an individual to vary from the average of scores.

scattering

scattering n. a type of thinking characterized by tangential or irrelevant associations that may be expressed in incomprehensible speech. It is observed in individuals with schizophrenia.

scatterplot

scatterplot n. a graphical representation of the relationship between two continuously measured variables in which one variable is arrayed on each axis and a dot or other symbol is placed at each point where the values of the variables intersect. The overall pattern of dots provides an indication of the extent to which there is a linear relationship between variables. A round mass of points shows no linear relation, an elliptical cloud of points with a positive slope shows a positive relation, and an elliptical cloud with a negative slope shows a negative relation. Outlier points are also clearly visible. Also called dot plot; scattergram. See also regression line.

scavenging

scavenging n. the behavior of feeding on dead organic matter, such as carrion or scraps left by other animals. Scavenging behavior is found in many species, including lions, vultures, hyenas, jackals, and chimpanzees.

scedasticity

scedasticity n. the distribution of error terms in a set of random variables. The pattern of errors may be due to chance and have constant variance (homoscedacity), or there may be some pattern, such as a clustering of greater error with certain points on the independent variable (heteroscedacity). Regression analysis generally assumes homoscedasticity.

scenario analysis

scenario analysis a process in which managers conceptualize a range of plausible, logically consistent situations (scenarios) that may arise in the future and attempt to identify the implications of these for their organization and its activities. The purpose is not so much to predict the future—some of the scenarios considered may be highly unlikely—as to promote better decision making, better personnel use, and critical scrutiny of existing systems and processes, especially in terms of their ability to respond flexibly to unexpected negative events. Scenario analysis has important applications in such fields as politics, military strategy, business, ergonomics, and accident prevention.

scenario-based design

scenario-based design in ergonomics, a design practice in which different potential uses for a product or system are envisioned and then analyzed to help designers identify and correct potential problems or flaws.

scent marking

scent marking the act by a nonhuman animal of depositing odorants on a substrate, often from specialized scent glands that produce them. Scent glands are commonly found in the anogenital region, in the axilla, in the suprapubic region, and around the mouth. Scent marking provides cues about species, sex, reproductive status, and dominance status that can remain on or diffuse slowly from a substrate after the marking individual has left.

Schachter–Singer theory

Schachter–Singer theory the theory that experiencing and identifying emotional states are functions of both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretations of the physical state. Also called attribution of emotion; cognitive arousal theory of emotion; Schachter theory; two-factor theory of emotion. See also James–Lange theory. [Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer (1924–2010), U.S. psychologists]

schadenfreude

schadenfreude n. the gaining of pleasure or satisfaction from the misfortune of others. [from German Schaden, “harm,” and Freude, “joy”]

Schaffer collateral

Schaffer collateral an axon branch from a neuron in area CA3 of the hippocampus that projects to area CA1.

Schaie’s stages of cognitive development

Schaie’s stages of cognitive development a stage theory in which human cognitive processes are posited to develop within up to five periods during the lifespan. In the first, the acquisitive stage, an individual’s primary cognitive task is to acquire knowledge and intellectual skills. Corresponding to developmental approaches such as that of Jean Piaget, this stage occurs from infancy through adolescence. The achieving stage occurs next, in young adulthood, during which an individual’s primary cognitive task is to achieve personal goals (e.g., starting a family, establishing a career) by applying the intellectual skills learned during the acquisitive stage. The individual then uses those skills in middle adulthood, during the responsible stage, to manage increasingly complex situations arising from family, community, and career responsibilities. This stage may by followed by the executive stage, during which some middle-aged adults may achieve a high level of intellectual functioning characterized by a broadened focus on societal rather than on exclusively personal concerns and by an ability to set priorities as well as to assimilate conflicting information. Finally, in the reintegrative stage, individuals in late adulthood apply their intellectual skills to reexamine their life experiences and priorities and to focus their attention on tasks of great personal meaning. Memory storage and retrieval and the speed of other cognitive functions may decline, but general cognitive ability continues to develop during this stage. Also called Schaie’s stages of adult cognitive development. See also Seattle Longitudinal Study. [proposed in the 1970s by K. Warner Schaie (1928– ), U.S. psychologist]

Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS)

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schedule of reinforcement

schedule of reinforcement in conditioning, a rule that determines which instances of a response will be reinforced. There are numerous types of schedules of reinforcement, entries for which are provided elsewhere in the dictionary. Also called reinforcement schedule.

schedule-induced polydipsia

schedule-induced polydipsia see adjunctive behavior; polydipsia.

scheduled awakening

scheduled awakening a form of behavior therapy for elimination of persistent nightmares (see nightmare disorder; sleep terror disorder). The procedure includes the regular wakening of the sleeper at intervals related to REM sleep.

scheduled drug

scheduled drug any of various drugs whose prescription or use has been restricted by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration in accordance with the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Schedule I drugs are those for which all nonresearch use is illegal (e.g., LSD, heroin). Schedule II drugs include most opiates, stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines, methylphenidate), barbiturates, and prescribed forms of tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol). For Schedule II drugs, no refills or telephone prescriptions are permitted. Schedule III drugs include some opioids, barbiturates, and stimulants subject to abuse; prescriptions must be rewritten after 6 months, with a maximum of five refills. Schedule IV drugs include certain opioids, some stimulants, and most of the benzodiazepines. Refills are limited to five, and prescriptions must be rewritten after 6 months. Schedule V drugs include several opiates with low abuse potential (low doses of codeine and others). The Schedule of Controlled Substances, originally designed to restrict the prescription of commonly abused drugs, is periodically updated as the popularity of new agents—generally drugs of abuse—reaches the attention of authorities.

Scheffé test

Scheffé test a post hoc test used after a researcher obtains a significant F ratio in an analysis of variance that has more than two levels (i.e., more than two conditions of an independent variable that are being examined for differences among their mean values). It allows for the testing of all possible contrasts (weighted comparisons of any number of means) while controlling the probability of a Type I error for the set of contrasts at a prespecified level. The Scheffé test is considered to be one of the most stringent multiple comparison tests because it is conservative in its identification of statistically significant mean differences between groups. [Henry Scheffé (1907–1977), U.S. mathematician]

schema

schema n. (pl. schemata) 1. a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving. For example, the schema “dorm room” suggests that a bed and a desk are probably part of the scene, that a microwave oven might or might not be, and that expensive Persian rugs probably will not be. Also called cognitive schema. See also frame; perceptual schema. 2. a cognitive structure representing a person’s knowledge about some entity or situation, including its qualities and the relationships between these. Schemas are usually abstractions that simplify a person’s world. In 1932, Frederic C. Bartlett showed that past experiences are stored in memory as schemas; impressions of other people are also thought to be organized in this way. 3. an outlook or assumption that an individual has of the self, others, or the world that endures despite objective reality. For example, “I am a damaged person” and “Anyone I trust will eventually hurt me” are negative schemas that may result from negative experiences in early childhood. A goal of treatment, particularly stressed in cognitive therapy, is to help the client to develop more realistic, present-oriented schemas to replace those developed during childhood or through traumatic experiences. See also self-image; self-schema. —schematic adj.

schema therapy

schema therapy a therapeutic approach that integrates the techniques of cognitive behavior therapy with the depth-oriented and emotion-focused strategies of other approaches to bring about schema change—that is, to alter patterns of belief that individuals have derived about themselves, other individuals and social groups, and various situations from early experiences and that now interfere with their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. Schema therapy is used to treat individuals with chronic psychological conditions, such as personality disorders, eating disorders, and intractable couples problems. It has also been used for relapse prevention of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. [developed in the 1990s by U.S. clinical psychologist Jeffrey E. Young (1950– )]

schematic classification

schematic classification see complementary classification.

schematic image

schematic image a mental picture or representation of an object composed of that object’s most conspicuous features. Once formed, the schematic image is the model against which similar perceptual configurations are judged.

schematic representation

schematic representation the characterization of individuals, objects, events, or processes in terms of their real or potential interactions with each other.

scheme

scheme n. a cognitive structure that contains an organized plan for an activity, thus representing generalized knowledge about an entity and serving to guide behavior. For example, there is a simple sucking scheme of infancy, applied first to a nipple and later to a thumb, soft toy, and so forth. This term is often used as a synonym of schema.

schizencephalic

schizencephalic adj. denoting or relating to abnormal clefts or divisions in brain tissue. The deformities may result from maldevelopment during fetal life or early infancy or be produced by destructive lesions of the brain. —schizencephaly n.

schizo- (schiz-)

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schizoaffective disorder

schizoaffective disorder in DSM–IV–TR, an uninterrupted illness featuring at some time a major depressive episode, manic episode, or mixed episode concurrently with characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g., delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, catatonic behavior) and, in the same period, delusions or hallucinations for at least 2 weeks in the absence of prominent mood symptoms. DSM–5 identifies the mood episodes only as either major depressive or manic and emphasizes that mood disturbances must be present for a majority of the time. Also called schizoaffective psychosis; schizoaffective schizophrenia.

schizoid

schizoid adj. denoting characteristics resembling schizophrenia but in a milder form, involving lack of affect, social passivity, and minimal introspection.

schizoid personality disorder

schizoid personality disorder a personality disorder characterized by long-term emotional coldness, absence of tender feelings for others, lack of desire for and enjoyment of close relationships, and indifference to praise or criticism and to the feelings of others. The eccentricities of speech, behavior, or thought that are characteristic of schizotypal personality disorder are absent in those with schizoid personality disorder. It is included in both DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5.

schizoid phenomena

schizoid phenomena in object relations theory, an individual’s withdrawal into fantasy and avoidance of contact with others, due to fears of being abandoned or engulfed, while at the same time still craving social relationships. [introduced in 1968 by British psychoanalyst Harry Guntrip (1901–1975)]

schizoid–manic state

schizoid–manic state a psychotic state combining features of both manic and schizophrenic excitement. Also called schizomania. [identified by Adolf Meyer, Austrian-born U.S. psychiatrist Abraham Brill (1874–1948), and Eugen Bleuler]

schizoidism

schizoidism n. a complex of behavioral traits that include seclusiveness, quietness, and general introversion, indicating a separation by the person from his or her surroundings, the confining of psychic interests to the self, and in many cases a tendency toward schizophrenia. Also called schizoidia. [defined by Eugen Bleuler]

schizomania

schizomania n. see schizoid–manic state.

schizophrenia

schizophrenia n. a psychotic disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking (cognition), emotional responsiveness, and behavior, with an age of onset typically between the late teens and mid-30s. Schizophrenia was first formally described in the late 19th century by Emil Kraepelin, who named it dementia praecox; in 1908, Eugen Bleuler renamed the disorder schizophrenia (Greek, “splitting of the mind”) to characterize the disintegration of mental functions associated with what he regarded as its fundamental symptoms of abnormal thinking and affect. According to DSM–IV–TR, the characteristic disturbances must last for at least 6 months and include at least 1 month of active-phase symptoms comprising two or more of the following: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, or negative symptoms (e.g., lack of emotional responsiveness, extreme apathy). These signs and symptoms are associated with marked social or occupational dysfunction. Some have argued (beginning with Bleuler) that disorganized thinking (see formal thought disorder; schizophrenic thinking) is the single most important feature of schizophrenia, but DSM–IV–TR and its predecessors have not emphasized this feature, at least in their formal criteria. DSM–5 retains essentially the same criteria but emphasizes that delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech must be among the symptoms required for diagnosis. It also eliminates the five distinct subtypes of schizophrenia previously described in DSM–IV–TR: catatonic schizophrenia, disorganized schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia, residual schizophrenia, and undifferentiated schizophrenia. —schizophrenic adj.

Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT)

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schizophrenic episode

schizophrenic episode a period during which an individual exhibits prominent symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and disturbances in emotional responsiveness and behavior. See also acute schizophrenic episode.

schizophrenic reaction

schizophrenic reaction a former diagnosis for the symptoms of schizophrenia. Coined around 1911 by Adolf Meyer, the term signified a cluster of maladaptive disturbances that he believed developed in reaction to psychosocial stressors. His views were an argument against the concept, originally advanced under the name of demential praecox by Emil Kraepelin, that characterized schizophrenia as a disease entity with purely biological causes. Schizophrenic reaction was one of several reaction types in Meyer’s nomencature of mental illness.

schizophrenic thinking

schizophrenic thinking pervasive, marked impairment of thinking in terms of loosening of associations and slowness of associations, representing positive symptoms and negative symptoms, respectively, of schizophrenia. Because thinking must be inferred rather than observed, and because no single definition or test or technique of inference has been universally accepted, evaluation is usually limited to examining samples of speech or writing that the individual is inclined to express. On certain psychological tests (e.g., Rorschach, MMPI), schizophrenic thinking is identified deviant verbalizations, which are unusual, exaggerated, or otherwise abnormal responses to items presented during the test, such as inventing a word (see neologism) to describe a Rorschach inkblot. On the Whitaker Index of Schizophrenic Thinking (WIST; 1980), schizophrenic impairment of thinking is defined as simultaneously illogical, impaired, and without apparent awareness, all to a marked degree.

schizophreniform disorder

schizophreniform disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a disorder whose essential features are identical to those of schizophrenia except that the total duration is between 1 and 6 months (i.e., intermediate between brief psychotic disorder and schizophrenia) and social or occupational functioning need not be impaired. The diagnosis applies without qualification to an episode of between 1 and 6 months’ duration from which the individual has already recovered. The diagnosis is provisional when there is no certainty of recovery within the 6-month period. If the disturbance persists beyond 6 months, the diagnosis would be changed to schizophrenia.

schizophreniform psychosis

schizophreniform psychosis a type of psychosis in which symptoms typical of nuclear schizophrenia are present but there is good premorbid adjustment, sudden onset in response to a clear precipitating event, and a good prognosis and high probability of return to normal levels of functioning. Also called schizophreniform state. [proposed in the late 1930s by Norwegian psychiatrist Gabriel Langfeldt (1895–1983)]

schizophrenogenic

schizophrenogenic adj. denoting a factor or influence viewed as causing or contributing to the onset or development of schizophrenia.

schizophrenogenic mother

schizophrenogenic mother the stereotypic mother of an individual with schizophrenia. She is held to be emotionally disturbed, cold, rejecting, dominating, perfectionistic, and insensitive. At the same time, however, she is overprotective, fosters dependence, and is both seductive and rigidly moralistic. Historically, this type of mother was considered to play a causal role in the development of schizophrenia, but this view is no longer held. [first defined in 1948 by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann]

schizotaxia

schizotaxia n. a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia, deemed necessary for the disorder to manifest and held to be activated by severe environmental stresses. [presented as a concept in 1962 by Paul Everett Meehl]

schizotypal personality disorder

schizotypal personality disorder a personality disorder characterized by various oddities of thought, perception, speech, and behavior that are not severe enough to warrant a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Symptoms may include perceptual distortions, magical thinking, social isolation, vague speech without incoherence, and inadequate rapport with others due to aloofness or lack of feeling. It is included in both DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5.

schizotypy

schizotypy n. in research contexts, a type of personality organization defined by milder forms of positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as cognitive slippage, and negative symptoms, such as inability to experience pleasure (see anhedonia). Schizotypy is studied in individuals and family members as a predictor of or liability for the later occurrence of schizophrenia.

Schmid–Fraccaro syndrome

Schmid–Fraccaro syndrome see cat’s-eye syndrome.

Schnauzkrampf

Schnauzkrampf n. see lip pursing.

scholastic acceleration

scholastic acceleration see educational acceleration.

scholastic achievement test

scholastic achievement test any test that measures a student’s knowledge and ability in a specific area of academic study, such as chemistry, history, mathematics, Spanish, or literature.

Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)

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Scholasticism

Scholasticism n. the system of logic, philosophy, and theology taught by university scholars in medieval Europe. It was based on Aristotelian logic, the writings of the early Christian fathers, and the authority of tradition and dogma. Major preoccupations included the attempt to reconcile faith with reason and the dispute between nominalism and realism. Prominent Scholastics included Thomas Aquinas, French philosopher Jean Burridan (c. 1295–1358), Scottish theologian John Duns Scotus (c. 1226–1308), and English Franciscan monk and philosopher William of Occam (c. 1285–1347). —Scholastic n., adj.

school

school n. 1. a place or institution where people receive instruction. 2. a major division of a university consisting of specialized, related subdivisions devoted to teaching, research, and scholarship. 3. the adherents, collectively, of an approach to some field of subject matter having a developed theoretical framework and an associated literature. Examples of schools of psychology are behaviorism, functionalism, Gestalt psychology, structuralism, and psychoanalysis.

School and College Ability Test (SCAT)

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school avoidance

school avoidance see school refusal.

school counseling

school counseling guidance—offered at school or elsewhere to students, parents, and other caregivers—that focuses on students’ academic, personal, social, and career adjustment, development, and achievement. Counseling is offered by certified and licensed professionals at all educational levels, from elementary through college and professional school.

school grade

school grade 1. a letter or number representing the quality of academic work. 2. a group of students who are taught together at the same level, usually grouped by age, or the children who belong to such a grouping.

school integration

school integration 1. the process of bringing all parts of a classroom or community environment together into a whole, using such means as computers, communication with local-government officials, and applied workplace learning. 2. the reduction or elimination of racial segregation in public schools. This has been attempted by artificially reconfiguring the racial balance within all district schools to reflect the proportionate racial balance in the community as a whole.

school neuropsychology

school neuropsychology an emerging specialty that seeks to provide teachers, educational administrators, and others with a better understanding of their students’ cognitive processing strengths and weaknesses, with the ultimate goal of informing their development of educational practices that will most benefit each individual learner. School neuropsychologists observe student behavior; administer and interpret neuropsychological tests and other standardized assessment instruments; and use student profiling systems, curriculum-based measures, and progress monitoring. Although school neuropsychology often concentrates on children, particularly those with learning and other disabilities, it serves adolescents and adults as well. See also pediatric neuropsychology.

school phobia

school phobia see school refusal.

school psychology

school psychology a field of psychology concerned with the psychoeducational problems and other issues arising in primary and secondary schools. The responsibilities of the school psychologist include involvement in overall curriculum planning, individualized curriculum assessment and planning, administration of psychoeducational tests, interviews with parents concerning their child’s progress and problems, pupil behavior problems, counseling of teachers and students, and research on systematic educational questions and issues. See behavioral consultation.

school readiness

school readiness 1. the developmental level at which a child is prepared to adjust to school. 2. any of a variety of programs designed to prepare children of below kindergarten age for attending formal school by helping them acquire certain skills, such as being able to pay attention to adult-directed tasks for short periods of time, to speak in five- to six-word sentences, and to identify letters of the alphabet. These programs are often referred to as prekindergarten or nursery school. 3. efforts to help communities provide the best environments for children, especially in the areas of health, early education, and school entry. The emphasis is on reducing factors that could detract from children’s readiness to attend school.

school refusal

school refusal persistent reluctance to go to school, which usually occurs during the primary school years and is often a symptom of an educational, social, or emotional problem. School refusal may be a feature of separation anxiety disorder. It may be triggered by a stressor (e.g., loss of a pet or loved one, a change of school, loss of a friend due to a move), or it may occur after a summer vacation when the child has spent more time with the primary caregiver. School refusal is often associated with complaints and physical symptoms (e.g., upset stomach, nausea, dizziness, headache) and anxiety at the start of the day. Also called school avoidance; school phobia.

school truancy

school truancy see truancy.

school-ability test

school-ability test an assessment designed to evaluate a student’s educational achievements in order to obtain information that will subsequently enhance his or her learning. The assessment can include a variety of widely accepted tests and measurement techniques as the bases for judgment. Under the direction of trained and competent staff, the assessment will meet appropriate federal and state laws, Board of Education policy, and the criteria for ethical and professional teaching.

school-activity record

school-activity record 1. a record of an individual’s participation in such activities of a school or institution. 2. a listing of all the sports, clubs, and interscholastic and intramural activities that are offered by a school or institution.

School-Age Cognitive Battery

School-Age Cognitive Battery see Differential Ability Scales.

school-based intervention

school-based intervention any strategy implemented in a classroom setting to improve the health and well-being of students, often by reducing or preventing pathology and problem behaviors (e.g., depression, social anxiety, cigarette smoking, drug or alcohol use, bullying and aggression). Requiring interdisciplinary coordination among school psychologists, counselors, social workers, teachers, and administrative staff, programs may be targeted at subgroups of high-risk individuals or implemented across the general school population of children and adolescents. Interventions may incorporate such activities as specially designed lectures, guided online lessons, group discussions, role play, and special homework assignments to be completed with parents.

schooling

schooling n. 1. in animal behavior, the formation of large aggregations of fish. Schooling is thought to minimize predation through confusion effects and dilution effects or to improve hydrodynamic properties so that individual fish can move more efficiently through water. 2. the process of educating students in a formal setting or the provision of education.

Schröder staircase

Schröder staircase an ambiguous figure of a staircase, which can be perceived as seen either from above or from underneath the stairs, depending on the perspective of the observer. It is often confused with the staircase illusion. [Heinrich Schröder (1810–1885), German bacteriologist and educator]

Schultze’s acroparesthesia

Schultze’s acroparesthesia see acroparesthesia. [Friedrich Schultze (1848–1934), German neurologist]

schwa

schwa n. a nondistinct neutral vowel represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol Ə. In English, it is very common in unstressed syllables, such as the first syllable of alone.

Schwann cell

Schwann cell a type of nonneuronal peripheral nervous system cell (glia) that forms the myelin sheath around axons. Extensions of a single Schwann cell wind tightly and many times around several neighboring axons, so that the myelin sheath consists of multiple layers of the Schwann-cell plasma membrane. [Theodor Schwann (1810–1882), German physiologist]

schwannoma

schwannoma n. a type of tumor that develops from Schwann cells. Although typically benign, schwannomas tend to displace and compress surrounding neurons as they grow. A schwannoma is very similar to a neurofibroma but is distinguished by its capsule.

schwannomatosis

schwannomatosis n. see neurofibromatosis.

sciatic nerve

sciatic nerve a large peripheral nerve that connects the receptor and effector cells in the leg to the spinal cord. Pain in the leg, which may extend over the entire length of this nerve, from the buttocks to the foot, is called sciatica. The cause is most commonly a slipped disk pressing on the nerve root emerging from the spinal cord.

science

science n. the systematic study of structure and behavior in the physical, natural, and social worlds, involving the generation, investigation, and testing of hypotheses, the accumulation of data, and the formulation of general laws and theories. There are several major branches, including the natural sciences (e.g., biology, physics) and the social sciences. The subdisciplines of psychology are themselves divided among the different branches. For example, neuroscience and the study of the biological bases for behavior can be classed with the natural sciences, whereas social psychology and many aspects of clinical psychology can be seen as belonging to the social sciences. See scientific explanation; scientific method.

scientific explanation

scientific explanation an account of an event, behavior, or thought that is couched in terms of an established set of scientific principles, facts, and assumptions. Typical forms of explanation may be reductionistic, analyzing a phenomenon into components and describing how they combine to produce the phenomenon; ontogenic, relating the phenomenon to a universal set of developmental stages; empiricistic, describing a phenomenon in terms of the conditions that have been observed to produce it; or metaphoric or categorical, identifying a phenomenon as similar in some important respects to other phenomena already understood. Such an explanation stated systematically is generally known as a theory.

scientific jury selection

scientific jury selection the use of the methods of social science to identify prospective jurors who may be favorably predisposed to one’s side in a legal dispute.

scientific management

scientific management generally, the application of scientific methods to achieve improved worker efficiency and work conditions. More specifically, the term refers to the approach introduced by U.S. engineer Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) in the late 19th century and publicized in a 1911 book. This approach, also known as Taylorism or the Taylor system of scientific management, involves (a) studying the work to determine the most efficient way of performing tasks (see time and motion study) and (b) paying workers piece-rate incentives to adopt these methods (see piecework).

scientific method

scientific method a set of procedures, guidelines, assumptions, and attitudes required for the organized and systematic collection, interpretation, and verification of data and the discovery of reproducible evidence, enabling laws and principles to be stated or modified. See also science; scientific explanation.

scientific psychology

scientific psychology the body of psychological facts, theories, and techniques that have been developed and validated through the use of the scientific method. They thus depend on objective measurement and the replication of results under controlled or known conditions. See experimental psychology.

scientific rationality

scientific rationality the qualities of reason and logic that characterize, or ought to characterize, scientific inquiry. For many, science is the epitome of rationality because of its adherence to the rules of logic and evidence, its rejection of supernatural explanations, its devotion to objectivity, and its careful public testing of hypotheses. A commitment to standards and procedures of this kind is usually taken to be the criterion by which a discipline, such as psychology, may be judged to be a science. More narrowly, scientific rationality is sometimes equated with positivism.

scientific reasoning

scientific reasoning a type of reasoning that involves the generation of hypotheses and the systematic testing of those hypotheses.

scientific revolution

scientific revolution a major change in the theoretical framework of a field of science, as identified by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996). Research carried out within the framework of a normal science—that is, one with an active paradigm that defines the subject matter and methods of the science—will over time yield anomalies that are inconsistent with predicted results. When a sufficient number of anomalies occur, a crisis stage may emerge, which motivates scientists and theorists to rethink the fundamental assumptions and methods of the science, and a complete reformulation may take place. This drastically changes both the activities and perspective of the scientists involved and the nature and subject matter of the science, at which time a new normal science may emerge. See also paradigm clash; paradigm shift.

scientism

scientism n. an uncritical commitment to a particular view of science and scientific methods that leads its adherents to dismiss all other approaches as intellectually invalid. The term is mainly used by those who criticize the assumptions of Western science as arrogant or flawed, who maintain that scientific methods are inappropriate in certain fields or incapable of apprehending certain kinds of truth, or who reject the implication that all philosophical questions will one day reduce to scientific questions. —scientistic adj.

scientist-practitioner model

scientist-practitioner model the concept underlying university training of doctoral clinical (or other applied) psychologists in the United States that is intended to prepare individuals both to provide services and to conduct research on mental health problems, essentially integrating these two functions in their professional work by making a laboratory of their applied settings and studying scientifically both the phenomena that are the focus of their services and the results of those services. The purpose of the model is to ensure that practitioners contribute to the scientific development of their field. The training emphasizes research techniques applicable to therapeutic settings. The model emerged from a conference held in Boulder, Colorado, in 1949, which was sponsored by the U.S. Veterans Administration and the National Institute of Mental Health. Also called Boulder model.

Scientology

Scientology n. a movement and belief system, first incorporated as a religion in 1953, that emphasizes the harmful effects of engrams (memory traces) of past traumatic experiences. Adherents practice a technique known as dianetics, in which interactions with an auditor and the use of a device called an E-meter (essentially a gauge of the electrodermal response; see galvanic skin response) can lead eventually to a posited liberated state known as being clear. Scientology also has its own elaborate cosmology, in which humans are believed to be reincarnated “thetans,” immaterial, divine beings who have become trapped in the material world. [founded by U.S. science-fiction writer L(afayette) Ron(ald) Hubbard (1911–1986)] —Scientologist n.

scieropia

scieropia n. a visual anomaly in which objects appear to be in a shadow. It can have emotional or psychological causes, in which case it is identified as scierneuropsia.

SCII

SCII abbreviation for Strong–Campbell Interest Inventory. See Strong Interest Inventory.

scintillating scotoma

scintillating scotoma see scotoma.

sciosophy

sciosophy n. any system of thought, such as astrology, that claims knowledge of natural or supernatural phenomena but that is not supported by scientific methods. See pseudoscience. [coined by U.S. biologist and icthyologist David Starr Jordan (1851–1931)]

scissors gait

scissors gait a type of gait observed, for example, in some patients with cerebral palsy who cross their legs in scissors fashion when walking.

SCL-90–R

SCL-90–R abbreviation for Symptom Checklist-90–Revised.

sclera

sclera n. the tough, white outer coat of the eyeball, which is continuous with the cornea at the front and the sheath of the optic nerve at the back of the eyeball.

sclero- (scler-)

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sclerosis

sclerosis n. hardening of tissues, usually as a consequence of disease or aging. It particularly affects the nervous system (see amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; multiple sclerosis) and the circulatory system (see arteriosclerosis; atherosclerosis). —sclerotic adj.

SCN

SCN abbreviation for suprachiasmatic nucleus.

scoliosis

scoliosis n. a lateral (sideways) curvature of the spine. See also kyphosis; lordosis.

scope of attention

scope of attention 1. the extent to which an individual is able to attend to and process a range of different items at the same time. A distinction is sometimes made between perceptual scope of attention, which is the capacity to process a range of sensory stimuli (see apprehension span), and conceptual scope of attention, which is the ability to deal simultaneously with a number of ideas or concepts. 2. the range of stimuli that an individual is actively focusing his or her attention upon at any particular time. The scope of attention will be more or less narrow depending on the demands of the task at hand and a range of subjective factors. See attentional narrowing; focal attention; selective attention.

scopo- (scop-)

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scopolamine

scopolamine n. an anticholinergic drug found as an alkaloid in henbane and related plants. Its most common therapeutic use is for the prevention of motion sickness; in the past, it was sometimes used in labor to produce twilight sleep (a conscious but drowsy state with lack of sensitivity to pain) and amnesia for the event. Small doses can have a sedative effect, but large doses may cause restlessness, agitation, or delirium. Also called hyoscine. U.S. trade names: Scopace; Transderm-Scop.

scopophilia

scopophilia n. sexual pleasure derived from watching others in a state of nudity, undressing, or engaging in sexual activity. If scopophilia is persistent, the condition is essentially voyeurism. Also called scoptophilia.

score

score 1. n. a quantitative value assigned to test results or other measurable responses. 2. vb. to assign scores to responses using some predetermined criteria.

score band

score band see banding.

score equating

score equating the process of ensuring that results from one version or administration of a test have the same distribution as those obtained from another version or administration, so that the interpretation of the results can be as fair as possible to all test takers. Also called observed-score equating.

scorer reliability

scorer reliability see interrater reliability.

scoring

scoring n. the application of an answer key to a test or survey for the purpose of obtaining a value (score) that reflects an individual’s position on an underlying construct. The answer key would typically indicate individual scores for the different responses on each item (e.g., from 1 to 7), such that the values per item can then be summed or averaged to obtain a composite score. Some instruments may have multiple subscales yielding separate values.

scoterythrous vision

scoterythrous vision a type of color blindness in which reds appear darkened because of a deficiency in perceiving the red end of the spectrum.

scoto- (scot-)

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scotoma

scotoma n. an area of partial or complete loss of vision in the visual field. Vision may be depressed (relative scotoma), altered (scintillating scotoma), or completely lost (absolute scotoma). Scotomas can occur either in the central visual field (see central scotoma) or in the periphery (see paracentral scotoma). See also visual field defect.

scotomization

scotomization n. in psychoanalytic theory, the tendency to ignore or be blind to impulses or memories that would threaten the individual’s ego. Scotomization is a defensive process and may also be a form of resistance. Also called scotomatization. See also blind spot.

scotophilia

scotophilia n. see nyctophilia.

scotopic

scotopic adj. pertaining to low light levels and consequently being reliant on the retinal rod system.

scotopic stimulation

scotopic stimulation visual stimulation with dim targets, usually under conditions that specifically activate the retinal rod system. Compare photopic stimulation.

scotopic vision

scotopic vision vision that occurs in dim light by means of the retinal rod system. Because scotopic vision does not permit color discrimination, the visual scene appears in gray scale. However, the closer the illumination of a target is to 510 nm in wavelength, the brighter it will appear relative to other targets with the same energy, since this is the peak wavelength sensitivity for the rod system. Also called twilight vision. Compare photopic vision.

scotopsin

scotopsin n. the specific form of opsin found in retinal rods. Scotopsin combines with 11-cis retinal to form rhodopsin, which is the functional photopigment with sensitivity to photons in the rods.

scramble competition

scramble competition in animal behavior, the mating rivalry that ensues when females are broadly dispersed or synchronous in their breeding, so that males do not benefit from holding territories or defending resources. Instead, males range widely and mate with any female they encounter, with little or no courtship behavior or mate selection. The males that are able to mate first with a female generally have the most reproductive success.

scree plot

scree plot in exploratory factor analysis, a graphic that shows (in descending order) the eigenvalues of the communality-adjusted correlation matrix. Researchers examine the plot to identify a “break” in the curve between strong, dominant factors at the top and smaller factors at the bottom: In this way, they can determine which factors to retain in the analysis. The plot was named by Raymond B. Cattell, in analogy to the sloping heaps of differently sized rocks (scree) that form at the foot of a mountain.

screen defense

screen defense in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which a memory, fantasy, or dream image is unconsciously employed to conceal the real but disturbing object of one’s feelings.

screen magnifier

screen magnifier an adaptation for individuals with visual impairment that enlarges both text and graphical information displayed on a personal computer screen. Screen magnifiers may be built into the operating system provided by the computer manufacturer or purchased as separate products.

screen memory

screen memory in psychoanalytic theory, a memory of a childhood experience, usually trivial in nature, that unconsciously serves the purpose of concealing or screening out, or is a conflation of, an associated experience of a more significant and perhaps traumatic nature. Also called cover memory; replacement memory.

screen reader

screen reader a software program for individuals with visual impairment that converts both text and graphical information on a personal computer screen to a form that can be spoken through a speech synthesizer or shown on a refreshable braille display.

screen touch matching

screen touch matching in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards, a technique in which the participant indicates his or her guess concerning the symbol on the top card in an inverted deck by pointing to one of five positions corresponding to each of the possible symbols. The card is then placed in this position, still face down, for later checking. Because the person handling the cards never sees them face up, the technique is used in tests of clairvoyance as opposed to telepathy. Also called screened touch matching. See also basic technique.

screening

screening n. 1. a procedure or program to detect early signs of a disease in an individual or population. Individuals at increased hereditary risk of developing a disease are advised to follow regular screening plans. See also screening test. 2. the initial evaluation of a patient to determine his or her suitability for psychological or medical treatment generally, a specific treatment approach, or referral to a treatment facility. This evaluation is made on the basis of medical or psychological history, mental status examination, diagnostic formulation, or some combination of these. 3. the process of selecting items for a psychological test. 4. the process of determining, through a preliminary test, whether an individual is suitable for some purpose or task. See also selection test.

screening audiometry

screening audiometry rapid group measurement of audibility using a tone or tones of fixed level.

screening experiment

screening experiment a preliminary study in which a large number of factors are examined with the aim of filtering out those that show little association with the studied outcome. This allows researchers to narrow the field of potentially important factors before devoting resources to further study. See pilot study.

screening sample

screening sample in survey methodology, a large group of individuals who are asked a preliminary set of questions in order to identify a much narrower subset of the population with an attribute of interest. For example, a nationwide survey of businesses might allow researchers to identify and then study in greater depth those companies that were started by business owners over 60 years old.

screening test

screening test any testing procedure designed to separate out people or items with a given characteristic or property. Screening tests are typically used to distinguish people who have a disease, disorder, or premorbid condition from those who do not; they may be used, for example, in primary health care settings at intake to identify people who are depressed and need further clinical attention. Screening tests are designed to be broadly sensitive, and subsequent highly specific or focused testing is often required to confirm the results. They are also often designed to be brief to facilitate broad classifications.

screening tests for young children

screening tests for young children checklists or assessment protocols that have been developed to detect risk factors associated with certain conditions during infancy and early childhood through the primary school years. Such tests do not provide diagnostic information but instead are used with large numbers of children to identify those who may require further assessment for emotional disturbances, intellectual disabilities, neurological conditions, or other disorders.

script

script n. 1. a cognitive schematic structure—a mental road map—containing the basic actions (and their temporal and causal relations) that comprise a complex action. Also called script schema. 2. a structured representation consisting of a sequence of conceptual dependencies grouped together to capture the semantic relationships implicit in everyday human situations. It was designed for the purpose of computer-based story understanding. [created in 1966 by U.S. cognitive and computer scientist Roger C. Schank (1946– ) and U.S. psychologist Robert P. Abelson (1928–2005)] 3. see prescription drug. 4. see script analysis.

script analysis

script analysis in transactional analysis, the examination of the client’s unconscious life plan, or script, which is based on fantasies, attitudes, and games or ploys derived from the individual’s early experiences. [developed by Canadian-born U.S. psychiatrist Eric Berne (1910–1970)]

script theory

script theory 1. the proposition that discrete affects, such as joy and fear, are prime motivators of behavior and that personality structure and function can be understood in terms of self-defining affective scenes and scripts. [proposed by Silvan S. Tomkins] 2. in transactional analysis, the theory that an individual’s approach to social situations follows a sequence that was learned and established early in life.

scrivener’s palsy

scrivener’s palsy an archaic name for writer’s cramp.

scrupulosity

scrupulosity n. overconscientiousness with respect to matters of right and wrong, often manifested as an obsession with moral or religious issues (e.g., preoccupation that one may commit a sin and go to hell) that results in compulsive moral or religious observance and that is highly distressing. Although it is often also called religious obsessive-compulsive disorder, it is more typically associated with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

scrying

scrying n. a divination practice in which a person attempts to see visions of or gain insights about the past, present, or future by staring into fire, smoke, or more commonly, a shiny, opaque, or reflective medium, such as water, crystals or a crystal ball, glass, or mirrors. See also crystal gazing.

SCU

SCU abbreviation for special care unit.

sculpting

sculpting n. see family sculpting.

SD

SD symbol for discriminative stimulus. SD symbol for standard deviation.

SDAT

SDAT abbreviation for senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type.

SDO

SDO abbreviation for social dominance orientation.

SDS

SDS 1. abbreviation for Symptoms of Dementia Screener. 2. abbreviation for Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale.

SDT

SDT 1. abbreviation for signal detection theory. 2. abbreviation for social dominance theory.

SE

SE symbol for standard error.

seamstress’s cramp

seamstress’s cramp a type of occupational cramp affecting the hands and manifested by the inability to perform such manual operations as threading a needle and using scissors to cut cloth. See also repetitive strain injury.

search

search n. 1. a mental process in which a set of memories or other mental representations is checked for the presence or absence of a particular target item. For example, one might search one’s memory for the name of a former teacher. 2. a task in which a person is asked to check an array of presented stimuli, or a previously memorized list of stimuli, to determine whether any of a set of target stimuli is in the array or list. See visual search. See also consistent mapping; varied mapping. 3. in problem solving, the process by which the solver attempts to find the correct answer or best solution from among a range of alternatives. See backward search; best-first search; exhaustive search; heuristic search; self-terminating search. 4. in artificial intelligence, the systematic investigation of states of a problem or game as part of finding a solution. There are multiple approaches to the search, including backtrack search, depth-first search, breadth-first search, and A* search, and many techniques are available for investigating the relevance of these approaches for different applications.

search asymmetry

search asymmetry in studies of visual search, the situation in which a search for the presence of a feature produces one pattern of results but a search for the absence of that feature produces another. For example, searching for a Q in a field of Os (i.e., searching for the “tail” segment in the Q) is relatively easy, but searching for an O in a field of Qs (i.e., searching for the absence of this segment) is difficult.

search image

search image a predator’s visual or odor-based sense of a prey animal. Predators develop a search image for particular prey through repeated encounters with it, after which they may temporarily specialize in that animal even in the presence of other suitable prey. They may, however, develop new search images after repeated encounters with other prey.

search of associative memory (SAM)

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Seashore audiometer

Seashore audiometer an instrument used to measure threshold sound intensity. [Carl Emil Seashore]

Seashore Measures of Musical Talent

Seashore Measures of Musical Talent a series of recorded subtests of the components of musical aptitude, including tonal memory, time awareness, rhythm awareness, pitch discrimination, timbre awareness, and loudness discrimination. In these six subtests, various pairs of tones, tonal sequences, or rhythmic patterns are presented and the participant must distinguish each along the particular dimension of interest. For example, in the time awareness subtest, the participant must indicate for each of 50 tone pairs whether the second tone is longer or shorter than the first. Also called Seashore Measures of Musical Ability. [originally developed in 1919 and subsequently revised in 1939 by Carl Emil Seashore]

Seashore Rhythm Test

Seashore Rhythm Test a neuropsychological test in which the participant listens to a recording of pairs of rhythmic patterns and indicates whether they are the same or different. The test is used by neuropsychologists to measure generalized cerebral function, although it was developed as a subtest of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent to predict musical talent and knowledge. [Carl Emil Seashore]

seasickness

seasickness n. motion sickness occasioned by sea travel.

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

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seasonal mood disorder

seasonal mood disorder see seasonal affective disorder.

seasonal variation

seasonal variation behavioral, psychological, or physiological changes that vary over seasons or that occur in response to seasonal changes. In nonhuman animals and plants, seasonal variation is often controlled by photoperiodism. Examples include the increased rate of food intake and body weight gain in hibernating animals in late summer, seasonal migrations, and seasonal changes in gonad size and hormone production in temperate-zone species leading to reproduction at optimal times.

seasonality effect

seasonality effect the observation that individuals with schizophrenia are most likely to have been born during the months of January to April. The hypothesized significance of the season of birth is uncertain. See also viral hypothesis. [advanced by U.S. psychiatrist E. Fuller Torrey (1937– )]

seat of mind

seat of mind the proposed place or organ in the body that serves as the physical location of the mind (or, in Cartesian dualism, the location in the body where mind and body interact; see conarium). In current thinking, the brain is the seat of the mind; historically, other organs have been proposed, such as the heart. Some theories suggest that the mind (or the spirit) is diffused throughout the body.

Seattle Longitudinal Study

Seattle Longitudinal Study a comprehensive ongoing study of intelligence and cognitive functioning from young adulthood to old age. Using a sequential design (a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal data-collection methods), the study began in 1956, with testing done in 7-year intervals up to the present. Original testing was based on the Primary Mental Abilities Test (see primary ability); in subsequent intervals of the study, other tests were added to investigate various influences (e.g., cognitive style, personality, health, lifestyle, family environment, brain changes) on cognitive functioning during the aging process. Approximately 6,000 individuals, ranging in age from 22 to 103, have participated in the study since its inception. [conducted by U.S. psychologists K. Warner Schaie (1928– ) and, since 1983, Sherry L. Willis]

Seckel syndrome

Seckel syndrome a familial disorder, now linked to a defect on chromosome 3 (locus 3q22.1–24), marked by microcephaly, a beaklike nose, prominent eyes, a narrow face, short stature, and intellectual disability. It was originally called bird-headed dwarfism. Now also called Seckel nanism; Virchow–Seckel syndrome. [reported in 1960 by Helmut P. G. Seckel (1900–1960), German physician; the term bird-headed dwarfism was introduced by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), German pathologist]

seclusiveness

seclusiveness n. the tendency to isolate oneself from social contacts or human relationships. See also privacy. —seclusive adj.

second cranial nerve

second cranial nerve see optic nerve.

second messenger

second messenger an ion or molecule inside a cell whose concentration increases or decreases in response to stimulation of a cell receptor by an agonist (e.g., a neurotransmitter, hormone, or drug). The second messenger acts to relay and amplify the signal from the agonist (the first messenger) by triggering a range of cellular activities. For example, receptors for the catecholamine neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine are coupled to G proteins, whose activation in postsynaptic neurons affects levels of second messengers that act to open or close certain ion channels. Second messengers include cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, IP3 (see inositol phosphates), and calcium ions.

second moment

second moment see moment.

second quartile

second quartile see quartile.

second sight

second sight an alleged paranormal faculty that enables some individuals to see events that are remote in time or space. See clairvoyance; precognition.

second sleep

second sleep see segmented sleep.

second-degree relative

second-degree relative a grandparent, aunt, uncle, or cousin. The closeness of a relative with a particular hereditary disease has implications in assessing the risk for a particular person. Compare first-degree relative.

second-generation antipsychotic

second-generation antipsychotic see antipsychotic; atypical antipsychotic.

second-order conditioning

second-order conditioning in classical conditioning, the establishment of a conditioned response as a result of pairing a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus that gained its effectiveness by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. See higher order conditioning.

second-order factor

second-order factor a latent construct that emerges from a further factor analysis (i.e., a second-order factor analysis) of the primary dimensions derived from correlations among a set of items or variables. The higher order dimensions so derived are held to generate the first-order factors that in turn generate observed responses at the level of the individual item or scale.

second-order interaction

second-order interaction in analysis of variance or regression analysis, an effect in which three independent variables combine to have a nonadditive influence on a dependent variable. See higher order interaction.

second-order language

second-order language see metalanguage.

second-order neuron

second-order neuron the second neuron in any neural pathway. In the somatosensory system, for example, a second-order neuron receives input from a first-order neuron in the spinal cord and transmits it to the thalamus.

second-order schedule

second-order schedule a schedule of reinforcement in which the units counted are not single responses but completions of a particular reinforcement schedule (the unit schedule). For example, in a second-order fixed-ratio 5 of fixed-interval 30-second schedule [FR 5 (FI 30 seconds)], reinforcement is delivered only after five successive FI 30-second schedules have been completed. Often, a brief stimulus of some sort is presented on completion of each unit schedule.

second-person perspective

second-person perspective the point of view of one person aware of another’s subjectivity, as in an I–Thou relationship. Compare first-person perspective; third-person perspective.

second-rank symptoms

second-rank symptoms common manifestations of schizophrenia that may be seen in other disorders as well. They include restricted affect, confusion or bewilderment, and the sudden onset of paranoid, persecutory, and other types of delusions. Although not specifically indicative of schizophrenia, second-rank symptoms nonetheless may be useful for differential diagnosis in certain situations. They are the complement of first-rank symptoms. [part of a diagnostic classification system for schizophrenia proposed in 1938 by German psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (1887–1967)]

secondary aging

secondary aging changes due to biological aging but accelerated by disabilities resulting from disease or produced by extrinsic factors, such as stress, trauma, lifestyle, and the environment. Secondary aging is often distinguished from primary aging, which is governed by inborn and age-related processes, but the distinction is not a precise one.

secondary amenorrhea

secondary amenorrhea see amenorrhea.

secondary appraisal

secondary appraisal in the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion, one’s evaluation of his or her ability to cope with the consequences of an interaction with the environment, which follows a primary appraisal. See also coping potential; core relational themes. [proposed by Richard S. Lazarus]

secondary attention

secondary attention active attention that requires conscious effort, such as the attention needed to analyze a painting or sculpture. In classical psychology, the term is used to denote a higher kind of attention, developed in humans after primary attention. Also called active attention. See also voluntary attention.

secondary auditory cortex (A2)

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secondary care

secondary care health care services provided by medical specialists (e.g., cardiologists, urologists, dermatologists) to whom, typically, patients are referred by a primary care provider. Compare primary care; tertiary care.

secondary cause

secondary cause a factor that contributes to the onset of symptoms of a disorder but that in itself would not be sufficient to cause the disorder.

secondary circular reaction

secondary circular reaction in Piagetian theory, a repetitive action emerging around 4 to 5 months of age that signifies the infant’s aim of making things happen. This forward step occurs during the sensorimotor stage. The infant repeats actions, such as rattling the crib, that have yielded results in the past but is not able to coordinate them so as to meet the requirements of a new situation. Usually near the end of the child’s 1st year, that coordination ability emerges: In what is called coordination of secondary circular reactions (or of secondary schemes), the child becomes increasingly adept at the purposeful combination of secondary circular reactions to achieve a desired aim, such as picking up a pillow to get a toy placed underneath, and is able to choose and coordinate previously developed schemes that are logically related to the requirements of new situations. See primary circular reaction; tertiary circular reaction.

secondary control

secondary control behavior that, though not directly controlling, is aimed at producing a sense of control by altering oneself (e.g., one’s values, priorities, behavior) so as to be more in line with the environment. Compare primary control. See locus of control.

secondary coping

secondary coping a stress-management strategy in which a person seeks to adjust his or her hopes, expectations, attributions, and other aspects of the self to achieve a better fit with current events and prevailing conditions. This adaptation of oneself to the environment represents a more internally focused coping strategy that generally is applied when stressors cannot easily be counteracted directly. It includes such mental actions as distraction, positive thinking, cognitive restructuring, and rethinking about the stressor or problem in such a way as to facilitate acceptance. Also called secondary control coping. Compare primary coping. [identified in 1982 by Fred M. Rothbaum (1949–2011) and John R. Weisz (1945– ), U.S. clinical and developmental psychologists, and Samuel S. Snyder, U.S. developmental psychologist]

secondary data

secondary data information cited in a study that was not gathered directly by the current investigator but rather was obtained from an earlier study or source. The data may be archived or may be accessed through contact with the original researcher. When consulting or analyzing this information, the investigator should be sensitive to the original research questions and the conditions under which the observations were gathered. Compare primary data.

secondary defense symptoms

secondary defense symptoms a set of defensive measures used by obsessive individuals when their primary defenses against repressed memories no longer offer protection. The secondary defenses usually include obsessional thinking, including doubting obsession, and speculations, which may be expressed as phobias, ceremonials, superstitions, or pedantry. [defined by Sigmund Freud]

secondary deviance

secondary deviance see primary deviance.

secondary disposition

secondary disposition see personal disposition.

secondary drive

secondary drive a learned drive; that is, a drive that is developed through association with or generalization from a primary drive. For example, in an avoidance conditioning experiment in which a rat must go from one compartment into another to escape an electric shock, the secondary drive is fear of the shock and the primary drive with which it is associated is avoidance of pain. Also called acquired drive.

secondary elaboration

secondary elaboration in psychoanalysis, the process of altering the memory and description of a dream to make it more coherent and less fragmentary or distorted. See also dream-work.

secondary emotion

secondary emotion an emotion that is not recognized or manifested universally across cultures or that requires social experience for its construction. For some theorists, pride represents a secondary emotion, stemming from the conjunction of a primary emotion (joy) and a favorable public reaction. Other secondary emotions include envy, frustration, and jealousy.

secondary environment

secondary environment an environment that is incidental or marginally important in a person’s life and in which interactions with others are comparatively brief and impersonal. An example is a bank or a shop. Compare primary environment.

secondary gain

secondary gain in psychoanalytic theory, the advantage derived from a neurosis in addition to the primary gain of relief from anxiety or internal conflict. Advantages may include extra attention, sympathy, avoidance of work, and domination of others. Such gains are secondary in that they are derived from others’ reactions to the neurosis instead of from causal factors. They often prolong the neurosis and create resistance to therapy. Also called advantage by illness.

secondary group

secondary group compared to a primary group, a larger, less intimate, and more goal-focused group typical of more complex societies. Such social groups influence members’ attitudes, beliefs, and actions but as a supplement to the influence of small, more interpersonally intensive primary groups. Whereas primary groups, such as families and children’s play groups, are the initial socializing agents, secondary groups, such as work groups, clubs, congregations, associations, and so on, become increasingly influential during adolescence and adulthood.

secondary gustatory cortex

secondary gustatory cortex see taste cortex.

secondary hypertension

secondary hypertension see hypertension.

secondary identification

secondary identification in psychoanalytic theory, identification with admired figures other than parents.

secondary memory (SM)

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secondary mood disorder

secondary mood disorder a prolonged, pervasive emotional disturbance that occurs in the context of another disorder and whose symptoms may be caused by that other disorder.

secondary motivation

secondary motivation motivation that is created by personal or social incentives (e.g., the urge to learn classical music or become a movie star) rather than by primary, physiological needs (e.g., for food). Compare primary motivation.

secondary motor cortex

secondary motor cortex see motor cortex.

secondary narcissism

secondary narcissism in psychoanalytic theory, self-love that develops later in life, after the original infantile primary narcissism, and occurs when the libido is withdrawn from objects and centered on the self.

secondary need

secondary need a need developed through association with or generalization from a primary need. Also called derived need.

secondary oocyte

secondary oocyte see oogenesis.

secondary personality

secondary personality a second discrete identity that repeatedly controls behavior in individuals with dissociative identity disorder. This personality is in sharp contrast to the original, primary personality and generally has a different name as well as dramatically different attitudes, behavior, manner of speaking, and style of dress.

secondary position

secondary position any location of binocular fixation other than the primary position.

secondary prevention

secondary prevention intervention for individuals or groups that demonstrate early psychological or physical symptoms, difficulties, or conditions (i.e., subclinical problems), which is intended to prevent the development of more serious dysfunction or illness. Compare primary prevention; tertiary prevention.

secondary process

secondary process in psychoanalytic theory, conscious, rational mental activities under the control of the ego and the reality principle. This mental process, which includes problem solving, judgment, planning, and systematic thinking, enables individuals to meet both the external demands of the environment and the internal demands of their instincts in rational, effective ways. Also called secondary process thinking. Compare primary process.

secondary quality

secondary quality in the philosophy of John Locke, a sensible quality of an object that does not exist in the object itself but rather in the experience of the perceiver. Color, for example, is a secondary quality, since the sensation of a particular color can only be produced by an object under certain conditions of light. Compare primary quality.

secondary reinforcement

secondary reinforcement 1. in operant conditioning, the process in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to influence the future probability of a particular response by virtue of being paired with another stimulus that naturally enhances such probability. That is, the initially neutral stimulus or circumstance functions as effective reinforcement only after special experience or training. For example, a person teaching a dog to understand the command “sit” might provide a treat and a simultaneous popping noise from a clicker tool each time the dog successfully performs the behavior. Eventually, the clicker noise itself (the conditioned reinforcer or secondary) can be used alone to maintain the desired behavior, with no treat reward being necessary. 2. the contingent occurrence of such a stimulus or circumstance after a response. Also called conditioned reinforcement. Compare primary reinforcement.

secondary reinforcer

secondary reinforcer see natural reinforcer; secondary reinforcement.

secondary repression

secondary repression see repression proper.

secondary reward

secondary reward a reward with a learned value that facilitates the retrieval of a primary reward.

secondary sensory area

secondary sensory area any of the regions of the cerebral cortex that receive direct projections from the primary sensory area for any sense modality. An example is the secondary somatosensory area. Also called nonprimary sensory area.

secondary sensory ending

secondary sensory ending see flower-spray ending.

secondary sex characteristic

secondary sex characteristic see sex characteristic.

secondary somatosensory area (S2)

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secondary spermatocyte

secondary spermatocyte see spermatogenesis.

secondary stuttering

secondary stuttering dysfluency in speech characterized by uncomfortable awareness of and attempts to modify the dysfluency. Effort, fear, and anxiety are typically conveyed through abnormal or unusual movements of the face, head, or body (e.g., tics, blinking, lip tremor, head jerks, fist clenching). Compare primary stuttering.

secondary suggestibility

secondary suggestibility a form of suggestibility that responds to indirect or hidden influence, as contrasted with direct or primary suggestibility. Some test results have indicated that these forms of suggestibility are only weakly correlated. Also called indirect suggestibility. See also tertiary suggestibility. [proposed by Hans Eysenck]

secondary symptoms

secondary symptoms 1. symptoms that are not a direct result of a disorder but are associated with or incidental to those that are (e.g., social avoidance accompanying obsessive-compulsive disorder). 2. symptoms that appear in the second stage of a disorder or that are derived from an earlier traumatic event, disease process, or disordered condition. 3. according to Eugen Bleuler, those symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations, that are shared with other disorders and therefore not specifically diagnostic of schizophrenia. Bleuler theorized that these symptoms do not stem directly from the disease but rather begin to operate when the person reacts to some internal or external process. Also called accessory symptoms. Compare fundamental symptoms; primary symptoms.

secondary task

secondary task in ergonomics, a task that is peripheral to a central or primary task in a situation requiring multiple-task performance. The operator is expected to allocate sufficient cognitive resources to processing the primary task before allocating remaining resources to processing the secondary task.

secondary task methodology

secondary task methodology an experimental design used in the study of attention in which participants perform a primary task as well as possible and a secondary task to the extent possible while maintaining performance on the primary task. Performance on the secondary task provides a profile of the attention required by the primary task at various phases. See also dual-task performance.

secondary taste cortex

secondary taste cortex see taste cortex.

secondary territory

secondary territory 1. a space routinely used by a person or group who does not control or use it exclusively (e.g., the local tennis court). Habitués may harbor feelings of possession, but they will acknowledge others’ claims. Compare primary territory; public territory. See also proxemics. 2. in animal behavior, see home range.

secondary traumatization

secondary traumatization 1. see intergenerational trauma. [term introduced in 1985 by U.S. psychiatrist Robert A. Rosenheck and Indian-born U.S. psychiatrist Pramila M. Nathan] 2. see vicarious traumatization.

secondary visual cortex (V2)

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secondary visual system

secondary visual system the visual pathway that lies outside of, and is phylogenetically older than, the primary visual system. Retinal input travels directly to the superior colliculus and then to visual nuclei in the thalamus other than the lateral geniculate nucleus (i.e., the pulvinar and lateral posterior nucleus) before terminating in the prestriate cortex. The vision supported by the secondary visual system is relatively poor for the detection of form but allows localization and detection of movement. It functions relatively well in the newborn. See also blindsight.

secretin

secretin n. a hormone produced by the upper small intestine in response to the arrival of hydrochloric acid from the stomach. Secretin stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice by the pancreas and of bile by the liver. Its function was discovered in 1902 by British physiologists William Maddock Bayliss (1860–1924) and Ernest Starling (1866–1927), and it was the first substance demonstrated to be a hormone.

secretion

secretion n. 1. the synthesis and discharge of specific substances from cells (which may be organized in glands) into other parts of the body. The substance produced may be released directly into the blood (an endocrine secretion) or through a duct (see exocrine gland). 2. the substance discharged by this process. —secretory adj.

SECs

SECs abbreviation for stimulus evaluation checks.

sect

sect n. a group whose members adhere to a distinctive set of doctrines, beliefs, and rituals. The term is often applied to a dissenting faction that breaks away from a larger religious, political, or other social organization. —sectarian adj.

section

section n. 1. a thin slice of tissue (e.g., brain tissue) that can be examined microscopically. See cross section. 2. an image of a body part in any plane obtained by such techniques as computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging.

Section 504 plan

Section 504 plan written documentation of the accommodations needed for any student with disabilities so that his or her individual educational needs are met as adequately as the needs of students without disabilities, in compliance with U.S. legislation Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Students are in a general education setting, and accommodations include educational interventions, aids, and services. See also individualized education program.

sectioning

sectioning n. the educational strategy of offering the same course, typically taught by the same teacher, several times during the day. This enables many students to take the same course but keeps the teacher–pupil ratio low.

secular

secular adj. civil, temporal, and free from religious influence or affiliation. A secular society, for example, is one in which various religions may exist but in which the laws and governing institutions have no basis in religious doctrine. —secularism n. —secularist n. —secularize vb.

secular humanism

secular humanism a broad perspective, increasingly influential in Western countries since the mid-20th century, that can be characterized by some or all of the following: (a) a belief in seeking solutions to human problems through science and rational thought rather than through religion or traditional forms of morality; (b) a focus on this world rather than on a putative afterlife; (c) an emphasis on an intrinsic human potential for growth rather than on human limitation or sinfulness; (d) a search for new truth and a belief in free thought, free speech, and free inquiry as the means to find it; (e) an acceptance of cultural and human diversity, including sexual diversity; and (f) an acceptance of some degree of relativism in ethics, usually accompanied by some type of utilitarianism in practice.

secure attachment

secure attachment 1. in the Strange Situation, the positive parent–child relationship, in which the child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parent leaves, and quickly reestablishes contact when the parent returns. Compare insecure attachment. 2. an adult attachment style that combines a positive internal working model of attachment of oneself, characterized by a view of oneself as worthy of love, and a positive internal working model of attachment of others, characterized by the view that others are generally accepting and responsive. Compare dismissive attachment; fearful attachment; preoccupied attachment.

secure base

secure base a place of safety, represented by an attachment figure (e.g., a parent), that an infant uses as a base from which to explore a novel environment. The infant often returns or looks back to the parent before continuing to explore. Also called secure base phenomenon.

secure treatment setting

secure treatment setting a locked residential setting providing safety and treatment services for adolescent or adult offenders, usually felons, with intellectual or developmental disabilities.

security

security n. a sense of safety, confidence, and freedom from apprehension. In psychology, security is believed to be engendered by such factors as warm, accepting parents and friends; development of age-appropriate skills and abilities; and experiences that build a stable sense of self. The development of security in the psychotherapeutic context (most often referred to as trust) is seen as a mediating goal that encourages open exploration of emotional and behavioral issues and is considered to be part of a strong and healthy therapist–patient relationship.

security blanket

security blanket see transitional object.

security operations

security operations in the approach of Harry Stack Sullivan, a variety of interpersonal defensive measures, such as arrogance, boredom, or anger, that are used as a protection against anxiety or loss of self-esteem.

security theory

security theory the proposition that infants and young children need to develop a secure dependence on their parents before they can explore unfamiliar situations. Lack of this secure base hampers a child from exploration and therefore from acquiring new skills. Mary D. Salter Ainsworth used this theory as the initial framework for her studies on infant attachment. [proposed by William Emet Blatz]

SED

SED abbreviation for serious emotional disturbance.

sedative

sedative 1. n. a drug that has a calming effect and therefore relieves anxiety, agitation, or behavioral excitement by depressing the central nervous system. The degree of sedation depends on the agent, the size of the dose, the method of administration, and the condition of the patient. A drug that sedates in small doses may induce sleep in larger doses and may be used as a hypnotic; such drugs are commonly known as sedative–hypnotics. Benzodiazepines are commonly used as sedatives. 2. adj. producing sedation.

sedative occupation

sedative occupation an activity or task, such as knitting, that has a soothing or sedating effect because of its repetitious nature. Compare stimulating occupation.

sedative-, hypnotic-, or anxiolytic-induced persisting amnestic disorder

sedative-, hypnotic-, or anxiolytic-induced persisting amnestic disorder a disturbance in memory due to the persisting effects of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic drugs. The ability to learn new information or to recall previously learned information is impaired enough to interfere markedly with social or occupational functioning and to represent a significant decline from a previous level of functioning. Unlike those diagnosed with alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder, people diagnosed with this disorder can recover memory functioning.

sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic drug

sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic drug any of a group of CNS depressants that have been developed for therapeutic use because of their calming effect (i.e., sedative) and ability to induce sleep (i.e., hypnotic) and reduce anxiety (i.e., anxiolytic). They include the barbiturates, meprobamate, and the benzodiazepines. At low doses, these drugs are prescribed for daytime use to reduce anxiety; at higher doses, many of the same drugs are prescribed as sleeping pills. Although efficacious when used sparingly, over the long term all induce marked tolerance, and cessation of use can precipitate potentially life-threatening withdrawal phenomena. Acute abuse can yield dangerous intoxication effects, and chronic abuse can cause a range of serious, irreversible conditions.

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic abuse

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic abuse in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of use of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic drugs marked by recurrent significant adverse consequences related to the repeated ingestion of these substances. This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic dependence: If the criteria for abuse and dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given. Both have now been subsumed in DSM–5 under sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses.

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic dependence

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic dependence in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of repeated or compulsive use of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic drugs despite significant behavioral, physiological, and psychosocial problems associated with their use and possible tolerance and withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended (see sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal). The separate diagnoses for dependence on and abuse of these substances have been subsumed in DSM–5 under sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use disorder and are no longer considered distinct entities.

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic intoxication

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic intoxication in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome specific to the recent ingestion of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic drugs. It includes clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., inappropriate sexual or aggressive behavior, mood lability, impaired judgment, impaired social or occupational functioning), as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement (e.g., slurred speech, an unsteady gait, involuntary eye movements, memory or attentional problems, incoordination, stupor or coma).

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a characteristic withdrawal syndrome, potentially life threatening, that develops after cessation of (or reduction in) prolonged, heavy consumption of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic drugs. Symptoms may include autonomic hyperactivity; increased hand tremor; insomnia; nausea or vomiting; transient visual, tactile, or auditory hallucinations or illusions; psychomotor agitation; anxiety; either a transient worsening (rebound) of the condition that prompted treatment or a recurrence of that condition; and tonic–clonic seizures. Risks of physiological dependence and withdrawal are present with long-term use of all benzodiazepines and similarly acting anxiolytics. Short-acting benzodiazepines pose particular withdrawal risks, and patients taking high doses of short-acting agents must be carefully withdrawn over an extended period to avoid adverse outcomes. See also substance withdrawal.

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal delirium

sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that develops over a short period of time (usually hours to days) following cessation of prolonged, heavy consumption of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic drugs. It involves a disturbance of consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention) accompanied by changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with withdrawal from these substances.

seduction

seduction n. 1. the inducement of a person to participate in sexual intercourse, without the use of force. 2. more generally, the act or process of attracting or alluring. —seduce vb.

SEE

SEE symbol for standard error of estimate.

SEEKING system

SEEKING system collectively, those parts of the brain (e.g., nucleus accumbens, amygdala) within or connected to the mesolimbic system and mesocortical system that are associated with goal-directed behaviors and are strongly influenced by dopamine. [coined by Estonian-born U.S. physiological psychologist Jaak Panksepp (1943– )]

segment

segment n. in linguistics, a consonantal or vowel phoneme occurring as part of a consecutive sequence of these. See suprasegmental. —segmental adj.

segmental reflex

segmental reflex see spinal reflex.

segmentation

segmentation n. 1. division of a whole into parts. 2. in linguistics, the process through which a hearer separates speech into a sequence of identifiable words and phonemes. 3. the division of an animal’s body into a number of similar compartments (segments or metameres). Metameric segmentation is most apparent in annelid worms, in which the arrangement of muscles, blood vessels, nerves, and so on recurs in each segment. 4. see cleavage.

segmented regression

segmented regression see piecewise regression.

segmented sleep

segmented sleep a pattern in which two periods of nighttime sleep are separated by an extended period of wakefulness. It has been suggested that this pattern, called first sleep and second sleep and often involving a third period of light sleep during the day, may have been the norm for human beings before industrialization and the advent of electric lighting. See polyphasic sleep. [described by U.S. historian A. Roger Ekirch in 2001]

segregated model

segregated model in evaluation research, an administrative relationship, used in formative evaluation, between the program director, the production unit, and the evaluation unit as three distinct entities. In this model, the production unit and the evaluation unit have equal importance and share improved access to the program director. Compare integrated model.

segregation

segregation n. 1. the separation or isolation of people (e.g., ethnic groups) or other entities (e.g., mental processes) so that there is a minimum of interaction between them. 2. in genetics, the separation of the paired alleles of any particular gene during cell division (see meiosis), leading to sex-cell formation. 3. in genetics, separation of the sister chromatids of each chromosome during normal cell division (mitosis).

segregation analysis

segregation analysis a statistical method to determine if particular traits show Mendelian inheritance.

seismic communication

seismic communication the use of the ground or other substrate by some animals to transmit signals between individuals. Rabbits, some frogs, and kangaroo rats thump on the ground with their feet in distinctive patterns that provide cues for individual recognition and may serve to attract mates or repel intruders. Ongoing research by U.S. biologist Caitlin O’Connell-Rodwell (1965– ) has established that elephants use seismic methods for long-distance communication, including estrus calls.

seizure

seizure n. a discrete episode of uncontrolled, excessive electrical discharge of neurons in the brain. The resulting clinical symptoms vary based on the type and location of the seizure. See epilepsy.

seizure disorder

seizure disorder see epilepsy.

selected group

selected group a sample explicitly chosen with respect to specific criteria related to the purpose of a research study. For example, in a study of attitudes of older adults a researcher might choose a sample of citizens aged 65 and over from four geographic regions in the United States. Also called selected sample.

selection

selection n. 1. the differential survival of some individuals and their offspring compared with others, causing certain physical or behavioral traits to be favored in subsequent generations. The general process is known as natural selection, with components of individual selection and kin selection. 2. the process of choosing an item (e.g., an individual, an object, a measurement) from a larger universe of units for a purpose, such as study, testing, classifying, or working (hiring employees).

selection bias

selection bias see sampling bias.

selection invariance

selection invariance in choosing among applicants for employment, admission to college, or other purposes, the property of a selection procedure such that it is equally efficient (i.e., has a similar numbers of errors) for all subgroups of applicants (e.g., ethnic or income groups). Selection invariance is the empirically testable assumption that there is equal sensitivity and equal specificity across all groups. Compare measurement invariance.

selection model

selection model a two-stage regression analysis used to estimate parameters and standard errors in an unbiased way when scores for one aspect of the sample may be affected by a nonrandom selection process. An example of data that could be appropriate for this method is women’s salaries: Some aspects of the data could be modeled using standard regression methods, but the preponderance of zero salaries (reflecting a decision by some women not to work) would also need to be incorporated into the analysis. See also truncated distribution.

selection pressure

selection pressure a measure of the influence that natural selection has on the survival of some genotypes over others and thus the degree to which it alters the genetic composition of a population over successive generations.

selection ratio

selection ratio the proportion of those eligible to be selected for a purpose (e.g., inclusion in research) that actually are selected. In personnel selection, for example, it is the number of applicants who are hired to perform a job in an organization divided by the total number of applicants. The lower the selection ratio, the more competitive the hiring situation will be and the more useful (all other factors being held constant) any given predictor variable will be in making selection decisions.

selection research

selection research the use of empirical investigation to determine the reliability, validity, utility, and fairness of procedures used in personnel selection and to maximize the effectiveness of these procedures.

selection test

selection test any physical or mental test to assess an individual’s suitability for a task. Such tests are usually used to screen and select people for occupational and educational placement. See also employment test.

selectionist brain theory

selectionist brain theory see neural Darwinism.

selective action

selective action an action whereby a reinforcer may have a greater effect on some responses than on others (i.e., its effects are selective).

selective adaptation

selective adaptation the observation that perceptual adaptation can occur in response to certain stimulus qualities while being unaffected by others. For example, color adaptation can take place independently of motion adaptation.

selective agent

selective agent a factor in the environment that exerts selection pressure and brings about natural selection.

selective amnesia

selective amnesia the forgetting of particular issues, people, or events that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness and that is posited to be organized according to emotional, rather than temporal, parameters. The selectivity appears to be of benefit to or convenient for the person who cannot remember. See also dissociative amnesia.

selective attention

selective attention concentration on certain stimuli in the environment and not on others, enabling important stimuli to be distinguished from peripheral or incidental ones. Selective attention is typically measured by instructing participants to attend to some sources of information but to ignore others at the same time and then determining their effectiveness in doing this. Also called controlled attention; directed attention; executive attention. See also focal attention.

selective breeding

selective breeding the breeding of nonhuman animals with known genetic characteristics to produce a particular kind of animal or to produce uniform animals with identical genetic characteristics.

selective cell death

selective cell death an early developmental process in which neurons that are not activated by sensory and motor experience die.

selective dropout

selective dropout the nonrandom loss of participants from a study that occurs when an identified feature of the study design (e.g., topic studied, number of tasks) interacts with respondent characteristics (e.g., depression, education level). See attrition.

selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM)

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selective inattention

selective inattention 1. unmindful absence or failure of attention to particular physical or emotional stimuli. 2. a perceptual defense in which anxiety-provoking or threatening experiences are ignored or forgotten. [defined by Harry Stack Sullivan]

selective information processing

selective information processing the processing of attitude-relevant information in a biased manner. Although a number of potential biases are possible, it has traditionally been assumed that when this type of processing occurs, the bias will be toward confirming the attitude. Bias can occur at one or more of the following stages of processing: exposure, attention, encoding, perception, and retrieval. See also biased elaboration; biasing factor; defensive processing.

selective learning

selective learning learning to make only one of several possible responses or learning about one stimulus when several stimuli are available. A particular response or stimulus could have a selective advantage due to biological preparedness, previous experience, or salience in a given situation. See also Kamin effect; overshadowing.

selective listening

selective listening attending to only one stream of auditory stimuli when two or more streams are presented.

selective mutism

selective mutism in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a rare disorder, most commonly but not exclusively found in young children, characterized by a persistent failure to speak in certain social situations (e.g., at school) despite the ability to speak and to understand spoken language. Age of onset is usually before 5 years, and the failure to speak lasts at least 1 month (not counting the first month at school, when many children are shy about talking). Generally, these individuals function normally in other ways, although some may have additional disabilities. Most learn age-appropriate skills and academic subjects. Currently, selective mutism is thought to be related to severe anxiety and social phobia, and it is classified as an anxiety disorder in DSM–5, but the exact cause is unknown. It was formerly called elective mutism.

selective optimization with compensation

selective optimization with compensation a process used in successful aging to adapt to biological and psychological deficits associated with aging. The process involves emphasizing and enhancing those capacities affected only minimally by aging (selective optimization) and developing new means of maintaining functioning in those areas that are significantly affected (compensation). [described by German psychologists Paul B. Baltes and Margret M. Baltes (1939–1999)]

selective perception

selective perception the process in which people choose to attend to one or a few stimuli from the myriad array of stimuli presented to the senses at any one time. See also motivational selectivity; perceptual set.

selective permeability

selective permeability the property of a membrane that allows some substances to pass through but not others.

selective placement

selective placement see job placement.

selective potentiation

selective potentiation the enhancement of the sensitivity or activity of certain neural circuits.

selective rearing

selective rearing an experimental paradigm in which a nonhuman animal is raised from birth or from the time of eye opening under conditions that restrict its visual experience. This induces long-term changes in the structure and function of its visual system. For example, monocular rearing reduces the number of neurons in the striate cortex that are sensitive to binocular stimulation and alters the structure of the ocular dominance columns; rearing with prism goggles that restrict the orientations that are visible can alter the orientation selectivity of neurons and the orientation columns in the striate cortex.

selective reminding test

selective reminding test any memory test in which the participant is given the answer when it cannot be remembered so that he or she is more likely to answer correctly on subsequent trials. For instance, if the word pencil is presented on a list-learning task and the participant is unable to recall it, the word would then be presented along with other words not recalled. The best known of the clinical selective reminding tests is the Buschke–Fuld Selective Reminding Test.

selective response

selective response a response that has been differentiated from a group of possible alternative responses.

selective retention

selective retention variation between individuals in the capacity to remember with respect to the vividness, accuracy, quantity, and specific contents of memory. This selectivity is usually determined by such factors as interest, experience, motivation, and emotional arousal.

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor see SSRI.

selective silence

selective silence in psychotherapy, a prolonged silence imposed by the therapist to generate tension that may encourage the client to speak, thus beginning or resuming communication in a session.

selective value

selective value the relative importance of any factor in determining the evolution of organs, traits, or species through natural selection. See also selective agent.

selegiline

selegiline n. a drug used orally as an adjunct in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and transdermally in the treatment of depression. At low doses, it selectively inhibits the enzyme monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B)—which degrades the neurotransmitter dopamine—and thereby increases levels of dopamine in the brain. Because selegiline is an irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), and at higher doses it inhibits both MAO-A and MAO-B, great care must be taken not to exceed the therapeutic dosage in order to avoid the severe adverse effects of nonselective, irreversible MAOIs. Adverse drug interactions have been observed with commonly prescribed antidepressants, and thus, concurrent administration of selegiline and these should be avoided. Also called deprenyl. U.S. trade names: Eldepryl; EMSAM.

self

self n. the totality of the individual, consisting of all characteristic attributes, conscious and unconscious, mental and physical. Apart from its basic reference to personal identity, being, and experience, the term’s use in psychology is wide-ranging. According to William James, self can refer either to the person as the target of appraisal (i.e., one introspectively evaluates how one is doing) or to the person as the source of agency (i.e., one attributes the source of regulation of perception, thought, and behavior to one’s body or mind). Carl Jung maintained that the self gradually develops by a process of individuation, which is not complete until late maturity is reached. Alfred Adler identified the self with the individual’s lifestyle, the manner in which he or she seeks fulfillment. Karen D. Horney held that one’s real self, as opposed to one’s idealized self-image, consists of one’s unique capacities for growth and development. Gordon W. Allport substituted the word proprium for self and conceived of it as the essence of the individual, consisting of a gradually developing body sense, identity, self-estimate, and set of personal values, attitudes, and intentions. Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1913–1981) used the term to denote the sense of a coherent, stable (yet dynamic) experience of one’s individuality, continuity in time and space, autonomy, efficacy, motivation, values, and desires; he believed that this sense emerges through healthy narcissistic development empathically supported by the significant figures in one’s early life and that, conversely, narcissistic developmental failure leads to a fragile or incoherent sense of self. See self psychology. See also false self; multiple selves; phenomenal self; sense of self; true self.

self as agent

self as agent 1. the self that has goals, plans, and control over voluntary actions. Gordon W. Allport and others considered this term to be similar in meaning to the “I” in the thought of William James (see nominative self). See also self as observer. 2. the aspect of the self that has agency and plays a role in a psychic process. In this sense, the term is closer to James’s “me” (see empirical self).

self as known

self as known the self that is known through reflection (see empirical self). In the thought of William James, it contrasts with the self as observer or knower and is synonymous with the “me.”

self as observer

self as observer the self that has access to conscious experiences and knowledge, including knowledge of the self. In the thought of William James, it contrasts with the self as known and is synonymous with the “I” (see nominative self). See also self as agent.

self psychology

self psychology 1. any system of psychology focused on the self. 2. a school of psychoanalytical theory that stresses the importance, in healthy self-development, of an individual’s relationships with others and locates the source of many psychological problems in caregivers’ lack of responsiveness to the child’s emotional needs. In self-psychological therapy, the therapist attempts to build an empathetic relationship with the patient, rather than keep an emotional distance as in classic psychoanalytical practice. [pioneered by Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)]

self-abasement

self-abasement n. 1. the act of degrading or demeaning oneself. 2. extreme submission to the will of another person. Also called self-debasement.

self-abuse

self-abuse n. a euphemism for masturbation. The term apparently evolved from an attempt by certain 18th-century religious and medical writers to identify masturbation as “the sin of Onan” (see onanism) and to substantiate unscientific claims that a number of disorders (e.g., blindness, intellectual disability) were produced by masturbation.

self-acceptance

self-acceptance n. a relatively objective sense or recognition of one’s abilities and achievements, together with acknowledgment and acceptance of one’s limitations. Self-acceptance is often viewed as a major component of mental health.

self-activity

self-activity n. the performance of actions that have been determined by oneself, with or without dependence on outside activators.

self-actualization

self-actualization n. the complete realization of that of which one is capable, involving maximum development of abilities and full involvement in and appreciation for life, particularly as manifest in peak experiences. The term is associated especially with Abraham Maslow, who viewed the process of striving toward full potential as fundamental yet obtainable only after the basic needs of physical survival, safety, love and belongingness, and esteem are fulfilled. Also called self-realization.

self-administration

self-administration n. 1. among humans, the taking of a medication (e.g., injecting insulin) or an abused substance (e.g., injecting heroin, inhaling cannabis) by the individual himself or herself. 2. in nonhuman animal research, a procedure used to study the rewarding effects of drugs. Animals (usually primates or rodents) are required to perform an operant response (e.g., lever pressing) to receive a drug infusion, which is delivered via an intravenous catheter or through a cannula implanted in the brain. Also called drug self-administration.

self-advocacy

self-advocacy n. the process by which people make their own choices and exercise their rights in a self-determined manner. For people with developmental and other disabilities, for example, self-advocacy might entail making informed decisions about what services to accept, reject, or insist be altered.

self-affirmation

self-affirmation n. 1. any behavior that confirms the moral and adaptive adequacy of the self. See Self-affirmation theory. 2. in psychotherapy, a positive statement or set of such statements about the self that a person is required to repeat on a regular basis, often as part of a treatment for depression, negative thinking, or low self-esteem. 3. in performance or competitive situations, any thought about oneself that is believable and vivid and that reinforces positive characteristics, abilities, or skills.

self-affirmation theory

self-affirmation theory the concept that people are motivated to maintain views of themselves as well adapted, moral, competent, stable, and able to control important outcomes. When some aspect of this self-view is challenged, people experience psychological discomfort. They may attempt to reduce this discomfort by directly resolving the inconsistency between the new information and the self, by affirming some other aspect of the self, or both. Self-affirmation theory has been used as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory for explaining some phenomena. See also dissonance reduction; self-consistency perspective. [originally proposed by U.S. psychologist Claude M. Steele (1946– )]

self-alienation

self-alienation n. estrangement from oneself, typically accompanied by significant emotional distancing. The self-alienated individual is frequently unaware of or largely unable to describe his or her own intrapsychic processes.

self-analysis

self-analysis n. 1. generally, the investigation or exploration of the self for the purpose of better understanding personal thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Self-analysis occurs consciously and nonconsciously in many contexts of daily life, and with assistance from the therapist, it is a crucial process within most forms of psychotherapy. 2. an attempt to apply the principles of psychoanalysis to a study of one’s own drives, feelings, and behavior. Early in his career, Sigmund Freud proposed self-analysis as part of the preparation of an analyst, and much of his early psychoanalytic theory was based on his own self-analysis as described in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900). He later dropped the idea in favor of a training analysis. Nonetheless, most psychoanalysts conduct an ongoing self-analysis to monitor for countertransference and blind spots as they work with patients. —self-analytic adj.

self-appraisal

self-appraisal n. see self-concept.

self-assertion

self-assertion n. the act of putting forward one’s opinions or of taking actions that express one’s needs, rights, or wishes. Self-assertion is often seen as a goal of treatment and in some cases is specifically targeted by structured group treatments. —self-assertive adj.

self-assessment

self-assessment n. see self-concept.

self-assessment motive

self-assessment motive the desire to gain accurate information about the self. It leads people to seek highly diagnostic feedback (see diagnosticity) and to reject flattery or other bias. Also called accuracy motive; appraisal motive. Compare consistency motive; self-enhancement motive. See self-verification motive.

self-awareness

self-awareness n. self-focused attention or knowledge. There has been a continuing controversy over whether nonhuman animals have self-awareness. Evidence of this in animals most often is determined by whether an individual can use a mirror to groom an otherwise unseen spot on its own forehead. A few chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans have passed this test. See self-focus.

self-awareness theory

self-awareness theory any theory of the consequences of focusing attention on the self. Distinctions are sometimes made between subjective self-awareness, arising directly from the observation and experience of oneself as the source of perception and behavior, and objective self-awareness, arising from comparison between the self and (a) the behaviors, attitudes, and traits of others or (b) some perceived standard for social correctness in any one of these areas.

self-care

self-care n. activities required for personal care, such as eating, dressing, or grooming, that can be managed by an individual without the assistance of others.

self-care children

self-care children see latchkey children.

self-categorization theory

self-categorization theory an explanation of the cognitive processes that align people’s self-conceptions with the groups to which they belong. According to the theory, perceivers not only classify others into social categories but also recognize their own membership in such categories and apply stereotypes pertaining to those categories to themselves. See also autostereotyping. [developed by British psychologist John C. Turner (1947–2011) and his colleagues]

self-censure

self-censure n. an individual’s conscious self-blame, condemnation, or guilt in judging his or her own behavior to be inconsistent with personal values or standards of moral conduct.

self-clarity

self-clarity n. a certainty of identity and a confidence that one possesses certain traits and attributes. Individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to lack self-clarity than are individuals with high self-esteem.

self-compassion

self-compassion n. a construct derived from Buddhist thought and entailing a noncritical stance toward one’s inadequacies and failures. It has been suggested that if self-criticism can lead to negative emotions, self-compassion may promote well-being by protecting one from the negative emotional implications of one’s perceived failings.

self-completion theory

self-completion theory the theory that many behaviors are performed to claim desired identities, so that by behaving in a certain way one is symbolically proving oneself to be a certain kind of person. Insecurity about being the sort of person one wants to be is often the reason for engaging in such self-completing acts. For example, a person who takes pride in being very fit and active may respond to the first signs of illness or exhaustion by increasing, rather than reducing, his or her activities.

self-complexity

self-complexity n. the number of separate, unrelated aspects of the self-concept. For instance, a woman might think of herself in terms of her various social roles (lawyer, friend, mother), her relationships (colleague, competitor, nurturer), her activities (running, playing tennis, writing), her superordinate traits (hard working, creative), her goals (career success), and so forth. People low in self-complexity have few distinct facets of the self-concept, so they react more extremely to positive and negative events relevant to one of those aspects. People high in self-complexity have multiple distinct self-aspects, so they react less extremely to such events.

self-concept

self-concept n. one’s description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles and so forth. Self-concepts contribute to the individual’s sense of identity over time. The conscious representation of self-concept is dependent in part on nonconscious schematization of the self (see schema). Although self-concepts are usually available to some degree to the consciousness, they may be inhibited from representation yet still influence judgment, mood, and behavioral patterns. Also called self-appraisal; self-assessment; self-evaluation; self-rating. See self-image; self-perception.

self-concept test

self-concept test a type of personality assessment designed to determine how participants view their own attitudes, values, goals, body concept, personal worth, and abilities. The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale is an example.

self-confidence

self-confidence n. 1. self-assurance: trust in one’s abilities, capacities, and judgment. Because it is typically viewed as a positive attitude, the bolstering of self-confidence is often a mediate or end goal in psychotherapy. 2. a belief that one is capable of successfully meeting the demands of a task. —self-confident adj.

self-confrontation

self-confrontation n. the examination of one’s attitudes, behaviors, and shortcomings to provide an impetus to change and to gain insight into how one is perceived by others.

self-conscious emotion

self-conscious emotion an emotion generated when events reflect on the worth or value of the self in one’s own or others’ eyes. Self-conscious emotions include shame, pride, guilt, and embarrassment. Also called self-evaluative emotion.

self-consciousness

self-consciousness n. 1. a personality trait associated with the tendency to reflect on or think about oneself. Psychological use of the term (e.g., in personality measures) refers to individual differences in self-reflection, not to embarrassment or awkwardness (see sense 3..). Some researchers have distinguished between two varieties of self-consciousness: (a) private self-consciousness, or the degree to which people think about private, internal aspects of themselves (e.g., their thoughts, motives, and feelings) that are not directly open to observation by others; and (b) public self-consciousness, or the degree to which people think about public, external aspects of themselves (e.g., their physical appearance, mannerisms, and overt behavior) that can be observed by others. 2. see reflective consciousness. 3. extreme sensitivity about one’s behavior, appearance, or other attributes and excessive concern about the impression one makes on others, which may lead to embarrassment or awkwardness in the presence of others. —self-conscious adj.

self-consistency

self-consistency n. 1. behavior or traits that have a high degree of internal harmony and stability. 2. the compatibility of all aspects of a theory or system.

self-consistency perspective

self-consistency perspective a variation of cognitive dissonance theory in which cognitive dissonance is considered particularly likely to occur when an inconsistency involves some aspect of the self. This perspective differs from self-affirmation theory in that dissonance can be reduced only by resolving the specific inconsistency that gave rise to the discomfort; it does not allow for the possibility that dissonance can be reduced by affirming some other aspect of the self. [originally proposed by U.S. psychologist Elliot Aronson (1932– )]

self-consistency theory

self-consistency theory see consistency theory.

self-construal

self-construal n. any specific belief about the self. The term is used particularly in connection with the distinction between independent self-construals and interdependent self-construals.

self-contradiction

self-contradiction n. 1. in logic, a fundamental inconsistency between two or more premises of a single argument, such that they cannot both be true. 2. more generally, a deep inconsistency between two or more beliefs, intentions, desires, or behaviors of an individual or of a group. —self-contradictory adj.

self-control

self-control n. the ability to be in command of one’s behavior (overt, covert, emotional, or physical) and to restrain or inhibit one’s impulses. In circumstances in which short-term gain is pitted against long-term greater gain, self-control is the ability to opt for the long-term outcome. Choice of the short-term outcome is called impulsiveness. See also self-discipline; self-regulation. —self-controlled adj.

self-control technique

self-control technique a method used in behavior therapy in which clients are trained to evaluate their own behavior and reinforce desired behavior with appropriate material or social rewards.

self-control therapy

self-control therapy a form of behavior therapy that involves self-monitoring (e.g., diaries of behavior), self-evaluation, goal setting, behavior contracts, self-reinforcement, and relapse prevention. Also called self-management therapy. [developed by Austrian-born U.S. clinical psychologist Frederick H. Kanfer (1925–2002)]

self-correction

self-correction n. any situation in which an individual makes an error but fixes it spontaneously, with no external instructions or cues.

self-criticism

self-criticism n. the evaluation of one’s own behavior and attributes, with recognition of one’s weaknesses, errors, and shortcomings. Although, self-criticism can have a positive effect in fostering personal growth, a tendency toward harsh self-criticism is thought by some to be a risk factor for depression. —self-critical adj.

self-debasement

self-debasement n. see self-abasement.

self-deception

self-deception n. the process or result of convincing oneself of the truth of something that is false or invalid, particularly the overestimation of one’s abilities and concurrent failure to recognize one’s limitations.

self-defeating behavior

self-defeating behavior repetitive actions by an individual that invite failure or misfortune and thus prevent him or her from attaining goals or fulfilling desires.

self-defeating personality disorder

self-defeating personality disorder in DSM–III–R (but not in later DSM editions), a personality disorder characterized by a reluctance to seek pleasurable activities, an encouragement of others to exploit or take advantage of oneself, a focus on one’s very worst personal features, and a tendency to sabotage one’s good fortunes. See also masochistic personality disorder.

self-definition

self-definition n. 1. a self-view, self-concept, or other belief about the self. 2. personal independence. See autonomy.

self-demand schedule

self-demand schedule in animal or child-rearing studies, a feeding schedule regulated by the individual’s needs and desires, in contrast to a fixed or rigid schedule. Also called demand feeding.

self-denial

self-denial n. the act of suppressing desires and forgoing satisfactions.

self-derogation

self-derogation n. the tendency to disparage oneself, often unrealistically. It frequently is associated with a major depressive episode.

self-desensitization

self-desensitization n. a procedure used in behavior therapy in which the individual, when confronted with objects or situations that arouse anxiety, engages in coping strategies designed to reduce anxiety, such as repeating positive self-statements, mentally rehearsing a potential confrontation, or employing muscle relaxation. See also desensitization; systematic desensitization.

self-destructiveness

self-destructiveness n. actions by an individual that are damaging and not in his or her best interests. The individual may not be aware of the damaging influence of the actions or may on some level wish for the resulting damage. The behavior may be repetitive and resistant to treatment, sometimes leading to suicide attempts. —self-destructive adj.

self-determination

self-determination n. the process or result of engaging in behaviors without interference or undue influence from other people or external demands. Self-determination refers particularly to behaviors that improve one’s circumstances, including decision making, problem solving, self-management, self-instruction, and self-advocacy.

self-determination theory

self-determination theory the concept that regulation of behavior varies along a continuum from externally controlled (e.g., to obtain rewards or avoid punishments) to autonomous or intrinsically motivated (e.g., to have fun or explore interests). The theory emphasizes the importance of intrinsic motivation for producing healthy adjustment and asserts that negative outcomes ensue when people feel that they are driven mainly by external forces and extrinsic rewards.

self-detoxification

self-detoxification n. see detoxification.

self-development

self-development n. the growth or improvement of one’s qualities and abilities.

self-differentiation

self-differentiation n. the tendency to seek recognition for one’s individuality and uniqueness, particularly in contrast to the other members of one’s social group. See optimal distinctiveness theory.

self-directedness

self-directedness n. see Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality; Temperament and Character Inventory.

self-discipline

self-discipline n. 1. the control of one’s impulses and desires, forgoing immediate satisfaction in favor of long-term goals. 2. resolute adherence to a regimen or course of action in order to achieve one's goals. See also delay of gratification; self-control; self-regulation. —self-disciplined adj.

self-disclosure

self-disclosure n. the act of revealing personal or private information about one’s self to other people. In relationships research, self-disclosure has been shown to foster feelings of closeness and intimacy. In psychotherapy, the revelation and expression by the client of personal, innermost feelings, fantasies, experiences, and aspirations is believed by many to be a requisite for therapeutic change and personal growth. Additionally, pertinent revelation by the therapist of his or her personal details to the client can—if used with discretion—be a valuable tool to increase rapport and earn the trust of the client.

self-discovery

self-discovery n. the process of searching for and finding one’s unique self or identity.

self-discrepancy

self-discrepancy n. an incongruity between different aspects of one’s self-concept, particularly between one’s actual self and either the ideal self or the ought self. [derived from the theory of U.S. psychologist E. Tory Higgins (1946– )]

self-dynamism

self-dynamism n. the pattern of motivations or drives that comprise one’s self-system, including especially the pursuit of biological satisfaction, security, and freedom from anxiety. [proposed by Harry Stack Sullivan]

self-effacement

self-effacement n. 1. acting in such a way as to avoid drawing attention to oneself or making oneself noticeable. 2. in the approach of Karen D. Horney, a neurotic idealization of compliance, dependency, and selfless love as a reaction to identification with the hated self. See also compliant character; neurotic trend. —self-effacing adj.

self-efficacy

self-efficacy n. an individual’s subjective perception of his or her capability to perform in a given setting or to attain desired results, proposed by Albert Bandura as a primary determinant of emotional and motivational states and behavioral change. Also called perceived self-efficacy.

self-enhancement

self-enhancement n. any strategic behavior designed to increase either self-esteem or the esteem of others. Self-enhancement can take the form of pursuing success or merely distorting events to make them seem to reflect better on the self. Compare self-protection. See also compensatory self-enhancement.

self-enhancement motive

self-enhancement motive the desire to think well of oneself and to be well regarded by others. This motive causes people to prefer favorable, flattering feedback rather than accurate but possibly unfavorable information about themselves. Compare self-assessment motive; self-verification motive.

self-enucleation

self-enucleation n. see autoenucleation.

self-esteem

self-esteem n. the degree to which the qualities and characteristics contained in one’s self-concept are perceived to be positive. It reflects a person’s physical self-image, view of his or her accomplishments and capabilities, and values and perceived success in living up to them, as well as the ways in which others view and respond to that person. The more positive the cumulative perception of these qualities and characteristics, the higher one’s self-esteem. A reasonably high degree of self-esteem is considered an important ingredient of mental health, whereas low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are common depressive symptoms.

self-esteem stability

self-esteem stability the magnitude of short-term fluctuations around a typical or baseline degree of self-esteem. It is distinguished from self-esteem level (i.e., high or low), which is more global and relatively enduring over time. In contrast, stability-related fluctuations may be in response to external, environmentally based events (e.g., receiving positive or negative feedback on a task) or internally based events (e.g., reflecting on one’s progress, or lack thereof, toward a goal). Individuals with unstable self-esteem tend to be particularly susceptible to perceiving threats to self-worth in the environment and are at higher risk for experiencing depressive symptoms.

self-evaluation

self-evaluation n. see self-concept.

self-evaluation maintenance model

self-evaluation maintenance model a conceptual analysis, related to social comparison theory, in which an individual is assumed to maintain a positive self-evaluation by (a) associating with high-achieving individuals who excel in areas with low relevance to his or her sense of self-worth and (b) avoiding association with high-achieving individuals who excel in areas that are personally important to him or her. [developed by U.S. social psychologists Abraham Tesser (1941– ), Jennifer D. Campbell (1944– ), and their colleagues]

self-evaluative emotion

self-evaluative emotion see self-conscious emotion.

self-evident

self-evident adj. perceived immediately by the mind to be true without need of supporting argument or empirical evidence. In deductive reasoning, it is customary to begin an argument from a proposition that is considered self-evident (an axiom). Philosophers have also held various types of innate idea to be self-evident.

self-examination

self-examination n. see self-reflection.

self-exciting circuit

self-exciting circuit a neural circuit or neural pathway in which part of the output is fed back to the original cell, thus maintaining activity. See positive feedback; recurrent circuit.

self-expression

self-expression n. free expression of one’s feelings, thoughts, talents, attitudes, or impulses through such means as verbal communication; the visual, decorative, literary, and performing arts; and other commonplace activities (e.g., gardening, sports).

self-extension

self-extension n. according to Gordon W. Allport, an early stage in the development of the proprium or self, beginning roughly at age 4 and marked by the child’s emerging ability to incorporate people, objects, and abstractions into the self-concept. Self-extension is the investment of ego in those entities outside of the self with which the individual feels affinity or identification.

self-extinction

self-extinction n. in psychoanalytic theory, a form of neurotic behavior in which the patient lacks experience of himself or herself as an entity and identifies vicariously with the experiences and lives of others. [introduced by Karen D. Horney]

self-feeding

self-feeding n. the act of feeding oneself without the direct assistance of others. Some individuals with disabilities may not be capable of self-feeding, whereas others may be able to feed themselves with the help of certain assistive technology devices.

self-focus

self-focus n. 1. the direction of conscious attention on oneself and one’s thoughts, needs, desires, and emotions. Trait self-focus refers to a chronic habit or pattern of self-consciousness, whereas state self-focus refers to objective self-awareness. An excess of trait self-focus has been associated with the development of, or with heightened vulnerability to, several mental health disorders, such as alcohol abuse, depression, and anxiety diorders. Also called self-focused attention. 2. the capacity of an individual to analyze and evaluate his or her mental and emotional states. 3. excessive concern for the self and its needs: selfishness. —self-focused adj.

self-focused coping

self-focused coping in situations considered stressful, the combination of behavioral tendencies to blame oneself (i.e., believe the situation results entirely from one’s actions) and to keep to oneself (i.e., avoid interacting with others).

self-fulfilling prophecy

self-fulfilling prophecy a belief or expectation that helps to bring about its own fulfillment, as, for example, when a person expects nervousness to impair his or her performance in a job interview or when a teacher’s preconceptions about a student’s ability influence the child’s achievement for better or worse. See Pygmalion effect; upward Pygmalion effect. See also behavioral confirmation; demand characteristics; expectancy effect.

self-gratification

self-gratification n. the satisfaction of the needs of the self.

self-guide

self-guide n. a specific image or standard for the self that can be used to direct self-regulation. In particular, self-guides include mental representations of valued or preferred attributes; that is, ideals and notions of how one ought to be. These may be chosen by the self or may come from others.

self-handicapping

self-handicapping n. a strategy of creating obstacles to one’s performance, so that future anticipated failure can be blamed on the obstacle rather than on one’s lack of ability. If one succeeds despite the handicap, it brings extra credit or glory to the self. The concept originally was proposed to explain alcohol and drug abuse among seemingly successful individuals. —self-handicap vb.

self-help

self-help n. a focus on self-guided, in contrast to professionally guided, efforts to cope with life problems. Self-help can involve self-reliance, in which one addresses such problems on one’s own (e.g., by reading self-help books), or it can involve joining with others to address shared concerns together, as in self-help groups.

self-help clearinghouse

self-help clearinghouse an organization that serves as an information and referral source about self-help groups in a given locality or region, providing up-to-date directories of all groups in that jurisdiction, as well as national self-help group resources. It is an important resource for citizens, groups, and professionals. Some clearinghouses also provide consultation to groups and group leaders and attempt to educate the public and professionals about the nature, value, and availability of groups.

self-help group

self-help group a group composed of individuals who meet on a regular basis to help one another cope with a life problem. Unlike therapy groups, self-help groups are not led by professionals, do not charge a fee for service, and do not place a limit on the number of members. They provide many benefits that professionals cannot provide, including friendship, mutual support, experiential knowledge, identity, a sense of belonging, and other by-products of a positive group process. Each group also develops its own ideology or set of beliefs about the cause of and best means to address the problem that brings members together; the ideology is unique to that group and serves as an aid or “antidote” to its particular type of problem. For instance, the ideology of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) includes the belief that alcoholism is a lifelong problem and that the first step in addressing it (see twelve-step program) is for group members to admit that they do not have control over their drinking. Of the various types of self-help groups, AA represents only one; it falls into a broader category of groups whose focal problem is addiction or compulsive behavior (e.g., Gamblers Anonymous). Other types of self-help groups include those focused on a life stress or transition (e.g., Compassionate Friends), those focused on mental health concerns (e.g., National Alliance on Mental Illness), and those focused on a particular physical disease or disorder (e.g., the National Multiple Sclerosis Society). See also mutual support group; support group.

self-hypnorelaxation

self-hypnorelaxation n. a form of self-hypnosis in which clients are trained to respond to their own relaxation suggestions.

self-hypnosis

self-hypnosis n. the process of putting oneself into a trance or trancelike state, typically through autosuggestion. Also called autohypnosis. Compare heterohypnosis.

self-ideal

self-ideal n. see ego-ideal.

self-ideal Q sort

self-ideal Q sort a technique used to measure the discrepancy between an individual’s existing and ideal self-concepts. Participants are required to sort descriptions of characteristics twice, first with regard to how they see themselves and then in terms of how they would like to be.

self-identification

self-identification n. the act of construing one’s identity in particular terms, usually as a member of a particular group or category (e.g., “I am Hispanic,” “I am a lesbian,” “I am a father”) or as a person with particular traits or attributes (e.g., “I am intelligent,” “I am unlucky,” “I am fat”).

self-identity

self-identity n. see identity.

self-image

self-image n. one’s view or concept of oneself. Self-image is a crucial aspect of an individual’s personality that can determine the success of relationships and a sense of general well-being. A negative self-image is often a cause of dysfunctions and of self-abusive, self-defeating, or self-destructive behavior.

self-image bias

self-image bias the tendency of people to judge others according to criteria on which they themselves score highly. The more favorably a person rates himself or herself on some trait, the more central and important that trait is likely to be in how the person perceives others. The self-image bias is one subtle way in which the self-concept influences how the person perceives others.

self-inflicted wound

self-inflicted wound see deliberate self-harm.

self-injurious behavior

self-injurious behavior see deliberate self-harm.

self-insight

self-insight n. understanding oneself in some depth. It is a mediate goal or the desired outcome of many types of psychotherapy.

self-instructional imagery

self-instructional imagery imagery that is used in the learning or perfection of a skill. It may be the image of a past performance used to detect errors for correction, or it may be the image of an unperformed alteration of a skill. See mental practice.

self-instructional training

self-instructional training a form of cognitive behavior therapy used to modify maladaptive beliefs and cognitions and develop new skills in an individual. The therapist identifies the client’s maladaptive thoughts (e.g., “Everybody hates me”) and models appropriate behavior while giving spoken constructive self-instructions (or self-statements). The client then copies the behavior while repeating these instructions aloud. See also self-statement training. [developed by U.S. psychologist Donald Meichenbaum (1940– )]

self-interest

self-interest n. one’s personal advantage or benefit. Self-interested behavior includes both the pursuit of rewards and benefits and the avoidance of costs, dangers, and harm.

self-inventory

self-inventory n. a questionnaire or series of statements on which participants check characteristics or traits that they perceive to apply to themselves.

self-love

self-love n. 1. regard for and interest in one’s own being or contentment. 2. excessive self-regard, or a narcissistic attitude toward one’s body, abilities, or personality. See egotism; narcissism.

self-managed reinforcement

self-managed reinforcement see self-reinforcement.

self-management

self-management n. 1. an individual’s control of his or her behavior, particularly regarding the pursuit of a specific objective (e.g., weight loss). Self-management is usually considered a desirable aspect for the individual personally and socially, but some forms of self-management may be detrimental to mental and physical health. Psychotherapists and counselors often seek to provide clients with methods of identifying the latter and modifying them into the former. 2. a behavior therapy program in which clients are trained to apply techniques that will help them modify an undesirable behavior, such as smoking, excessive eating, or aggressive outbursts. Clients learn to pinpoint the problem, set realistic goals for changing it, use various contingencies to establish and maintain a desired behavior, and monitor progress.

self-management therapy

self-management therapy see self-control therapy.

self-medication

self-medication n. see medication.

self-monitoring

self-monitoring n. 1. a method used in behavioral management in which individuals keep a record of their behavior (e.g., time spent, form and place of occurrence, feelings during performance), especially in connection with efforts to change or control the self. For example, a therapist may assign a client self-monitoring as homework to encourage better self-regulation by that person. 2. a personality trait reflecting an ability to modify one’s behavior in response to situational pressures, opportunities, and norms. High self-monitors are typically more apt to conform their behavior to the demands of the situation, whereas low self-monitors tend to behave in accord with their internal feelings.

self-monitoring observation

self-monitoring observation self-tracking of one’s behaviors, attitudes, or emotions over time. In research studies and clinical interventions focused on weight loss, for example, participants are encouraged to keep track of their eating patterns, their feelings related to their eating, and triggers for not maintaining their diet. This enables a clinician or researcher to review periods when the participant is outside the clinical setting or laboratory. Compare analogue observation; naturalistic observation.

self-mutilation

self-mutilation n. the act of disfiguring oneself through deliberate self-harm.

self-object (selfobject)

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self-object transference (selfobject transference)

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self-objectification

self-objectification n. the achievement of objective knowledge about the self or self-understanding. It is one of Gordon W. Allport’s set of seven adaptive characteristics for psychological maturity.

self-organizing system

self-organizing system any system whose elements spontaneously interact in such a way as to create a higher level structure as a result of their intrinsic properties. Many biological molecules show spontaneous self-organization, but purely physical systems do so as well, as in phase changes in water at different temperatures.

self-perception

self-perception n. a person’s view of his or her self or of any of the mental or physical attributes that constitute the self. Such a view may involve genuine self-knowledge or varying degrees of distortion. Also called self-percept. See also perceived self; self-concept.

self-perception theory

self-perception theory the hypothesis that people often have only limited access to their attitudes, beliefs, traits, or psychological states. In such cases, they must attempt to infer the nature of these internal cues in a manner similar to the inference processes they use when making judgments about other people. For example, a person may infer what his or her attitude is by considering past behaviors related to the attitude object: Approach behaviors imply a positive attitude; avoidance behaviors imply a negative attitude. Self-perception theory has been offered as an alternative explanation for some phenomena traditionally interpreted in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. The theory has also been used to explain the success of the foot-in-the-door technique. [originally proposed by U.S. psychologist Daryl J. Bem (1938– )]

self-presentation

self-presentation n. any behaviors intended to convey a particular image of, or particular information about, the self to other people. Self-presentational motives explain why an individual’s behavior often changes as soon as anyone else is thought to be present or watching. Canadian-born U.S. sociologist Erving Goffman (1922–1982) likened self-presentation to a theatrical (dramaturgical) performance in which individuals strive to create an image of themselves through their verbal and nonverbal displays in order to influence the impressions formed by those around them. Some common strategies of self-presentation include exemplification, self-promotion, and supplication. See also impression management. —self-presentational adj.

self-preservation instinct

self-preservation instinct the fundamental tendency of humans and nonhuman animals to behave so as to avoid injury and maximize chances of survival (e.g., by fleeing from dangerous situations or predators). In his early formulations of classic psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud proposed that self-preservation was one of two instincts that motivated human behavior, the other being the sexual instinct. In his later formulations, he combined both instincts into the concept of Eros, or the life instinct, and opposed them to Thanatos, the death instinct. Also called self-preservative instinct; survival instinct.

self-promotion

self-promotion n. in self-presentation theory, a strategy of making oneself look good to others by highlighting or exaggerating one’s competence and abilities.

self-protection

self-protection n. any strategic behavior designed to avoid losing, either self-esteem or the esteem of others. Self-protection fosters a risk-avoidant orientation and is often contrasted with self-enhancement.

self-punishment

self-punishment n. the act of inflicting physical or psychological harm on oneself for one’s perceived misdeeds. Self-punishment ranges from blaming oneself unjustifiably for negative occurrences to attempted suicide, and it commonly occurs in severe cases of major depressive disorder.

self-rating

self-rating n. 1. see self-concept. 2. in psychological measurement, the act of reporting on or describing characteristics of oneself.

self-rating scale

self-rating scale any questionnaire, inventory, survey, or other instrument in which participants are asked to assess their own characteristics (e.g., attitudes, interests, abilities, performance). See also self-report; self-report inventory.

self-realization

self-realization n. see self-actualization.

self-reference

self-reference n. a tendency to relate events or information to the self, such as by directing discussions toward one’s personal concerns and perceptions. —self-refer vb. —self-referential adj.

self-reference effect

self-reference effect the widespread tendency for individuals to have a superior or enhanced memory for stimuli that relate to the self or self-concept.

self-referral

self-referral n. the act of consulting a health care practitioner without being directed to by a medically qualified professional or similar person or without being forced to seek such help by an employer, a spouse, or the courts. Self-referred individuals are often viewed as more motivated for treatment and more likely to admit to problems.

self-reflection

self-reflection n. 1. examination, contemplation, and analysis of one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. The condition of or capacity for this is called self-reflexivity. 2. see reflective consciousness.

self-regulated learning

self-regulated learning the process of continuously monitoring and controlling one’s learning. For example, students studying for a test might periodically test themselves to determine what they have learned, and then they might devote additional studying to the material that is not as well learned. Self-regulated learning involves metacognition, cognitive control, motivation, and strategic use of learning behaviors.

self-regulation

self-regulation n. the control of one’s behavior through the use of self-monitoring (keeping a record of behavior), self-evaluation (assessing the information obtained during self-monitoring), and self-reinforcement (rewarding oneself for appropriate behavior or for attaining a goal). Self-regulatory processes are stressed in behavior therapy. See also self-control; self-management.

self-regulatory resources theory

self-regulatory resources theory a model stating that self-regulation depends on a global, but finite, pool of resources that can be temporarily depleted by situational demands. See ego depletion; volition.

self-reinforcement

self-reinforcement n. the rewarding of oneself for appropriate behavior or the achievement of a desired goal. The self-reward may be, for example, buying a treat for oneself after studying for an exam. Also called self-managed reinforcement.

self-relevance

self-relevance n. see ego involvement.

self-report

self-report n. a statement or series of answers to questions that an individual provides about his or her state, feelings, thoughts, beliefs, past behaviors, and so forth. Self-report methods rely on the honesty and self-awareness of the participant (see self-report bias) and are used especially to measure behaviors or traits that cannot easily be directly observed by others.

self-report bias

self-report bias a methodological problem that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than measuring these directly and objectively. People may not give answers that are fully correct, either because they do not know the full answer or because they seek to make a good impression (see social desirability). The self-report bias is often cited as a reason to use direct observation whenever practicable.

self-report inventory

self-report inventory a questionnaire on which participants indicate the degree to which the descriptors listed apply to them. Also called self-report scale.

self-repudiation

self-repudiation n. denial of one’s pleasure or rights, usually out of a sense of guilt or low self-esteem.

self-respect

self-respect n. a feeling of self-worth and self-esteem, especially a proper regard for one’s values, character, and dignity.

self-reward

self-reward n. see self-reinforcement.

self-righting

self-righting n. the ability to right oneself, that is, to rebound from adversity by taking effective actions to adapt to it and by seeking a functional accommodation within the constraints imposed by the environment. See also coping behavior; resilience.

self-schema

self-schema n. a cognitive framework comprising organized information and beliefs about the self that guides a person’s perception of the world, influencing what information draws the individual’s attention as well as how that information is evaluated and retained. Compare social schema.

self-selected groups design

self-selected groups design an experimental design in which participants choose their group or the condition to which they will be exposed. Because the assignment of participants to research conditions is nonrandom, causal inference from data gleaned in such experiments is questionable. See quasi-experimental design.

self-selection bias

self-selection bias a type of bias that can arise when study participants choose their own treatment conditions, rather than being randomly assigned. In such cases, it is impossible to state unambiguously that a study result is due to the treatment condition and not to the preexisting characteristics of those individuals who chose to be in this condition. Also called self-selection effect. See also sampling bias.

self-serving bias

self-serving bias the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one’s responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factors. The self-serving bias is regarded as a form of self-deception designed to maintain high self-esteem. Compare group-serving bias.

self-standards model

self-standards model a version of cognitive dissonance theory stating that the effects of inconsistent behavioral outcomes will differ depending on whether they are assessed against a personal standard or a normative standard. This theory is an attempt to explain the differing effects of self-esteem on cognitive dissonance that have been documented in the literature and to integrate aspects of the new-look theory, self-consistency perspective, and self-affirmation theory. [proposed by U.S. psychologists Jeff Stone and Joel Cooper (1943– )]

self-statement

self-statement n. see self-instructional training; self-statement training.

self-statement modification

self-statement modification a technique designed to change maladaptive ideas about the self that are uncovered in cognitive behavior therapy. See also self-instructional training.

self-statement training (SST)

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self-stereotyping

self-stereotyping n. see autostereotyping.

self-stimulation

self-stimulation n. 1. the act or process of inducing or increasing the level of arousal in oneself. It can be observed in various situations; for example, infants who are understimulated may explore their surroundings or babble to themselves. 2. see intracranial stimulation; pleasure center. 3. See masturbation.

self-suggestion

self-suggestion n. see autosuggestion.

self-synchrony

self-synchrony n. see synchrony.

self-system

self-system n. the relatively fixed personality of the individual resulting from relationships with his or her parents and other significant adults, in which approved attitudes and behavior patterns tend to be retained and disapproved actions and attitudes tend to be blocked out. [first described by Harry Stack Sullivan]

self-talk

self-talk n. an internal dialogue in which an individual utters phrases or sentences to himself or herself. Negative self-talk often confirms and reinforces negative beliefs and attitudes, such as fears and false aspirations, which have a correspondingly negative effect on the individual’s feelings (e.g., a sense of worthlessness) and reactions (e.g., demotivation). In certain types of psychotherapy, one of the tasks of the therapist is to encourage the client to replace self-defeating, negative self-talk with more constructive, positive self-talk. In sport, athletes are trained to use positive self-talk to cue the body to act in particular ways, to cue attentional focus, to motivate, to reinforce self-efficacy, and to facilitate the creation of an ideal performance state. See also internalized speech; rational emotive behavior therapy. [described by Albert Ellis]

self-terminating search

self-terminating search any search process in which the search is ended as soon as a given target is detected. This may be a search for target items in memory, a visual search, or any problem-solving exercise that involves finding the correct solution among a number of alternatives. Compare exhaustive search.

self-test

self-test n. a test that can be administered without the help of a trained professional.

self-transcendence

self-transcendence n. 1. the state in which an individual is able to look beyond himself or herself and adopt a larger perspective that includes concern for others. Some psychologists maintain that self-transcendence is a central feature of the healthy individual, promoting personal growth and development. [first described by Viktor E. Frankl] 2. see Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality; Temperament and Character Inventory.

self-understanding

self-understanding n. the attainment of knowledge about and insight into one’s characteristics, including attitudes, motives, behavioral tendencies, strengths, and weaknesses. The achievement of self-understanding is one of the major goals of certain forms of psychotherapy.

self-validation factor

self-validation factor a variable that serves to affect confidence in the validity of cognitive responses generated during elaboration of attitude-relevant information. See also elaboration-likelihood model; multiple roles in persuasion.

self-verbalization

self-verbalization n. 1. self-directed private speech or thinking aloud. Self-verbalization can be a cognitive strategy that fosters internal self-regulation by verbally controlling behavior. Often used as a learning tool, it can be used to teach new skills, enhance problem-solving abilities, or alter previously held beliefs. Varying perspectives on this type of speech include the work of Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, and Alexander Luria. 2. see self-talk.

self-verification motive

self-verification motive the desire to seek information about oneself that confirms one’s chronic self-views, regardless of whether this information is good or bad. This desire is often stronger than the self-enhancement motive, wherein people seek favorable information about themselves, or the self-assessment motive, wherein people seek accurate information about themselves. People seek self-verification (a) by gravitating toward situations and relationship partners in which they will receive self-confirmation, (b) by striving to elicit self-verifying feedback through their behavior, and (c) by selectively attending to, recalling, and interpreting evaluations in ways that tend to maintain their own views of themselves. [first proposed in 1983 by U.S. social psychologist William B. Swann (1952– )]

self-view

self-view n. an umbrella term for various forms of self-definition, including global self-esteem and specific beliefs about oneself (self-concepts).

self-worth

self-worth n. an individual’s evaluation of himself or herself as a valuable, capable human being deserving of respect and consideration. Positive feelings of self-worth tend to be associated with a high degree of self-acceptance and self-esteem.

selfish gene hypothesis

selfish gene hypothesis the postulate that the sole purpose of genes is to replicate themselves and that genes are the overriding units of selection (i.e., the entities upon which natural selection operates). Hence, any mutation enhancing gene replication (and transmission) would be selected for. Many contemporary evolutionary biologists argue that this view oversimplifies the relationship between genes and organisms and is extreme in its notion that genes consistently override selection on the organism or population level. They accept, however, the principal notion of gene replication as consistent with a number of processes in evolution. [proposed by British biologist Richard Dawkins (1941– ) in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene]

selfish herd

selfish herd in animal behavior, a gathering of highly selfish individuals each jostling to keep other individuals between them and a source of danger. Individuals end up clustered in groups not for mutual defense or cooperation but simply because each individual is looking after its own interests by using the others as a shield.

selfishness

selfishness n. the tendency to act excessively or solely in a manner that benefits oneself, even if others are disadvantaged. —selfish adj.

SEM

SEM abbreviation for structural equation modeling. SEM 1. symbol for standard error of measurement. 2. symbol for standard error of the mean.

sem-

SEM abbreviation for structural equation modeling. SEM 1. symbol for standard error of measurement. 2. symbol for standard error of the mean.

semantic

semantic adj. of or pertaining to meaning, particularly that of words and other symbols. For example, semantic analysis is a computational process for examining in detail the language used within a text so as to extract and analyze its stated and often implied meanings; the method utilizes statistical manipulations of word usage frequencies to clarify relationships among elements or identify thematic patterns.

semantic anomia

semantic anomia loss or impairment of the ability to understand the correct meaning of words or to situate them into their conceptual categories (e.g., the word dress in the category of clothing). Recent research suggests that semantic anomia is due to degradation of semantic knowledge caused by damage to the temporal lobe.

semantic aphasia

semantic aphasia a form of aphasia characterized by loss or impairment of the ability to find the proper words to convey meaning appropriately when speaking. See also logicogrammatical disorder.

semantic code

semantic code the means by which the conceptual or abstract components of an object, idea, or impression are stored in memory. For example, the item typewriter could be remembered in terms of its functional meaning or properties. Compare imagery code.

semantic counseling

semantic counseling a type of counseling in which emphasis is placed on interpretations of meanings, particularly those related to adjustment and maladjustment.

semantic dementia

semantic dementia a type of frontotemporal dementia resulting from focal degeneration of the polar and inferolateral regions of the temporal lobes. It is characterized by a selective, progressive impairment in semantic memory, leading to difficulties in object naming, comprehension of words and their appropriate use in conversation, and appreciation and use of objects. Nonsemantic aspects of language, as well as perceptual and spatial skills, are preserved.

semantic differential

semantic differential a type of scale that researchers use to assess a respondent’s views on a certain topic (e.g., a stimulus such as a word or photograph, the quality of some experience). Participants are asked to rate the topic on a scale that has pairs of opposites, such as bad–good, unpleasant–pleasant, or competitive–cooperative, as anchors or reference points. For example, the bipolar opposites bad and good may be scaled along 7 points and the respondent asked to position himself or herself along the 7-point continuum for a given topic. Generally, the anchors are focused on three dimensions—evaluation, activity, and potency. Responses to word pairs assessing the evaluative dimension are scaled in some way (e.g., according to theory, by exploratory factor analysis) so that items can be averaged or summed to arrive at an index of attitudes. This procedure is one of the most widely used methods of assessing attitudes and may be used in psychometric testing or in various settings, such as marketing and politics, to gauge public reactions to a product, issue, or personality. See also attitude object; direct attitude measure. [developed in the 1950s by U.S. psychologists Charles E. Osgood, George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tannenbaum (1927–2009)]

semantic dissociation

semantic dissociation a distortion between words and their culturally accepted meanings that is characteristic of the thought disorder of individuals with schizophrenia. It includes semantic dissolution, marked by a complete loss of meaning and the ability to communicate; semantic dispersion, in which meaning and the correct use of syntax are lost or reduced; semantic distortion, in which meaning may be transferred to neologisms; and semantic halo, marked by coherent but vague and ambiguous language.

semantic encoding

semantic encoding cognitive encoding of new information that focuses on its meaningful aspects as opposed to its perceptual characteristics. This will usually involve some form of elaboration. See also deep processing.

semantic fluency

semantic fluency the ability to generate words in different categories (e.g., types of dogs). It is often assessed within a 1 minute time frame. Also called category fluency.

semantic generalization

semantic generalization a result of classical conditioning in which a word, phrase, or sentence functions as a conditioned stimulus because it shares the same (or highly similar) meaning with a word, phrase, or sentence that has already been established, via direct pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, as a conditioned stimulus. For example, the word delicious, when paired with actual food, will eventually elicit the response of salivation. After delicious is established as a conditioned stimulus, related words or phrases (e.g., tasty) may elicit the same or similar responses. See stimulus equivalence.

semantic jargon

semantic jargon a symptom of fluent aphasias (e.g., Wernicke’s aphasia) in which individuals utter real words and sentences but in combinations that have little meaning. For example, an individual asked about his or her poor vision might reply, “My wires don’t hire right.” See also jargon aphasia.

semantic knowledge

semantic knowledge general information that one has acquired; that is, knowledge that is not tied to any specific object, event, domain, or application. It includes word knowledge (as in a dictionary) and general factual information about the world (as in an encyclopedia) and oneself. Also called generic knowledge.

semantic memory

semantic memory memory for general factual knowledge and concepts, of the kind that endows information with meaning and ultimately allows people to engage in such complex cognitive processes as recognizing objects and using language. Impairments of semantic memory may be seen following brain injury as well as in certain neurological disorders, particularly dementia. For instance, people with Alzheimer’s disease often find it increasingly difficult to categorize and name items (i.e., to refer to an apple as an apple) as their memory deficits worsen. Semantic memory is considered by many theorists to be one of the two forms of declarative memory, the other being episodic memory. [defined in 1972 by Endel Tulving]

semantic network

semantic network a graph used to capture conceptual relationships. Created by the artificial intelligence research community, it was originally used in programs designed to understand natural (human) language. Nodes in the network represented entities and their properties in a domain. The arc link reflected the semantic nature of the property. This system has been used to model human information storage (particularly the means by which words are connected to meanings and associations in long-term memory), with latencies in retrieval times supposedly reflecting the length of the path of the network searched for the required response.

semantic paradox

semantic paradox see paradox.

semantic paraphasia

semantic paraphasia a form of paraphasia in which conversational speech is fairly fluent but objects are misnamed, although some associative connection may exist. For example, a pipe may be called a “smoker” and glasses a “telescope.”

semantic priming

semantic priming an effect in which the processing of a stimulus is more efficient after the earlier processing of a meaningfully related stimulus, as opposed to an unrelated or perceptually related stimulus. For example, responses to the word nurse would be faster following presentation of the word doctor than of the word purse.

semantic primitive

semantic primitive one of the fundamental building blocks thought to be involved in the construction of meaning in language. Many refer to a basic physical property or simple sensation; for example, the concept car could be reduced to the semantic primitives moves, fast, noisy, shiny, and so on. Semantic primitives are thought to play an important role in language development in young children.

semantic satiation

semantic satiation the effect in which a word seems to lose its meaning after it has been repeated many times in rapid succession. The reasons for this effect remain poorly understood.

semantic therapy

semantic therapy a form of psychotherapy in which clients are trained to examine undesired word habits and distorted ideas so that they can think more clearly and critically about their aims, values, and relationships. This approach is based on an active search for the meaning of the key words a client uses and on practicing the formation of clear abstractions, as well as on uncovering hidden assumptions and increasing awareness of the emotional tone behind the words the client has been using. Polish-born U.S. philosopher and scientist Alfred Korzybski (1879–1950) and U.S. psychologist Wendell A. L. Johnson (1906–1965) were major early exponents of this approach. See also general semantics.

semanticity

semanticity n. 1. the property of language that allows it to represent events, ideas, actions, and objects symbolically, thereby endowing it with the capacity to communicate meaning. According to Roger Brown, it is one of the formal properties of language. See productivity. 2. in nonhuman animal communication, the meaning conveyed through vocalizations (e.g., alarm calls).

semantics

semantics n. 1. in linguistics, the study of meaning in language, as opposed to the study of formal relationships (grammar) or sound systems (phonology). 2. aspects of language that have to do with meaning, as distinguished from syntactics. 3. in logic and philosophy, the study of the relationships between words or phrases and the things or concepts to which they refer. Compare semiotics.

semasiology

semasiology n. the study of development and change in the meanings of words. See also semantics.

semeiosis

semeiosis n. see semiosis.

semen

semen n. the fluid released during ejaculation. It contains sperm and secretions of the prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, and seminal vesicles. Also called seminal fluid.

semenarche

semenarche n. see spermarche.

semi-interquartile range

semi-interquartile range see quartile deviation.

semicircular canals

semicircular canals a set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance. They form part of the vestibular apparatus. The channels are filled with fluid (endolymph) and are oriented roughly at right angles to each other. Hence, they can monitor movements in each of three different planes. Each canal has an enlarged portion, the ampulla, inside which is a sensory structure called a crista. This consists of hair cells whose fine extensions are embedded in a gelatinous cap (the cupula). When the head moves in a certain plane, endolymph flows through the corresponding canal, displacing the cupula and causing the hairs to bend. This triggers the hair cells to fire nerve impulses, thus sending messages to the brain about the direction and rate of movement.

semiconscious

semiconscious adj. describing states of partial wakefulness, such as drowsiness, stupor, or intermittent coma.

seminal

seminal adj. 1. of or relating to semen. 2. formative: strongly influencing development (e.g., of ideas, events, conditions).

seminal analysis

seminal analysis see sperm analysis.

seminal discharge

seminal discharge the discharge of semen that normally occurs during coital ejaculation, nocturnal emission, or masturbation.

seminal duct

seminal duct see vas deferens.

seminal fluid

seminal fluid see semen.

seminal vesicle

seminal vesicle either of two membranous pouches, approximately 8 cm (3 in) long in human males, located between the bladder and the rectum. The seminal vesicles secrete and store a fluid that mixes with secretions of the prostate gland to form the bulk of the semen.

seminiferous tubule

seminiferous tubule any of numerous minute, convoluted tubules in the lobules of the testis. The seminiferous tubules are lined with germ cells that give rise to spermatozoa (see spermatogenesis). They also contain Sertoli cells. Each lobule of a testis may contain one to several seminiferous tubules, and a single testis may contain as many as 400 lobules.

semiology

semiology n. see semiotics.

semiosis (semeiosis)

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semiotic function

semiotic function see symbolic function.

semiotic movement

semiotic movement a trend toward formalization of systems of visual communication by the use of signs or symbols that are not a part of the standard alphabet. The semiotic movement, which has been particularly popular in the United States, promotes the acceptance of “rules of grammar” for symbolic logic, mathematical formulas, or other symbolic systems that may be analogous to language.

semiotics

semiotics n. the study of verbal and nonverbal signs and of the ways in which they communicate meaning within particular sign systems. Unlike semantics, which restricts itself to the meanings expressed in language, semiotics is concerned with human symbolic activity generally. As an academic discipline, semiotics developed within the general framework of 20th-century structuralism, taking as its premise the view that signs can only generate meanings within a pattern of relationships to other signs. Also called semiology. [introduced by Charles S. Peirce]

semipartial correlation

semipartial correlation see part correlation.

semipermeable membrane

semipermeable membrane a membrane that allows some but not all molecules to pass through. See also permeability.

semistructured interview

semistructured interview see patterned interview.

semitone

semitone n. the difference in pitch between two adjacent notes on a chromatic scale (e.g., between D and D# or D and D♭). More precisely, it is the logarithm of a frequency ratio.

semivowel

semivowel n. 1. a vowellike speech sound that functions as a consonant in that it forms a syllable when combined with a true vowel. Examples are [w] as in well and [y] as in yellow. Compare sonant. 2. a liquid speech sound.

sender

sender n. in telepathy experiments, the participant who attempts to transmit information to the receiver. See also agent.

senescence

senescence n. 1. the biological process of growing old or the period during which this process occurs. 2. the state or condition of being old. —senescent adj.

senile

senile adj. 1. associated with advanced age, referring particularly to cognitive or behavioral deterioration relating to old age. 2. an obsolescent term used to describe an older adult with dementia.

senile dementia

senile dementia see dementia.

senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type (SDAT)

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senile miosis

senile miosis a reduction in the size of the pupil that occurs in old age and that is caused by atrophy of the muscles controlling dilation of the pupil, which restricts the amount of light that enters the eye.

senile plaque

senile plaque see amyloid plaque.

senility

senility n. an obsolescent term for dementia associated with advanced age.

senior citizen

senior citizen an older adult, especially one who is retired or has reached the age of retirement (generally 65 years or older).

senium

senium n. an older, less commonly used term for the period of old age.

sensate focus

sensate focus an approach in which people with sexual dysfunction are trained to focus attention on their own natural sensual cues and gradually achieve the freedom to enjoy sensory stimuli. Therapy is conducted by teams of male and female professionals in joint interviews with the partners. The procedures use prescribed body-massage exercises designed to give and receive pleasure, initially involving body parts other than the breasts and genitals and then moving to these areas. This approach eliminates performance anxiety and allows the partners to relax and enjoy the sensual experience of body caressing without the need to achieve erection or orgasm. Sensate focus therapy is one component of the program developed by U.S. sex researchers William H. Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia E. Johnson (1925–2013).

sensation

sensation n. 1. the process or experience of perceiving through the senses. See sensory system. 2. an irreducible unit of experience produced by stimulation of a sensory receptor and the resultant activation of a specific brain center, producing basic awareness of a sound, odor, color, shape, or taste or of temperature, pressure, pain, muscular tension, position of the body, or change in the internal organs associated with such processes as hunger, thirst, nausea, and sexual excitement. Also called sense datum; sense impression; sensum. 3. in the structuralism of Edward Bradford Titchener, one of the three structural elements of mental experience, the other two being images and feelings. 4. in general usage, a thrilling or exciting experience. See sensation seeking. —sensational adj.

sensation level

sensation level the perceived intensity of a particular sensation. An example is the intensity of an auditory stimulus as experienced by a given listener (auditory sensation level).

sensation seeking

sensation seeking the tendency to search out and engage in thrilling activities as a method of increasing stimulation and arousal. It typically takes the form of engaging in highly stimulating activities that have an element of danger, such as skydiving or race-car driving. See also novelty seeking.

sensation threshold

sensation threshold see absolute threshold.

sensation type

sensation type in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, a functional type dominated by sensory perception, such that the individual experiences the world primarily through his or her senses. It is one of Jung’s two irrational types, the other being the intuitive type. See also feeling type; thinking type.

sensation unit

sensation unit a discriminable sensory experience. See difference threshold.

Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS)

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sensationalism

sensationalism n. in philosophy, the position that all knowledge originates in sensations and that even complex abstract ideas can be traced to elementary sense impressions. See associationism; empiricism. —sensationalist adj.

sense

sense 1. n. any of the media through which one gathers information about the external environment or about the state of one’s body in relation to the environment. They include the five primary senses—vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell—as well as the senses of pressure, pain, temperature, kinesthesis, and equilibrium. Each sense has its own receptors, responds to characteristic stimuli, and has its own pathways to a specific part of the brain. Also called sense modality; sensory modality. 2. n. a particular awareness of a physical dimension or property (e.g., time, space) or of an abstract quality, usually one that is desirable (e.g., humor, justice). 3. n. good judgment or intelligence manifested by, or absent from, a person. 4. n. the gist or general meaning of something, such as an argument, play, or event. 5. vb. to perceive something using the senses. 6. vb. to make an emotional or cognitive judgment about something, such as another person’s mood.

sense datum

sense datum see sensation.

sense distance

sense distance an interval between two distinct sensations along a given dimension, such as the distance between the notes C and G on the musical scale.

sense experience

sense experience awareness produced by stimulation of a sensory receptor.

sense impression

sense impression see sensation.

sense modality

sense modality see sense.

sense of coherence

sense of coherence 1. a perception of having clarity or intelligibility, that is, of being capable of thinking and expressing oneself in a clear and consistent manner. 2. the ability to present a narrative of oneself in a way that is understandable and easy to follow. Sense of coherence is considered a protective factor against the deleterious effects of stress on physical and mental health. [proposed by U.S.-born Israeli medical sociologist Aaron Antonovsky (1923–1994)]

sense of equilibrium

sense of equilibrium the sense that enables the maintenance of balance while sitting, standing, walking, or otherwise maneuvering the body. A subset of proprioception, it is in part controlled by the vestibular system in the inner ear, which contains vestibular receptors that detect motions of the head. Also called equilibratory sense; labyrinthine sense; static sense; vestibular sense.

sense of presence

sense of presence 1. the sense of being in a particular place or time period. 2. awareness of one’s current existence. 3. an intimate sense of the nearness of invisible entities, such as God, spirits, and so on. 4. in virtual reality technology, the user’s sense of being inside the simulated environment.

sense of self

sense of self an individual’s feeling of identity, uniqueness, and self-direction. See also self-concept; self-image.

sense organ

sense organ a body part, such as the eye or ear, that contains or comprises receptor cells, which are sensitive to particular stimuli, together with associated structures specialized to receive this sensory input. Also called sensory organ; sensory receptor organ.

sense-ratios method

sense-ratios method a system of scaling sensory magnitudes by adjusting pairs of stimuli until they are perceived to have the same ratio of intensity as a pair of reference stimuli.

sensibilia

sensibilia pl. n. things that are capable of being sensed.

sensibility

sensibility n. 1. a capacity to respond to an emotional situation with refined or intense feeling. 2. the capacity to receive sensory input.

sensible

sensible adj. 1. showing reason and sound judgment. 2. capable of receiving sensory input (e.g., feeling pain). 3. receptive to external influences. 4. felt or perceived as real or material.

sensitive

sensitive 1. adj. responsive to stimuli, changes in the environment, feelings, or other phenomena; that is, having sensitivity. 2. adj. having well-developed or intense affective sensibility. 3. n. in spiritualism and parapsychology, a person who is supposedly capable of receiving knowledge by paranormal means, as in clairvoyance and telepathy, or of perceiving auras and similar alleged phenomena beyond the range of normal perception. See also medium; psychic.

sensitive dependence

sensitive dependence the tendency for complex, dynamic systems to be highly sensitive to initial conditions, so that two such systems with starting points that are almost identical may become extremely divergent over time. In other words, the future states of complex systems are very dependent on small differences in their initial states. The best known example of sensitive dependence is the so-called butterfly effect. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that measurements in chaotic systems are imprecise, so that prediction becomes extremely difficult. See chaos theory.

sensitive period

sensitive period a stage in development when an organism can most rapidly acquire a particular skill or characteristic. For example, in humans, the 1st year of life is considered significant for the development of a secure attachment bond. Lack of appropriate growth-dependent experiences during a sensitive period does not permanently and irreversibly affect development, as it would during a critical period, but rather makes the acquisition process outside the period more difficult.

sensitive soul

sensitive soul in the thought of Aristotle, the type of soul possessed by nonhuman animals. The sensitive soul has the capacity to receive and react to sense impressions but does not have a capacity for rational thought. Compare rational soul; vegetative soul.

sensitive zone

sensitive zone any point on the body that is highly responsive to a particular type of stimulus, such as touch or pain.

sensitivity

sensitivity n. 1. the capacity to detect and discriminate. In signal detection theory, sensitivity is measured by d prime (d′). 2. the probability that results from a test will indicate a positive diagnosis given that the individual actually has the condition for which he or she is being tested. Compare specificity. 3. in physiology, the ability of a cell, tissue, or organism to respond to changes in its external or internal environment. Sensitivity is a fundamental property of all living organisms. 4. awareness of and responsiveness to the feelings of others. 5. susceptibility to being easily hurt or offended.

sensitivity analysis

sensitivity analysis an evaluation of the extent to which the overall outcome of a model or system will be affected by potential changes to the input. This type of analysis is often used when the values of key variables are uncertain or subject to change, such as in financial planning. In research studies, sensitivity analysis enables researchers to understand the boundaries of their statistical models and design updated models that can account for the data at hand.

sensitivity training

sensitivity training a group process focused on the development of self-awareness, productive interpersonal relations, and responsiveness to the feelings, attitudes, and needs of others. The primary method used in sensitivity training is open, unstructured discussion with a leader functioning as an observer and facilitator, although other techniques, such as role play, may be used. Sensitivity training is common in human relations training, with various types of groups (e.g., workers, executives) meeting for different time periods (e.g., once a week, over a weekend). See also action research; personal-growth laboratory; T-group. [originated by Kurt Lewin and Carl Rogers]

sensitization

sensitization n. 1. a form of nonassociative learning in which an organism becomes more responsive to most stimuli after being exposed to unusually strong or painful stimulation. 2. the increased effectiveness of an eliciting stimulus as a function of its repeated presentation. Water torture, in which water is dripped incessantly onto a person’s forehead, is a good example. 3. see reverse tolerance.

sensor

sensor n. 1. a receptor cell or organ. 2. a device that responds to the presence of something (e.g., a smoke detector).

sensorimotor

sensorimotor adj. 1. describing activity, behavior, or brain processes that involve both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) functions. 2. describing a mixed nerve that contains both afferent and efferent fibers.

sensorimotor aphasia

sensorimotor aphasia a combination of sensory or receptive aphasia and motor or expressive aphasia, in which there is impairment or loss of the ability to perceive and understand language as well as to use it. See also global aphasia.

sensorimotor arc

sensorimotor arc a reflex arc consisting of an afferent sensory branch and an efferent motor branch.

sensorimotor cortex

sensorimotor cortex areas of the cerebral cortex that are concerned with somatosensory and motor functions. The primary motor cortex lies just in front of the central sulcus, whereas the primary somatosensory area is just behind it.

sensorimotor intelligence

sensorimotor intelligence in Piagetian theory, knowledge that is obtained from sensory perception and motor actions involving objects in the environment. This form of cognition characterizes children in the sensorimotor stage.

sensorimotor memory

sensorimotor memory 1. a recollection, commonly of a traumatic experience, that is encoded in terms of sensations and actions rather than verbally. Frequently, it is a memory of an event that occurred during the period of childhood amnesia, which commonly lasts up to the age of 3 years. See also body memory. 2. see procedural memory.

sensorimotor rhythm (SMR)

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sensorimotor stage

sensorimotor stage in Piagetian theory, the first major stage of cognitive development, extending from birth through 2 years of age. Evolving over several subphases of increasingly complex behavior—from basic reflex to various degrees of circular reaction to mental combination—the sensorimotor stage is characterized by the development of sensory and motor processes and by the infant’s first knowledge of the world acquired by interacting with the environment. Some rudimentary awareness of the reality of time, space, and cause and effect is present. See also concrete operational stage; formal operational stage; preoperational stage.

sensorineural deafness

sensorineural deafness the loss or absence of hearing function due to pathology in the inner ear or along the nerve pathway from the inner ear to the brainstem. Also called nerve deafness; sensorineural impairment. Compare central deafness; conduction deafness.

sensorineural lesion

sensorineural lesion any damage to structures of the auditory system along the nerve pathway from the inner ear to the associated brain centers. Childhood sensorineural lesions may be congenital and due to a failure of such structures to develop normally in the fetal stage, or they may result from postnatal infection (e.g., measles, mumps, scarlet fever), whereas adult sensorineural lesions are due to injury or disease, such as a tumor.

sensorium

sensorium n. 1. the human sensory apparatus and related mental faculties considered as a whole. The state of the sensorium is tested through the traditional mental status examination; the sensorium may be clear (i.e., functioning normally) or clouded (lacking ability to concentrate and think clearly). 2. see sensorium commune.

sensorium commune

sensorium commune a hypothetical location in the brain formerly held to be the seat of sensation in humans and nonhuman animals and the site for the operations of the sensus communis. Also called sensorium.

sensory

sensory adj. relating to the senses, to sensation, or to a part or all of the neural apparatus and its supporting structures that are involved in any of these. See sensory system.

sensory acuity

sensory acuity the extent to which one is able to detect stimuli of minimal size, intensity, or duration.

sensory adaptation

sensory adaptation see adaptation.

sensory amimia

sensory amimia see amimia.

sensory amusia

sensory amusia see amusia.

sensory aphasia

sensory aphasia see Wernicke’s aphasia.

sensory aprosodia

sensory aprosodia an inability to understand the emotional inflections of language, that is, the rhythm, pitch, and “melody” of speech. Compare motor aprosodia.

sensory area

sensory area any area of the cerebral cortex that receives input from sensory neurons, usually via the thalamus. There are specific areas for the different senses, and they are functionally differentiated into primary sensory areas and secondary sensory areas. Also called sensory cortex; sensory projection area.

sensory ataxia

sensory ataxia lack of muscular coordination (see ataxia) due to the loss of the sense of limb movements (see proprioception).

sensory awareness training

sensory awareness training 1. the methods used in sensate focus and similar therapies to help an individual become more aware of his or her own feelings and sensations and learn new ways of experiencing them. 2. in sport, training an athlete to become aware of the kinesthetic sensations experienced while performing and of the sensations related to arousal level.

sensory bias

sensory bias the display of sensory preferences that may not relate to species-typical signals. Female tungara frogs prefer a low-pitched chuck note that males add to courtship calls, and females of a closely related species also prefer low-pitched chuck notes, even though males of their species do not produce these notes. The preference for low-pitched chuck notes is a sensory bias that can be exploited by any males able to add such a note to their mating calls. See sensory exploitation.

sensory circle

sensory circle an area of the skin that gives rise to nervous activity when stimulated, analogous to a receptive field. It was thought that skin areas with greater spatial acuity would have smaller sensory circles. [first described by Ernst Heinrich Weber]

sensory conditioning

sensory conditioning see sensory preconditioning.

sensory consciousness

sensory consciousness awareness of the visual, tactile, olfactory, auditory, and taste qualities of stimuli. Compare higher order consciousness.

sensory conversion symptoms

sensory conversion symptoms one of two types of symptoms of conversion disorder, the other being motor conversion symptoms. Examples of sensory conversion symptoms include loss of touch or pain sensation, double vision, blindness, deafness, tinnitus, and hallucinations.

sensory cortex

sensory cortex see sensory area.

sensory cue

sensory cue a visual, tactual, olfactory, gustatory, or auditory stimulus that evokes a response or a behavior pattern.

sensory deficit

sensory deficit a loss, absence, or marked impairment of vision, hearing, taste, touch, or smell.

sensory deprivation

sensory deprivation the reduction of sensory stimulation to a minimum in the absence of normal contact with the environment. Sensory deprivation may be induced (e.g., via the use of a flotation tank) for experimental or clinical purposes, or it may occur in a real-life situation (e.g., in deep-sea diving). Although short periods of sensory deprivation can be beneficial, extended periods have detrimental effects, causing (among other things) hallucinations, delusions, hypersuggestibility, or panic. See also restricted environmental stimulation technique.

sensory discrimination

sensory discrimination the perceptual differentiation of stimuli, particularly closely related sensory stimuli (e.g., very similar shades of blue).

sensory disorder

sensory disorder any disturbance in the optimum transmission of information from a sense organ to its appropriate reception point in the brain or spinal cord, particularly when related to an anatomical or physiological abnormality. An auditory disorder, for example, may be due to damage to the cochlear structures from injury or disease.

sensory drive

sensory drive see sensory exploitation.

sensory engineering

sensory engineering see kansei engineering.

sensory epilepsy

sensory epilepsy a type of epilepsy marked by seizures involving abnormal skin sensations (see paresthesia), such as tingling, numbness, or burning. Such seizures may occur without loss of consciousness.

sensory evoked potential

sensory evoked potential a type of evoked potential recorded from electrodes placed on the scalp, overlying the cerebral cortex, in response to sensory stimulation. The stimuli may be visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, or olfactory, and the mapping of sensory evoked potentials in the cortex helps to locate the different sensory areas. See also auditory evoked potential; visual evoked potential. Compare motor evoked potential.

sensory exploitation

sensory exploitation in animal behavior, the use of a sensory bias to gain increased reproductive success by changing some feature of ornamentation or calling behavior to be more attractive to mates. For example, if low-frequency call notes are attractive to mates, then the first individuals to use these notes will achieve the greatest reproductive success. Also called sensory drive.

sensory extinction

sensory extinction see perceptual extinction.

sensory field

sensory field the totality of the stimuli that impinge on a receptor or an individual at a given time.

sensory gating

sensory gating see gating.

sensory homunculus

sensory homunculus a figurative representation, in distorted human form, of the relative sizes of the sensory areas in the brain that correspond to particular sensory parts of the body. The homunculus is arranged upside down with the largest proportional areas representing the face and hands. Compare motor homunculus.

sensory inattention

sensory inattention see perceptual extinction.

sensory input

sensory input the stimulation of a sense organ, causing a nerve impulse to travel to its appropriate destination in the brain or spinal cord.

sensory integration

sensory integration the neural processes involved in perceiving, organizing, and evaluating sensory information across modalities, such as vision and hearing, and producing an adaptive response via impulses transmitted through the motor nerves. Development or enhancement of sensory-integrative functioning is an important goal of occupational therapy.

sensory integration dysfunction

sensory integration dysfunction a condition characterized by difficulties in organizing, processing, and analyzing sensory input (touch, movement, body awareness, sight, sound, smell, and taste). Also called sensory processing disorder. [first described by U.S. occupational therapist and psychologist A. Jean Ayres (1920–1989)]

sensory intensity

sensory intensity the perceived strength or magnitude of a physical stimulus, predictably related to its actual magnitude by psychophysical laws. See stimulus-intensity dynamism.

sensory interaction

sensory interaction the integration of sensory processes when performing a task, as in maintaining balance using sensory input from both vision and proprioception. See also cross-modal association; intersensory perception; perceptual synthesis.

sensory leakage

sensory leakage in experiments on extrasensory perception, the conveying of information about the target to the subject through ordinary sensory channels, often by inadvertent cues from the tester. See also demand characteristics; experimenter bias.

sensory memory

sensory memory brief storage of information from each of the senses, in a relatively unprocessed form beyond the duration of a stimulus, for recoding into another memory (such as short-term memory) or for comprehension. For instance, sensory memory for visual stimuli, called iconic memory, holds a visual image for less than a second, whereas that for auditory stimuli, called echoic memory, retains sounds for a little longer. Also called sensory-information store (SIS); sensory register.

sensory modality

sensory modality see sense.

Sensory Modality Assessment and Rehabilitation Technique (SMART)

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sensory modulation dysfunction

sensory modulation dysfunction a condition characterized by difficulties in responding appropriately to sensory input (touch, movement, body awareness, sight, sound, smell, and taste). A person may be overresponsive or underresponsive to sensations or alternate rapidly between both response patterns.

sensory neglect

sensory neglect an inability to attend to sensory information, usually from the left side of the body, as a result of brain injury, most often to the right hemisphere. Also called perceptual neglect. See motor neglect; unilateral neglect; visual neglect.

sensory nerve

sensory nerve any nerve that conveys impulses from a sense organ to the central nervous system.

sensory neuron

sensory neuron a neuron that receives information from the environment, via specialized receptor cells, and transmits this information—in the form of nerve impulses—through synapses with other neurons to the central nervous system.

sensory organ

sensory organ see sense organ.

sensory organization

sensory organization the neural process of structuring and integrating impulses from sensory receptors so as to enable meaningful perception.

sensory overload

sensory overload a state in which one’s senses are overwhelmed with stimuli, to the point that one is unable to process or respond to all of them. See also cognitive overload; communication overload; information overload; stimulus overload.

sensory paralysis

sensory paralysis a condition in which sensory function is impaired but movement is not necessarily lost.

sensory pathway

sensory pathway any of the routes followed by nerve impulses traveling from sense organs toward sensory areas of the brain. See afferent pathway; neural pathway.

Sensory Perceptual Examination

Sensory Perceptual Examination see Reitan–Klove Sensory Perceptual Examination.

sensory preconditioning

sensory preconditioning a form of classical conditioning established by initially pairing two neutral stimuli—A and B—and subsequently pairing A with an unconditioned stimulus. If B comes to elicit a response, then sensory preconditioning has occurred. Also called sensory conditioning.

sensory processing disorder

sensory processing disorder see sensory integration dysfunction.

sensory projection area

sensory projection area see sensory area.

sensory psychophysiology

sensory psychophysiology the study of the relation between psychological and physiological functioning as it pertains to the senses and perception.

sensory receptor organ

sensory receptor organ see sense organ.

sensory register

sensory register see sensory memory.

sensory root

sensory root see dorsal root.

sensory spot

sensory spot a skin spot or location of high sensitivity to tactile, thermal, or pain stimuli.

sensory stimulation

sensory stimulation the elicitation of a response in a sensory receptor by a stimulus.

sensory substitution

sensory substitution the perception of a stimulus normally analyzed by one sense through the activity of another sense. Tactile sensations can substitute for visual input, for example, when the visual world is transcribed into tactile sensations for an individual who is blind. Sensory substitution requires an active translation of stimulation between sensory systems, in contrast to synesthesia, which is an involuntary association of one sense with another or one sensory attribute with another.

sensory summation

sensory summation the combining and integrating of sensory inputs at different levels of the nervous system. For example, sensory input will increase when multiple stimuli are summed over time (see temporal summation) or across space (see spatial summation).

sensory suppression

sensory suppression the phenomenon occurring in any sensory modality when an individual is given two sensory inputs simultaneously (such as a touch on the hand and face) but perceives only one of the stimuli.

sensory system

sensory system the total structure involved in sensation, including the sense organs and their receptors, afferent sensory neurons, and sensory areas in the cerebral cortex at which these tracts terminate. There are separate systems for each of the senses. See auditory system; gustatory system; olfactory system; somatosensory system; visual system; vestibular system.

sensory test

sensory test a test designed to measure any of various sensory abilities, such as visual acuity, depth perception, color discrimination, or auditory acuity.

sensory transduction

sensory transduction see transduction.

sensory-information store (SIS)

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sensual

sensual adj. 1. referring to the senses, particularly gratification of or appeal to the senses. 2. referring to physical or erotic sensation.

sensum

sensum n. (pl. sensa) see sensation.

sensuous

sensuous adj. describing the sensory aspect of an experience or something that is capable of arousing the senses.

sensus communis

sensus communis in the thought of Aristotle, the mental faculty that takes data provided by the five senses and integrates them into unified perceptions. The operations of the sensus communis (Latin, “common sense”) were thought to occur in the sensorium commune.

sentence-completion test

sentence-completion test a test in which the participant must complete an unfinished sentence by filling in the specific missing word or phrase. The test is typically used to evaluate personality. The participant is presented with an introductory phrase to which he or she may respond in any way. An example might be “Today I am in a __ mood.” As a projective test, the sentence-completion test is an extension of the word-association test in that responses are free and believed to contain psychologically meaningful material. Also called incomplete-sentence test.

sentence-repetition test

sentence-repetition test a test in which the participant is required to repeat sentences of increasing difficulty and complexity directly after the examiner reads them. It is used primarily to measure memory skills.

sentence-verification task

sentence-verification task a procedure in which participants are briefly presented with simple sentences and asked to make quick judgments about them. For example, a person might have 5 seconds to read the sentence The sky is blue and respond whether it is true or false. Numerous variations of this basic task exist, including ones in which the focus is on different sentence characteristics or types of responses, ones in which sentences are matched with pictures, and ones in which individuals simultaneously perform other tasks (e.g., imagining a particular visual pattern). The sentence-verification task most commonly is used in cognitive research on semantic memory and verbal comprehension.

sentience

sentience n. 1. the simplest or most primitive form of cognition, consisting of a conscious awareness of stimuli without association or interpretation. 2. the state of being sentient.

sentient

sentient adj. capable of sensing and recognizing stimuli.

sentimentality

sentimentality n. the quality of being excessively or affectedly swayed by emotional situations, especially those of a romantic or maudlin nature. See also emotionality. —sentimental adj.

sentinel behavior

sentinel behavior a form of animal behavior in which one member of a group watches for potential predators while others in the group forage, rest, or engage in social interactions. Sentinel behavior is often seen in cooperative-breeding species, with different individuals taking turns as sentinels with those carrying young or feeding.

sentinel event

sentinel event in health administration, an unexpected occurrence or variation in service delivery involving death or serious physical or psychological injury. The event is called “sentinel” because it sends a signal or sounds a warning that requires immediate attention.

SEP

SEP abbreviation for somatosensory evoked potential.

separated display

separated display in ergonomics, a machine display that separates critical information from more secondary information. The design is based upon the need to highlight important pieces of information so they stand out from other information on the display. Compare integrated display.

separation anxiety

separation anxiety the normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away (or facing the prospect of being away) from the person or people to whom he or she is attached (particularly parents). Separation anxiety is most active between 6 and 10 months of age. Separation from loved ones in later years may elicit similar anxiety. See separation distress.

separation anxiety disorder

separation anxiety disorder in DSM–IV–TR, an anxiety disorder occurring in childhood or adolescence that is characterized by developmentally inappropriate, persistent, and excessive anxiety about separation from the home or from major attachment figures. Other features may include marked anticipatory anxiety over upcoming separation and persistent and excessive worry about harm coming to attachment figures or about major events that might lead to separation from them (e.g., getting lost). There may also be school refusal, fear of being alone or going to sleep without major attachment figures present, separation-related nightmares, and repeated complaints of physical symptoms (e.g., vomiting, nausea, headaches, stomachaches) associated with anticipated separation. These symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. In DSM–5, the criteria have been adjusted to recognize the existence of this disorder in adults; symptoms must be present for at least 6 months in adults versus 4 weeks in children.

separation distress

separation distress discomfort and anxiety felt by an individual upon losing contact with an attachment figure, such as by a child after losing contact with a caregiver or by an adult in reaction to the traumatic loss of a spouse or partner. See separation anxiety.

separation strategy

separation strategy see acculturation strategies.

separation–individuation

separation–individuation n. a developmental phase in which the infant gradually differentiates himself or herself from the mother, develops awareness of his or her separate identity, and attains relatively autonomous status. [defined by Hungarian-born U.S. child psychoanalyst Margaret Schönberger Mahler (1897–1985)]

sepsis

sepsis n. the condition of tissues contaminated by the presence of pus-forming bacteria or other microorganisms or by the toxic substances produced by such microorganisms. When spread throughout the bloodstream, the condition is called septicemia. —septic adj.

sept

sept n. a subdivision of a clan or other large social unit, especially one based on (supposed) common ancestry. In Scotland and Ireland, a clan is often composed of several septs, which may be affiliated through a common loyalty or interest rather than a common ancestor. See also descent group.

septal area

septal area a region of the forebrain that contains the septal nuclei and the septum pellucidum, which separates the lateral ventricles. The septal nuclei, which include the nucleus accumbens, form an integral part of the limbic system; they contribute fibers to the medial forebrain bundle and have interconnections with the amygdala, hippocampus, and regions of the hypothalamus. Functionality of this area includes pleasure generation and anger suppression.

septicemia

septicemia n. a severe (usually bacterial) infection of the bloodstream, typically as a result of microorganisms invading from an infection site elsewhere in the body. Septicemia may be characterized by fever, chills, and skin eruptions. A particularly hazardous complication is spread of the infection to tissues of the nervous system. Also called bacteremia; blood poisoning. See also sepsis.

septum

septum n. (pl. septa) a thin partition or dividing wall, such as the nasal septum (see nasal cavity) or the septum pellucidum. —septal adj.

septum pellucidum

septum pellucidum a triangular, two-layered translucent membrane separating the anterior horns of the two lateral ventricles of the brain. It touches the corpus callosum and the body of the fornix and is part of the septal area.

sequela

sequela n. (pl. sequelae) a residual effect of a disease, injury or mental condition, often (but not necessarily) in the form of persistent or permanent impairment. Examples include paralysis, which may be the sequela of poliomyelitis, and flashbacks, which may be the sequelae of traumatic stress.

sequence effect

sequence effect in within-subjects designs, a difference in scores that emerges because of a particular arrangement of treatments—that is, the presentation of one level of the independent variable has an effect on responses to another level of that variable. A researcher can test for a sequence effect by administering the treatments in various different arrangements (e.g., the arrangement ABC vs. ACB, vs. BCA, and so forth). The sequence effect is not to be confused with the order effect.

sequential analysis

sequential analysis a class of statistical procedures in which decisions about sample size and the type of data to be collected are made or modified as the study proceeds, based on the cumulative findings. This approach contrasts with one in which the sample size is determined in advance and data are not analyzed until the entire sample is collected. A common form of sequential analysis is one in which data are collected until a desired outcome or level of precision is reached. Also, some clinical trials require an approach that allows researchers to stop data collection if the treatment is clearly not working or if participants are being harmed in some way.

sequential design

sequential design 1. a research design that allows for termination of the study at various points of data collection if the results do not conform to a desired pattern or if there is danger or cost to participants. See sequential analysis. 2. see cohort-sequential design.

sequential effect

sequential effect in choice-reaction tasks, the influence of an immediately preceding trial (or trials) on performance in the current trial. As with priming effects, sequential effects have both automatic and strategic components.

sequential processing

sequential processing see serial processing.

sequential regression

sequential regression see hierarchical regression.

sequential sampling

sequential sampling a method of nonprobability sampling in which the researcher draws a group of units from the larger population, conducts a study within a specified time frame, analyzes the data, and then determines whether another sample is needed. The process can be repeated several times. The sequential approach enables a researcher to determine when enough data have been collected and to fine-tune his or her methodology over repeated studies.

Serax

Serax n. a trade name for oxazepam.

serendipity

serendipity n. the knack of making fortunate discoveries by accident. Serendipity is often considered a characteristic of the creative scientist. The word was coined in 1754 by British writer Horace Walpole (1717–1797) from the title of his story “The Three Princes of Serendip.” Serendip was an old Arabic name for Sri Lanka, whose princes were said to have had this ability.

Serentil

Serentil n. a trade name for mesoridazine.

serial anticipation method

serial anticipation method a technique that involves learning to associate a stimulus (e.g., an item in a list or series) with a stimulus or response that follows (e.g., the next item in the list or series), so that when subsequently given the stimulus, one can produce the response or recall the next item in the series. This method is frequently used in paired-associates learning and serial recall. Also called anticipation method; anticipation learning method.

serial behavior

serial behavior an integrated sequence of responses that elicit each other in fixed order (e.g., playing music). The individual responses that comprise, and occupy specific positions within, the sequence are referred to as serial responses.

serial correlation

serial correlation see autocorrelation.

serial exhaustive search

serial exhaustive search a hypothesized process of searching for a particular target item in short-term memory that involves inspecting each item in turn for a match.

serial interpretation

serial interpretation a psychoanalytic technique in which the analyst studies a series of consecutive dreams that, when taken as a group, provide clues that would be overlooked in interpretation of a single, isolated dream. See also recurrent dream.

serial killer

serial killer an individual who repeatedly commits murder, typically with a distinct pattern in the selection of victims, location, and method.

serial learning

serial learning the learning of a sequence of items or responses in a precise order. For example, actors must learn their lines in sequence. Also called serial-order learning.

serial memory

serial memory remembering a list of items in sequence. See serial position effect; serial recall.

serial monogamy

serial monogamy see monogamy.

serial position curve

serial position curve a graphic representation of the number of items that can be remembered as a function of the order in which they were presented in a list. Items at the beginning and end of the list are usually remembered best, thus producing a U-shaped memory curve.

serial position effect

serial position effect the effect of an item’s position in a list of items to be learned on how well it is remembered. The classic serial position effect shows best recall of the first items from a list (see primacy effect) and good recall of the last items (see recency effect), while the middle items are less well recalled.

serial processing

serial processing information processing in which only one sequence of processing operations is carried on at a time. Those who hold that the human information-processing system operates in this way argue that the mind’s apparent ability to carry on different cognitive functions simultaneously is explained by rapid shifts between different information sources. Also called intermittent processing; sequential processing. Compare parallel processing. See also single-channel model.

serial recall

serial recall recalling items in the order in which they were presented. For instance, to remember a telephone number, the digits must be correctly sequenced. See also serial memory.

serial reproduction

serial reproduction a method for studying memory in which one person reads a set of information before reproducing it for another person, who then reproduces it for a third person, who does the same for a fourth, and so on. Serial reproduction is widely regarded as a model for the social communication of retained information, and as such it is an important experimental tool in the analysis of rumor and gossip transmission, stereotype formation, and similar phenomena. The processes at work in changes that occur in serial reproductions by different individuals—that is, leveling (simplification), sharpening (emphasis on selected details), and assimilation—have been of great theoretical importance both in social psychology and in theories of personality. See also chain reproduction; repeated reproduction. [developed in 1932 by Frederic C. Bartlett]

serial response

serial response see serial behavior.

serial search

serial search in a search task, the process of searching for one target at a time. Compare parallel search.

serial-exploration method

serial-exploration method see method of just noticeable differences.

serial-memory search

serial-memory search a retrieval process in which each item in short-term memory is examined in the order in which it was entered into memory.

seriation

seriation n. the process of arranging a collection of items in a specific order (series) on the basis of a particular dimension (e.g., size). According to Piagetian theory, this ability is necessary for understanding the concepts of numbers, time, and measurement and is acquired by children during the concrete operational stage.

serious emotional disturbance (SED)

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SERM

SERM abbreviation for selective estrogen receptor modulator. See antiestrogen.

Sernyl

Sernyl n. a trade name for a brand of phencyclidine hydrochloride, an animal anesthetic with hallucinogenic properties sometimes taken as a drug of abuse (see PCP).

Seroquel

Seroquel n. a trade name for quetiapine.

serotonergic

serotonergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving serotonin. For example, a serotonergic neuron is one that employs serotonin as a neurotransmitter. In the brain, most serotonergic pathways originate in the raphe nucleus and project diffusely to other sites in the brain and to the spinal cord.

serotonin

serotonin n. a common monoamine neurotransmitter in the brain, particularly the raphe nucleus, and in other parts of the central nervous system; it also is found in the gastrointestinal tract, in smooth muscles of the cardiovascular and bronchial systems, and in blood platelets. It is synthesized from the dietary amino acid L-tryptophan (see tryptophan hydroxylase), and in the pineal gland it is converted to melatonin. It is primarily degraded by monoamine oxidase, which yields its principal metabolic product, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). Serotonin has roles in emotional processing, mood, appetite, sexual desire and performance, sleep, pain processing, hallucinations, and reflex regulation. For example, levels of serotonin correlate negatively with aggression, and release of serotonin may promote sleep. It is implicated in many psychological conditions, including depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, sleep disorders, aggression, and psychosis; many common psychotropic drugs affect neurotransmission mediated by serotonin. Also called 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT).

serotonin agonist

serotonin agonist any agent that increases the affinity for, or availability of, serotonin at various serotonin receptors in the brain or peripheral tissues. Commonly used indirect agonists are the SSRIs (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram), which work by blocking the presynaptic reuptake of serotonin, thereby increasing the availability of serotonin at postsynaptic receptor sites. Other serotonin agonists exert their effects directly at the receptor site; for example, the triptans are direct agonists at receptor subtypes 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D. The anxiolytic agent buspirone is a partial agonist at the postsynaptic 5-HT1A receptor, whereas the serotonin-like hallucinogens (e.g., LSD) act as partial agonists at 5-HT2A receptors.

serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor

serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor see SNRI.

serotonin antagonist

serotonin antagonist any agent that opposes the action of serotonin. Such drugs include cyproheptadine and methysergide, which are used for the prevention of migraine attacks, and the antiemetic ondansetron.

serotonin receptor

serotonin receptor any of various receptors that bind and respond to serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT). They occur in the brain and in peripheral areas and have different sensitivities that can be measured by susceptibility to ligands or blockers. At least 15 classes of serotonin receptors, affecting a variety of physiological and psychological processes, have been identified. They are designated by subscript numbers and letters (e.g., 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2A).

serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI)

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serotonin reuptake transporter

serotonin reuptake transporter see serotonin transporter.

serotonin syndrome

serotonin syndrome a collection of symptoms, including fever, agitation, confusion, delirium, and increased heart rate, due to excess activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin. It may result from drug interactions that increase amounts of available serotonin to toxic levels.

serotonin transporter (SERT)

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serous otitis media

serous otitis media see otitis media.

SERT

SERT abbreviation for serotonin transporter.

Sertoli cell

Sertoli cell any of the elongated cells lining the seminiferous tubules that protect and nourish developing sperm. As the sperm approach maturity, they become oriented in the seminiferous tubules so that they are partly embedded in the Sertoli cells. [Enrico Sertoli (1842–1910), Italian histologist]

sertraline

sertraline n. an SSRI that is used for the treatment of major depression, panic disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. It has also been indicated for the treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. U.S. trade name: Zoloft.

service delivery system

service delivery system a complex, interrelated set of organizational (i.e., people and providers) and technological inputs and processes, resulting in the provision of such services as mental health interventions, public health programs, social welfare, and education.

servomechanism

servomechanism n. a device that automatically activates changes or corrections in the performance of certain functions according to a predetermined set point. For example, the cruise control of an automobile automatically adjusts engine output to maintain a constant speed. Also called servo. See also comparator.

SES

SES abbreviation for socioeconomic status.

sessile

sessile adj. 1. describing an organism that is permanently attached to its substrate, such as a sea anemone. 2. attached broadly by a base, rather than by a stalklike structure, as in a sessile lesion.

set

set n. 1. a temporary readiness to respond in a certain way to a specific situation or stimulus. For example, a sprinter gets set to run once the starting gun fires (a motor set); a parent is set to hear his or her baby cry from the next room (a perceptual set); and a poker player is set to use a tactic that has been successful in other games (a mental set). See also preparatory set. 2. a collection of psychological factors (expectations, beliefs, mood, etc.) that can influence an individual’s response to a drug. 3. in mathematics and logic, a collection of entities that is itself regarded as an entity. A set that is defined by a condition, such that its members must possess a particular attribute or attributes, is known as a class. SET acronym for students’ evaluation of teaching.

SET

set point

set point the desired value in a servomechanism, such as the level at which a thermostat is set to maintain a reasonably constant temperature. By extension to physiological and behavioral systems, set point refers to the preferred level of functioning of an organism or of a system within an organism. When a set point is exceeded (i.e., when physiological responses become higher than the set point), compensatory events take place to reduce functioning; when a set point is not reached, compensatory processes take place to help the organism or system reach the set point. According to the set-point theory of happiness, individuals each have a particular set point, or baseline, of subjective well-being that is generally stable throughout life and that they are likely to return to despite life-changing events, whether positive (e.g., winning the lottery) or negative (e.g., sustaining a spinal cord injury). As applied to attachment theory, set point refers to the physical proximity to a primary caregiver in conditions of threat; that is, threat leads the child to seek physical closeness to an attachment figure. This proximity becomes a set point for intimacy later in life and is sometimes used to explain why people vary in their levels of subjective well-being. See also hedonic treadmill.

set theory

set theory the branch of mathematics and logic that is concerned with the properties of sets (i.e., collections of entities that are themselves treated as entities). See also class theory.

set zone

set zone the range of values for a variable that a feedback system is to maintain. See also critical range.

set-level compatibility effect

set-level compatibility effect see stimulus–response compatibility.

set/reset model

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setwise regression

setwise regression see all-possible-subsets regression.

SEU

SEU abbreviation for subjective expected utility.

seven plus or minus two

seven plus or minus two the number of items that can be held in short-term memory at any given time and therefore accurately perceived and recalled after a brief exposure (see chunking). The phrase originated in the title of an article (1956) by George Armitage Miller, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limitations on Our Capacity for Processing Information.”

seventh cranial nerve

seventh cranial nerve see facial nerve.

severe mental retardation

severe mental retardation an older diagnostic category applying to those with IQs of 20 to 34, comprising about 7% of people with mental retardation. Although able to manage basic self-care activities such as dressing and eating, these individuals typically do not acquire much more than rudimentary communication, social, educational, and vocational skills and generally require significant assistance and supervision. Additionally, sensory and motor deficits are common.

severity error

severity error a type of rating error in which the ratings are consistently overly negative, particularly with regard to the performance or ability of the participants. It is caused by the rater’s tendency to be too strict or negative and thus to give undeservedly low scores. Also called severity bias. Compare leniency error.

sex

sex n. 1. the traits that distinguish between males and females. Sex refers especially to physical and biological traits, whereas gender refers especially to social or cultural traits, although the distinction between the two terms is not regularly observed. 2. the physiological and psychological processes related to procreation and erotic pleasure.

sex change

sex change see sex reassignment.

sex characteristic

sex characteristic any of the traits associated with sex identity. Primary sex characteristics (e.g., testes in males, ovaries in females) are directly involved in reproduction of the species. Secondary sex characteristics are features not directly concerned with reproduction, such as voice quality, facial hair, and breast size. Also called sexual characteristic.

sex chromatin

sex chromatin a condensed mass of chromatin that is observed in the nucleus of nondividing somatic cells of females. It is not observed in the somatic cells of normal males. The substance represents material within the X chromosome that is not involved in somatic-cell metabolism. The presence of sex chromatin in somatic cells is generally regarded as proof of the sexual identity of females. Also called Barr body. See also chromatin negative; chromatin positive.

sex chromosome

sex chromosome a chromosome that determines whether an individual is female or male. Humans and other mammals have two sex chromosomes: the X chromosome, which carries genes for certain sexual traits and occurs in both females and males; and the smaller Y chromosome, which is normally found only in males. An individual usually is considered to be a female if the body cells contain the XX combination of chromosomes and male if the cells contain the XY combination, regardless of physical traits or signs of hermaphroditism. Diseases coded by genes that are carried only on a sex chromosome (usually the X chromosome) are called sex-linked conditions.

sex counseling

sex counseling guidance provided by therapists to sex partners in such matters as birth control, infertility, and problems with sexual performance or response.

sex determination

sex determination the genetic mechanism that determines the sex of offspring. In humans, a fertilized egg with two X chromosomes becomes a female, and a fertilized egg with one X and one Y chromosome becomes a male. See sex differentiation.

sex differences

sex differences 1. the differences in physical features between males and females. These include differences in brain structures as well as differences in primary and secondary sex characteristics. 2. the differences between males and females in the way they behave and think, with such differences often viewed as driven by actual biological disparity (nature) rather than by differing environmental factors (nurture). See also gender differences. Compare sex role.

sex differentiation

sex differentiation the process of acquiring distinctive sexual features during the course of development. Human sexual differentiation is determined genetically at the time of fertilization, primarily by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome. Fertilized eggs containing a Y chromosome develop as male embryos, whereas ones lacking a Y chromosome develop as females. This is due to the presence on the Y chromosome of a particular gene, called SRY (sex reversal on Y). It encodes a testis-determining factor that, via a cascade of signals, triggers the development of testes and other male reproductive organs. In the absence of this gene, the embryo develops along the default pathway, with ovaries and other female organs.

sex discrimination

sex discrimination differential treatment of individuals on the basis of their biological distinction as male or female. Although such treatment may sometimes favor women relative to men, in contemporary society, most sex discrimination favors men over women; common manifestations include unfair hiring and promotion practices, lower wages paid to women doing the same type of work as men, and a tendency to undervalue characteristics and interests associated with women. Changing attitudes toward marriage, improved availability of day care facilities, increased educational opportunities, role changes in the home, and workforce shortages in some industries have led to a heightened awareness of the erroneous nature of certain sex-role stereotypes and altered conceptions of what men and women can do. In addition, in many societies, legislation prohibits sex discrimination. Nevertheless, sex discrimination persists and contributes to a number of social problems, including inadequate support for working women, lower standards of health care for women, and violence against women. Also called sexual discrimination. See also glass ceiling; prejudice; sexism.

sex distribution

sex distribution see sex ratio.

sex drive

sex drive an arousal state precipitating the desire for sexual gratification and, usually, for sexual reproduction. Although it is not necessary for an individual’s survival, it is considered a primary drive because it is essential for species survival. In many animals, sexual activity is cyclical (e.g., seasonal or dependent on cyclical hormone release), although a variety of factors (e.g., external stimulation) may arouse the drive. Also called sexual drive. See libido.

sex education

sex education a formal course of instruction in reproductive processes that is presented in a classroom setting. Sex education ideally provides young adolescents with authoritative and objective information about both the psychological and physical aspects of sexual behavior.

sex feeling

sex feeling see sexual feeling.

sex hormone

sex hormone any of the hormones that stimulate various reproductive functions. Primary sources of sex hormones are the male and female gonads (i.e., testis and ovary), which are stimulated to produce sex hormones by the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. The principal male sex hormones (androgens) include testosterone; female sex hormones include the estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin.

sex hygiene

sex hygiene the health-maintenance procedures related to sexual activity, such as the prevention or control of sexually transmitted infections. Also called sexual hygiene.

sex identification

sex identification see sexual identification.

sex identity

sex identity the purely biologically determined sexual status of an individual as male or female. See also gender identity.

sex instinct

sex instinct see sexual instinct.

sex object

sex object see sexual object.

sex offense

sex offense a sex act that is prohibited by law. An individual who has committed such an offense is called a sex offender. Some crimes are acts of violence involving sex, and others are violations of social taboos; there is much variation, by culture and jurisdiction, concerning which behaviors are considered crimes and how they may be punished. Some jurisdictions consider certain consensual sex acts to be illegal. Common examples of sex offenses include forcible and statutory rape, child molestation, incest, prostitution and pimping, bestiality, sodomy, sex murder, and forcible sexual assault without penetration. Also called sexual offense. See also molestation.

sex preselection

sex preselection predetermination through reproductive technology of whether offspring will be male or female.

sex ratio

sex ratio the proportion of males to females in a given population at a given life stage, primarily at conception (see conception ratio) or birth (see birth ratio) but also at any stage between birth and death. Also called sex distribution.

sex reassignment

sex reassignment a process, involving hormone treatment and surgery, in which a person’s sex characteristics are changed to conform to that person’s sense of gender identity, particularly in cases of transsexualism. Also called gender reassignment; sex change; sexual reassignment. See also gender dysphoria; gender identity disorder.

sex reversal on Y (SRY)

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sex role

sex role the behavior and attitudinal patterns characteristically associated with being male or female as defined in a given society. Sex roles thus reflect the interaction between biological heritage and the pressures of socialization, and individuals differ greatly in the extent to which they manifest typical sex-role behavior.

sex steroid

sex steroid any of the steroid hormones secreted by the gonads. See sex hormone.

sex therapy

sex therapy a multimodal therapeutic approach designed to improve sexual functioning, based on the assumption that sexual performance problems are caused by a combination of lack of knowledge, misinformation, and faulty learning. Several different techniques commonly are used in sex therapy (e.g., sensate focus, cognitive restructuring, couples therapy), but they share the goals of providing education, reducing performance anxiety, improving communication, and teaching skills to improve sexual pleasuring for both partners. Sex therapy incorporates homework assignments, ideally carried out with a partner.

sex trafficking

sex trafficking see trafficking.

sex typing

sex typing the process by which particular activities are identified within particular cultures as appropriate expressions of maleness and femaleness. Usually, the preferred term for this process is gender typing.

sex-chromosomal aberration

sex-chromosomal aberration any disorder of structure, function, or both that is associated with the complete or partial absence of a sex chromosome or with the presence of extra sex chromosomes. Examples of such disorders are Klinefelter’s syndrome, XYY syndrome, and Turner syndrome.

sex-influenced character

sex-influenced character an inherited trait that is dominant in one sex but recessive in the other. For example, male-pattern baldness is controlled by an allele that seems to be dominant in men but recessive in women. Hence, its full effects rarely appear in women.

sex-limited

sex-limited adj. describing a trait or anomaly that is expressed only in one sex, despite being determined by genes carried on the autosomes rather than the sex chromosomes. For example, the genes governing the development of ovaries and breasts are expressed only in females, whereas genes determining sperm production are expressed only in males.

sex-linked

sex-linked adj. describing either a gene that is located on one of the sex chromosomes, typically the X chromosome (X-linked), or a trait determined by such a gene. The process whereby a sex-linked gene or trait is passed on from parent to offspring is called sex-linked inheritance. Sex-linked inherited diseases from a defective gene on the X chromosome include hemophilia, itself called X-linked recessive because the defective gene is usually a recessive allele. It is carried by females and expressed mostly in their male offspring. In their daughters, who have two X chromosomes, the defective gene is usually masked by the normal, dominant allele on the other X chromosome, whereas in their sons, who have an X and a Y chromosome and in whom the Y chromosome lacks many of the alleles of the X chromosome, masking cannot occur. Disorders that are X-linked dominant, in which only one copy of an allele of a defective gene on the X chromosome is sufficient to cause inherited disorder, may occur in either male or female offspring depending on which parent is affected. A form of sex-linked inheritance in which a recessive trait is inherited from father to son by way of a single gene on the Y chromosome (Y-linked) affects only male offspring. Diseases or disorders passed on through Y-linked inheritance are rare.

sex-negativity

sex-negativity n. a negative attitude or stance toward any sexual behavior other than procreative marital coitus. Compare sex-positivity.

sex-positivity

sex-positivity n. a positive attitude or stance toward sexual activity between consenting individuals when this is seen as promoting healthy relationships and forms of self-expression. Sex is seen as neither good nor bad, per se, and the purpose of sexual relations is not deemed to be confined exclusively to procreation through marital coitus. Compare sex-negativity.

sex-role reversal

sex-role reversal a form of animal behavior in which each sex behaves in a manner generally considered typical of the other sex. For example, in some insects and fish, males take full responsibility for care of the offspring, and in some polyandrous birds, females are aggressive and defend territories.

sex-role stereotype

sex-role stereotype a fixed, overly simplified concept of the social roles that are believed to be appropriate to males and to females. See also gender stereotype.

sexism

sexism n. discriminatory and prejudicial beliefs and practices directed against one of the two sexes, usually women. Sexism is associated with acceptance of sex-role stereotypes and can occur at multiple levels: individual, organizational, institutional, and cultural. It may be overt, involving the open endorsement of sexist beliefs or attitudes; covert, involving the tendency to hide sexist beliefs or attitudes and reveal them only when it is believed that one will not suffer publicly for them; or subtle, involving unequal treatment that may not be noticed because it is part of everyday behavior or perceived to be unimportance. See also prejudice; sex discrimination. —sexist adj.

sexological examination

sexological examination the study of an individual’s sexual behavior in terms of physiological, psychological, sociological, and specific genetic and environmental influences.

sexology

sexology n. the study of sexuality, particularly among human beings, including the anatomy, physiology, and psychology of sexual activity and reproduction. —sexological adj. —sexologist n.

sexual abuse

sexual abuse violation or exploitation by sexual means. Although the term typically is used with reference to any sexual contact between adults and children, sexual abuse can also occur in any relationship of trust.

sexual addiction

sexual addiction a problematic sexual behavior, such as a paraphilia or hypersexuality, regarded as a form of addiction similar to drug addiction. The defining features of a sexual addiction include sexual behavior that is out of control, that has severely negative consequences, and that the person is unable to stop despite a wish to do so. Other features include persistence in high-risk, self-destructive behavior; spending large amounts of time in sexual activity or fantasy; neglect of social, occupational, or other activities; and mood changes associated with sexual activity.

sexual adjustment

sexual adjustment the process of establishing a satisfactory relationship with one or more sexual partners. Sexual adjustment may depend on psychological as well as physical factors.

sexual aggression

sexual aggression aggression directed by one sex toward the other, often in the context of mating behavior. In species whose males are much larger than females, it is thought that a male may use sexual aggression to achieve forced copulation.

sexual and gender identity disorders

sexual and gender identity disorders in DSM–IV–TR, a category of disorders involving sexual or gender identity problems not attributable to another mental disorder. It includes sexual dysfunctions, paraphilias, and gender identity disorders. It has been replaced in DSM–5 with discrete categories for sexual dysfunctions, gender dysphoria, and paraphilic disorders. Formerly called psychosexual disorders.

sexual anesthesia

sexual anesthesia an absence of normal sensation during sexual activity, including coitus. Sexual anesthesia is usually psychogenic. Although some patients report that they obtain sexual pleasure in masturbation but not in sexual activity with a partner, many derive no pleasure from any form of sexual behavior. See also erectile dysfunction; female sexual arousal disorder.

sexual anomaly

sexual anomaly a congenital or developmental abnormality of the reproductive system, such as the presence of both male and female gonads in an infant.

sexual apathy

sexual apathy lack of interest in sexual activity. See hypoactive sexual desire disorder.

sexual arousal

sexual arousal a state of physiological arousal elicited by sexual contact or by other erotic stimulation (e.g., fantasies, dreams, odors, objects), resulting in impulses being transmitted through the central nervous system to the sacral region of the spinal cord. The impulses also trigger the release of sex hormones, dilation of the arteries supplying the genital areas, and inhibition of vasoconstrictor centers of the lumbar nerves. The effects of sexual arousal are mediated through the hypothalamus. See sexual-response cycle.

sexual arousal disorder

sexual arousal disorder a class of sexual disorders characterized by the inability to attain or maintain an adequate physiological response in the excitement (arousal) phase of the sexual-response cycle. See female sexual arousal disorder; male erectile disorder.

sexual assault

sexual assault violent sexual penetration of an individual. It includes forced vaginal, oral, and anal penetration. See also rape.

sexual attitude reassessment workshop (SAR workshop)

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sexual attitudes

sexual attitudes values and beliefs about sexuality. Manifested in a person’s individual sexual behavior, these attitudes are based on family and cultural views about sexuality, on sex education (both formal and informal), and on prior sexual experiences.

sexual attraction

sexual attraction the first step in the mating behavior of many animals, in which they emit stimuli intended to attract a mate.

sexual aversion disorder

sexual aversion disorder in DSM–IV–TR, negative emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety, fear, disgust) to sexual activity, leading to active avoidance of it and causing distress in the individual or his or her partner. This can be lifelong or acquired, and although it usually applies to all sexual activity (generalized type), it may be specific to some activities or some partners (situational type). This aversion is not caused by a medical condition, a medication, or a drug side effect. DSM–5 has eliminated this diagnosis with the explanation that it is rarely used and not supported by research.

sexual behavior

sexual behavior most narrowly, all reproductive activities between nonhuman animals, beginning with courtship, leading to mate selection, and culminating in copulation. In some species, sexual behavior may occur only during certain seasons or at specific stages of the estrous cycle. When applied to humans, however, the term has a much broader meaning that encompasses not only physical practices but also attitudes, experiences, desires, preferences, and a variety of related psychological and social phenomena, including any actions related not only to reproduction but also to pleasurable satisfaction without conception (i.e., sexual arousal). Such actions are shaped by culture and to a further extent by individual experience and observation, and they may be performed with a partner (as in foreplay and role play) or alone (as in fantasizing and masturbating). Additionally, some nonconceptive sexual behavior, such as phone sex or viewing an erotic movie, does not necessarily involve direct stimulation of the body at all. Certain avian and nonhuman mammalian species, particularly primates, also display nonconceptive sexual behavior, which may serve to maintain social relationships or pair bonds or to confuse mates about certainty of paternity.

sexual burnout

sexual burnout loss of sexual function or interest due to a period of excessively frequent or demanding sexual activity. Sexual burnout also sometimes refers to the effects of advancing age on sexual activity.

sexual characteristic

sexual characteristic see sex characteristic.

sexual conditioning

sexual conditioning the learning of cues that predict opportunities for mating; these learned cues subsequently control sexual behavior. In both fish and birds, sexual conditioning increases the reproductive success of conditioned males. See also sexual imprinting.

sexual contact

sexual contact any person-to-person touching or connection with genital or erogenous skin or membrane surfaces, as in fondling, kissing, biting, or coitus.

sexual curiosity

sexual curiosity interest in sex and sexuality.

sexual desire disorder

sexual desire disorder a class of sexual disorders, including hypoactive sexual desire disorder and sexual aversion disorder, characterized by a person’s chronic lack of interest in or negative reactions to sexual activity and by associated distress or interpersonal difficulty.

sexual development

sexual development the progression toward sexual maturity, in attitudes and behavior as well as in physical characteristics, from infancy through puberty. See also psychosexual development.

sexual deviance

sexual deviance any sexual behavior, such as a paraphilia, that is regarded as significantly different from the standards established by a culture or subculture. Deviant forms of sexual behavior may include voyeurism, fetishism, bestiality, necrophilia, transvestism, sadism, and exhibitionism. Also called sexual deviation. See also sexual perversion.

sexual differentiation

sexual differentiation see sex differentiation.

sexual dimorphism

sexual dimorphism the existence of males and females within a species that differ distinctly from each other in form. Compare monomorphism. See sex characteristic; sex differences.

sexual discrimination

sexual discrimination see sex discrimination.

sexual disorder

sexual disorder any impairment of sexual function or behavior. Sexual disorders include sexual dysfunction and paraphilic disorders (see paraphilia).

sexual drive

sexual drive see sex drive.

sexual dysfunction

sexual dysfunction any sexual disorder characterized by problems in one or more phases of the sexual-response cycle. The particular dysfunction may be primary, in which failure in sexual functioning has always been present in the person and happens in all sexual situations; or secondary, denoting any disturbance in sexual functioning that is not lifelong or that occurs only with some partners or in some situations. Examples of sexual dysfunction include sexual desire disorders; sexual arousal disorders such as erectile dysfunction; orgasmic disorders (e.g., female orgasmic disorder, male orgasmic disorder, premature ejaculation); and sexual pain disorders (e.g., dyspareunia). Formerly called psychosexual dysfunction.

sexual erethism

sexual erethism abnormal irritability or unpleasant sensitivity to stimulation of the sexual organs.

sexual fantasy

sexual fantasy mental images or stories of sexual activity, not constrained by such real-world issues as partner availability or setting and situation.

sexual feeling

sexual feeling the pleasurable feeling associated with coitus or other sexual contact. Also called sex feeling.

sexual functioning

sexual functioning the performance of sexual intercourse or other sexual activities or the capability of performing them.

sexual harassment

sexual harassment conduct of a sexual nature that is unwelcome or considered offensive, particularly in the workplace. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, there are two forms of sexual harassment: quid pro quo and behavior that makes for a hostile work environment. In the United States, under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, an employee subjected to sexual harassment is entitled to sue employers. See also Harris v. Forklift Systems Inc.harris-v-forklift-systems-inc; Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinsonmeritor-savings-bank-v-vinson.

sexual hygiene

sexual hygiene see sex hygiene.

sexual identification

sexual identification the perception, starting during the first 3 or 4 years of life, of physical sex differences between males and females, followed somewhat later by an awareness of psychological differences between the sexes and of socially determined gender roles. Also called sex identification. Compare gender identification.

sexual identity

sexual identity 1. an individual’s sexual orientation. 2. an occasional synonym for sex identity.

sexual imprinting

sexual imprinting the development of a preference for a sexual partner that occurs during a sensitive or critical period. For example, if zebra finches are cross-fostered to Bengalese finch parents for the first 40 days of life, they will prefer to mate with Bengalese finches as adults. In addition, birds often prefer to socialize with other birds that resemble those they were exposed to in the first month of life.

sexual inhibition

sexual inhibition suppression of the sexual impulse or the inability to feel sexual desire, to perform sexually, or to experience sexual gratification. See hypoactive sexual desire disorder; female orgasmic disorder; male orgasmic disorder.

sexual instinct

sexual instinct 1. the basic drive or urge to preserve the species through mating and the activities that precede it or, by extension, simply to express the self and the self’s physiological and psychological needs through sexual activity. 2. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the instinct comprising all the erotic drives and sublimations of such drives. It includes not only genital sex but also anal and oral manifestations and the channeling of erotic energy into artistic, scientific, and other pursuits. In his later formulations, Sigmund Freud saw the sexual instinct as part of a wider life instinct that also included the self-preservative impulses of hunger, thirst, and elimination. Also called sex instinct. See also Eros; libido; self-preservation instinct.

sexual intercourse

sexual intercourse see coitus; copulation.

sexual interest

sexual interest a readiness to engage or participate in discussions, viewing, or other activities related to or leading to sexual contact.

sexual inversion

sexual inversion see inversion.

sexual liberation

sexual liberation 1. the state of being free from sexual mores or inhibitions that are considered restrictive. See free love. 2. any social trend or process toward increased sexual freedoms.

sexual lifestyle

sexual lifestyle an individual pattern of sexual behavior in terms of orientation, number of partners, and types of sexual activity engaged in. Sexual lifestyle reflects such influences as early childhood observations of the family of origin, experiences with male and female contacts in childhood and adolescence, and cultural or religious values.

sexual masochism

sexual masochism a paraphilia in which sexual interest and arousal is repeatedly or exclusively achieved through being humiliated, bound, beaten, or otherwise made to suffer physical harm or threat to life.

sexual maturation

sexual maturation the stage of development of the reproductive system at which coitus and reproduction can be achieved.

sexual metamorphosis

sexual metamorphosis a rare delusion in which the individual believes that his or her biological sex has been changed into the other sex.

sexual object

sexual object 1. in general language, a person regarded only in terms of his or her sexual attractiveness. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a person, animal, or inanimate object toward whom or which the sexual energy of an individual is directed. Also called sex object.

sexual offense

sexual offense see sex offense.

sexual orientation

sexual orientation one’s enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, or both. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual, same sex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual. See also object choice.

sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE)

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sexual orientation grid

sexual orientation grid a method of classifying sexual orientation on the basis of seven factors: sexual fantasy, sexual attraction, sexual behavior, emotional attraction, social attraction, social behavior, and self-identity. Each of these factors is evaluated in three time periods: past, present, and ideal future. Thus, a person’s sexual orientation is described in terms of positions in a 3 × 7 grid. [developed by U.S. psychiatrist Fritz Klein (1932–2006), who considered the Kinsey Scale of sexual orientation to be simplistic]

sexual pain disorder

sexual pain disorder a class of sexual disorders, including dyspareunia and vaginismus, characterized by persistent or recurrent pain during sexual activity.

sexual perversion

sexual perversion any sexual practice that is regarded by a community or culture as an abnormal means of achieving orgasm or sexual arousal. Sexual perversion is an older term that is little used nowadays, largely having been replaced by sexual deviance or, in a psychiatric context, paraphilia.

sexual preference

sexual preference 1. any particular sexual interest and arousal pattern, which may range from the relatively common (e.g., particular patterns of foreplay, particular positions) to those associated with a paraphilia. 2. loosely, a synonym for sexual orientation, although its use as such is considered offensive by some who believe it characterizes one’s deep-rooted sexual attractions as a matter of simple choice.

sexual reassignment

sexual reassignment see sex reassignment.

sexual receptivity

sexual receptivity see receptivity.

sexual reflex

sexual reflex 1. penile erection produced by stimulation of the male genitalia. 2. vaginal secretion and lubrication and swelling of the clitoris produced by stimulation of the female genitalia. 3. the reflex activity involved in orgasm. 4. components of sexual behavior, such as the cremasteric reflex, that are not under direct control of the higher brain levels and may be stimulated through spinal or bulbar neural connections.

sexual response

sexual response a reaction to sexual stimulation. The most noticeable sexual response in the male is erection of the penis. See sexual arousal.

sexual revolution

sexual revolution either of two periods in U.S. (and, to some extent, European) history marked by a significant change in sexual values and behavior. The first sexual revolution occurred in the early part of the 20th century after the end of the Victorian era, and it involved efforts to increase sexual knowledge, legitimize women’s enjoyment of sex, and eliminate prostitution. The second sexual revolution, during the 1960s, was stimulated by such events as the development of oral contraception and the publication of Alfred Kinsey’s books on the sexual behavior of men and women (the “Kinsey reports”). This led to more openness of sexual expression in literature and the media, an increase in sexual activity, more tolerance of what were previously considered “deviant” activities, and greater acceptance of female sexuality.

sexual sadism

sexual sadism a paraphilia in which sexual excitement is achieved by intentional infliction of physical or psychological suffering on another person. The harm may be inflicted on a consenting partner, typically involving mildly injurious bodily suffering combined with humiliation. When practiced with nonconsenting partners, sexual sadism may involve inflicting extensive, permanent, or possibly fatal bodily injury. This activity is likely to be repeated, with the severity of the sadistic acts increasing over time. See also sadism; sadomasochism.

sexual selection

sexual selection a theoretical mechanism for the evolution of anatomical and behavioral differences between males and females, based on mate selection. [proposed in 1871 by Charles Darwin]

sexual sensation

sexual sensation the effect of stimulation of the genitalia and other erogenous zones.

sexual socialization

sexual socialization the process by which children and adolescents absorb their culture’s beliefs, values, and attitudes toward sexuality.

sexual stimulation

sexual stimulation touching, kissing, licking, or other manipulation of the genitals, breasts, or other areas of the body that leads to sexual arousal. See also genital stimulation.

sexual tension

sexual tension a condition of anxiety and restlessness associated with the sex drive and a normal desire for release of sexual energy. Sexual tension may be complicated by fear of inadequate performance, fear of an unwanted pregnancy, fear of discovery, or other concerns.

sexual trauma

sexual trauma any disturbing experience associated with sexual activity, such as rape, incest, and other sexual offenses. It is a common cause of posttraumatic disorders and dissociative disorders.

sexual value system

sexual value system a person’s beliefs about what is and is not normal, moral, and acceptable sexual behavior and activity.

sexual-response cycle

sexual-response cycle a conceptualization of a four-stage cycle of sexual response exhibited by both men and women, differing only in aspects determined by male or female anatomy. The stages include the arousal (or excitement) phase, which lasts several minutes to hours (see sexual arousal); the plateau phase, lasting 30 seconds to 3 minutes, marked by penile erection in men and vaginal lubrication in women; the orgasmic phase, lasting 15 seconds and marked by ejaculation in men and orgasm in women; and the resolution phase, lasting 15 minutes to 1 day (see refractory phase). This conceptualization was introduced by U.S. sex researchers William H. Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia E. Johnson (1925–2013) in 1966, but it has subsequently been criticized, particularly in the way that it equates the male and female pattern.

sexuality

sexuality n. 1. the capacity to derive pleasure from various forms of sexual activity and behavior, particularly from sexual intercourse. 2. all aspects of sexual behavior, including gender identity, orientation, attitudes, and activity. 3. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the “organ pleasure” derived from all erogenous zones and processes of the body, including the mouth, anus, urethra, breasts, skin, muscles, and genital organs, as well as such functions as sucking, biting, eating, defecating, urinating, masturbating, and having intercourse.

Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS)

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sexualization

sexualization n. see erotization.

sexually dimorphic nucleus

sexually dimorphic nucleus a nucleus of the central nervous system that differs in size between males and females. In humans, for example, a nucleus in the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus that synthesizes gonadotropin-releasing hormone tends to be larger and more active in males than in females because gonadotropin release is continuous (it is cyclical in females). In songbirds whose males sing more than females, several brain nuclei associated with both song learning and song production are larger in males than in females.

sexually transmitted disease (STD)

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SGA

SGA abbreviation for small for gestational age.

shade

shade n. any colored or uncolored stimulus defined by the amount of black it contains.

shading

shading n. gradations of darkness on the surface of a real object or on a depiction of an object, providing a depth cue.

shadow

shadow n. in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, an archetype that represents the “darker side” of the human psyche, which may comprise anything (e.g., a trait, desire, or emotion, whether positive or negative) that is unacceptable to an individual’s conscious ego and as such remains unexpressed and hidden in the unconscious.

shadow jury

shadow jury a group of people hired by a trial consultant to watch trials and report their impressions of the evidence presented. Attorneys use this feedback in the development of their trial strategies.

shadowing

shadowing n. in cognitive testing, a task in which a participant repeats aloud a message word for word at the same time that the message is being presented, often while other stimuli are presented in the background. It is mainly used in studies of attention.

shaken baby syndrome (SBS)

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shallow affect

shallow affect significant reduction in appropriate emotional responses to situations and events. See also flat affect.

shallow processing

shallow processing cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning. It is considered that processing at this shallow level produces weaker, shorter-lasting memories than deep processing. See levels-of-processing model of memory. See also bottom-up processing. [proposed in 1972 by Canadian psychologists Fergus I. M. Craik (1935– ) and Robert S. Lockhart]

sham disorder

sham disorder a colloquial name for factitious disorder.

sham feeding

sham feeding in research, a procedure in which a nonhuman animal chews and swallows food that is then extracted through a tube surgically implanted in the esophagus so that it does not reach the stomach.

sham rage

sham rage sudden aggressive behavior and motor activity occurring disproportionally in response to a weak or relatively innocuous stimulus. Sham rage initially was observed by researchers in the 1920s: Following surgical decortication, cats responded to the touch of a hand by growling, spitting, lashing the tail, arching the back, protracting the claws, erecting the hairs, jerking the limbs, rapidly moving the head from side to side, and attempting to bite. It subsequently has been demonstrated to occur with direct electrical stimulation of the limbic system as well. Additionally, sham rage has been seen in some pathological human conditions involving similar damage to the cerebral cortex that removes its inhibitory influence over the activities of the hypothalamus and other deeper, more primitive structures.

sham surgery

sham surgery in clinical research on the value or usefulness of experimental surgical interventions, the controversial practice of performing surgery that functions as a control because it mimics the features of the experimental surgery but does not result in the alteration or removal of any bodily structures; that is, it does not have the systemic effects of the experimental procedure. Also called sham operation.

shaman

shaman n. in various indigenous cultures, especially those that include nature and ancestor worship, a male or female spiritual leader who uses allegedly supernatural or magical powers for divination (particularly diagnosis) and to heal mental or physical illness. The status of shamans is not conferred by recognized organizations but is held to arise from a significant personal physical or mental crisis or to be hereditary. Shamanism includes a wide spectrum of traditional beliefs and practices, many of which involve communication with the spirit and animal worlds in pursuit of physical or mental healing. —shamanic adj. —shamanistic adj.

shamanic trance

shamanic trance an altered state of consciousness as experienced by shamans in certain indigenous societies. It may be induced by hallucinogens; rhythmic dance, drumming, and music; suggestion; or similar means.

shame

shame n. a highly unpleasant self-conscious emotion arising from the sense of there being something dishonorable, immodest, or indecorous in one’s own conduct or circumstances. It is typically characterized by withdrawal from social intercourse—for example, by hiding or distracting the attention of another from one’s shameful action—which can have a profound effect on psychological adjustment and interpersonal relationships. Shame may motivate not only avoidant behavior but also defensive, retaliative anger. Psychological research consistently reports a relationship between proneness to shame and a host of psychological symptoms, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, subclinical sociopathy, and low self-esteem. Shame is also theorized to play a more positive adaptive function by regulating experiences of excessive and inappropriate interest and excitement and by diffusing potentially threatening social behavior. Compare guilt. —shameful adj.

shame culture

shame culture a trend or organizing principle in a society characterized by a strong desire to preserve honor and avoid shame. Compare guilt culture.

shamelessness

shamelessness n. behavior marked by an apparent absence of feelings of shame. This may arise as the result of psychological problems or reflect a loss of judgment after brain injury. —shameless adj.

shape

shape n. the spatial form of an object as it stands out from its background.

shape coding

shape coding in ergonomics, coding a control or display by shape so that it can be readily distinguished from other controls or displays. See control discriminability.

shape constancy

shape constancy a type of perceptual constancy in which an object is perceived as having the same shape when viewed at different angles. For example, a plate is still perceived as circular despite appearing as an oval when viewed from the side.

shaping

shaping n. the production of new forms of operant behavior by reinforcement of successive approximations to the behavior (see method of successive approximations). Also called approximation conditioning; behavior shaping.

Shapiro–Wilk test

Shapiro–Wilk test an inferential test to determine whether a random sample comes from a population with a normal distribution. If the test statistic, W, is significant, then the null hypothesis that the distribution is normal should be rejected. Because so many of the most common statistical tests are designed for normally distributed data, Shapiro–Wilk is a useful test to identify those data sets that require a different approach. [Samuel S. Shapiro (1930– ), U.S. statistician; Martin B. Wilk (1922–2013), Canadian-born U.S. statistician]

shared attention

shared attention see joint attention.

shared environment

shared environment in behavior genetic analyses, those aspects of an environment that individuals living together (e.g., biologically related individuals in a family household) share and that therefore cause them to become more similar to each other than would be expected on the basis of genetic influences alone. Examples of shared environmental factors include parental child-rearing style, divorce, or family income and related variables. Compare nonshared environment.

shared medical appointment model

shared medical appointment model an approach to health care in which a group of patients with a similar medical condition meet with a physician for an extended period of time, usually more than an hour, to discuss aspects of their common condition, including its medical management (e.g., prescriptions), and potentially to address any mental health considerations that it might present. Typically, a behaviorist (e.g., a psychologist or social worker), a nurse or physician’s assistant, a scheduler, and a documentation specialist also are in attendance. This model tends to be used for follow-up care rather than for new patient intakes.

shared mental model

shared mental model in ergonomics, a mental model of a work system that is held in common by the members of a team. Ideally, team members should have a shared mental picture of the system and its attributes, a shared knowledge of all relevant tasks, and a shared understanding of the team’s progress toward its goal. Coordination, efficiency, and accuracy will increase as team members converge on a common mental model that is accurate and complete yet flexible. Also called team mental model.

shared psychotic disorder

shared psychotic disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a disorder in which the essential feature is an identical or similar delusion that develops in an individual who is involved with another individual (sometimes called the “inducer” or the “primary case”) who already has a psychotic disorder with prominent delusions. Shared psychotic disorder can involve many people (e.g., an entire family) but is most commonly seen in relationships of only two, in which case it is known as folie à deux. In DSM–5, the disorder is not recognized or included as a distinct diagnostic entity separate from delusional disorder. Formerly called induced psychotic disorder.

sharpening

sharpening n. a phenomenon in which some details of a memory become more sharply defined and accentuated—and possibly exaggerated—over time in comparison to the original experience.

Sheehan’s syndrome

Sheehan’s syndrome see hypophyseal cachexia. [Harold Leeming Sheehan (1900–1988), British pathologist]

sheep–goat effect

sheep–goat effect in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, a supposed difference in outcomes found between trials involving participants who believe that they may succeed in the given task (sheep) and trials involving those who assume that this is impossible (goats). See also decline effect; differential effect; focusing effect; position effect; preferential effect. [coined by U.S. parapsychologist Gertrude Schmeidler (1912–2009)]

Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality

Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality the theory that every person possesses some degree of three primary temperamental components that relate to three basic body builds (somatotypes), measured on a 7-point scale. The three body types—ectomorph, endomorph, and mesomorph—are correlated with the three components of temperament: cerebrotonia, viscerotonia, and somatotonia. Constitution provides a substructure, but nutrition and early experiences also influence the physique and temperament, respectively. [William H. Sheldon (1899–1970), U.S. psychologist]

shell shock

shell shock the name used during World War I for combat stress reaction. At the time, the disorder was attributed solely to minor brain hemorrhages or brain concussion due to exploding shells and bombs, without involving psychological factors.

shelter care

shelter care the provision of a facility without physical restrictions for the temporary care of children who have been taken into custody pending investigation and placement. Shelter care is a form of foster care.

sheltered workshop

sheltered workshop a rehabilitation facility that provides a controlled, noncompetitive, supportive working environment and individually designed work settings for people with disabilities. Work experience and related services are provided to assist individuals in achieving specific vocational goals. Sheltered workshops differ from supported employment in that the latter occurs in a competitive, noncontrolled working environment.

shen-k’uei (shenkui)

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shenjing shuairuo

shenjing shuairuo see shinkeishitsu.

sherm

sherm n. see fry.

shift work

shift work work scheduled during the swing shift (usually 4 p.m. to 12 a.m.) or night shift (12 a.m. to 8 a.m.). Studies show wide variations in the attitudes of employees toward shift work and their ability to adjust their circadian rhythms and adapt to changes in sleep, eating, and social patterns. See also circadian rhythm sleep disorder.

shin-byung

shin-byung n. a culture-bound syndrome found in Korea, characterized by anxiety and physical complaints such as general weakness, dizziness, loss of appetite, insomnia, and gastrointestinal problems, followed by dissociation and alleged possession by ancestral spirits (see dissociative trance disorder). It is considered by those affected to be a “divine illness,” in which the individual experiences hallucinations of becoming a shaman and a cure occurs when this conversion takes place.

shinkeishitsu

shinkeishitsu n. a culture-bound syndrome prevalent in Japan, with symptoms that include obsessions, perfectionism, ambivalence, social withdrawal, physical and mental fatigue, hypersensitivity, and hypochondriasis. Japanese psychiatrist Shoma Morita (1874–1938), a pioneer in the study of shinkeishitsu, postulated that there is a shinkeishitsu-prone innate temperament, which he called “hypochondriacal temperament.” According to Morita, people born with this temperament are overly sensitive, self-reflective, and notice even minimal changes in their mental and physical states. This disorder is also prevalent in China, where it is known as shenjing shuairuo. See also Morita therapy.

Shipley Institute of Living Scale (SILS)

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shock

shock n. 1. the application of electric current. See electroconvulsive therapy. 2. a condition of lowered excitability of neural centers following the cutting of their connections with other neural centers. For example, spinal shock occurs when connections between the spinal cord and the brain are severed. 3. acute reduction of blood flow in the body due to failure of circulatory control or loss of blood or other bodily fluids, marked by hypotension, coldness of skin, usually tachycardia, and sometimes anxiety. 4. a sudden disturbance of equilibrium.

shock phase

shock phase see general adaptation syndrome.

shock probation

shock probation a criminal sentence in which an offender is incarcerated for a brief period and then released into the community under the supervision of a parole or probation officer. This approach is typically used with juveniles or with first-time offenders who have committed less serious offenses, the theory being that such offenders may be capable of successful rehabilitation into society after they have experienced the initial shock of incarceration. Also called shock sentencing.

shock therapy

shock therapy the treatment of severe mental disorders by administering drugs or an electric current that shocks the central nervous system to induce loss of consciousness or convulsions. Also called shock treatment. See electroconvulsive therapy; insulin-shock therapy.

shock–shock interval (SS interval)

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shoe anesthesia

shoe anesthesia see stocking anesthesia.

shoe fetishism

shoe fetishism see foot fetishism.

shook yong

shook yong see koro.

Short Grit Scale (Grit–S)

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Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ)

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short-term memory (STM)

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short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy

short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy see brief psychodynamic psychotherapy.

short-term psychotherapy

short-term psychotherapy see brief psychotherapy.

short-wavelength pigment

short-wavelength pigment the photopigment present in one of the three populations of retinal cones that has maximum sensitivity to a wavelength of 419 nm. The absence of the gene for the short-wavelength pigment causes tritanopia, a form of color blindness in which blue and green are confused with one another. See also long-wavelength pigment; medium-wavelength pigment.

shortcut key

shortcut key in ergonomics, a key or combination of keys on a control panel that can be used to activate frequently used functions in a single step, thus reducing reliance on more complex selection methods. A familiar example is the function keys on a computer keyboard, which enable the user to select a function without going through a series of menus.

showup

showup n. a witness identification procedure similar to a lineup, except that only one suspect is presented.

shrink

shrink n. slang for a psychologist, psychiatrist, or other mental health professional who conducts psychotherapy. It is short for headshrinker, an allusion to the practice of headshrinking.

shrinkage

shrinkage n. the situation in which the strength of a correlation coefficient or regression equation decreases when it is applied to a new data set. Such shrinkage occurs when the initial estimate of the correlation reflects unique characteristics of the initial sample that are not replicated in subsequent samples.

SHRM

SHRM abbreviation for strategic human resource management.

shrunken R2

shrunken R2 see adjusted R2adjusted-r2.

shuk yang

shuk yang see koro.

shunning

shunning n. systematic ostracism of an individual by a group, usually taking the form of minimal physical or social contact with the outcast. —shun vb.

shunt

shunt n. a congenitally occurring or surgically created passage diverting the flow of bodily fluids such as blood or cerebrospinal fluid from one part of an organ or body to another. For example, a ventriculoatrial shunt is an artificially formed passage for draining cerebrospinal fluid from the ventricles of the brain to the external jugular vein to relieve symptoms of hydrocephalus. The shunt carries the fluid through a catheter to the venous system that empties into the right atrium of the heart.

shuttle box

shuttle box a two-compartment box used for avoidance-conditioning research with animals. An electric shock to the feet is scheduled to be delivered if the animal remains in the same compartment for more than a specified period of time (e.g., 30 seconds). The subject can avoid electric shocks by regularly moving from one compartment to the other (i.e., shuttling between them). There is sometimes a small barrier that the animal must jump over or push to get from one compartment to the other.

shy bladder syndrome

shy bladder syndrome see paruresis.

shy–bold continuum

shy–bold continuum the tendency of some individuals within a group to be fearful or cautious of new stimuli and of others to explore novel stimuli. The more fearful individuals are less likely to be preyed on but also less able to use new resources. A shy–bold continuum has been demonstrated in many species, from fish through human beings, and may be a universal dimension of behavioral variation.

shyness

shyness n. anxiety and inhibition in social situations, typically involving three components: (a) global feelings of emotional arousal and specific physiological experiences (e.g., pounding heart, sweating, blushing); (b) acute public self-consciousness, self-deprecation, and worries about being evaluated negatively by others; and (c) observable behavior such as quietness, gaze aversion, and social withdrawal. Extremely shy individuals are at an increased risk of developing anxiety disorders such as social phobia. Shyness also is seen in nonhuman animals, manifest as an avoidance of novel stimuli and a lack of exploration in unfamiliar environments. Also called timidity. Compare boldness. —shy adj.

sialorrhea

sialorrhea n. see ptyalism.

Siamese twins

Siamese twins see conjoined twins.

sib

sib n. 1. short for sibling. 2. in anthropology, a person’s kindred collectively. See kinship; kinship network.

sib-pair method

sib-pair method a technique used in genetics—particularly in attempts to discover the extent of inherited psychiatric factors—in which the incidence of a disorder among blood relatives is compared with the distribution of the disorder in the general population. Sib-pair method studies have found a higher incidence of schizophrenia in twins and close family members than in the general population.

sibilant

sibilant 1. adj. denoting a fricative produced by forcing the air through an opening between the tongue and the roof of the mouth and creating a hissing sound, for example, [s], [z], or [sh]. 2. n. a sibilant speech sound.

siblicide

siblicide n. the killing of one’s siblings. In asynchronous broods, the first-hatched bird often attacks and kills those that hatch later. This is an extreme form of sibling rivalry.

sibling

sibling n. one of two or more children born of the same two parents (i.e., a sister or brother). Also called sib.

sibling rivalry

sibling rivalry competition among siblings for the attention, approval, or affection of one or both parents or for other recognition or rewards, such as in sports or academics. See also parent–offspring conflict.

sibutramine

sibutramine n. an appetite suppressant used for the management of obesity. Sibutramine acts on the central nervous system to inhibit the reuptake of the neurotransmitter epinephrine and, to a lesser extent, serotonin and dopamine. Sibutramine may raise blood pressure, and because of its ability to release monoamines, it should not be used in conjunction with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Like other appetite suppressants, it is effective only in conjunction with dietary restriction. Due to concerns about serious adverse effects, it has been removed from the market in many countries, including the United States. Former U.S. trade name: Meridia.

sick headache

sick headache see migraine headache.

sick role

sick role the behavior expected of a person who is physically ill, mentally ill, or injured. Such expectations can be the individual’s own or those of the family, the community, or society in general. They influence both how the person behaves and how others will react to him or her. In his pioneering discussion of the subject, U.S. sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) noted in 1951 that people in a sick role were expected to cooperate with caregivers and to want to get well but were also provided with an exemption from normal obligations. See also factitious disorder.

Šidák test

Šidák test see Dunn–Šidák procedure.

side effect

side effect any reaction secondary to the intended therapeutic effect that may occur following administration of a drug or other treatment. Often these are undesirable but tolerable (e.g., headache or fatigue), although more serious effects (e.g., liver failure, seizures) may also occur. Occasionally, harmful side effects are unexpected, in which case they more properly are termed adverse drug reactions.

Sidman avoidance schedule

Sidman avoidance schedule a procedure in which brief, inescapable aversive stimuli are presented at fixed intervals (shock–shock intervals) in the absence of a specified response. If the response is made, the aversive stimulus is postponed by a fixed amount of time (the response–shock interval) from that response. Also called avoidance without warning signal; continuous avoidance; free-operant avoidance. [Murray Sidman (1923– ), U.S. psychologist]

SIDS

SIDS acronym for sudden infant death syndrome.

SIECUS

SIECUS abbreviation for Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States.

Siegel–Tukey test

Siegel–Tukey test a nonparametric test that evaluates any difference in variance across two independent samples to determine whether they represent two different populations. Data values for the two groups are first ordered in a single list from lowest to highest and then ranked in terms of alternate extremes, so that, for example, the highest and lowest values are both ranked 1, the next highest and next lowest 2, and so on. Finally, the ranked values in each group are summed. If final sums per group do not differ, there is no evidence that the dispersion differs across groups. The test has relatively low statistical power when data have a normal distribution.

sight method

sight method see whole-word method.

sight words

sight words in reading, words that are recognized instantly without additional analysis. Also called sight vocabulary.

sighting line

sighting line a visual axis that extends along a line from a point of fixation to the point of clearest vision on the retina.

sigma

sigma n. 1. (symbol: Σ) the sum of a list of values. 2. (symbol: σ) see population standard deviation.

sigma receptor

sigma receptor (symbol: σ) a receptor that currently is not well understood but is thought to affect neurotransmitter release and function (particularly of dopamine and serotonin) as well as the immune and endocrine systems. Once identified as an opioid receptor in part because synthetic opioids such as dextromethorphan bind to it, it is now considered to be a separate class of receptor with two subtypes: sigma-1 (σ1) and sigma-2 (σ2). Sigma-1, the more fully investigated of these subtypes, is activated by some drugs of abuse (e.g., cocaine, methamphetamine), and it has been implicated in several disorders (e.g., depression, Alzheimer’s disease), with a possible role in their treatment.

sigmatism

sigmatism n. 1. a kind of lisp specifically involving incorrect production of the [s] and [z] sounds. 2. an obsolescent name for lisping.

sigmoid curve

sigmoid curve an S-shaped curve that describes many processes in psychology, including learning and responding to test items. The curve starts low, has a period of acceleration, and then approaches an asymptote. Often, the curve is characterized by the logistic function.

sign

sign 1. n. an objective, observable indication of a disorder or disease. See also soft sign. 2. n. in linguistics and semiotics, anything that conveys meaning; a sign may be either verbal (e.g., a spoken or written word) or nonverbal (e.g., a hairstyle). The term is now mainly associated with approaches deriving from the theory of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), who emphasized the arbitrary nature of linguistic signs (i.e., the lack of any necessary relationship between the material signifier and the idea signified). The application of this idea to nonlinguistic sign systems provided the basic method of structuralism in the social sciences. 3. vb. to communicate using sign language.

sign effect

sign effect see behavioral economics.

sign language

sign language any system of communication in which signs formed by hand configuration and movement are used instead of spoken language. The term refers particularly to the system used by people who are deaf or have severe hearing loss, which has its own syntax and methods of conveying nuances of feeling and emotion and is now accepted by most linguists as exhibiting the full set of defining characteristics of human oral–aural language. The particular system of hand signs and movements used primarily in the United States and Canada is called American Sign Language (ASL). Forms of sign language are sometimes used also to communicate with children with certain neurological disorders and with nonhuman primates, but these systems are far less sophisticated than those used by people with hearing impairment. Also called signing. See fingerspelling.

sign stimulus

sign stimulus see releaser.

sign test

sign test a simple nonparametric procedure used to determine whether a sample has the same median value as another sample or a reference population. Consider a farmer who wants to know whether he or she can grow a particular crop that requires soil with a median acidity level (pH) of 8. The farmer measures the soil in several different areas on his or her property and then compares the pH value of each measurement to the required median value. Each acidity reading above 8 is marked positive using a + sign and each reading is marked negative with a – sign. If the proportion of positive signs for the group of measurements is significantly different from the proportion of negative signs, then the farmer's sample soil data have a different median than the one required and the desired crop cannot be planted. Unlike the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test, the sign test does not take into account the magnitude of the observed differences from the median.

sign tracking

sign tracking in conditioning, elicited behavior directed toward a stimulus that is reliably paired with a primary reinforcer.

signal

signal n. 1. an intelligible sign communicated from one individual or electromagnetic device to another. 2. a presentation of information, usually one that evokes some action or response. 3. as used in signal detection theory, a stimulus.

signal amplification bias

signal amplification bias see interpersonal gap.

signal anxiety

signal anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety that arises in response to internal conflict or an emerging impulse and functions as a sign to the ego of impending threat, resulting in the preemptive use of a defense mechanism. Compare primary anxiety.

signal detection task

signal detection task a task in which the observer is required to discriminate between trials in which a target stimulus (the signal) is present and trials in which it is not (the noise). Signal detection tasks provide objective measures of perceptual sensitivity. Also called detection task.

signal detection theory (SDT)

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signal word

signal word in ergonomics, a word used in risk communications (e.g., on a warning sign) to indicate the level of risk associated with a hazardous situation. Examples of signal words include danger, warning, caution, and notice.

signal word panel

signal word panel in ergonomics and risk communication, a warning sign that contains a specific signal word (e.g., danger). The size, color, and font of the lettering, as well as the design of the panel itself, are selected for maximum clarity and impact. The signal word panel may also contain an alerting symbol, such as a skull and crossbones.

signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)

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signaled avoidance

signaled avoidance see discriminated avoidance.

signature

signature n. an identifiable unique object, message, or symbol left by a criminal at the scene of a crime. It plays no part in the criminal act but represents a coded clue to the offender’s identity, which can be of use in criminal profiling. Usually, a criminal leaves the same signature at the scene of all his or her crimes. Also called calling card.

signed-ranks test

signed-ranks test see Wilcoxon signed-ranks test.

significance

significance n. the extent to which something is meaningful or of consequence. In statistics and related fields, the term usually denotes statistical significance. See also clinical significance; practical significance; psychological significance.

significance level

significance level (symbol: α) in significance testing, a fixed probability of rejecting the null hypothesis of no effect when it is in fact true. It is set at some value, usually .001, .01, or .05, depending on the consequences associated with making a Type I error. When a particular effect is obtained experimentally, the probability level (p) associated with this effect is compared to the significance level. If the p value is less than the α level, the null hypothesis is rejected. Small p values suggest that obtaining a statistic as extreme as the one obtained is rare and thus the null hypothesis is unlikely to be true. The smaller the α level, the more convincing is the rejection of the null hypothesis. Also called alpha level.

significance testing

significance testing in hypothesis testing, a set of procedures used to determine whether the differences between two groups or models are statistically significant (i.e., unlikely to arise solely from chance). In its most common form, significance testing is used to decide whether the null hypothesis of no effect should be rejected. A comparison of the probability statistic obtained from the test to the chosen significance level determines whether an observed effect may be due to chance variance and hence whether the null hypothesis is or is not likely to be correct. This approach may also be used to differentiate between two models that differ in terms of the number of parameters specified in them (as in multiple regression analysis).

significant difference

significant difference the situation in which a significance testing procedure indicates the statistical differences observed between two groups (e.g., a treatment group and a control group) are unlikely to reflect chance variation.

significant other

significant other any individual who has a profound influence on another person, particularly on his or her self-image and socialization. Although the term most often denotes a spouse or other person with whom one has a committed romantic relationship, it is also used in psychology and sociology to refer to parents, peers, and others.

signifier

signifier n. 1. in linguistics and semiotics, the material form of a sign as opposed to the idea or concept indicated (the signified). In language, therefore, the signifier is the spoken or written word or component of a word. The distinction between signifier and signified is of central importance in structuralism and poststructuralism. See also referent. [introduced by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913)] 2. in the theory of French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981), a symbol, such as a word or symptom, that stands for some aspect of the patient’s unconscious. Lacan’s use of the term reflects his central belief that the unconscious is structured as a language.

SII

SII abbreviation for Strong Interest Inventory.

Silenor

Silenor n. a trade name for doxepin.

silok

silok n. a culture-bound syndrome found in the Philippines that has symptoms similar to those of latah.

SILS

SILS abbreviation for Shipley Institute of Living Scale.

Silver–Russell syndrome

Silver–Russell syndrome a congenital disorder characterized by short stature, hypertrophy of one side of the body, and elevated urinary gonadotropin hormones without precocious sexual maturity. Motor development is often delayed because of muscle weakness. Physical features include pseudohydrocephalus, a condition of normal head circumference but a small face, giving the appearance of an enlarged head. Various studies have found a higher than average incidence of intellectual disability among people with this disorder. Also called Silver’s syndrome. [Henry K. Silver (1918–1991), U.S. pediatrician; Alexander Russell (1914–2003), British pathologist]

Simenon’s syndrome

Simenon’s syndrome a delusional condition characterized by the false perception or belief that one is loved by or has had a sexual affair with a public figure or other individual. See erotic delusion; erotic paranoia. See also Clérambault’s syndrome. [named for Georges Joseph Christian Simenon (1903–1989), Belgian-born French novelist, possibly because the condition was featured in one of his stories]

similarities test

similarities test a test in which the participant must either state the likenesses between items or arrange items in categories according to their similarities. Some neuropsychological batteries include these assessments.

similarity

similarity n. one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects with similar qualities into a perceptual group and interpret them as a whole. Also called factor of similarity; law of similarity; principle of similarity.

similarity classification

similarity classification see conceptual classification.

similarity coefficient

similarity coefficient any index that allows a researcher to assess the similarity of two or more samples. In exploratory factor analysis, for example, such an index is used to compare factor structures across studies. Compare dissimilarity coefficient.

simile

simile n. see metaphor.

Simmonds’ disease

Simmonds’ disease a disorder of the pituitary gland caused by necrosis and failure of the anterior lobe of the gland, which may be partial or complete. This results in secondary failure of the gonads, adrenal cortex, and thyroid gland, which depend on the hormonal stimulation of the pituitary. Symptoms include anorexia, atrophy of sexual features, absence of libido, hypotension, bradycardia, and hypoglycemia. [Morris Simmonds (1855–1925), German physician]

Simon effect

Simon effect in a two-choice task, the finding that the response to a stimulus is facilitated if the location of the stimulus corresponds to the location of the response, even though stimulus location is irrelevant to the task. For example, if a left (rather than a right) keypress is the required response to a blue stimulus, reaction time will be quicker if this stimulus is presented on the left-hand side than if it is presented on the right (and vice versa). [discovered in 1969 by U.S. psychologist J. Richard Simon (1929– )]

simple causation

simple causation an instance of causation in which a single event is caused by a single identifiable antecedent, without multiple causes or other intervening processes. Compare multiple causation.

simple cell

simple cell a neuron, most commonly found in the striate cortex, that has a receptive field consisting of an elongated center region and two elongated flanking regions. The response of a simple cell to stimulation in the center of the receptive field is the opposite of its response to stimulation in the flanking zones. This means that a simple cell responds best to an edge or a bar of a particular width and with a particular direction and location in the visual field. Also called simple cortical cell. Compare complex cell.

simple comparison

simple comparison a contrast between two means, usually in the context of multilevel analyses of data from a factorial design. For example, consider a researcher examining the influence of three different amounts of caffeine (0 mg, 50 mg, and 100 mg) on student test performance. His or her evaluation of the differences between 0 mg and 50 mg would represent one possible simple comparison. Compare complex comparison.

simple correlation

simple correlation the linear association of one variable with one other variable, as quantified by a correlation coefficient.

simple effect

simple effect in an experimental design involving multiple independent variables, the consistent total effect on a dependent variable of a particular level (quantity, magnitude, or category) of one independent variable at a particular level of another independent variable.

simple emotion

simple emotion see complex emotion.

simple eye

simple eye the type of eye found in most vertebrates and some invertebrates. It consists of a single focusing element, which may be a thickening of the exoskeleton (in an arthropod), a pinhole in the surface of the eye (in a mollusk), or a crystalline lens (in a vertebrate), plus one or more photosensitive cells. Compare compound eye.

simple factorial design

simple factorial design an experimental design in which the two or more levels of each independent variable or factor are observed in combination with the two or more levels of every other factor. See also factorial design.

simple hypothesis

simple hypothesis a hypothesis that specifies all the parameters of a population distribution. For example, consider a researcher who wants to examine the hypothesis that graduates from a particular institution have higher than average overall grade-point averages if they have studied abroad. If the researcher specified the population mean and standard deviation of grades in the full population of students at that institution, this would be a simple hypothesis. Compare composite hypothesis.

simple ideas

simple ideas in associationism, the simple, unorganized sensations, derived from the various senses, that form the basis of all knowledge. Through the rational process of reflection, simple ideas can be transformed into more abstract complex ideas. [defined by John Locke]

simple partial seizure

simple partial seizure see partial seizure.

simple phobia

simple phobia see specific phobia.

simple random sampling

simple random sampling the most basic approach to drawing a random sample of cases, observations, or individuals from a population, in which the cases are selected individually using a fair process, such as the toss of a coin or a table of random digits. Also called independent random sampling.

simple reaction time (SRT)

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simple regression

simple regression a type of regression analysis that has only one predictor or independent variable and one outcome or dependent variable. See also multiple regression.

simple schizophrenia

simple schizophrenia one of the four major types of schizophrenia described by Emil Kraepelin and Eugen Bleuler, characterized primarily by gradual withdrawal from social contact, a lack of initiative, and emotional apathy.

simple sentence

simple sentence see complex sentence.

simple stepfamily

simple stepfamily a stepfamily in which only one of the parents brings a child or children from a previous union to the new family unit.

simple structure

simple structure in exploratory factor analysis, a set of criteria for determining the adequacy of a factor rotation solution. These criteria require that each factor show a pattern of high factor loadings on certain variables and near-zero loadings on others and that each variable load on only one factor. This minimizes the complexity of the factor solution, allows each variable to be most strongly identified with a specific factor, and increases interpretability.

simple tone

simple tone see pure tone.

simple universal

simple universal see psychological universal.

simple-effects analysis

simple-effects analysis when an analysis of variance or multiple regression analysis has identified an interaction effect among two independent variables, an examination of the effect of one variable at one level of the other variable. For example, if there were two levels of a factor, a1 and a2, and two levels of a second factor, b1 and b2, the comparison of a1 versus a2 at b1 would represent one simple-effects analysis; another would be a comparison of a1 versus a2 at b2. In this way, a series of simple-effects analyses can be used to break down an interaction into its component parts.

simplicity principle

simplicity principle see likelihood principle.

Simpson’s paradox

Simpson’s paradox a phenomenon that can occur when data from two or more studies are merged, giving results that differ from those of either study individually. For example, two studies, each showing a correlation of .00 between two variables, x and y, may show a strong positive correlation between variables x and y when the data are merged. This paradoxical effect could occur if the mean values of each variable in one study are both substantially different (e.g., lower) than their mean values in the second study. [Edward H. Simpson (1922– ), British statistician]

simulated family

simulated family a technique used in training and therapy in which hypothetical family situations are enacted. In training, the enactment is by clinicians or other professionals. In family therapy, one or more members of the family may participate with others, who play the roles of other family members. See also role play.

simulation

simulation n. 1. an experimental method used to investigate the behavior and psychological processes and functioning of individuals in social and other environments—often those which investigators cannot easily access—by reproducing those environments in a realistic way. For example, simulations are often used in personnel selection, where various exercises have been developed to tap job-related dimensions or behaviors. 2. the artificial creation of experimental data through the use of a mathematical or computer model. The purpose is usually to test the behavior of a statistic or model under controlled conditions. 3. resemblance or imitation, particularly the mimicking of symptoms of one disorder by another or the faking of an illness.

simulation training

simulation training a technique in which trainees learn a complex or hazardous task by practicing with a replica of the task. This may involve the use of computer simulations, mechanical training aids, or plausible but fictitious scenarios (e.g., business games or case methods). For example, a medical student may practice inserting an intravenous line on a mannequin before doing so on a live patient, and factory workers may use virtual reality to practice operating a new piece of heavy machinery prior to using the actual equipment.

simulator

simulator n. a training device that simulates the conditions or environment of the actual operating situation or that resembles the actual equipment to be used, such as a flight simulator for pilots. The training allows for a safe, lower-cost experience with the conditions under study but may lack realism.

simulator sickness

simulator sickness a form of motion sickness experienced without actual motion, as when playing a video game or using a flight simulator.

simultanagnosia

simultanagnosia n. see visual agnosia.

simultanapraxia

simultanapraxia n. a type of apraxia that involves the inability to perform two simultaneous motor acts (e.g., closing the eyes and protruding the tongue). It is a subset of motor impersistence.

simultaneous conditioning

simultaneous conditioning a classical conditioning technique in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time. Compare delay conditioning.

simultaneous contrast

simultaneous contrast see color contrast; contrast.

simultaneous discrimination

simultaneous discrimination in conditioning, discrimination between two concurrently available stimuli.

simultaneous lightness contrast

simultaneous lightness contrast see brightness contrast.

simultaneous masking

simultaneous masking see masking.

simultaneous processing

simultaneous processing see parallel processing.

simultaneous regression

simultaneous regression a type of regression analysis in which all predictors or independent variables are entered into the equation at the same time. Each independent variable’s coefficient or weight is interpreted in the context of all of the other independent variables in the model at that time, some of which may be correlated. Also called simultaneous multiple regression. Compare hierarchical regression; stepwise regression.

sine qua non

sine qua non an indispensable element (Latin, literally: “without which not”). In law, for example, a guilty mind (see mens rea) is the sine qua non of criminal responsibility.

sine wave

sine wave a mathematical expression involving the trigonometric functions sine or cosine. In much of physics, a sine wave is a function of time. For example, in acoustics a pure tone is a variation in sound pressure that is a sinusoidal function of time. The parameters of a sine wave are its frequency, amplitude, and phase. A sine wave, unlike a complex wave, has only one frequency component.

Sinemet

Sinemet n. a U.S. trade name for a drug combination of levodopa and carbidopa used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, the symptoms of which are due to lack of striatal dopamine. Carbidopa inhibits the action of the enzyme dopa decarboxylase in peripheral tissues, thereby enabling levodopa to be administered in lower doses to achieve an effective concentration in the brain, where it is converted by striatal enzymes into dopamine.

Sinequan

Sinequan n. a trade name for doxepin.

single alternation

single alternation in experimental research, a pattern in which one kind of event alternates with another. For example, in an operant conditioning experiment, a reinforced trial (R) may alternate with a nonreinforced trial (N), yielding the pattern RNRNRN . . . . See also double alternation.

single blind

single blind see blind.

single mothers by choice

single mothers by choice women typically in their 30s and 40s who opt to raise a child without a partner. It is estimated that more than 40% of single mothers have never been married and that the largest number of unmarried women now choosing single motherhood are college educated, usually with stable economic resources. They may become pregnant by accident and then decide to bear and raise the child alone; they may plan the pregnancy and conceive with a male or through artificial insemination, intending to enter single motherhood; or they may adopt and raise a child on their own.

single parent

single parent a person who rears a child without the assistance of a partner.

single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

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single-capacity model

single-capacity model see unitary-resource model.

single-case design

single-case design an approach to the empirical study of a process that tracks a single unit (e.g., person, family, class, school, company) in depth over time. Specific types include the alternating treatments design, the multiple baseline design, the reversal design, and the withdrawal design. In other words, it is a within-subjects design with just one unit of analysis. For example, a researcher may use a single-case design for a small group of patients with a tic. After observing the patients and establishing the number of tics per hour, the researcher would then conduct an intervention and watch what happens over time, thus revealing the richness of any change. Such studies are useful for generating ideas for broader studies and for focusing on the microlevel concerns associated with a particular unit. However, data from these studies need to be evaluated carefully given the many potential threats to internal validity; there are also issues relating to the sampling of both the one unit and the process it undergoes. Also called N-of-1 design; N=1 design; single-participant design; single-subject (case) design.

single-case method and evaluation

single-case method and evaluation a type of psychotherapy research based on systematic study of one client before, during, and after intervention.

single-cell recording

single-cell recording see microelectrode.

single-channel model

single-channel model a model of human information processing in which only serial processing is possible. Cognition is held to consist of a series of discrete sequenced steps involving one information source and one processing channel at a time.

single-episode depression

single-episode depression a major depressive episode in an individual who does not have a history of such episodes. It is thought that the effects of treatment in people having single episodes may be different from those in individuals with recurrent depression.

single-event learning

single-event learning the formation of associations between elements or occurrences after only one exposure to them. The term is discussed most commonly with reference to conditioned taste aversion and conditioned fears. For example, a person who becomes sick after one meal at a restaurant and subsequently refuses to dine there has formed a negative association between the illness and that one meal. Similarly, a dog with no previous aversion to nail trimming may suddenly become fearful of the procedure after having its nails cut painfully short. The precise neural mechanisms by which such rapid and often long-lasting associations are formed have yet to be determined.

single-factor design

single-factor design see one-way design.

single-gene disorder

single-gene disorder a disease or condition that is due to the presence of a single mutated gene. Generally, the single mutation causes a failure to synthesize a normally functioning enzyme that is required for a specific step in building body tissue or for a vital stage in the metabolism of a food component. Single-gene disorders are relatively rare (Huntington’s disease and sickle-cell disease are examples); instead, many diseases exhibit multifactorial inheritance and are also influenced by environmental factors.

single-group validity

single-group validity the notion that some measures may be valid for certain groups (e.g., Caucasians) but not others (e.g., minority ethnic groups). See also differential validity.

single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

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single-participant design

single-participant design see single-case design.

single-sample t test

single-sample t test a statistical procedure used to determine whether there is a significant difference between the observed mean of a sample and the known or hypothetical mean of the larger population from which the sample has been randomly drawn. In the single-sample t test, one calculates a t value using (a) the mean of the sample (observed average); (b) the mean of the population (known or theoretically expected average); (c) the standard deviation of the sample; and (d) the total number of sample observations taken. The t value obtained is then compared to a standard table of values, arranged by sample size, to determine whether it exceeds the threshold of statistical significance. Also called one-sample t test.

single-sample test

single-sample test any of various statistical procedures used to analyze data collected from one sample and determine whether the distribution of values differs significantly from a known or theoretical distribution for the larger population from which the sample is believed to be derived. Also called one-sample test. Compare two-sample test.

single-session therapy (SST)

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single-subject case design

single-subject case design see single-case design.

single-subject design

single-subject design see single-case design.

singles test

singles test in parapsychology experiments on psychokinesis, a technique in which the participant attempts to influence the throw of a single die.

singleton

singleton n. 1. a fetus that develops alone or an offspring born singly. 2. sometimes, in popular usage, the only child of two parents.

sinistral

sinistral adj. left-handed.

sinistrality

sinistrality n. a tendency to use the left hand, arm, or leg in motor activities. See also left-handedness. Compare dextrality.

sinistro- (sinistr-)

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sinusoid

sinusoid n. 1. generally, any sine wave form. 2. in audition, see pure tone. —sinusoidal adj.

SIP

SIP 1. abbreviation for Sociedad Interamericana de Psicologia. See Interamerican Society of Psychology. 2. abbreviation for Society of Indian Psychologists.

SIPPA

SIPPA abbreviation for Students of the International Positive Psychology Association. See International Positive Psychology Association.

SIQ

SIQ abbreviation for Sport Imagery Questionnaire.

SIS

SIS 1. abbreviation for sensory-information store. See sensory memory. 2. abbreviation for Stigma Impact Scale.

sissy behavior

sissy behavior slang for effeminate behavior in boys, which is often a source of ridicule by others. See role confusion; tomboyism.

SIT

SIT 1. abbreviation for Slosson Intelligence Test. 2. abbreviation for Smell Identification Test. 3. abbreviation for stress-inoculation training.

situated cognition

situated cognition cognition seen as inextricable from the context in which it is applied. From this, it follows that intelligence also cannot be separated from its context of application (situated intelligence). See also street intelligence.

situated identity theory

situated identity theory the theory that individuals take on different roles in different social and cultural settings, so that a person’s behavior pattern may shift radically according to the situation and the others with whom he or she is interacting. [proposed in 1981 by U.S. sociologists C. Norman Alexander Jr. (1939–1989) and Mary Glenn Wiley]

situated intelligence

situated intelligence see situated cognition.

situated knowledge

situated knowledge knowledge that is embedded in, and thus affected by, the concrete historical, cultural, linguistic, and value context of the knowing person. The term is used most frequently in perspectives arising from social constructionism, radical feminism, and postmodernism to emphasize their view that absolute, universal knowledge is impossible. It sometimes carries the further implication that social, cultural, and historical factors will constrain the process of knowledge construction itself. To the extent that knowledge is situated, it is difficult to avoid some kind of epistemological relativism.

situated learning

situated learning learning that occurs in specific physical and social contexts (e.g., in a classroom). Knowledge learning may be facilitated when people interact within the setting or if they interact with the physical setting (e.g., when map learning occurs in the actual physical space being studied). However, situated learning may be less meaningful than other types of learning if it does not transcend the particular situation in which it was acquired (see context-specific learning).

situation

situation n. one or more circumstances, conditions, states, or entities in the environment that have the potential to exert causal influences on an individual’s behavior. To social psychologists, the term commonly refers to the real or imagined presence of other persons, but it can also refer to the physical environment or to more abstract qualities (e.g., deadlines imposed by a supervisor or different motivational orientations). A central belief among social psychologists is that situations affect behavior, often powerfully so and often without the person’s awareness of such influence. Attention to the situation as a cause of behavior is commonly linked to Kurt Lewin’s famous dictum B = f(P, E), postulating that all behavior is a function of the person and the environment, although the strict separability of these two factors into independent causal forces is questionable.

situation awareness

situation awareness conscious knowledge of the immediate environment and the events that are occurring in it. Situation awareness involves perception of the elements in the environment, comprehension of what they mean and how they relate to one another, and projection of their future states. In ergonomics, for example, it refers to the operator’s awareness of the current status and the anticipated future status of a system. Situation awareness is influenced by a number of factors, including stress; it may be impaired by cognitive tunneling or social tunneling. Compare ambient awareness; vigilance.

situation ethics

situation ethics the view that the morality or immorality of an action must be evaluated within the context of a given situation as interpreted according to some ethical norms. Compare moral absolutism; moral relativism.

situation sampling

situation sampling the observation of individuals in several real-life situations—as opposed to experimental situations—as part of the study of their behavior.

situation test

situation test a test that places an individual in a natural setting, or in an experimental setting that approximates a natural one, to assess either the individual’s ability to solve a problem that requires adaptive behavior under stressful conditions or the individual’s reactions to what is believed to be a stressful experience. For example, a course of desensitization therapy aimed at reducing phobic reactions might begin with a situation test in which the individual encounters the phobic object. The individual’s reactions are then assessed and considered in relation to his or her needs or a specific therapy program. Also called situational test.

situational approach

situational approach see contingency model.

situational attribution

situational attribution the ascription of one’s own or another’s behavior, an event, or an outcome to causes outside the person concerned, such as luck, pressure from other people, or external circumstances. Also called environmental attribution; external attribution. Compare dispositional attribution.

situational conditions

situational conditions all the relevant external variables within a setting that influence individual behavior. Situational conditions in a classroom setting, for example, include the variables affecting student learning and achievement: physical environment, teaching methods, time factors, goals, organization of material, methods of testing, consequences of performance, type of reinforcement, and social relationships.

situational determinant

situational determinant an environmental condition that exists before and after an organism’s response and influences the elicitation of this behavior. It is one of the four variables considered in behavioral analysis. See SORC.

situational differences

situational differences any distinction arising from environmental characteristics, as opposed to individual differences. For example, in a study of men and women in social settings versus business settings, the amount of positive emotion displayed by the participants may be explained not only by gender (e.g., females tending to exhibit more positive emotion) but also by the situation (more positive emotions in a social setting regardless of whether the participant is male or female).

situational homosexuality

situational homosexuality same-sex sexual behavior that develops in a situation or environment in which the opportunity for heterosexual activity is missing and close contact with individuals of the same sex occurs, such as a prison, school, or military setting where individuals are living together, segregated according to their sex. Once away from this setting, the person typically returns to heterosexual activity.

situational interview

situational interview an employment interview in which applicants for a job are presented with scenarios and asked what they would do in those situations. Their potential to perform the job is then evaluated using behaviorally anchored rating scales.

situational judgment test (SJT)

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situational leadership theory

situational leadership theory a contingency theory of leadership suggesting that successful leaders use varying amounts of directive (task-motivated) and supportive (relationship-motivated) leadership, depending on the job maturity (e.g., experience, ability, knowledge) and psychological maturity (e.g., level of motivation, willingness to accept responsibility) of followers. [proposed by U.S. management theorists Paul Hersey (1931–2012) and Kenneth H. Blanchard (1939– )]

situational psychosis

situational psychosis a severe but temporary reaction to a traumatic event or situation (such as imprisonment) involving symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. Also called reactive psychosis; traumagenic psychosis.

situational restraint

situational restraint the use of environmental features (e.g., screens on windows, immovable furniture), as opposed to physical restraint of an individual, to minimize the risk of dangerous or destructive acts by patients with mental or emotional problems.

situational semantics

situational semantics a branch of semantics holding that the meaning of utterances, particularly their truth value, must be understood by considering not only the correspondence of the utterance to what is actually the case in the world but also the situation in which the utterance is made. A major implication of this notion is that truth is situational and that language expresses primarily situations rather than transituational facts. This view is related to social constructionism, postmodernism, and some species of feminism.

situational test

situational test see situation test.

situationalism

situationalism n. see situationism.

situationally bound panic attack

situationally bound panic attack see cued panic attack.

situationally predisposed panic attack

situationally predisposed panic attack a panic attack that occurs in response to a specific situational trigger but is not invariably induced by it. Compare cued panic attack; uncued panic attack.

situationism

situationism n. the view that an organism’s interaction with the environment and situational factors, rather than personal characteristics and other internal factors, are the primary determinants of behavior. Also called situationalism. [proposed by Kurt Lewin]

SITUTs

SITUTs acronym for stimulus-independent and task-unrelated thoughts. See mind wandering.

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

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sixth cranial nerve

sixth cranial nerve see abducens nerve.

sixth sense

sixth sense 1. in general language, an intuition or instinct that enables a person to make a correct judgment or decision without conscious use of the five senses or normal cognitive processes. 2. in parapsychology, the ostensible sensory modality responsible for mediating the phenomena of extrasensory perception (ESP). Some consider the term to be a synonym for ESP. See psi.

size constancy

size constancy the ability to perceive an object as being the same size despite the fact that the size of its retinal image changes depending on its distance from the observer. It is a type of perceptual constancy.

size cue

size cue any of a variety of means used by the visual system to interpret the apparent size of a stimulus. These include the size of the retinal image, the relationship of the object to others in the visual field, depth cues, and size constancy.

size discrimination

size discrimination the ability to distinguish differences in the sizes of objects.

size principle

size principle the principle that the order of recruitment of motor neurons serving a particular muscle is related to their size: To produce muscle responses of increasing strength, small, low-threshold neurons are recruited first, and large, high-threshold neurons are recruited last.

size-invariant neuron

size-invariant neuron see location-invariant neuron.

size–distance paradox

size–distance paradox an illusion that an object is bigger or smaller than it actually is, caused by a false perception of its distance from the viewer. For example, in the so-called moon illusion, the moon appears to be larger on the horizon, where depth cues (e.g., ocean, trees) make it appear to be farther away, than at its zenith, where there are no depth cues. Also called distance paradox.

size–weight illusion

size–weight illusion the tendency to judge density when trying to judge weight; a person may be influenced by the size of an object and thus perceive a large object as weighing less than an equally heavy but smaller, denser object. Also called Charpentier’s illusion.

Sjögren–Larsson syndrome

Sjögren–Larsson syndrome an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by scaly skin, spasticity, and intellectual disability, caused by several different genetic factors. Sweat glands are sparse or deficient. The scaliness varies in specific cases among populations from different regions of the world. [reported in 1957 by Torsten Sjögren (1896–1974), Swedish physician, and Tage Konrad Leopold Larsson (1905–1998), Swedish scientist]

Sjögren’s syndrome

Sjögren’s syndrome see xerophthalmia. [Henrik S. C. Sjögren (1899–1986), Swedish ophthalmologist]

SJT

SJT abbreviation for situational judgment test.

skeletal age

skeletal age a measure of the degree to which a skeleton has matured. Skeletal age can be the same as, more than, or less than chronological age.

skeletal muscle

skeletal muscle a muscle that provides the force to move a part of the skeleton. Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones by tendons and usually span a joint, so that one end of the muscle is attached via a tendon to one bone and the other end is attached to another bone. Skeletal muscles work in reciprocal pairs (see antagonistic muscles) so that a bone can be moved in opposite directions. Skeletal muscle is composed of numerous slender, tapering muscle fibers, each of which is bounded by a membrane (sarcolemma) and contains cytoplasm (sarcoplasm). Within the sarcoplasm are the longitudinal contractile fibrils (myofibrils), organized into arrays (sarcomeres) that give a striped appearance when viewed microscopically. Contraction of skeletal muscle is typically under voluntary control of the central nervous system. Each muscle fiber is stimulated to contract by nerve impulses conducted along a motor neuron and transmitted to the fiber via a neuromuscular junction. A single neuron may activate from several up to hundreds of muscle fibers. Also called striated muscle; voluntary muscle. Compare cardiac muscle; smooth muscle.

skelic index

skelic index the ratio between length of the legs and length of the trunk. This index is used in anthropometry.

skeptical postmodernism

skeptical postmodernism a perspective within postmodernism that is particularly reluctant to grant any foundations for meaning or morality. From such a perspective it is difficult to see why any political system or ideology should be thought preferable to any other, or how the idea of social progress can have any meaning. Skeptical postmodernism is often contrasted with affirmative postmodernism.

skepticism

skepticism n. 1. an attitude of questioning, disbelief, or doubt. 2. in philosophy, the position that certainty in knowledge can never be achieved. David Hume made skepticism a cornerstone of his system and provoked much later discussion when he taught that sensory experience provides no sure basis for knowledge of the external world and that nothing can be proved by observation. Causation, for example, is only an inference that relates two observed events, and one has no knowledge that this relationship will apply in similar cases; it is a generalization that could be proved wrong by a different result. In modern philosophy, postmodernism, poststructuralism, and deconstruction are essentially systems of skepticism. —skeptic n. —skeptical adj.

skewness

skewness n. the degree to which a set of scores, measurements, or other numbers are asymmetrically distributed around a central point. A normal frequency distribution of data is shaped like a bell, with equal values for each of its three indices of central tendency—the mean, the median, and the mode. Approximately 68% of the scores lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean and approximately 95% of the scores lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean. When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the high end relative to the low end (e.g., when a test is difficult and few test takers do well), it has a positive skew (or is positively skewed), such that the mean is greater than the mode. When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the low end relative to the high end (e.g., when a test is easy and most test takers do well), it has a negative skew (or is negatively skewed).

skill

skill n. an ability or proficiency acquired through training and practice. Motor skills are characterized by the ability to perform a complex movement or serial behavior quickly, smoothly, and precisely. Skills in other learned tasks include basic skills, communication skills, and social skills.

skill learning

skill learning learning to perform a task with proficiency, as defined by ease, speed, and accuracy of performance, acquired through extensive practice. Skills may be motor, perceptual, cognitive, or a combination of these (as in reading and playing music). See also three-stage theory.

skill theory

skill theory the proposition that cognitive development is the result of a dynamic interaction between the individual and the environment. According to this theory, a skill (or dynamic skill) is the capacity to act in an organized way in a specific context, and in order for a skill to be developed to its optimal level, it must be exercised in the most supportive of environments. Also called dynamic skill theory. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Kurt W. Fischer (1943– )]

skilled nursing facility (SNF)

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skimming

skimming n. a rapid, somewhat superficial, reading of material to get the general idea of the content. —skim vb.

skin

skin n. the external covering of the body, consisting of an outer layer (epidermis) and a deeper layer (dermis) resting on a layer of fatty subcutaneous tissue. The skin is well supplied with nerves and blood vessels and forms an effective yet sensitive barrier that prevents the entry of foreign substances and pathogens into the body. It defends against injury to underlying tissues, reduces water loss from the body, and forms part of the body’s temperature-regulation mechanism through the evaporation of sweat secreted from sweat glands. Human skin typically has only a sparse covering of hair, except on the head and genital regions, and the hair has minimal value as insulation, although it is often highly significant in social terms. In humans, insulation is provided mainly by the subcutaneous adipose tissue. The root of each hair arises from a hair follicle, into which the ducts of sebaceous glands discharge sebum, an oily secretion that lubricates and waterproofs the skin surface. Various types of sensory nerve endings provide the skin with touch and pressure sensitivity, as well as sensations of pain and temperature (see cutaneous receptor).

skin conductance

skin conductance the degree to which the skin transmits a small electric current between two electrodes, changes in which are typically used to measure a person’s level of arousal or energy mobilization (see galvanic skin response). In contrast to other autonomically mediated indices, skin conductance rarely shows relations to specific emotional states, such as fear or anger, responding instead to level of arousal. The mechanism of skin conductance is not fully known: It seems to be related to the electrical activity of sweat glands but not to sweating itself. Compare skin resistance.

skin graft

skin graft a piece of skin, either of full thickness or split (i.e., partial) thickness, surgically applied to wounds to facilitate healing. Skin grafts can conform to irregular wounds and concavities.

skin popping

skin popping slang for the injection of a substance containing an opioid—usually heroin—under the skin, as opposed to mainlining (i.e., injecting into a vein).

skin receptor

skin receptor see cutaneous receptor.

skin resistance

skin resistance the opposition of the skin to the passage of an electric current. This electrodermal property is measured by applying a small external charge (e.g., 1.0 V) across two electrodes placed at different points on the palm, hand, or other area and recording how much of the current passes between the electrodes; the measurement is then converted into micro-ohms (or microamperes) to provide the degree to which the skin resists the flow of electricity. The baseline or minimum level of electrical skin resistance in an individual in a resting state is called basal skin resistance. Sometimes used in research as a physiological marker of arousal, and more controversially in polygraph examinations as a manifestation of deception and various emotional states, skin resistance is the reciprocal of skin conductance. See also galvanic skin response.

skin sense

skin sense see cutaneous sense.

skin stimulation

skin stimulation a cutaneous sensation experienced as pain, pressure, coldness, warmth, tickling, or itching through nerve receptors in the skin.

skin-picking disorder

skin-picking disorder see excoriation (skin-picking) disorderexcoriation-skin-picking-disorder.

Skinner box

Skinner box see operant conditioning chamber. [initially developed by B. F. Skinner]

sl

sl abbreviation for sublingual.

SLD

SLD abbreviation for specific learning disability.

SLE

SLE abbreviation for systemic lupus erythematosus.

sleep

sleep n. a circadian state characterized by partial or total suspension of consciousness, voluntary muscle inhibition, and relative insensitivity to stimulation. Other characteristics include unique sleep-related electroencephalogram and brain-imaging patterns (see sleep stages). These characteristics help distinguish normal sleep from a loss of consciousness due to brain injury, disease, or drugs. See also NREM sleep; REM sleep.

sleep apnea

sleep apnea the temporary cessation of breathing while asleep, which occurs when the upper airway briefly becomes blocked (obstructive sleep apnea) or when the respiratory centers in the brain fail to stimulate respiration (central sleep apnea). It can cause severe daytime sleepiness, and evidence is building that untreated severe sleep apnea may be associated with high blood pressure and risk for stroke and heart attack. See also breathing-related sleep disorder.

sleep attack

sleep attack see narcolepsy.

sleep center

sleep center an obsolete name for an area in the hypothalamus formerly thought to control sleep. It has now been shown that no single area of the brain governs the sleep–wake cycle; rather, multiple areas, including the hypothalamus and reticular activating system, have been implicated in its regulation. See also waking center.

sleep cycle

sleep cycle a recurring pattern of sleep stages in which a period of slow-wave sleep is followed by a period of REM sleep. In humans, a sleep cycle lasts approximately 90 minutes.

sleep deprivation

sleep deprivation the condition of getting insufficient sleep. This may occur as a result of illness, shift work, or lifestyle considerations (e.g., having a newborn, staying up late to study). It may also be induced for experimental or interrogation purposes. Studies show that the loss of one night’s sleep has a substantial effect on physical or mental functioning; participants score significantly lower on tests of judgment and simple reaction time and show impairments in daytime alertness and memory. Sleep loss also may be detrimental to the immune and endocrine systems. See also REM-sleep deprivation.

sleep disorder

sleep disorder a persistent disturbance of typical sleep patterns (including the amount, quality, and timing of sleep) or the chronic occurrence of abnormal events or behavior during sleep. In DSM–IV–TR, sleep disorders are broadly classified according to apparent cause, which may be endogenous or conditioning factors (primary sleep disorders), another mental disorder, a medical condition, or substance use. Primary sleep disorders are subdivided into dyssomnias and parasomnias. DSM–5, which encompasses sleep disturbances under the rubric sleep–wake disorders, eliminates sleep disorders related to another mental disorder and to a general medical condition as distinct entities in order to avoid making causal assumptions about comorbid disorders. A classification system introduced in 1979 by the Association of Sleep Disorders Centers groups sleep disorders according to individuals’ presenting symptoms: disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep; disorders of excessive somnolence; disorders of the sleep–wake cycle schedule; and dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals.

sleep disorientation

sleep disorientation see confusional arousal.

sleep drive

sleep drive the basic physiological urge to sleep, which varies throughout the day but typically is strongest (for adults) between 2 to 4 a.m. and between 1 to 3 p.m. It appears to be governed in part by the hypothalamus and the reticular activating system.

sleep drunkenness

sleep drunkenness see confusional arousal.

sleep efficiency

sleep efficiency 1. the ratio of total time asleep to total time in bed, which is therefore a measure of insomnia. 2. more generally, the amount of restorative sleep one gets, as indexed by one’s cognitive functioning on the following day.

sleep enuresis

sleep enuresis see bed-wetting.

sleep epilepsy

sleep epilepsy 1. a type of epilepsy in which seizures occur exclusively or predominantly during sleep. 2. a former name for narcolepsy.

sleep hygiene

sleep hygiene techniques for the behavioral treatment of insomnia that involve instructions given to the client to follow certain routines aimed at improving sleep patterns. Typical recommendations include using the bed only for sleeping and sex (e.g., the client is instructed not to read in bed), not napping during the day, decreasing caffeine intake or eliminating it after a certain point in the day, going to bed regularly at a set time, and keeping a sleep diary.

sleep inversion

sleep inversion a tendency to sleep or be somnolent by day and to remain awake at night.

sleep laboratory

sleep laboratory a research facility designed to monitor patterns of activity during sleep, such as eye movement, breathing abnormalities, heartbeat, brain waves, and muscle tone. Sleep laboratories are typically found in neurology departments in hospitals and universities or in sleep disorder clinics.

sleep latency

sleep latency the amount of time it takes for an individual to fall asleep once the attempt to do so is made. Sleep latency is measured in the diagnosis of sleep disorders. Sleeping pills (e.g., benzodiazepines) are designed to decrease sleep latency so that the individual can fall asleep more quickly.

sleep learning

sleep learning the learning of material presented while one is asleep. The possibility of true sleep learning is still a controversial issue. Simple learning, such as classical conditioning, may occur during sleep; more complex learning, such as the acquisition of a foreign language, has not been reliably demonstrated.

sleep paralysis

sleep paralysis brief inability to move or speak just before falling asleep or upon awakening, often accompanied by terrifying hallucinations. It may occur in any individual but is seen especially in individuals with narcolepsy and may be due to a temporary dysfunction of the reticular activating system.

sleep pattern

sleep pattern a habitual, individual pattern of sleep, such as two 4-hour periods, daytime napping, various forms of insomnia (e.g., initial or intermittent insomnia), or excessive sleep. See also sleep–wake cycle.

sleep psychology

sleep psychology a synonym of behavioral sleep medicine used when the practitioner is a professionally licensed psychologist.

Sleep Questionnaire and Assessment of Wakefulness (SQAW)

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sleep recovery

sleep recovery sleeping more than usual after a period of sleep deprivation, as though in compensation.

sleep rhythm

sleep rhythm see sleep–wake cycle.

sleep spindles

sleep spindles regular sinusoidal electroencephalographic oscillations that rise and fall in amplitude in the shape of symmetrical hairpins or spindles during Stage 2 NREM sleep (see sleep stages). Spindles have a frequency of about 15 Hz and are believed to indicate a state of light sleep. They are often seen with K complexes.

sleep stages

sleep stages the stages of nocturnal sleep as distinguished by physiological measures, mainly scalp electroencephalography. Typically, a regular pattern of occipital alpha waves characteristic of a relaxed state becomes intermittent in Stage 1 sleep, which marked by drowsiness with upward-rolling eye movements. This progresses to Stage 2 sleep (light sleep), characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes. In Stage 3 sleep and Stage 4 sleep (deep sleep), delta waves predominate (see slow-wave sleep). These four stages comprise NREM sleep and are interspersed with periods of REM sleep, when most dreaming occurs. After a period of deep sleep, an individual may return to either light sleep or REM sleep, and the cycle can recur multiple times over a normal night.

sleep talking

sleep talking verbalization during sleep, either in the form of mumbling or coherent speech. It usually occurs during NREM sleep, and the sleeper is sometimes responsive to questions or commands. It is generally not considered pathological and occurs at one time or another in most people. Also called somniloquy.

sleep terror disorder

sleep terror disorder a sleep disorder characterized by repeated episodes of abrupt awakening from NREM sleep accompanied by signs of disorientation, extreme panic, and intense anxiety. More intense than nightmares and occurring during the first few hours of sleep, these episodes typically last between 1 and 10 minutes and involve screaming and symptoms of autonomic arousal, such as profuse perspiration, dilated pupils, rapid breathing, and a rapidly beating heart. The individual is difficult to wake or comfort and does not have detailed recall of the dream upon waking; complete loss of memory for the episode is common. The disorder occurs most often in children and generally resolves itself during adolescence. In adults, it is often associated with psychopathology and a more chronic course. Also called night terror. See also parasomnia.

sleep-onset insomnia

sleep-onset insomnia see initial insomnia.

sleep-related hypoventilation

sleep-related hypoventilation see breathing-related sleep disorder.

sleep–wake cycle

sleep–wake cycle the natural, brain-controlled bodily rhythm that results in alternate periods of sleep and wakefulness. The sleep–wake cycle may be disrupted by a number of factors, such as flight across time zones, shift work, drug use, or stress (see circadian rhythm sleep disorder; disorders of the sleep–wake cycle schedule). Also called sleep rhythm; sleep–wakefulness cycle. See also monophasic sleep; polyphasic sleep.

sleep–wake disorder

sleep–wake disorder see sleep disorder.

sleep–wake schedule disorder

sleep–wake schedule disorder see circadian rhythm sleep disorder.

sleeper effect

sleeper effect the finding that the impact of a persuasive message increases over time. This effect is most likely to occur when a person carefully scrutinizes a message with relatively strong arguments and then subsequently receives a discounting cue (i.e., some piece of information suggesting that the message should be disregarded). The discounting cue weakens the initial impact of the message, but if the cue and the arguments in the message are not well integrated in memory, the cue may gradually be forgotten. If this occurs, the impact of the arguments will be greater at a later point in time than they were at the time of their initial presentation.

sleepiness

sleepiness n. see somnolence.

sleeping sickness

sleeping sickness an infection found only in tropical Africa; it is caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus Trypanosoma (T. gambiense and T. rhodesiense), which are transmitted by the bite of infected tsetse flies. Initial symptoms include fever, headaches, sweating, and swollen lymph nodes, progressing—upon inflammation of the brain and its protective membranes (see meninges)—to lethargy, excessive sleepiness (see hypersomnia), and confusion. If untreated, sleeping sickness can result in coma and eventually death. Also called African trypanosomiasis.

sleeplessness

sleeplessness n. see insomnia.

sleepwalking disorder

sleepwalking disorder a sleep disorder characterized by persistent incidents of complex motor activity during slow-wave NREM sleep. These episodes typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking, although the individual may also perform more complicated tasks, such as eating, talking, or operating machinery. While in this state, the individual stares blankly, is essentially unresponsive, and can be awakened only with great difficulty; he or she does not remember the episode upon waking. Also called noctambulation; somnambulism. See also parasomnia.

SLI

SLI abbreviation for specific language impairment.

slice-of-life commercial

slice-of-life commercial see nonovert appeal.

slip

slip n. an error, such as a slip of the tongue, that is committed unintentionally, even while knowing that it is an error. It implies a momentary loss of deliberate control. See parapraxis.

slip of the pen

slip of the pen see Freudian slip; parapraxis.

slip of the tongue

slip of the tongue a minor error in speech, such as a spoonerism, that is episodic and not related to a speech disorder or a stage of second-language acquisition. Psychoanalysts have long been interested in the significance of such slips, referring to them as Freudian slips and believing them to reveal unconscious associations, motivations, or wishes. Also called lapsus linguae; speech error. See also parapraxis; verbal leakage.

slippage

slippage n. see cognitive slippage.

slipped disk

slipped disk a condition in which the gelatinous interior of an intervertebral disk is pushed through a weakened portion of its fibrous coating, pressing on adjacent nerve roots and associated structures. This causes pain in the back, leg, or arm, depending on the position of the disk and the nerve involved, and sometimes nerve damage (resulting in numbness, weakness, etc.). The sciatic nerve is most commonly affected. The medical name for this condition is prolapsed intervertebral disk.

slit viewing

slit viewing see anorthoscopic perception.

slope

slope n. the steepness or slant of a line on a graph, measured as the change of value on the y-axis associated with a change of one unit of value on the x-axis. In a regression equation, slope is represented by the variable b, with +b indicating an upward slope to the line and −b indicating a downward slope. See also acceleration.

Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT)

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slow euthanasia

slow euthanasia in the debate over assisted death, a controversial term that refers to the practice of palliative sedation, whereby a terminally ill person is heavily sedated with opiates in the final hours or days of life. Critics claim this practice is an act of active euthanasia as the sedation is likely to hasten death. In response, proponents of the practice have used the principle of double effect to argue that there is no intent to hasten death but only to provide comfort and relieve suffering.

slow learner

slow learner a child of lower-than-average intelligence. Such children are so designated despite the fact that a somewhat lower-than-average IQ does not necessarily imply slow learning. Slow learners are estimated at 15% to 17% of the average school population. They do not show marked variations from physical, social, and emotional norms and are usually placed in regular classes. The term slow learner is often imprecisely applied to children with mild intellectual disability as well as to children of normal capacity whose intellectual progress is slow.

slow muscle fiber

slow muscle fiber a type of muscle fiber found in skeletal muscle that contracts slowly and is resistant to fatigue. Compare fast muscle fiber.

slow wave

slow wave see delta wave.

slow-release preparation

slow-release preparation a drug preparation that is formulated in such a way that the active ingredient is released over an extended period. For example, drugs may be administered in the form of transdermal patches applied to the skin, through which they slowly release their contents; or as extended-release capsules, which contain quantities of the active drug surrounded by separate coatings that dissolve at different rates in the stomach and intestines. Injectable slow-release forms (depot preparations) are often oil based; these are taken up into fat stores in the body and released over extended periods of days to weeks. Also called extended-release preparation; sustained-release preparation.

slow-wave sleep

slow-wave sleep deep sleep that is characterized by increasing percentages of particular types of delta waves on the electroencephalogram, corresponding to Stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep. See also sleep stages.

slowdown

slowdown n. a tactic in which employees seeking workplace change put pressure on management by intentionally slowing production to levels that are costly to the company but not in violation of contractual agreements.

Sly syndrome

Sly syndrome see beta-glucuronidase deficiency.

SM

SM abbreviation for secondary memory.

SMA

SMA 1. abbreviation for spinal muscular atrophy. 2. abbreviation for supplementary motor area.

small for gestational age (SGA)

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smallest space analysis

smallest space analysis (SSA) a statistical technique for creating a visual representation of data, in which more closely correlated variables are grouped together. Smallest space refers to the fewest number of geometric dimensions (e.g., one dimension may be denoted by a line, two by a square, three by a cube) by which a body of data may be adequately represented. Similar in purpose to factor analysis and principal components analysis, smallest space analysis may be applied to the assessment of objects, persons, attitudes, test constructs, and other similar variables.

Smalltalk

Smalltalk n. one of the first object-oriented computer languages, designed at Xerox in the 1970s. The name was chosen because the language was designed to be a communication medium for children. Window systems and mouse-driven control eventually emerged from this early research project.

SMART

SMART acronym for Sensory Modality Assessment and Rehabilitation Technique. See vegetative state.

smart house

smart house a home that contains numerous devices that can be programmed to perform tasks automatically or be integrated into a single system controlled by a user through one unit. For example, a door can be programmed to unlock automatically whenever a smoke detector sounds in the home, or a light can be turned on and off with a remote control rather than a light switch. Smart house technology can also incorporate elaborate systems and sensors that monitor household equipment, such as appliances and heating and cooling systems, as well as the activities of occupants, often providing alerts to individuals or external agencies as necessary. Such homes are especially important to older adults and individuals with disabilities because they enable increased independence and enhance quality of life.

smell

smell 1. n. an odor. 2. n. the sense that enables an organism to detect the odors of volatile substances. Molecules of odorant chemicals carried by air currents are absorbed into nasal mucus and stimulate the olfactory receptors, where they are converted to neural messages. See olfaction; olfactory transduction. 3. vb. to detect odor by means of the olfactory system.

smell brain

smell brain see rhinencephalon.

smell compensation

smell compensation the perception of a combination of odorants as less intense than the component odorants.

Smell Identification Test (SIT)

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smell prism

smell prism see Henning’s odor prism.

Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome

Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome an autosomal recessive disorder marked by the inability to produce cholesterol and by microcephaly. Other features may include a broad, short nose; syndactyly (fused digits) or polydactyly (extra digits); and intellectual disability. Nearly all affected males have urethral or other genital anomalies, whereas females have no obvious abnormalities of the external genitalia, a factor that led early investigators to believe erroneously that the syndrome affected only males. This disorder is caused by mutations of the DHCR7 gene. Also called RSH syndrome (from the names of the three affected families originally reported); Smith syndrome. [reported in 1964 by David W. Smith (1926–1981), U.S. pediatrician; Luc Lemli (1935– ), Belgian pediatrician; and John M. Opitz (1935– ), U.S. geneticist]

smoking

smoking n. the act of drawing the smoke of burning tobacco or other substances (e.g., marijuana, crack cocaine) into the mouth or lungs, leading to rapid onset of the drug’s effect.

smoking cessation treatment

smoking cessation treatment interventions to help people quit smoking that typically involve behavioral techniques (e.g., reinforcement), social support, environmental change, and healthy activity substitution (e.g., exercise), sometimes in conjunction with nicotine replacement therapy or other drugs. Group treatment is often offered in community settings.

smooth movement

smooth movement see ramp movement.

smooth muscle

smooth muscle any muscle that is not striated and is under the control of the autonomic nervous system (i.e., it is not under voluntary control). Smooth muscles are able to remain in a contracted state for long periods of time or maintain a pattern of rhythmic contractions indefinitely without fatigue. Smooth muscle is found, for example, in the digestive organs, blood vessels, and the muscles of the eyes. Also called involuntary muscle. Compare cardiac muscle; skeletal muscle.

smooth-pursuit eye movement

smooth-pursuit eye movement a slow, continuous eye movement that is responsive to feedback provided by brain regions involved in processing visual information, thus enabling continuous fixation on a moving object. Compare saccade.

smoothed curve

smoothed curve a graphical representation of the relationship between two variables that has been adjusted to eliminate erratic or sudden changes in slope, so that its fundamental shape and direction will be evident. Also called smooth curve.

smoothing

smoothing n. a collection of techniques used to reduce the irregularities (random variation) in a data set or in a plot (curve) of that data, particularly in time-series analyses, so as to more clearly see the underlying trends. See smoothed curve.

SMR

SMR abbreviation for sensorimotor rhythm.

snake phobia

snake phobia a persistent and irrational fear of snakes, classified as a specific phobia, animal type. Also called ophidiophobia. See also animal phobia.

sneak mating

sneak mating a practice in which male animals that do not form or defend territories or nest sites or do not vocalize or give displays to attract mates intercept females and mate with them before the females reach the larger, more dominant territorial or displaying males. Sneak mating has a low success rate, but it is frequently the only reproductive strategy available to smaller, subordinate males.

Snellen chart

Snellen chart a device for testing visual acuity, consisting of printed letters ranging in size from very small to very large. The observer reads the letters at a given distance. Also called Snellen test. [Herman Snellen (1834–1908), Dutch ophthalmologist]

SNF

SNF abbreviation for skilled nursing facility.

snow

snow n. slang for cocaine or sometimes heroin or amphetamine.

snow blindness

snow blindness a visual distortion caused by exposure to extreme intensities of white light. It is marked by photophobia, an illusion that all objects are red (see chromatopsia), or temporary loss of vision.

snowball sampling

snowball sampling a technique to identify and recruit candidates for a study in which existing participants recommend additional potential participants, who themselves are observed and asked to nominate others, and so on until a sufficient number of participants is obtained. Researchers generally use snowball sampling if the population of interest is hard to locate, rare (e.g., people who have an infrequent condition or disease), or otherwise limited.

SNP

SNP abbreviation for single-nucleotide polymorphism.

SNRI

SNRI serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor: any of a class of antidepressants that exert their therapeutic effects by interfering with the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine by the neurons that released them. They include venlafaxine and duloxetine.

SOA

SOA abbreviation for stimulus onset asynchrony.

SOAP test

SOAP test a test of the ability of individuals with aphasia to understand sentences of varying syntactic complexity: Subject-relative, Object-relative, Active, and Passive. It enables investigators to distinguish between the different types of aphasia.

Soar

Soar n. a cognitive architecture, or a complete computational representation, intended to reflect a comprehensive view of human or machine processing, including input/output devices, the use of appropriate knowledge- and search-based processing, and components that learn. Soar is based on the production system model of human problem solving. See also adaptive production system. [acronym for State, Operator, and Result; created in 1990 by U.S. cognitive and computer scientist Allen Newell (1927–1992)]

sobriety

sobriety n. a state in which one abstains from drinking or taking drugs for a period of time; that is, abstinence.

SOCE

SOCE abbreviation for sexual orientation change efforts. See conversion therapy.

sociability

sociability n. the tendency and accompanying skills to seek out companionship, engage in interpersonal relations, and participate in social activities. —sociable adj.

sociability rating

sociability rating an evaluation of an individual’s degree of sociability based on the amount of time devoted to social activities.

social

social adj. 1. relating to human society. 2. relating to the interactions between individuals, particularly as members of a group or a community. In this sense, the term is not restricted to people but rather applies to all animals.

social (pragmatic) communication disorder

social (pragmatic) communication disorder in DSM–5, a developmental disorder characterized by a child’s difficulties in the social use of language, including impaired ability to use appropriate language in varying situations, to follow conversational rules such as turn taking, and to understand implied or ambiguous meanings, as in metaphors and humor. Such deficits limit the child’s ability to communicate, have friends, and succeed in school.

social acceptance

social acceptance 1. the formal or informal admission of an individual into a group. 2. the absence of social disapproval.

social action

social action 1. individual or group activities directed to achieving benefits for the community or a segment of the population. See also activism; community action group; social movement. 2. any human activity seen in terms of its social context. Thus defined, such activity is the characteristic subject matter of the discipline of sociology.

social action program

social action program a planned and organized effort to change some aspect of society, such as enacting animal rights legislation or initiating improvements in psychiatric hospitals. See also social movement.

social adaptation

social adaptation see adaptation.

social adjustment

social adjustment accommodation to the demands, restrictions, and mores of society, including the ability to live and work with others harmoniously and to engage in satisfying interactions and relationships.

social affective neuroscience

social affective neuroscience see affective neuroscience.

social age (SA)

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social agency

social agency a private or governmental organization that supervises or provides personal services, especially in the fields of health, welfare, and rehabilitation. The general objective of a social agency is to improve the quality of life of its clients.

social anchoring

social anchoring basing one’s attitudes, values, actions, and so forth on the positions taken by others, often to an extreme degree. Anchoring implies an inability to make an independent judgment, whereas social comparison involves assessing one’s position relative to that held by others. See social comparison theory.

social anxiety

social anxiety fear of social situations in which embarrassment may occur (e.g., making conversation, meeting strangers, dating) or there is a risk of being negatively evaluated by others (e.g., seen as stupid, weak, or anxious). Social anxiety involves apprehensiveness about one’s social status, role, and behavior. When the anxiety causes an individual significant distress or impairment in functioning, a diagnosis of social phobia may be warranted.

social anxiety disorder

social anxiety disorder see social phobia.

social approval

social approval positive appraisal and acceptance of someone or something (a behavior, trait, attribute, or the like) by a social group. Its manifestations may include compliments, praise, statements of approbation, and so on. Compare social disapproval.

social ascendancy

social ascendancy see upward mobility.

social assimilation

social assimilation 1. the process by which two or more cultures or cultural groups are gradually merged, although one is likely to remain dominant. 2. the process by which individuals are absorbed into the culture or mores of the dominant group.

social atom

social atom see socius.

social attachment

social attachment see attachment.

social attitude

social attitude 1. a person’s general outlook on social issues and approach to his or her social responsibilities. 2. a person’s general disposition or manner toward other people (e.g., friendly or hostile). 3. an opinion or evaluation shared by a social group.

social behavior

social behavior 1. any action performed by interdependent conspecifics (members of the same species). 2. in humans, an action that is influenced, directly or indirectly, by the actual, imagined, expected, or implied presence of others. 3. any one of a set of behaviors exhibited by gregarious, communal social species, including cooperation, affiliation, altruism, and so on.

social bond

social bond an affective relation between individuals, such as the connection between two friends or the emotional link between family members.

social breakdown syndrome

social breakdown syndrome a symptom pattern observed primarily in institutionalized individuals with chronic mental illness but also in populations such as long-term prisoners and older people. Symptoms include withdrawal, apathy, submissiveness, and progressive social and vocational incompetence. Previously considered to be symptomatic of mental illness, this decline is now attributed to internalized negative stereotypes, such as identification with the sick role and the impact of labeling (see labeling theory); the absence of social support; and institutional factors such as a lack of stimulation, overcrowding, unchanging routine, and disinterest on the part of staff. Also called chronicity; institutionalism; institutional neurosis; social disability syndrome.

social casework

social casework see casework.

social category

social category a group of people defined by social class or other common attributes of a social nature, such as homelessness, gender, race, unemployment, or retirement.

social change

social change any process in which the general structure or character of a society is altered. Social change can be as varied as that occurring during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century or that occurring with the introduction of freer sexual expression in the 20th century. Social change may be the result of impersonal economic and technological forces or determined action by individuals or groups. See also culture change; social evolution; social movement.

social class

social class a major group or division of society having a common level of power and prestige on the basis of a common socioeconomic status. Often, the members of a particular social class share values and have similar cultural interests and social patterns. A popularly used classification divides individuals into an upper class, a middle class (sometimes subdivided into upper middle and lower middle classes), a working class, the working poor, and an underclass.

social climate

social climate the general character of the social milieu in which individuals and groups live; that is, the totality of the prevailing customs, mores, and attitudes that influence their behavior and adjustment.

social climbing

social climbing an attempt to improve one’s social standing by associating with people of a higher social class. It often involves efforts to impress such people, cater to their needs, or both.

social clock

social clock in a given culture, the set of norms governing the ages at which particular life events—such as beginning school, leaving home, getting married, having children, and retiring—are expected to occur.

social code

social code the social rules and standards (e.g., laws) adhered to by a specific community or by society in general.

social cognition

social cognition 1. cognition in which people perceive, think about, interpret, categorize, and judge their own social behaviors and those of others. The study of social cognition involves aspects of both cognitive psychology and social psychology. Major areas of interest include attribution theory, person perception, social influence, and the cognitive processes involved in moral judgments. 2. in animal behavior, the knowledge that an individual has about other members of its social group and the ability to reason about the actions of others based on this knowledge. In vervet monkeys, for example, after an individual in matriline (matrilineal line of descent) A attacks an individual in matriline B, other members of B are more likely to attack members in A.

social cohesion

social cohesion see group cohesion.

social communication disorder

social communication disorder see social (pragmatic) communicaton disordersocial-pragmatic-communicaton-disorder.

social comparison theory

social comparison theory the proposition that people evaluate their abilities and attitudes in relation to those of others in a process that plays a significant role in self-image and subjective well-being. Three types of social comparison are proposed in the theory: (a) upward social comparison, or comparing oneself with someone judged to be better than oneself (e.g., by having more wealth or material goods, higher social standing, greater physical attractiveness); (b) downward social comparison, or comparing oneself with someone judged to be not as good as oneself; and (c) lateral social comparison, or comparing oneself with another who is considered to be more or less equal. Traditionally, social comparison theory has held that upward comparisons promote a sense of inferiority and thus are associated with negative changes in self-concept (the contrast effect), but recent research suggests that, depending on the circumstances, upward comparisons instead may promote inspiration and be associated with positive changes in self-concept (the assimilation effect). For example, people tend to rate their abilities higher when they maintain a close relationship with a target of upward comparison but lower when the target is distant or disliked. The way people compare themselves with others (their comparison group or reference group) was originally described by Leon Festinger in 1954.

social competence

social competence effectiveness or skill in interpersonal relations and social situations, increasingly considered an important component of mental health. Social competence involves the ability to evaluate social situations and determine what is expected or required; to recognize the feelings and intentions of others; and to select social behaviors that are most appropriate for that given context. It is important to note, however, that what is required and appropriate for effective social functioning is likely to vary across settings.

social competence program

social competence program a type of intervention that seeks to foster positive relationships and enhance identity and self-concept. Often implemented in preschool and elementary school classrooms, social competence programs generally include video sequences and vignettes, interactive exercises, self-assessments, and other activities intended to improve participants’ awareness of their feelings as well as their abilities in communication, self-control, conflict resolution, and problem solving.

social conflict

social conflict interpersonal disagreement or discord. See conflict.

social constructionism

social constructionism the epistemological position, associated mainly with postmodernism, that any supposed knowledge of reality (e.g., that claimed by science or that provided by concepts such as good and bad) is in fact a construct of language, culture, and society that has no objective or universal validity. That is, knowledge is contingent on humanity’s collective social self rather than on any inherent qualities that items or ideas possess. Social constructionists thus seek to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived reality by looking at how various phenomena are created, understood, and accepted by the social institutions and contexts in which they exist. See also situated knowledge.

social constructivism

social constructivism the school of thought that recognizes knowledge as embedded in social context and sees human thoughts, feelings, language, and behavior as the result of interchanges with the external world. Social constructivism argues that there is no separation between subjectivity and objectivity and that the dichotomy between the person and the situation is false: The person is intimately and intricately bound within social, cultural, and historical forces and cannot be understood fully without consideration of these social forces. According to social constructivism, not only knowledge but reality itself is created in an interactive process and thus people are solely what their society shapes them to be.

social contagion

social contagion the spread of behaviors, attitudes, and affect through crowds and other types of social aggregates from one member to another. Early analyses of social contagion suggested that it resulted from the heightened suggestibility of members and likened the process to the spread of contagious diseases. Subsequent studies suggest that social contagion is sustained by relatively mundane interpersonal processes, such as imitation, conformity, universality, and mimicry. Also called group contagion. See also behavioral contagion; emotional contagion; mass contagion.

social context

social context the specific circumstance or general environment that serves as a social framework for individual or interpersonal behavior. This context frequently influences, at least to some degree, the actions and feelings that occur within it.

social contract

social contract in political theory, the idea that society is based on an unwritten agreement whereby individuals willingly surrender some of their natural freedoms to obtain the greater security and other benefits that follow from government and the rule of law. The classic formulations of social contract theory are those of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Swiss-born French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), each of whom developed it in a very different way: For Hobbes, the social contract justified autocracy as the only bulwark against anarchy; for Locke, it permitted the removal of unjust or arbitrary rulers; for Rousseau, it required the voluntary subjection of the individual to the “general will” of society.

social contract orientation

social contract orientation see postconventional level.

social control

social control the power of the institutions, organizations, and laws of society to influence or regulate the behavior of individuals and groups. For example, a person may internalize the values and beliefs of his or her religion and act accordingly; similarly, a person may avoid stealing for fear of being caught by the police and punished (e.g., with fines or incarceration). The human tendency to conform increases the power of social institutions to shape behavior.

social convention

social convention any of various established rules, methods, procedures, and practices that have been accepted as guides for social conduct over a relatively long period. Often unwritten, arbitrary, and self-perpetuating, social conventions usually pertain to relatively mundane aspects of society, such as etiquette, social ceremonies, and decorum. See also social norm.

social coping

social coping any interpersonally based stress-management strategy. A person using this type of coping style seeks support from family members, friends, or formal service providers to help him or her through a difficult event or situation.

social creativity

social creativity the tendency, described in social identity theory, to draw comparisons between the ingroup and other groups in domains in which the ingroup is more successful, and to avoid making any comparisons in areas in which other groups surpass the ingroup.

social Darwinism

social Darwinism the now discredited theory that social relations develop according to the principles of natural selection advanced by Charles Darwin. As articulated by Herbert Spencer and others, the theory proposed that societies evolve through survival of the fittest, the fittest being defined as those with wealth, power, and “natural” superiority in the struggle for existence. With its legitimizing of social, economic, and racial inequality, social Darwinism became a major ideological vehicle for justifying laissez-faire economics, imperialism, and eugenics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

social death

social death 1. a pattern of group behavior that ignores the presence or existence of a person within the group. Social death occurs in situations in which verbal and nonverbal communication would be expected to include all participants but in which one or more individuals are excluded. See shunning; ostracism. 2. the social effect of individuals’ reactions to a living person as if he or she is dead, as sometimes seen among people in the presence of a comatose patient or someone with severe dementia.

social decision scheme

social decision scheme a strategy or rule used in a group to select a single alternative from among various alternatives proposed and discussed during the group’s deliberations. These schemes are sometimes explicitly acknowledged by the group, as when a formal tally of those favoring the alternative is taken and the proposal is accepted only when a certain proportion approve of it, but are sometimes implicit and informal, as when a group accepts the alternative that its most powerful members seem to favor.

social deficit

social deficit inability, unwillingness, or poor judgment in the performance of social activities commensurate with chronological age, intelligence, or physical condition. Such a deficit is presumed to reduce a person’s ability to obtain social support and is therefore a target of treatment, especially in behavior therapy and with severely disturbed individuals.

social degeneracy

social degeneracy a condition in which social structures and behavioral norms no longer function constructively.

social density

social density 1. density that can be changed by altering the number of individuals per given unit of space. Social density is a major determinant of crowding, and there is evidence that it has a more powerful effect on human response than spatial density. 2. the number of interpersonal interactions that are likely to occur in a given space. See also proxemics.

social deprivation

social deprivation 1. limited access to society’s resources due to poverty, discrimination, or other disadvantage. See cultural deprivation. 2. lack of adequate opportunity for social experience.

social desirability

social desirability 1. the extent to which someone or something (a trait, attribute, or the like) is admired or considered valuable within a social group. 2. the bias or tendency of individuals to present themselves in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. In an experiment, for example, it manifests as the social desirability response set, which is the tendency of participants to give answers that are in accordance with social norms or the perceived desires of the researcher rather than genuinely representative of their views. This is a confound to be controlled for in certain research, as it often reduces the validity of interviews, questionnaires, and other self-reports. See impression management; Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale.

social determinism

social determinism the theory or doctrine that individual behaviors are determined by societal events and other interpersonal experiences. See also cultural determinism; determinism.

social development

social development the gradual acquisition of certain skills (e.g., language, interpersonal skills), attitudes, relationships, and behavior that enable the individual to interact with others and to function as a member of society.

social differentiation

social differentiation the process by which a status hierarchy develops within any society or social group. For example, in a care facility for older people, social differentiation might be based on age, level of mobility, or physical impairment.

social dilemma

social dilemma a situation that creates a conflict between the individual’s interests and the collective’s interests, such that the individual obtains better outcomes following strategies that over time will lead to suboptimal outcomes for the collective. Such situations have reward structures that favor individuals who act selfishly rather than in ways that benefit the larger social collective; however, if a substantial number of individuals seek maximum personal gain, their results will be lower than if they had sought collective outcomes. Social dilemmas are simulated in mixed-motive games, such as the prisoner’s dilemma. See also social trap.

social disability syndrome

social disability syndrome see social breakdown syndrome.

social disapproval

social disapproval condemnation and rejection of someone or something (a behavior, trait, attribute, or the like) by a social group. Its manifestations may include insults, criticism, disparagement, shunning, and so on. Compare social approval.

social discrimination

social discrimination the differential treatment of individuals based on their cultural background, social class, educational attainment, or other sociocultural distinction.

social distance

social distance the degree to which, psychologically speaking, a person or group wants to remain separate from members of different social groups. This reflects the extent to which individuals or groups accept others of a different ethnicity, race, nationality, or other social background.

social distance scale

social distance scale a measure of intergroup attitudes that asks respondents to indicate their willingness to accept members of other ethnic, national, or social groups in situations that range from relatively distant (“would allow to live in my country”) to relatively close (“would admit to close kinship by marriage”). When unqualified, the term often refers to the Bogardus Social Distance Scale, one of the most popular of such measures.

social dominance orientation (SDO)

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social dominance theory (SDT)

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social drinker

social drinker an imprecise categorization generally agreed to signify an individual who tends to drink alcohol in moderation. It is usually a misnomer, as such people do not typically drink only in social situations.

social dynamics

social dynamics 1. an approach to sociology that focuses on the empirical study of specific societies and social systems in the process of historical change. Compare social statics. [conceptualized by Auguste Comte] 2. the forces or processes of change at work in any social group. See group dynamics.

social ecology

social ecology the study of human or nonhuman organisms in relation to their social environment. See also ecological study; human ecology; urban ecology.

social emotion

social emotion any emotion that depends on one’s appraisal or consideration of another person’s thoughts, feelings, or actions. For example, pride arises when one feels favorably evaluated by others and perceives concurrent gains in one’s status and rank relative to those others, whereas shame arises from one’s feeling poorly evaluated by others and perceiving losses in status and rank. Other commonly studied social emotions include admiration, embarrassment, envy, guilt, and jealousy. Recent neuroimaging studies reveal the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex in the processing of social emotions, with adolescents activating more lateral (anterior) regions and adults more posterior (temporal) regions of the medial prefrontal cortex.

social engineer

social engineer 1. a person engaged in planning social policy and in organizing community action programs to remedy problems such as crime, drug abuse, and urban decay. 2. a pejorative term for a person who attempts to enforce social change by imposing certain abstract or theoretical ideas on society.

social entrepreneurship

social entrepreneurship see entrepreneurship.

social equality

social equality equivalent treatment of and opportunity for members of different groups within society regardless of individual distinctions of race, ethnicity, gender, age, social class, sexual orientation, or other characteristics or circumstances. Given its breadth, social equality remains a global ideal yet to be obtained. Hierarchies continue to exist worldwide in which different groups of people are distinguished—whether intentionally or unintentionally—and consequently experience differential treatment that produces divergent daily realities. Consider marriage as an example. Many societies do not permit same-sex marriage, which means that gay men and lesbians in those societies do not have the same legal, economic, and civil rights as their heterosexual counterparts. See also democracy.

social evolution

social evolution the process of gradual change in a society over time, especially as contrasted with the sudden and dramatic changes caused by political upheavals, natural disasters, and the like. See also cultural drift; social change.

social exchange theory

social exchange theory a theory envisioning social interactions as an exchange in which the participants seek to maximize their benefits (the rewards they receive minus the costs they incur) within the limits of what is regarded as fair or just. Intrinsic to this hypothesis is the reciprocity norm: People are expected to reciprocate for the benefits they have received. Social exchange theory is similar to equity theory, which also maintains that people seek fairness in social relationships and that fairness exists when each party in the relationship has the same ratio of outcomes (benefits) to inputs (resources brought to the relationship). [proposed by Austrian sociologists George C. Homans (1910–1989) and Peter Blau (1918–2002) and extensively studied by John W. Thibaut and Harold H. Kelley]

social facilitation

social facilitation the improvement in an individual’s performance of a task that often occurs when others are present. This effect tends to occur with tasks that are uncomplicated or have been previously mastered through practice. There is some disagreement as to whether the improvement is due to a heightened state of arousal, a greater self-awareness, or a reduced attention to unimportant and distracting peripheral stimuli. By contrast, social interference is likely to be seen when the task is complicated, particularly if it is not well learned. See also audience effect.

social factors

social factors factors (e.g., attitudes) that affect thought or behavior in social contexts or that affect self-concept vis-à-vis other individuals or groups.

social feedback

social feedback a direct report of the effect of one’s behavior or speech on other people. An example of social feedback is laughter at one’s jokes.

social fission

social fission the splitting of a social group into smaller groups, usually because of unresolvable internal conflict between factions.

social force

social force any global, systemic, and relatively powerful process that influences individuals in interpersonal settings, such as group pressure and normative influence. See also social influence; social pressure.

social gerontology

social gerontology the study of the social process of aging and the interaction of older adults with their environments, including issues such as the contributions of older adults to the community, services provided in the community for older adults, and the utilization of group residences and communities for older adults.

social group

social group see group.

social growth

social growth development of an individual’s knowledge and ability in dealing with other individuals and groups. Social growth is not limited to conformity; much social growth can lie outside the range of cultural expectations.

social habit

social habit a common form of social behavior that is deeply ingrained and often appears to have an automatic quality (e.g., saying “thank you”).

social heritage

social heritage culturally learned customs, codes, and rules of behavior that are constant across generations. Examples include giving gifts on particular occasions, greeting others when one enters a room, and shaking hands. See cultural heritage; social transmission.

social identity

social identity 1. the personal qualities that one claims and displays to others so consistently that they are considered to be part of one’s essential, stable self. This public persona may be an accurate indicator of the private, personal self, but it may also be a deliberately contrived image (see social image). 2. in social psychology, the part of self-concept that is derived from memberships in social groups or categories, ranging from family to nationality or race. Social identity is distinguished from the public self and the private self. Also called collective self.

social identity theory

social identity theory a conceptual perspective on group processes and intergroup relations that assumes that groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify strongly with the group. According to this theory, people tend to favor their ingroup over an outgroup because the former is part of their self-identity. With its emphasis on the importance of group membership for the self, social identity theory contrasts with individualistic analyses of behavior that discount the importance of group identifications. [proposed in 1979 by Polish-born British social psychologist Henri Tajfel (1919–1982) and British social psychologist John C. Turner (1947–2011)]

social image

social image an individual’s public persona—that is, the identity or face presented to others in public contexts. See social identity; facework.

social immobility

social immobility a feature of a society with fixed social norms or a rigid class system such that movement from one social class to another is virtually impossible and occurs only in very rare and prescribed instances. The traditional Hindu caste system is an example of such a fixed class society. Compare social mobility.

social impact assessment

social impact assessment the evaluation of the social effect of a proposed construction project while it is in the planning stage. It is based on studies of potential effects on land values, traffic flow, displacement of jobs and homes, ecological balance, air pollution, and related factors, as well as predicted benefits to the environment and to people who would make use of the new facility.

social impact theory

social impact theory a theory of social influence postulating that the amount of influence exerted by a source on a target depends on (a) the strength of the source compared to that of the target (e.g., the social status of the source versus that of the target); (b) the immediacy of the source to the target (e.g., the physical or psychological distance between them); and (c) the number of sources and targets (e.g., several sources influencing a single target). The impact of the source on the target increases as the source’s strength, immediacy, and number increase relative to the target. See also dynamic social impact theory. [originally proposed by U.S. social psychologist Bibb Latané (1937– )]

social imperception disorder

social imperception disorder a condition characterized by a lack of awareness of common social interaction processes and interpersonal behaviors and by difficulty in recognizing and understanding other people’s feelings and emotions.

social incentive

social incentive an inducement to behave in particular approved ways, involving the offer of such interpersonal rewards as acceptance, approval, inclusion, or status.

social indicator

social indicator any feature of a society or a subgroup within it that can be measured over time and is presumed to reveal some underlying aspect of social reality and quality of life. For example, the retail price index is used as a measure of inflation, which in turn is taken as a key indicator of economic performance. Other commonly used indicators are derived from unemployment figures, per capita income, poverty levels, labor conditions, housing costs, mental health, general health and mortality data, nutrition information, pollution levels, crime rates, education levels, opportunities for leisure and recreation, and the status of older adults. Researchers and policymakers frequently use social indicators to assess the extent to which a society is “progressing” as well as to make predictions about its future.

social influence

social influence 1. any change in an individual’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors caused by other people, who may be actually present or whose presence is imagined, expected, or only implied. 2. interpersonal processes that can cause individuals to change their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. See informational influence; interpersonal influence; normative influence. See also social force; social pressure.

social information processing

social information processing a type of human information processing in which social information is encoded, compared with other pertinent information, and retrieved to influence one’s interactions with others. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Kenneth A. Dodge (1954– )]

social inhibition

social inhibition the restraint placed on an individual’s expression of her or his feelings, attitudes, motives, and so forth by the belief that others could learn of this behavior and disapprove of it. See also audience effect.

social insects

social insects insects that live together in groups, exhibiting reproductive division of labor, cooperation in care of the young, and multiple generations working together. In colonies of some bees, ants, wasps, and termites, reproduction is limited to one or a few queens, and large numbers of workers (sterile females) build nests, forage for food, tend the larvae, and defend the nest. Social insects are haplodiploid (see haplodiploidy), with males developing from unfertilized eggs. This means that workers share 75% of their genes (whereas queen and worker share only 50%), so they have greater inclusive fitness by tending their siblings than they would by breeding on their own. See also eusociality.

social instinct

social instinct 1. the desire for social contact and a feeling of belonging, as manifested by the tendency to congregate, affiliate, and engage in group behaviors. 2. in the individual psychology of Alfred Adler, an innate drive for cooperation that leads individuals to incorporate social interest and the common good into their efforts to achieve self-realization. See also gregariousness; herd instinct.

social integration

social integration 1. the process by which separate groups are combined into a unified society, especially when this is pursued as a deliberate policy. It implies a coming together based on individual acceptance of the members of other groups. 2. the process by which an individual is assimilated into a group.

social intelligence

social intelligence the ability to understand people and effectively relate to them. It is often contrasted with abstract intelligence and concrete intelligence.

social intelligence quotient

social intelligence quotient see social quotient.

social interaction

social interaction any process that involves reciprocal stimulation or response between two or more individuals. These can range from the first encounters between parent and offspring to complex interactions with multiple individuals in adult life. Social interaction includes the development of cooperation and competition, the influence of status and social roles, and the dynamics of group behavior, leadership, and conformity. Persistent social interaction between specific individuals leads to the formation of social relationships. It is only through close observation of social interaction that social organization and social structure can be inferred.

social interest

social interest in the individual psychology of Alfred Adler, communal feeling based on a recognition that people live in a social context; are an integral part of their family, community, humanity, and the cosmos itself; and have a natural aptitude for acquiring the skills and understanding necessary to solve social problems and to take socially affirmative action. Adler believed, however, that social interest is only partially inherent in adaptive development and needs to be actively cultivated in any individual.

social interference

social interference 1. any actions that conflict with, obstruct, hamper, or undermine the activities and experiences of others. 2. the reduction of productivity that occurs when individuals work in the presence of others. Compare social facilitation. See also social loafing.

social intervention

social intervention social action programs designed to increase some type of social good or service.

social introversion

social introversion a behavioral trait manifested by shy, inhibited, and withdrawn attitudes.

social isolation

social isolation voluntary or involuntary absence of contact with others. In experimental research on nonhuman animals, this typically indicates separation from other members of the animal’s species. Social isolation often produces abnormal behavioral and physiological changes in both humans and nonhuman animals. See also isolate; loneliness.

social isolation syndrome

social isolation syndrome in research, a syndrome produced by raising nonhuman animals in total isolation from other members of their species. It consists of severely abnormal behavior, such as rocking, huddling, self-clasping, and retreating into a corner, as well as impaired sexual behavior.

social judgment theory

social judgment theory a theory of attitude change postulating that the magnitude of persuasion produced by a particular message depends on how much the position advocated in the message differs from a person’s attitude. Persuasion is likely to be greatest when a message advocates a position that a person finds neither clearly acceptable nor clearly objectionable. See also latitude of acceptance; latitude of noncommitment; latitude of rejection. [attributed to U.S. psychologists Carolyn Wood Sherif (1922–1982), Muzafer Sherif, and Carl I. Hovland]

social justice norm

social justice norm the socially determined standard that people should be helped by others only if they deserve to be helped. Compare reciprocity norm; social responsibility norm.

social learning

social learning learning that is facilitated through social interactions with other individuals. Several forms of social learning have been identified, including local enhancement, emulation, imitation, and mimicry.

social learning theory

social learning theory the general view that learning is largely or wholly due to modeling, imitation, and other social interactions. More specifically, behavior is assumed to be developed and regulated by external stimulus events, such as the influence of other individuals, and by external reinforcement, such as praise, blame, and reward. For example, if a student receives extra credit for arriving early to class and another student in the classroom observes this, the latter student may model the behavior by arriving a few minutes early each day as well. Indeed, modeling is one of the most pervasive and powerful means of transmitting patterns of behavior: Once observers extract the rules and structure underlying the modeled activities, they can generate new patterns of behavior that conform to those properties but go beyond what they have seen or heard, expanding their knowledge and skills rapidly without having to go through the process of learning by response consequences. Although many researchers have proposed their own specific social learning theories, the term is most commonly associated with the work of Albert Bandura and Julian Rotter. Bandura subsequently incorporated cognition into his ideas on social learning, a modification that became known as social-cognitive theory. Despite the distinction, however, many people use the two terms interchangeably.

social limitation

social limitation a restriction attributed to social policy or barriers (structural or attitudinal) that limit individuals, particularly those with disabilities, from performing specific tasks or that deny them access to the services and opportunities associated with full participation in society.

social loafing

social loafing the reduction of individual effort that occurs when people work in groups compared to when they work alone. See also Ringelmann effect; social interference. [first described in 1979 by U.S. social psychologist Bibb Latané (1937– ), U.S.-born Australian social psychologist Kipling D. Williams (1953– )], and U.S. social psychologist Stephen G. Harkins]

social maladjustment

social maladjustment 1. an inability to develop relationships that satisfy affiliative needs. 2. a lack of social finesse or tact. 3. a breakdown in the process of maintaining constructive social relationships.

social marketing

social marketing the use of marketing techniques (e.g., public service announcements) to prompt socially desirable behaviors, such as eating health foods, driving safely, undergoing regular medical examinations, and the like.

social matching effect

social matching effect the tendency for individuals in brainstorming groups to match the lowest level of productivity displayed by others in the group, resulting in most cases in loss of productivity.

social maturity

social maturity a level of behavior in accordance with the social standards that are the norm for individuals of a particular age.

social maturity scale

social maturity scale an instrument that assesses the degree to which an individual performs age-appropriate behaviors. These behaviors are primarily concerned with functioning in the family and community and are sometimes considered in conjunction with measures of intellectual impairment to establish the presence of intellectual disability.

social meaning model

social meaning model a conceptualization of nonverbal behaviors that describes the process by which senders, receivers, and third-party observers interpret the meaning of nonverbal messages. The model suggests that some nonverbal messages, such as a smile, have strong consensual meaning across contexts but that other nonverbal cues, such as eye gaze and physical closeness, may affect their perceived meanings by providing important information about participants’ attitudes, characteristics, and emotions. [posited in 1991 by U.S. communications professor and educational psychologist Judee K. Burgoon (1948– ) and D. A. Newton]

social memory

social memory 1. memory for socially relevant information. Examples include the ability to recognize other individuals with whom one has had previous contact, as well as the capacity to retain and recall specific details about people (e.g., names, birthdays, life stories) and various interactions with them (e.g., conversations). Social memory also is seen in nonhuman animals—for example, rodents are able to identify other members of their species and to distinguish kin from strangers. Studies suggest that the formation of social memories is linked to the pituitary hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, and neuroimaging has revealed that acute stress impairs the retrieval of socially relevant information, theoretically because of stress-induced increases in cortisol levels. Additional neural areas postulated to be involved in this type of memory include the amygdala, entorhinal cortex, and other structures of the medial temporal lobe as well as the hypothalamus. 2. see collective memory.

social mobility

social mobility the extent to which a society permits or encourages change in social class, social status, or social roles. Societies differ in the degree to which they permit or facilitate movement or change in their social hierarchy (see fixed class society; open class society). Compare social immobility. See downward mobility; horizontal mobility; upward mobility; vertical mobility.

social monogamy

social monogamy see monogamy.

social mores

social mores customs and codes of behavior established by a social group that are not necessarily supported by legal sanctions but that may be as binding as laws. See also social convention; social norm.

social motive

social motive any motive acquired as a result of interaction with others. It may be universal (e.g., need for affiliation) or culture specific (e.g., need for achievement). See also psychological need.

social movement

social movement a collaborative and sustained collective undertaking or campaign, usually initiated by a specific event, that generally seeks to implement or prevent social change. Social movements emerge and operate mainly outside accepted political institutions; they can be narrow in scope, targeting particular social concerns (e.g., teenage pregnancy), or they can address fundamental issues in society, such as the women’s liberation movement or the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Reformist movements seek the improvement of existing social institutions and practices, revolutionary movements seek large-scale revisions of the social order, reactionary movements oppose change, and communitarian movements strive to create harmonious living conditions in modern society. See also community action group; social action program.

social need

social need see love need.

social network

social network the relatively organized set of relationships that an individual or group has with others, including types and methods of communication, patterns of liking and disliking, and the strength of interpersonal connections. Such structures may be analyzed quantitatively using social network analysis. See also online social network.

social network analysis

social network analysis a set of empirical procedures for studying the relational structure of groups and networks graphically and mathematically. For example, as applied to a work group, social network analysis methods would identify the ties or relationships linking each member to every other member and then use that information to calculate such indexes as network density, transitivity of relationships, and closeness of members. See also sociometry.

social neuroscience

social neuroscience a discipline that aims to integrate the social and biological approaches to human behavior that have often been seen as mutually exclusive. Social neuroscientists use a range of methodologies to elucidate the brain structures that regulate social behavior as well as the reciprocal interactions of the brain’s biological mechanisms (especially the nervous, immune, and endocrine systems) with the social and cultural contexts in which human beings operate. See also cultural neuroscience.

social norm

social norm any of the socially determined consensual standards that indicate (a) what behaviors are considered typical in a given context (descriptive norms) and (b) what behaviors are considered proper in the context (injunctive norms). Whether implicitly or explicitly, these norms not only prescribe the socially appropriate way to respond in the situation (the “normal” course of action) but also proscribe actions that should be avoided if at all possible. Unlike statistical norms, social norms include an evaluative quality such that those who do not comply and cannot provide an acceptable explanation for their violation are evaluated negatively. Social norms apply across groups and social settings, whereas group norms are specific to a particular group. See also social convention.

social order

social order 1. the structures, institutions, and organizing principles that maintain a society in its customary or characteristic form. See social organization. 2. a stable or peaceful condition of society.

social organism

social organism a social group or society regarded as an organic entity having dynamic, living qualities, such as intention and self-preservation.

social organization

social organization the complete set of social relationships among members of a society or other group, which determines the structure of the group and the place of individuals within it. These relationships can be based on several variables: kinship, age, sex, area of residence, and—in human beings—religion, matrimony, or common interests. The social organization is usually implemented by rules of behavior produced by social interactions involving dominance, territoriality, the mating system, and cooperation.

social ossification

social ossification ingrained social behavior that is difficult to change. For example, social ossification may be seen when a person moves to a new environment with different social rules and standards.

social penetration theory

social penetration theory a model stating that relationships grow closer with increasingly intimate self-disclosures. [proposed in 1973 by U.S. psychologists Irwin Altman (1930– ) and Dalmas A. Taylor (1933–1998)]

social perception

social perception the processes by which a person uses the behavior of others to form opinions or make inferences about those individuals, particularly regarding their motives, attitudes, or values. Also called interpersonal perception.

social phobia

social phobia an anxiety disorder that is characterized by extreme and persistent social anxiety or performance anxiety and that causes significant distress or prevents participation in social activities. The feared situation is most often avoided altogether or else it is endured with marked discomfort or dread. Also called social anxiety disorder.

social physique anxiety

social physique anxiety apprehension and fear related to concerns about how others will perceive one’s physical appearance.

social planning

social planning the development of strategies and plans in areas such as education, public health, and social services provision, with the goal of enhancing the quality of life for all members of the community.

social play

social play 1. play that involves interacting with others for fun or sport. Examples include rough-and-tumble play and sometimes sociodramatic play. It is one of three basic types of play traditionally identified, the others being object play and locomotor play. Often considered primarily a human activity, social play also occurs among many nonhuman animals, including fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, nonhuman mammals, and others. For example, some fish physically tease each other, and wasps engage in mock fighting. 2. patterns of play identified by the 1932 classification system of U.S. child-development researcher Mildred Parten and used to characterize the level of social development and participation of preschool children. The lowest level of this system is solitary play, in which a child is near others but focused on his or her own activity; it progresses to parallel play, in which a child is next to others and using similar objects but still engaged in his or her own activity. The latter is succeeded by associative play, in which a child interacts with others but there is no common purpose or organization to the shared activity, and the series culminates in the highest level, cooperative play, in which a child interacts with others in coordinated, directed activities.

social power

social power see power.

social presence

social presence the degree to which individuals feel that they are in the presence of another person, often used in the analysis of the psychological experience of interacting with others in online groups.

social pressure

social pressure the exertion of influence on a person or group by another person or group. Like group pressure, social pressure includes rational argument and persuasion (informational influence), calls for conformity (normative influence), and direct forms of influence, such as demands, threats, or personal attacks on the one hand and promises of rewards or social approval on the other (interpersonal influence). See also social force; social influence.

social promotion

social promotion the practice of advancing students who have not sufficiently mastered the academic skills and knowledge requirements of the prior grade to the next grade level (e.g., from the fourth to the fifth grade). The practice is thought to enhance the students’ social well-being by enabling them to stay with their peers and to avoid the negative social consequences of repeating a grade with younger children. Also called automatic promotion.

social psychology

social psychology as defined by Gordon W. Allport, the study of how an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by the actual, imagined, or symbolically represented presence of other people. Psychological social psychology differs from sociological social psychology in that the former tends to put greater emphasis on internal psychological processes, whereas the latter focuses on factors that affect social life, such as status, role, and class.

social psychology of the experiment

social psychology of the experiment the study of the ways in which the participant-related and experimenter-related artifacts in an experiment arise and operate.

social punishment

social punishment a negative interpersonal stimulus, such as shunning, emotional withdrawal, or some other sign of disapproval, that decreases the frequency of the behavior that immediately precedes it. Compare social reinforcement. See also social sanction.

social quotient

social quotient the ratio between social age and chronological age. A social quotient is a parallel concept to an IQ, wherein a score of 100 indicates average performance for age and scores less than 100 indicate below average functioning. The social quotient was used as an index of social maturity in the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (see Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales). It is now increasingly called the social intelligence quotient.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Social Readjustment Rating Scale see Life Events Rating Scale.

social reality

social reality the consensus of attitudes, opinions, and beliefs held by members of a group or society.

social recovery

social recovery restoration of an adaptive, highly functional mental state through social therapy and improvement in social skills. [first described by Harry Stack Sullivan]

social referencing

social referencing evaluating one’s own modes of thinking, expression, or behavior by comparing them with those of other people so as to understand how to react in a particular situation and to adapt one’s actions and reactions in ways that are perceived to be appropriate. This ability has been demonstrated to emerge at a very early age: Young infants use caregivers’ emotional expressions to guide their behavior in novel, ambiguous situations. See social comparison theory.

social reform program

social reform program an intervention program developed and implemented to counter deleterious aspects of a social system, the primary objective being to reduce the effects of malfunctions in the system. Also called countermeasure-intervention program.

social rehabilitation

social rehabilitation 1. the achievement of a higher level of social functioning by individuals with mental disorders or disabilities through group activities and participation in clubs and other community organizations. 2. the achievement of a higher level of independent functioning and social participation by individuals with physical impairments or disabilities through assistance with their activities of daily living as well as with employment, transportation, and appropriate housing. 3. services and assistance provided to help criminal offenders establish new, noncriminal ways of life and become productive members of the community.

social reinforcement

social reinforcement a positive interpersonal stimulus, such as praise, a smile, touch, or another sign of approval, that increases the frequency of the behavior that immediately precedes it. Also called social reward. Compare social punishment.

social relations model

social relations model a general framework used in studies of interpersonal perception in which a person’s behavior with a particular partner is considered to reflect aspects of the larger group to which the two individuals belong, as well as aspects of the individual emitting the behavior, aspects of the partner, and qualities unique to the two individuals’ relationship with one another. The model makes use of a round-robin rating design in which participants rate one another and their degree of perceptual accuracy in different areas is evaluated. Of particular interest are individual accuracy, or how well a person’s judgments of an individual correspond to how that individual tends to behave across interaction partners; and dyadic accuracy, or how well someone can uniquely judge how a specific individual will behave with him or her. [developed in 1981 by U.S. social psychologist David A. Kenny]

social relationship

social relationship the sum of the social interactions between individuals over a period of time. Momentary social interactions can be described in terms of parental care, dominant–subordinate or aggressive–fearful interactions, and so on, but a social relationship is the emergent quality from repeated interactions. A dyad (interacting pair) may have a generally positive or generally negative social relationship that is reciprocal or complementary. Dyads with long-term social relationships will adjust behavior with each other according to feedback received.

social representation

social representation a system, model, or code for unambiguously naming and organizing values, ideas, and conduct, which enables communication and social exchange (i.e., at the levels of language and behavior) among members of a particular group or community. [term coined and theory elaborated by Romanian-born French psychologist Serge Moscovici (1925– )]

social repression

social repression the act or process of controlling, subduing, or suppressing individuals, groups, or larger social aggregations through interpersonal means. Techniques of social repression include information control, the elimination of grassroots reform movements, manipulation of local leaders, and so on.

social resistance

social resistance 1. group opposition to the political, economic, or social actions and policies of a government or society. 2. subgroup opposition to the values and strictures of a dominant culture.

social responsibility norm

social responsibility norm the socially determined standard that one should assist those in need when possible. Compare reciprocity norm; social justice norm.

social reward

social reward see social reinforcement.

social role

social role the set of attitudes and characteristic behaviors expected of an individual who occupies a specific position or performs a particular function in a social context, such as being a spouse or acting as a caregiver for an aging parent.

social role theory

social role theory a model contending that behavioral differences between men and women can be attributed to cultural standards and expectations about gender rather than to biological factors.

social role valorization

social role valorization a principle, developed in succession to the normalization principle, that stresses the importance of creating or supporting socially valued roles for people with disabilities. According to this principle, fulfillment of valued social roles increases the likelihood that a person will be socially accepted by others and will more readily achieve a satisfactory quality of life. [formulated in 1983 by German-born Canadian sociologist and special educator Wolf Wolfensberger (1934–2011)]

social sanction

social sanction a punishment or other coercive measure imposed on a group member for violation of group rules. See also social punishment.

social schema

social schema a cognitive structure of organized information, or representations, about social norms and collective patterns of behavior within society. Whereas a self-schema involves a person’s conception of herself or himself as an individual and in terms of a particular personal role (or roles) in life, social schemata often underlie behavior of the person acting within group contexts—particularly larger group or societal contexts.

social science

social science 1. any of a number of disciplines concerned with the common elements and collective dimensions of human experience, studied from a scientific and research perspective. These disciplines traditionally have included anthropology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, political science, psychiatry, psychology, and sociology, as well as associated areas of mathematics and biology. Additional fields include related psychological studies in business administration, journalism, law, medicine, public health, and social work. The focus of analysis ranges from the individual to institutions and entire social systems. The general goal is to understand social interactions and to propose solutions to social problems. 2. these disciplines collectively.

Social Security

Social Security a comprehensive social program providing basic retirement income and insurance, as well as disability, survivor, and Medicare benefits. Established in 1935, the program is operated by the U.S. Social Security Administration.

social self

social self 1. those aspects of one’s identity or self-concept that are important to or influenced by interpersonal relationships and the reactions of other people. See also public self; social identity. 2. a person’s characteristic behavior in social situations. 3. the facade that an individual may exhibit when in contact with other people, as contrasted with his or her real self. See social image.

social services

social services 1. services provided by government and nongovernment agencies and organizations to improve the social welfare of those in need, including people with low income, illness, or disability; older adults; and children. Services might include health care, insurance, subsidized housing, food subsidies, and the like. 2. government services to improve standards of living for all citizens, including services such as roads and public transportation, clean water, electricity, telecommunications, and public health institutions.

social setting detoxification

social setting detoxification see detoxification.

social skills

social skills a set of learned abilities that enable an individual to interact competently and appropriately in a given social context. The most commonly identified social skills in Western cultures include assertiveness, coping, communication and friendship-making skills, interpersonal problem solving, and the ability to regulate one’s cognitions, feelings, and behavior. See also social competence.

social skills training (SST)

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social smile

social smile a smile in response to social stimuli. It is first seen in infants at about 4 to 6 weeks of age but is not frequent and unambiguous until about 3 months. An infant’s failure to reach this developmental milestone by 6 months is considered an early indication of autism. Compare endogenous smile.

social smoker

social smoker a person who smokes cigarettes occasionally, often when in the company of other people or when drinking alcoholic beverages, and who is not addicted to cigarettes.

social speech

social speech speech used with the intent to communicate. Also called socialized speech. See also egocentric speech.

social statics

social statics 1. an approach to sociology that focuses on the distinctive nature of human societies and social systems considered in the abstract, rather than on the empirical study of any particular society. Compare social dynamics. [conceptualized by Auguste Comte] 2. an approach to sociology that examines human societies and sociopolitical systems as they exist at a particular time or moment in history (i.e., relative to their current level of development).

social statistics

social statistics the application of statistical methods to the understanding of social issues and problems. See also demography. [formulated by Belgian social statistician Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874)]

social status

social status the relative prestige, authority, and privilege of an individual or group. Social status can be determined by any number of factors—including occupation, level of education, ethnicity, religion, age, rank, achievements, wealth, reputation, authority, and ancestry—with different groups and societies stressing some qualities more than others when allocating status to members.

social stimulus

social stimulus any agent, event, or situation with social significance, particularly an individual or group, that elicits a response relevant to interpersonal relationships.

social stratification

social stratification the existence or emergence of separate classes or strata in a society. See caste; social class; socioeconomic status.

social structure

social structure the complex of relationships and systems that organize and regulate interpersonal phenomena in a group or society. The social structure of a group includes its norms and roles and the status, attraction, and communication relations that link one member to another (see group structure). The social structure of a society includes the complex of relations among its constituent individuals, groups, institutions, customs, mores, and so on.

social studies

social studies a course of study that covers many aspects of the social environment, including disciplines such as geography, history, judicial systems, governments past and present, anthropology, national customs, and sociology.

social subordination

social subordination the relegation of an individual or group to a position of low status or prestige in society. [concept articulated by German philosopher and sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918)]

social support

social support the provision of assistance or comfort to others, typically to help them cope with biological, psychological, and social stressors. Support may arise from any interpersonal relationship in an individual’s social network, involving family members, friends, neighbors, religious institutions, colleagues, caregivers, or support groups. It may take the form of practical help (e.g., doing chores, offering advice), tangible support that involves giving money or other direct material assistance, and emotional support that allows the individual to feel valued, accepted, and understood. See also coping; invisible support.

social technology

social technology 1. use of the principles and methods of social science to develop practical strategies for confronting and resolving conflicts and problems of society. 2. the techniques so developed.

social therapy

social therapy therapeutic and rehabilitative approaches that use social structures and experiences to improve the interpersonal functioning of individuals, such as milieu therapy and the therapeutic community.

social transmission

social transmission the transfer of customs, language, or other aspects of the cultural heritage of a group from one generation to the next. See heritage; social heritage.

social trap

social trap a social dilemma in which individuals, groups, organizations, or whole societies initiate a course of action or establish a set of relationships that lead to negative or even lethal outcomes in the long term, but that once initiated are difficult to withdraw from or alter. In many cases, immediate positive reinforcements lead to behaviors that in the long run are bad for the individual (e.g., addiction) or for society (e.g., the tragedy of the commons). Immediate negative reinforcements can prevent behaviors that in the long run would be good for the individual (e.g., studying) or for society (e.g., using mass transportation). See also mixed-motive game.

social tunneling

social tunneling a psychological state, usually associated with a demanding task or stressful environment, characterized by a tendency to ignore social cues that may be relevant to a task, such as spoken commands or alert signals from other people. Compare cognitive tunneling.

social withdrawal

social withdrawal retreat from interpersonal relationships, usually accompanied by an attitude of indifference, detachment, and aloofness. Social withdrawal is often associated with disorders such as schizophrenia, autism, and depression.

social work

social work a profession devoted to helping individuals, families, and other groups deal with personal and practical problems within the larger community context of which they are a part. Social workers address a variety of problems, including those related to mental or physical disorder, poverty, living arrangements, child care, occupational stress, and unemployment, especially through involvement in the provision of social services.

social zone

social zone the distance zone adopted between people engaged in relationships of a relatively formal nature, such as attorney and client. The social zone is defined as the area of 1.25 to 3.5 m (4–11½ ft) from a person. See proxemics. Compare intimate zone; personal distance zone; public distance zone.

social-adjustive function of an attitude

social-adjustive function of an attitude the role an attitude can play in facilitating social interaction and enhancing cohesion among members of a social group. For example, a teenager may adopt positive attitudes toward certain styles of dress and types of music as a means of gaining acceptance by a peer group. See also ego-defensive function of an attitude; functional approach to attitudes; knowledge function of an attitude; utilitarian function of an attitude; value-expressive function of an attitude.

social-cognitive theory

social-cognitive theory an extension of social learning theory to include the effects of cognitive processes, such as conceptions, judgment, and motivation, on an individual’s behavior and on the environment that influences him or her. Rather than passively absorbing knowledge from environmental inputs, individuals actively influence their learning by interpreting the outcomes of their actions, which then affects their environments and their personal factors, which in turn inform and alter subsequent behavior. Emphasis on this interaction of behavioral, environmental, and personal factors is thus a major hallmark of the theory. Although Julian Rotter, Austrian-born U.S. personality psychologist Walter Mischel (1930– ), and many others have proposed different social-cognitive perspectives, the one introduced by Albert Bandura in 1986 remains most prominent and has been applied to a wide range of topics (e.g., personality development and functioning, the understanding and treatment of psychological disorders, organizational training programs, education, health promotion strategies, advertising and marketing). A central tenet of Bandura’s social-cognitive theory is that people seek to develop a sense of agency and to exert control over important events in their lives, a sense that is affected by factors such as their self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, and self-evaluation. Despite the distinction between social-cognitive theory and social learning theory, many individuals use the terms synonymously. Also called cognitive-social learning theory.

social-emotional leader

social-emotional leader an individual who guides others in their pursuits by performing supportive, interpersonally accommodative behaviors. Also called relationship leader.

social-inquiry model

social-inquiry model a teaching model that emphasizes the role of social interaction. The social-inquiry model utilizes methods of resolving social issues through a process of logical reasoning coupled with academic inquiry.

social-network therapy

social-network therapy a form of psychotherapy in which various people who maintain significant relationships with a client (e.g., relatives, friends, coworkers) are assembled in group sessions with the client present. See also network therapy.

Social–Emotional scale

Social–Emotional scale see Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development.

sociality

sociality n. the tendency to live as part of a group with clear organization of social interactions and the ability to cooperate with and adapt to the demands of the group. Benefits of sociality for nonhuman animals include better predator detection and avoidance, increased foraging success through the sharing of information, and protection of young. Costs include increased risk of parasites, increased competition between group members, and increased visibility to predators.

sociality corollary

sociality corollary a concept proposing that an individual’s ability to communicate or otherwise interact with another individual is based on an understanding of the other’s personal construct. [proposed by George A. Kelly]

socialization

socialization n. 1. the process by which individuals acquire social skills, beliefs, values, and behaviors necessary to function effectively in society or in a particular group. 2. the process by which employees adjust to an organizational culture and learn the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values expected of them by superiors, peers, subordinates, customers, and others. —socialize vb.

socialized delinquency

socialized delinquency violations of the law by individuals younger than 18 years that result from their adherence to the attitudes and values of a subculture—such as a gang—that glorifies criminal or antisocial conduct. Also called subcultural delinquency.

socialized drive

socialized drive any primary drive that has been modified through social learning so that drive satisfaction is achieved through socially acceptable behaviors. An example is sexual gratification achieved through mutually consensual adult sex.

socially sensitive research

socially sensitive research research on topics likely to evoke controversy in the community or strong emotional responses from participants. Such topics would include those that have ethical implications affecting subgroups or cultures within society (e.g., ethnic minorities) or that involve potential costs and consequent problems for the participants, investigators, or sponsors. For example, a study that examines the relative merits of day care for infants versus full-time care by the mother can have broad social implications and thus be considered socially sensitive.

Sociedad Interamericana de Psicologia (SIP)

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societal-reaction theory

societal-reaction theory see labeling theory.

society

society n. 1. an enduring social group living in a particular place whose members are mutually interdependent and share political and other institutions, laws and mores, and a common culture. 2. any well-established group of individuals (humans or other animals) that typically obtains new members at least in part through sexual reproduction and has relatively self-sufficient systems of action. 3. an organization formed for a particular purpose or to further a common interest or activity. 4. the companionship of other people. 5. popularly and loosely, an elite social level, typically comprising those of high socioeconomic status who possess money, power, and prestige and are considered in some way fashionable. —societal adj.

Society for Neuroscience

Society for Neuroscience a nonprofit organization of basic scientists and physicians who study the brain and nervous system. Formed in 1969, the group publishes The Journal of Neuroscience.

Society for Psychical Research

Society for Psychical Research a British scholarly society founded in 1882 to promote the scientific investigation of parapsychological and paranormal phenomena. It publishes the Journal of the Society for Psychical Research.

Society for Psychotherapy Research

Society for Psychotherapy Research an international, interdisciplinary organization dedicated to the scientific study of psychotherapy in all of its various forms. It publishes the journal Psychotherapy Research.

Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD)

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Society of Experimental Psychologists

Society of Experimental Psychologists an organization whose objective is to advance psychology by arranging conferences on experimental psychology. Founded in 1904 by Edward Bradford Titchener as the Society of Experimentalists, it was reorganized under its current name in 1927.

Society of Experimental Social Psychology

Society of Experimental Social Psychology a scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of social psychology. It publishes the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.

Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP)

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sociobiology

sociobiology n. the systematic study of the biological basis for social behavior. Sociobiologists believe that populations tend to maintain an optimal level of density (neither overpopulation nor underpopulation) by controls such as aggression, stress, fertility, emigration, predation, and disease. Such controls are held to operate through the Darwinian principle of natural selection. See also evolutionary psychology. [pioneered by U.S. biologist Edward O. Wilson (1929– )] —sociobiological adj.

sociocentric bias

sociocentric bias see group-serving bias.

sociocentric network

sociocentric network see group network.

sociocentrism

sociocentrism n. 1. the tendency to put the needs, concerns, and perspective of the social unit or group before one’s individual, egocentric concerns. See also allocentric. 2. the practice of perceiving and interpreting situations from the point of view of the social group rather than from one’s personal perspective. 3. the tendency to judge one’s own group as superior to other groups across a variety of domains. Whereas ethnocentrism refers to the selective favoring of one’s ethnic, religious, racial, or national groups, sociocentrism usually means the favoring of smaller groups characterized by face-to-face interaction among members. Compare egocentrism. —sociocentric adj.

sociocognitive bias

sociocognitive bias a subtle bias in judgment to which evaluators may be susceptible. Unlike values, sociocognitive biases are inaccurate judgments that result from shortcomings in cognitive processing; they appear to be universals that intrude regardless of values or ethics.

sociocultural anthropology

sociocultural anthropology see anthropology.

sociocultural deprivation

sociocultural deprivation see psychosocial deprivation.

sociocultural factors

sociocultural factors environmental conditions that play a part in healthy and adaptive behavior and well-being or in maladaptive behavior and the etiology of mental disorder and social pathology. Examples of sociocultural factors of a positive nature are a strong sense of family and community support and mentorship, good education and health care, availability of recreational facilities, and exposure to the arts. Examples of a negative nature are slum conditions, poverty, extreme or restrictive occupational pressures, lack of good medical care, and inadequate educational opportunities.

sociocultural perspective

sociocultural perspective 1. any viewpoint or approach to health, mental health, history, politics, economics, or any other area of human experience that emphasizes the environmental factors of society, culture, and social interaction. 2. in developmental psychology, the view that cognitive development is guided by adults interacting with children, with the cultural context determining to a large extent how, where, and when these interactions take place. A major pioneer of this perspective was Lev Vygotsky, whose sociocultural theory posited that the developmental process was one of gradual mastery by children of their own “natural” cognitive functions through interaction with and guidance from more skilled individuals or mentors (e.g., parents, teachers) in their surrounding culture. See also guided participation; zone of proximal development.

sociodrama

sociodrama n. a technique for enhancing human relations and social skills that uses dramatization and role play. See also psychodrama.

sociodramatic play

sociodramatic play a form of play in which a child takes on a social role (e.g., mother, father, police officer, doctor), elaborates a theme in cooperation with at least one other role player, and interacts with at least one other child both actively and verbally.

socioeconomic status (SES)

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socioemotional role

socioemotional role see relationship role.

socioemotional selectivity theory

socioemotional selectivity theory a lifespan theory of motivation positing that as people age, they reorganize their goals to give priority to those that are emotionally meaningful (.e.g., satisfying relationships) rather than to those that are future oriented (e.g. seeking new challenges). The theory predicts that people who are older or who are in other situations that place constraints on time attach greater importance to increasing emotional closeness with significant others than do people who are younger or perceive time as relatively open ended. [first proposed in 1993 by U.S. psychologist Laura L. Carstensen]

sociofugal

sociofugal adj. describing environmental conditions that discourage or prevent social interaction, such as rows of seats facing the same way (e.g., church pews) or ambient noise that interferes with communication. A physical environment with these characteristics is termed a sociofugal space. Compare sociopetal.

sociogenetics

sociogenetics n. the study of the origin and development of societies. —sociogenetic adj.

sociogenic

sociogenic adj. resulting from social factors. For example, a sociogenic hypothesis of schizophrenia posits that stressful social conditions, such as living in impoverished circumstances, are major contributors to and causal agents of the disorder. See also drift hypothesis.

sociogram

sociogram n. a graphic representation of the relations among members of a social unit or group. In most cases, each member of the group is depicted by a symbol, such as a lettered circle or square, and the types of relations among members (e.g., communication links, friendship pairings) are depicted by lines and arrows. Sociometry, as originally developed by Jacob L. Moreno, uses objective data collected by observers or self-reports provided by members of the group to generate sociograms.

sociolect

sociolect n. a dialect spoken by a particular social group.

sociolinguistics

sociolinguistics n. the study of the relationship between language and society and of the social circumstances of language usage, especially as related to characteristics such as gender, social class, and ethnicity. Using techniques and findings from linguistics and the social sciences, sociolinguistics is concerned with the individual’s language use in the context of his or her social community or culture. One aspect of this field is the study of linguistic codes, that is, the culturally determined rules and conventions that govern language usage. Social factors are also important in analyzing how languages change over time.

sociological factors

sociological factors social conditions that affect human behavior. Examples of such factors are socioeconomic and educational level, environmental circumstances (e.g., crowding), and the customs and mores of an individual’s social group.

sociological measure

sociological measure a formal measure of aspects of society that may affect the development or maintenance of behaviors or mental health problems. Sociological measures may assess the interrelationships between people or the structural components of a society, for example, and include both quantitative and qualitative methods. See also sociometry.

sociological social psychology

sociological social psychology see social psychology.

sociology

sociology n. the scientific study of the origin, development, organization, forms, and functioning of human society, including the analysis of the relationships between individuals and groups, institutions, and society itself. —sociological adj. —sociologist n.

sociometer theory

sociometer theory a theory holding that self-esteem is important to individuals mainly because it serves as a measure of social appeal (i.e., a sociometer). Specifically, high self-esteem signifies that the self has traits—such as competence, likability, moral virtue, and physical attractiveness—that enhance one’s relational value and promote acceptance by other people. [introduced in 1995 by U.S. social psychologist Mark R. Leary (1954– ) and colleagues]

sociometric analysis

sociometric analysis any investigation of the structural properties of a group (with a particular focus on patterns of liking and disliking) that makes use of procedures from sociometry.

sociometric differentiation

sociometric differentiation the gradual development of stronger and more positive interpersonal ties between some members of a group, accompanied by decreases in the quality of relations between other members of the group. See also attraction relations; sociometry.

sociometric distance

sociometric distance the degree of closeness or acceptance between individuals or groups as measured on a social distance scale. See also proxemics; social distance.

sociometric status

sociometric status 1. in sociometry, the relative interpersonal position of a member within a group as determined by other group members. 2. in measures of peer acceptance among children and adolescents, any of several profiles assigned to an individual based on peer ratings of (a) his or her social preference (i.e., number of the individual’s nominations as most liked minus the number of nominations as least liked) and (b) his or her social impact (i.e., number of the individual’s nominations as most liked plus number of nominations as least liked). In research reported in 1982, likability was related to peer perception of a child’s cooperativeness, supportiveness, and physical attractiveness, whereas dislike was related to peer perception of a child’s disruptiveness and aggression. Among status types, a popular child received both high social preference and high social impact scores. A rejected child received both low social preference and low social impact scores. An average child scored at the mean for social preference and social impact. A neglected child (typically called an isolate) received a low social impact score but was neither actively liked nor actively disliked by peers. A controversial child received high social impact scores and mean overall social preference scores but was above the mean for both positive and negative preference ratings. Later studies have proposed subtypes for some of these status profiles—for example, subdividing peer-rejected status into aggressive-rejected child and withdrawn-rejected child. [proposed in 1982 by U.S. psychologists John D. Coie (1937– ), Kenneth A. Dodge (1954– ), and Heide Coppotelli]

sociometric structure

sociometric structure see attraction relations.

sociometric test

sociometric test a self-report measure of intermember relations in a group, as used in sociometry to analyze and develop a graphic representation of the group’s structure (see sociogram).

sociometry

sociometry n. a field of research in which various techniques are used to analyze the patterns of intermember relations within groups and to summarize these findings in mathematical and graphic form. In most cases, relationships between members are summarized in a sociogram, in which each member is represented by a numbered or lettered symbol and relationships are identified by lines between them with arrows indicating the direction of relationships. The method also yields various indices of group structure and group cohesion, including choice status (the number of times a person is chosen by the other group members), rejection status (the number of times a person is rejected by others), the relative number of mutual pairs in a group, and so on. See also social network analysis; sociometric status. [developed by Jacob L. Moreno] —sociometric adj.

socionomics

socionomics n. the study of nonsocial influences on social groups; that is, the ways in which the physical environment modifies society. This includes the effects of different terrains and climatic conditions on economic and social organization.

sociopath

sociopath n. a former name for an individual with an antisocial personality disorder.

sociopathic behavior

sociopathic behavior see dyssocial behavior.

sociopathic personality

sociopathic personality see antisocial personality disorder.

sociopathy

sociopathy n. a former name for antisocial personality disorder.

sociopetal

sociopetal adj. describing environmental conditions that promote social interaction, such as circular seating arrangements and a comfortable ambient room temperature. A physical environment with these characteristics is termed a sociopetal space. Compare sociofugal.

sociosexual assessment

sociosexual assessment an assessment of an individual to identify or measure his or her awareness of cultural standards regarding social relationships and sexual activity, knowledge of facts about sexuality and the nature and consequences of sexual interaction, and engagement (type and nature) in sexual activities. It may also include an assessment of the risks of actual sexual activity.

sociosexual orientation

sociosexual orientation a dimension of personality that describes people’s comfort with and preference for sexual activity in the absence of love or commitment. People who are said to have an unrestricted sociosexual orientation (usually but not exclusively men) report more sexual activity outside of committed intimate relationships (e.g., one-night stands, short-term relationships, extramarital affairs). In evolutionary theorizing, sociosexual orientation is considered a determinant of preferences about the enactment of short-term versus long-term mating strategies.

sociotechnical systems approach

sociotechnical systems approach an approach to the design and evaluation of work systems that developed in Britain after World War II. It is based on the theory that tasks and roles, technology, and the social system constitute a single interrelated system, such that changes in one part require adjustments in the other parts. The introduction of new technologies, for example, may automate some job tasks and lead to decreased job satisfaction and group resistance to the changes. The goal of this approach is to optimize organizational or technological design by considering the ways in which people interact with technology in a variety of environments.

sociotherapy

sociotherapy n. any supportive therapeutic approach that emphasizes socioenvironmental and interpersonal factors in an individual’s adjustment to his or her surroundings. Sociotherapy may be used with several therapeutic approaches, such as family counseling, vocational retraining, and therapy aimed at assisting an individual’s readjustment to community life following hospitalization for severe mental illness.

sociotropy

sociotropy n. the tendency to place an inordinate value on relationships over personal independence, thought to leave one vulnerable to anaclitic depression in response to the loss of relationships or to conflict.

socius

socius n. the individual considered to be the basic unit of society. Also called social atom.

Socratic dialogue

Socratic dialogue a process of structured inquiry and discussion between two or more people to explore the concepts and values that underlie their everyday activities and judgments. In some psychotherapies, it is a technique in which the therapist poses strategic questions designed to clarify the client’s core beliefs and feelings and, in the case of cognitive therapy, to enable the client to discover the distortions in his or her habitual interpretation of a given situation. In psychotherapy, it is also known as the Socratic-therapeutic method.

Socratic effect

Socratic effect the finding that mere expression of beliefs tends to produce greater logical consistency among belief structures. [originally documented by William J. McGuire)]

sodium channel

sodium channel see ion channel.

sodium oxybate

sodium oxybate see GHB.

sodium pump

sodium pump a membrane protein that uses energy to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell against their concentration gradient. The main sodium pump responsible for maintaining the resting potential of animal cells, and hence the excitability of neurons and muscle cells, is called an Na+/K+ ATPase. In each cycle, this pump moves three sodium ions out of the cell, across the plasma membrane, in exchange for two potassium ions entering the cell, using energy derived from ATP.

sodium regulation

sodium regulation maintenance of the concentration of sodium ions in blood plasma within normal limits. Sodium ions are the principal cations of plasma and extracellular fluid and play a crucial role in fluid and electrolyte balance. Falling levels of plasma sodium trigger release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. This hormone stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions by the kidney tubules, thereby restoring plasma sodium levels. Severe sodium deficiency can be fatal, whereas excessive plasma sodium levels can result in hypertension.

sodomy

sodomy n. 1. anal intercourse between human beings or sexual intercourse of any kind between a human being and a nonhuman animal (see bestiality). This word is derived from the name of the corrupt town of Sodom described in Genesis 18–19. 2. in legal contexts, any sexual assault that does not involve penile–vaginal penetration.

soft data

soft data subjective data that lack the rigor of hard data. Soft data usually result from informal collection methods, such as those lacking random assignment to conditions, those lacking formal random sampling, or those based only on anecdote. Soft data may be descriptive or qualitative and are used to help interpret hard data.

soft determinism

soft determinism the position that all events, including human actions and choices, have causes, but that free will and responsibility are compatible with such determinism. Compare hard determinism.

soft drug

soft drug see hard drug.

soft key

soft key in ergonomics, a control key that activates multiple functions depending upon the state of the system. Soft keys are usually mapped to a specific area on the display.

soft neurological sign

soft neurological sign see soft sign.

soft palate

soft palate the portion of the roof of the mouth that extends rearward from the hard palate and terminates at a fleshy appendage, the uvula. Consisting of fibromuscular tissue covered by mucous membrane, it separates the oral cavity from the nasopharynx and, when raised, closes off the nasopharynx to produce normal speech sounds. Also called velum palatinum.

soft psychology

soft psychology a usually pejorative name for those areas of psychology that do not always make rigorous use of scientific methods in developing, evaluating, and applying the principles and techniques of academic psychology. For example, experimental researchers may refer to clinical psychology as soft psychology. Compare hard psychology.

soft sell

soft sell see hard sell.

soft sign

soft sign a clinical, behavioral, or neurological sign that may reflect the presence of neurological impairment. Soft signs are subtle, nonspecific, and ambiguous (because they are also seen in individuals without neurological impairment). Examples include slight abnormalities of speech, gait, posture, or behavior; sleep disturbances; slow physical maturation; sensory or perceptual deficits; and short attention span. Also called equivocal sign; soft neurological sign.

soft spot

soft spot see fontanel.

software

software n. any information-processing program utilized by computers or other electronic equipment. For example, the graphing application that aids a researcher in visualizing and analyzing neuronal structures is software, as is the complex file of data and instructions that comprises a computer’s operating system and enables it to function. Compare hardware. See also assistive software.

Sohval–Soffer syndrome

Sohval–Soffer syndrome a rare congenital disease characterized by intellectual disability and testicular deficiency, as well as skeletal anomalies and diabetes mellitus. The penis and testes are small, and facial and pubic hair is sparse. [reported in 1953 by Arthur R. Sohval (1904–1985) and Louis J. Soffer (1904–1995), U.S. physicians]

SOI

SOI abbreviation for structure of intellect model.

solicitation behavior

solicitation behavior in animal behavior, the actions shown by one individual seeking to mate with another, typically the behavior of females as they seek to interest a mate in copulation. In some primates, such as capuchin and patas monkeys, males rarely initiate sexual interactions without extensive female solicitation behavior. In many other species, attempts by males to copulate are unsuccessful in the absence of female solicitation behavior.

solipsism

solipsism n. the philosophical position that one can be sure of the existence of nothing outside the self, as other people and things may be mere figments of one’s own consciousness. Although psychologically unacceptable, such a position is notoriously difficult to refute, either logically or empirically. The question posed by solipsism has been put in various ways, but all arise from the fact that one’s experience of one’s own consciousness and identity is direct and unique, so that one is cut off from the same kind of experience of other minds and the things of the world. See Cartesian self; egocentric predicament. —solipsist n. —solipsistic adj.

solitary nucleus

solitary nucleus a collection of neural cell bodies in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem that relays information from the intermediate nerve (see greater superficial petrosal nerve), glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve. Gustatory (taste) neurons project to the anterior division of the nucleus, with touch and temperature afferents immediately lateral and visceral afferents medial and caudal. Gustatory neurons project from the solitary nucleus to control reflexes of acceptance or rejection, to anticipate digestive processes, and to activate higher levels of the taste system (see thalamic taste area). Also called nucleus of the solitary tract (NST).

solitary play

solitary play see social play.

Solomon four-group design

Solomon four-group design an experimental design that assesses the effect of having been pretested on the magnitude of the treatment effect. Participants are randomly divided into four groups and each group experiences a different combination of experimental manipulations: the first group (A) receives the pretest, the treatment, and the posttest; the second group (B) receives only the treatment and posttest; the third group (C) receives the pretest, no treatment, and a posttest; and the fourth group (D) receives only a posttest. The major advantages of the Solomon four-group design over a traditional two-group pretest–posttest design are that it reduces the influence of confounds and that it can pinpoint whether changes in the dependent variable are due to some interaction effect between the pretest and the treatment. A major disadvantage, however, is that its analysis and statistics are complex. [Richard L. Solomon]

solute

solute n. the substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.

solution-focused brief therapy

solution-focused brief therapy brief psychotherapy that focuses on problems in the here and now, with specific goals that the client views as important to achieve in a limited time.

solvent

solvent n. the liquid in which a substance (the solute) is dissolved in forming a solution.

soma

soma n. 1. the physical body (Greek, “body”), as distinguished from the mind or spirit (see soul). See mind–body problem. 2. in neuroscience, the cell body of a neuron. 3. a plant regarded as sacred (and personified as the plant god Soma) by ancient Aryan peoples, which some experts have hypothesized to be fly agaric (Amanita muscaria). Soma n. a trade name for carisoprodol.

Soma

somaesthesia

somaesthesia n. see somesthesia.

somat-

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somatic

somatic adj. 1. describing, relating to, or arising in the body rather than from the mind. 2. describing, relating to, or arising in cells of the body other than the sex cells or their precursors (i.e., germ-line cells). Somatic mutations cannot be transmitted to the offspring of the affected individual.

somatic anxiety

somatic anxiety the level of reaction of the sympathetic nervous system that one experiences in any given situation.

somatic area

somatic area see somatosensory area.

somatic cell

somatic cell see body cell.

somatic concern

somatic concern worries about one’s bodily health, including concern over physical symptoms (e.g., chest pain, nausea, diarrhea, headaches, shortness of breath) and distressing beliefs about bodily illness or dysfunction. See hypochondriasis.

somatic delusion

somatic delusion a false belief related to one or more bodily organs, such as that organs are functioning improperly or are diseased, injured, or otherwise altered. Although standard tests do not confirm the belief, the individual nonetheless continues to maintain this conviction. Also called somatopsychic delusion.

somatic depression

somatic depression a major depressive episode in which physical symptoms, such as fatigue or appetite changes, are prominent.

somatic disorder

somatic disorder an organic physical disorder, as distinguished from a functional disorder or a psychogenic disorder.

somatic function

somatic function any function of sensation and muscular contraction that involves the somatic nervous system.

somatic hallucination

somatic hallucination the false perception of a physical occurrence within the body, such as feeling electric currents.

somatic nervous system

somatic nervous system the part of the nervous system comprising the sensory and motor neurons that innervate the sense organs and the skeletal muscles, as opposed to the autonomic nervous system.

somatic obsession

somatic obsession preoccupation with one’s body or any part of it. This concern may be associated with compulsive checking of the body part (e.g., in a mirror or by touch), comparing oneself to others, and seeking reassurance about one’s body. Somatic obsession is the central feature of body dysmorphic disorder but may also be a feature of obsessive-compulsive disorder if other obsessive-compulsive symptoms are present.

somatic receptor

somatic receptor any of the sensory organs located in the skin, including the deeper kinesthetic sense organs (see kinesthesis). Types of somatic receptors include free nerve endings, Merkel’s tactile disks, Meissner’s corpuscles, Krause end bulbs, Golgi tendon organs, and basket endings.

somatic sense

somatic sense see somatosense.

somatic sensory area

somatic sensory area see somatosensory area.

somatic sensory system

somatic sensory system see somatosensory system.

somatic symptom and related disorders

somatic symptom and related disorders in DSM–5, a new diagnostic category that includes disorders predominantly characterized by the presence of bodily symptoms associated with severe distress and impairment. The group includes somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, psychological factors affecting other medical conditions (e.g., denial of medical symptoms, poor adherence to treatment), and factitious disorder. The category replaces DSM–IV–TR’s somatoform disorders as a classification scheme and eliminates somatoform disorders such as hypochondriasis, pain disorder, and somatization disorder, although some of their symptom characteristics do inform the conceptualization of disorders in the new collection.

somatic symptom disorder

somatic symptom disorder in DSM–5, a disorder characterized by one or more significant bodily symptoms (e.g., pain) that cause distress or impair daily function and by excessive, maladaptive thoughts (preoccupation) or excessive worry about the symptoms, with or without the presence of a medical condition to account for the symptoms. One of two replacement diagnoses for hypochondriasis, somatic symptom disorder is determined based only on this set of criteria and does not also apply to high health anxiety that occurs in the absence of significant somatic symptoms, as in illness anxiety disorder. Somatic symptom disorder also replaces such DSM–IV–TR diagnoses as somatization disorder, requiring only one or two symptoms for diagnosis rather than the much higher symptom count (4 pain, 2 gastrointestinal, 1 sexual, 1 psychoneurological) of the older criteria.

somatic therapy

somatic therapy the treatment of mental disorders by physical methods that directly influence the body, such as the administration of drugs (pharmacotherapy) or the application of a controlled, low-dose electric current (electroconvulsive therapy). Also called somatotherapy.

somatic weakness

somatic weakness the hypothesized vulnerability, due to congenital susceptibility, of an organ or organ system to the effects of psychological stress. The organ is thus predisposed to becoming the focus of a psychosomatic disorder.

somatist

somatist n. a person who considers mental disorders to be manifestations of physical (bodily) disease.

somatization

somatization n. the expression of psychological disturbance in physical (bodily) symptoms. The first use of the word has controversially been attributed to Viennese psychoanalyst Wilhelm Stekel (1868–1940) to describe what is now called conversion. Some investigators use the word in reference not only to the physical symptoms that occur in almost every type of anxiety disorder but also to the expression of symptoms in such psychosomatic disorders as psychogenic asthma and peptic ulcers.

somatization disorder

somatization disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a somatoform disorder involving a history of multiple physical symptoms (at least eight, one of which must be a pseudoneurological symptom) of several years’ duration, for which medical attention has been sought but which are apparently not due to any physical disorder or to the effects of a substance such as a medication. The complaints are often described in vague yet colorful or exaggerated terms by the patient, who often appears anxious or depressed. Among the common complaints are feelings of sickliness, difficulty in swallowing or walking, blurred vision, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, painful or irregular menstruation, sexual indifference, painful intercourse, pain in the back or joints, shortness of breath, palpitations, and chest pain. Somatization disorder has been eliminated from DSM–5 and superseded by somatic symptom disorder.

somato- (somat-)

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somatoform disorder

somatoform disorder in DSM–IV–TR, any of a group of disorders marked by physical symptoms suggesting a specific medical condition for which there is no demonstrable biological evidence and for which there is positive evidence or a strong probability that they are linked to psychological factors. The symptoms must cause marked distress or significantly impair normal social or occupational functioning. The group includes somatization disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, conversion disorder, pain disorder, hypochondriasis, and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). Of these, only conversion disorder and BDD have been retained as formal diagnoses in DSM–5, either classified with other similar diagnostic entities within a new somatic category, somatic symptom and related disorders, or in the case of BDD, removed from nominal somatic classification and grouped under a different rubric altogether (see obsessive-compulsive disorder). The other somatoform disorders have been eliminated, although some of their symptomatic features have been retained as specifiers or criteria for new somatic diagnoses (e.g., somatic symptom disorder).

somatoform pain disorder

somatoform pain disorder see pain disorder.

somatogenesis

somatogenesis n. 1. the process by which germ-cell material develops into body cells. 2. the development of behavioral or personality traits or disorders as a result of anatomical, physiological, or biochemical changes in the body. Also called organogenesis. —somatogenic or somatogenetic adj.

somatognosia

somatognosia n. awareness of one’s own body or body parts. Denial of one’s body parts is called asomatognosia and is commonly seen in individuals with neglect.

somatography

somatography n. a variety of body visualization techniques used in engineering anthropometry and equipment design. —somatographic adj.

somatomedin

somatomedin n. any of a class of polypeptides, produced by the liver in response to stimulation by growth hormone, that stimulate protein synthesis and promote growth.

somatometry

somatometry n. measurement of the human body, particularly in order to correlate physique and psychological characteristics. —somatometric adj.

somatophrenia

somatophrenia n. a tendency to imagine or exaggerate bodily ills. See also hypochondriasis.

somatoplasm

somatoplasm n. the tissue cells of the body collectively, as distinguished from the germ cells. Compare germ plasm.

somatopsychic delusion

somatopsychic delusion see somatic delusion.

somatopsychology

somatopsychology n. the study of the psychological impact of physiological disease or disability: The term is little used, and the subject matter of somatopsychology is now largely included under the rubric of health psychology.

somatopsychosis

somatopsychosis n. 1. a psychosis marked by delusions that involve the person’s body or body parts. 2. a psychosis that is due to a bodily (physical) disease. [defined by U.S. psychiatrist Elmer Ernest Southard (1876–1920)]

somatosense

somatosense n. any of the senses related to touch and position, including kinesthesis, the visceral sense, the articular senses (see articular sensation), and the cutaneous senses. Also called somatic sense; somesthetic sense.

somatosensory area

somatosensory area either of two main areas of the cerebral cortex that can be mapped with evoked potentials to reveal points that respond to stimulation of the various somatosenses. The somatosensory areas vary somewhat among different species; in humans, the primary somatosensory area is located in the postcentral gyrus of the anterior parietal lobe, and the secondary somatosensory area is on the lateral surface of the parietal lobe just dorsal to the lateral sulcus. Also called somatic sensory area; somatic area; somatosensory cortex.

somatosensory disorder

somatosensory disorder any disorder of sensory information received from the skin and deep tissue of the body that is associated with impaired or abnormal somatic sensation. Such disorders may affect proprioception and the perception of pain, touch, or temperature. Examples of somatosensory impairments include hypesthesia (decreased sensitivity of a sense), hyperesthesia (increased sensitivity of a sense), and hypoalgesia (diminished sensitivity to pain).

somatosensory evoked potential (SEP)

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somatosensory system

somatosensory system the parts of the nervous system that serve perception of touch, vibration, pain, temperature, and position (see somatosense). Nerve fibers from receptors for these senses enter the dorsal roots of the spinal cord and ascend mainly through tracts in the dorsal columns to the ventroposterior nuclei of the thalamus, from which they are relayed (directly or indirectly) to the somatosensory areas of the parietal cortex. Also called somatic sensory system.

somatostatin

somatostatin n. a hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that inhibits the release of growth hormone (somatotropin) by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also secreted by cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, where it inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Analogues of somatostatin are used therapeutically in the control of acromegaly. Also called somatotropin-release inhibiting factor (SRIF).

somatotherapy

somatotherapy n. 1. treatment of physical disorders. 2. see somatic therapy.

somatotonia

somatotonia n. the personality type that, according to Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality, is associated with a mesomorphic physique (see mesomorph). Somatotonia is characterized by a tendency toward energetic activity, physical courage, and love of power. —somatotonic adj.

somatotopagnosia

somatotopagnosia n. a form of agnosia in which the individual is unable to localize and orient different parts of the body. Unlike autotopagnosia, which refers only to one’s own body parts, somatotopagnosia includes the inability to orient and recognize the body parts of others or representations of the body.

somatotopic organization

somatotopic organization the topographic distribution of areas of the motor cortex relating to specific activities of skeletal muscles, as mapped by electrically stimulating a point in the cortex and observing associated movement of a skeletal muscle in the face, the trunk, or a limb. See also motor homunculus.

somatotropin

somatotropin n. see growth hormone.

somatotropin-release inhibiting factor (SRIF)

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somatotype

somatotype n. the body build or physique of a person, particularly as it relates to his or her temperament or behavioral characteristics (see constitutional type). Numerous categories of somatotypes have been proposed by various investigators since ancient times. The classification of individuals in this way is called somatotypology.

somber–bright dimension

somber–bright dimension in psychological aesthetics, the degree to which a work of art is characterized by dark versus bright colors. Experimental evidence shows that intense brightness, high saturation, and hues that correspond to long wavelengths of light tend to excite a viewer.

somesthesia (somaesthesia)

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somesthetic disorder

somesthetic disorder any dysfunction involving the somatosenses, such as difficulty in maintaining postural or positional awareness or a lack of sensitivity to pain, touch, or temperature. Somesthetic disorders are usually related to parietal lobe damage.

somesthetic sense

somesthetic sense see somatosense.

somesthetic stimulation

somesthetic stimulation stimulation of kinesthetic, cutaneous, or visceral receptors.

somnambulism

somnambulism n. see sleepwalking disorder.

somniloquy

somniloquy n. see sleep talking.

somnolence

somnolence n. excessive sleepiness or drowsiness, which is sometimes pathological. The condition may be due, for example, to medication, a sleep disorder, or a medical condition (e.g., hypothyroidism). —somnolent adj.

somnolentia

somnolentia n. 1. unnatural drowsiness. 2. see confusional arousal.

somnology

somnology n. the study of sleep and sleep disorders. —somnologist n.

somnophilia

somnophilia n. an obsolete term for sexual interest and arousal derived from intruding on a sleeping person. It may involve fondling the person or masturbating while watching the person sleep.

sonant

sonant 1. n. a vowel or voiced consonant that is capable of forming a syllable or the nucleus of a syllable. 2. n. a nasal or liquid consonant that functions as a vowel in a particular syllable. Also called sonorant. Compare semivowel. 3. adj. related to, having, or producing speech sounds.

Sonata

Sonata n. a trade name for zaleplon.

sone

sone n. see loudness.

song

song n. in animal behavior, a complex, relatively long sequence of vocalizations that is often stereotyped in its overall structure or sequence of calls. It is used to defend territories against members of the same sex and species as well as to attract mates. Song is thought to occur primarily in birds, but the term also has been used to describe long acoustic sequences produced by crickets and certain primates (e.g., gibbons). In the northern temperate zone, song is usually seasonal and under the control of gonadal steroids, but in the tropics, there is little evidence of hormonal control.

sonic boom

sonic boom a high-pressure acoustic shock wave, often caused by an aircraft or projectile traveling at supersonic speeds.

Sonic Pathfinder

Sonic Pathfinder a trademark for a mobility assistance device, worn on the head, that emits ultrasound and provides feedback through earphones for individuals with visual impairment. Feedback consists of the notes of a musical scale, which make a familiar tonal progression as the user approaches an object. The signal received is restricted to the nearest object to the user or, in certain cases, to the object directly ahead of the user.

sonography

sonography n. see ultrasound.

sonorant

sonorant n. see sonant.

soothability

soothability n. the ability of infants and children to calm down and recover from distress.

sophistry

sophistry n. a style of argumentation designed not to arrive at truth but to persuade others that one’s position is correct. This is generally accomplished by careful strategic use of language and the skillful use of fallacious arguments (see fallacy). For example, one common type of sophistry is to represent the other’s point of view as more extreme and less plausible than it really is and then attack the extreme version of the position and show that it is wrong. A particular instance of sophistry is called a sophism. The term comes from the Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers in Greece in the 5th century bce who taught and practiced rhetoric.

sophrosyne

sophrosyne n. an ideal of character recommended by Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce). The word has no direct English equivalent but is often translated as “temperance” or “moderation” and carries the sense of being well balanced, prudent, self-disciplined, and sound in judgment.

sopite syndrome

sopite syndrome a form of motion sickness that may develop after prolonged exposure to relatively gentle motion or rocking, as experienced in a moving bus or a rocking boat. Symptoms include dizziness, nausea, chronic fatigue, lack of initiative, drowsiness, lethargy, apathy, and irritability. These can persist for prolonged periods even after exposure ceases. [from Latin sopire, “to put to sleep”]

soporific

soporific n. an agent capable of producing sleep, particularly a deep sleep. Also called sopoforic.

SOPS

SOPS abbreviation for Scale of Prodromal Symptoms.

SORC

SORC an acronym for the four variables employed in behavioral analysis: stimuli (see situational determinant), organismic variables, responses, and consequences (reinforcement contingencies). A functional analysis of behavior may seek to determine how the presentation of certain stimuli leads to specific responses (perhaps influenced by individual, or organismic, variables), which are followed by consequences that may then reinforce the elicited responses.

sorcery drug

sorcery drug any of a group of plant alkaloids that includes belladonna, the opium alkaloids, mandrake, aconite, and hemlock. The substances have been chewed, smoked, or brewed into potions since ancient times for purposes of healing or intoxication. Medicinal herbs were usually grown and administered by shamans or native healers; some, such as the opiates and anticholinergics, are used in modern medical pharmacology.

Sorge

Sorge n. care (German). The term has gained currency in psychology and philosophy chiefly through its use by German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) to denote the uniquely human activity of caring or worrying about things.

sort-recall task

sort-recall task a task used in memory research in which participants, usually children, have the opportunity to sort items into groups before having to recall the items at a later time.

sorting test

sorting test a format for assessing the ability to conceptualize, often used in adult neuropsychological assessments or in determining a child’s level of cognitive development. The participant is asked to arrange an assortment of common objects by category. A common example is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.

Sotos syndrome

Sotos syndrome an autosomal dominant inherited disorder characterized by macrocephaly, distinctive facial features (including wide-set eyes), and learning disabilities or delayed development. Affected infants and children tend to grow quickly and are significantly taller than their siblings and peers, although adult height is usually in the normal range. Also called cerebral gigantism; Nevo syndrome. [reported in 1964 by Juan Fernandez Sotos (1927– ), U.S. pediatrician]

soul

soul n. the nonphysical aspect of a human being, considered responsible for the functions of mind and individual personality and often thought to live on after the death of the physical body. The English word corresponds to the Greek psyche, often also translated as “mind,” and the Latin anima, usually translated as “spirit.” The concept of the soul was present in early Greek thinking and has been an important feature of many philosophical systems and most religions. Some traditional areas of debate have included whether the soul is material or immaterial, whether nonhuman animals, plants, or seemingly inert natural objects have souls (see panpsychism), and whether the soul is individual, allowing the personality to persist after death, or whether it is a reflection of a universal “cosmic” soul. Because the existence of the soul has resisted empirical verification, science has generally ignored the concept, and those who adhere to materialism, positivism, or reductionism reject it absolutely. Despite this, the term survives in the general language to mean the deepest center of a person’s identity and the seat of his or her most important moral, emotional, and aesthetic experiences.

soul image

soul image in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, the deeply unconscious portion of the psyche that is composed of the animus (or male archetype) and anima (or female archetype).

soul kiss

soul kiss see French kiss.

sound

sound n. variations in pressure that occur over time in an elastic medium, such as air or water. Sound does not necessarily elicit an auditory sensation—infrasound and ultrasound are respectively below and above the audible range of humans—but in psychology sound usually denotes a stimulus capable of being heard by an organism. See audibility range.

sound cage

sound cage a device for measuring sound localization. See auditory localization.

sound change

sound change in linguistics, a change over the course of time in the phonological patterns of a language. Modern languages have developed from their ancestor languages and become differentiated from other languages in the same family through a series of such changes occurring naturally over many centuries. See genetic linguistics; protolanguage.

sound intensity

sound intensity the rate of flow of sound energy through a given area, measured in watts per square meter. In practice, sound intensity is seldom directly measured; it is indirectly determined using pressure measurements and often is expressed in decibels. Sound intensity is proportional to the square of sound pressure.

sound localization

sound localization see auditory localization.

sound pressure

sound pressure the force per unit area exerted by a sound wave. The pressure is expressed as changes in the ambient or static pressure (e.g., atmospheric pressure), usually as root-mean-square (rms) pressure changes. The unit of measurement of sound pressure is the pascal (Pa). Also called acoustic pressure. See also decibel.

sound shadow

sound shadow an area in which sound is blocked by a nontransmitting object, such as the head.

sound spectrography

sound spectrography the procedure of analyzing a sound source (typically human speech) in terms of its variations in frequency and intensity over time. The visual record so produced is a sound spectrogram (often shortened to spectrogram), a quasi-three-dimensional representation of sound. The sound spectrum, measured over a relatively brief interval, is plotted by the sound spectrograph as a function of time on the x-axis while frequency is plotted on the y-axis and intensity is depicted by shading or color. A spectrogram provides an imperfect representation of the perceptually relevant aspects of sound.

sound spectrum

sound spectrum the representation of sound in terms of its frequency composition. Any physically realizable sound and, more generally, any waveform can be represented as a function of time or of frequency. These representations are uniquely related by the Fourier transform or Fourier series (see Fourier analysis). The spectrum is the frequency-domain representation and consists of the amplitude spectrum (or power spectrum) and the phase spectrum. Both are necessary to describe the sound completely. For example, a sound played backward has the same amplitude spectrum but an altered phase spectrum, and usually the sounds are perceptually very different. Periodic sounds have a line spectrum with a nonzero amplitude only at discrete frequencies. Other sounds have a continuous spectrum; the spectrum is then described in terms of spectral density, which involves units of amplitude or power per hertz. Sound spectra are useful partly because the mammalian auditory system performs an imperfect Fourier analysis. Also called acoustic spectrum; tonal spectrum. See tonotopic organization.

sound symbolism

sound symbolism see phonetic symbolism.

sound-attenuating chamber

sound-attenuating chamber an enclosure designed to reduce the transmission of sounds produced outside the chamber. Also called audiometric chamber. See also anechoic chamber.

sound-level meter

sound-level meter a device used to measure sound pressure. The sound pressure is transduced by a microphone, processed, and typically expressed in decibels sound-pressure level (dB SPL; see decibel). Some sound-level meters have frequency-weighting scales to approximate the characteristics of human hearing. The dBC scale gives approximately equal weight across most of the audibility range. The dBA scale is thought to better approximate the loudness or noisiness of environmental sounds.

sound-pressure level (SPL)

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sounding out

sounding out see phonics.

sour

sour adj. denoting the taste elicited by acids. Increasing sourness generally occurs with declining pH. Acids are involved in many physiological processes and also characterize unripe or spoiled foods; thus, their detection is essential for an organism’s ion homeostasis and food selection. —sourness n.

source amnesia

source amnesia impaired memory for how, when, or where information was learned despite good memory for the information itself. Source amnesia is often linked to frontal lobe pathology.

source attractiveness

source attractiveness among source factors, a characteristic denoting the extent to which the source of a persuasive message is seen as physically attractive.

source confusion

source confusion misattribution of the origins of a memory. This may distort eyewitness accounts of the events surrounding a crime. For example, an eyewitness hearing from a police officer that the perpetrator carried a gun may later believe that he or she saw the gun at the crime scene. See also unconscious transfer.

source credibility

source credibility among source factors, a characteristic denoting the extent to which the source of a persuasive message is seen as likely to provide accurate information, which is determined by source expertise and source trustworthiness.

source expertise

source expertise among source factors, a characteristic denoting the extent to which the source of a persuasive message is seen as knowledgeable about the topic of the message. See also source credibility.

source factors

source factors characteristics of the source of a persuasive message that are likely to influence the effectiveness of the message. Source attractiveness, source credibility, source expertise, source majority or minority status, and source trustworthiness are all source factors.

source language

source language 1. the language (usually a person’s native tongue) used as a starting point when attempting to learn or use another language. 2. the language from which a translation has been or is being made. Compare target language.

source majority or minority status

source majority or minority status among source factors, a characteristic indicating (a) that the source of a message holds a position that is shared by a numerical majority or minority of the population or (b) that the source of a message is a member of a social group that is a numerical majority or minority.

source memory

source memory memory for the origin of a memory or of knowledge; that is, memory for where or how one came to know what one now remembers. This construct has been expanded to encompass any aspects of context associated with an event, including spatial-temporal, perceptual, or affective attributes. Although the prefrontal cortex is known to be involved in source memory, its exact contribution remains uncertain. Compare fact memory.

source monitoring

source monitoring the process of determining the origins of one’s memories, knowledge, or beliefs, such as whether an event was personally experienced, witnessed on television, or overheard. See also reality monitoring.

source trait

source trait in Cattell’s personality trait theory, any of 16 personality traits, determined by factor analysis, that underlie and determine surface traits. Examples are social boldness, dominance, and openness to change. See also ability trait; dynamic trait; temperament trait.

source trustworthiness

source trustworthiness among source factors, a characteristic denoting the extent to which the source of a persuasive message is seen as honest. See also source credibility.

Southern blot

Southern blot a method of detecting a particular DNA sequence in a mixture of DNA molecules. It involves separating the DNAs with gel electrophoresis, blotting the separated DNAs onto nitrocellulose, then using a labeled DNA or RNA probe to hybridize with and highlight the DNA sequence of interest. Compare Northern blot; Western blot. [developed in the 1970s by Edwin Southern (1938– ), British biochemist]

SOV

SOV abbreviation for Allport–Vernon–Lindzey Study of Values.

space adaptation syndrome

space adaptation syndrome a type of motion sickness probably caused by an astronaut’s inability to distinguish up from down while in orbit. This confusion results in dizziness and nausea.

space factor

space factor a hypothesized ability, proposed by Louis L. Thurstone in 1938, that accounts for some individual differences in the capacity to perceive and reason about spatial relations. This factor may be related to individual differences in mathematical abilities.

space motion sickness

space motion sickness a form of motion sickness experienced during space travel.

space orientation

space orientation see spatial orientation.

space perception

space perception an awareness, derived from sensory input, of the spatial properties of objects in the environment, including their shape, dimension, and distance.

space psychology

space psychology the application of psychological procedures to the problems of humans functioning in outer space.

space-based attention

space-based attention a mode of visual attention operating primarily on a representation of visual space; that is, attention is directed toward spatial locations rather than objects. Compare object-based attention.

spaced practice

spaced practice see distributed practice.

spaced repetition

spaced repetition see repetition effect.

spacing effect

spacing effect a cognitive phenomenon in which distributing to-be-learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous, massed sessions. In other words, distributed practice is more beneficial than massed practice. For example, a student preparing for a Spanish vocabulary exam on Thursday would remember more by studying the Spanish–English word pairs during brief sessions (e.g., 1 hour each) on consecutive prior days (e.g., Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday) than by cramming study into a single session in one day. The spacing effect has been demonstrated with a wide range of learning paradigms, materials, and participants, but the precise mechanisms underlying it remain unclear. Various explanations have been offered, such as the consolidation theory, which proposes that people notice repetitions of items and create a second representation of the item when they encounter it again; the deficient processing theory, which suggests that people pay more attention to spaced repetitions of an item because the item is thus not as active in memory; the encoding variability theory, which suggests that the contextual information stored with an item varies over time, so that a greater variety of information is stored with spaced presentations, resulting in multiple (or stronger) retrieval routes; and the study-phase retrieval theory, which states that people notice repetitions of items and retrieve the earlier presentation of an item when they encounter it again. Also called distributed-practice effect. See also lag effect; primacy effect; recency effect. [first described in 1885 by Hermann Ebbinghaus]

span of apprehension

span of apprehension see apprehension span.

spandrel

spandrel n. see exaptation.

spasm

spasm n. a sudden, involuntary muscle contraction. It may be continuous or sustained (tonic) or it may alternate between contraction and relaxation (clonic). A spasm may be restricted to a particular body part; for example, a vasospasm involves a blood vessel, and a bronchial spasm involves the bronchi. —spasmodic adj.

spasmodic dysphonia

spasmodic dysphonia a rare voice disorder with symptoms including momentary periods of uncontrolled vocal spasms, stuttering, tightness in the throat, and recurrent hoarseness. The cause is unknown, but the condition may be attributed to a neurological or physiological disturbance or to psychological factors. Spasmodic dysphonia (formerly known as spastic dysphonia) particularly affects public speakers.

spasmodic fixation

spasmodic fixation a condition in which an individual is unable to change gaze until the target of fixation is removed. Also called spasm of fixation.

spastic

spastic adj. 1. relating to spasm. 2. relating to increased muscle tension (see spasticity).

spastic colitis

spastic colitis see irritable bowel syndrome.

spastic dysarthria

spastic dysarthria see dysarthria.

spastic dysphonia

spastic dysphonia see spasmodic dysphonia.

spastic hemiparesis

spastic hemiparesis partial paralysis on one side of the body complicated by spasticity of the limbs on the affected side, which may be quite painful.

spastic paralysis

spastic paralysis a condition resulting from damage to upper motor neurons and marked by tonic muscle spasms and increased tendon reflexes. Compare flaccid paralysis.

spastic paraplegia

spastic paraplegia a form of paraplegia characterized by spasticity of the leg muscles. Also called tetanoid paraplegia.

spasticity

spasticity n. a state of increased tension of resting muscles resulting in resistance to passive stretching. It is caused by damage to upper motor neurons and is marked by muscular stiffness or inflexibility and exaggerated tendon reflexes.

spatial ability

spatial ability the skill required to orient or perceive one’s body in space or to detect or reason about relationships within or between objects in space. For example, spatial ability is required in map reading and assembling jigsaw puzzles.

spatial attention

spatial attention the manner in which an individual distributes attention over a visual scene. Spatial attention is usually directed at the part of the scene on which a person fixates (see visual fixation). Also called distributed attention.

spatial autocorrelation

spatial autocorrelation a measurement of a variable’s association with itself throughout space. Although statistical approaches often assume that measured outcomes are independent of each other, this may not be true for observations made at different locations. For example, measurements made at nearby locations may be closer in value than measurements made at locations farther apart. Spatial autocorrelation thus provides an index of the similarity of objects within an area, the level of interdependence between the variables, and the nature and strength of that interdependence. See also autocorrelation.

spatial cognition

spatial cognition the collection, organization, use, and revision of information about one’s environment. Spatial cognition enables people to manage a multitude of everyday tasks, such as getting to the breakfast table, taking the subway to work, or using a joystick to move a character in a virtual game. It is a complex phenomenon that often extends beyond immediate perception. Indeed, psychologists have found that people build extensive cognitive maps that they use to think spatially; these maps have a hierarchical structure, such that individuals “see” the major points and then fill in the details. See also spatial memory.

spatial coherence

spatial coherence see coherence.

spatial contrast sensitivity

spatial contrast sensitivity see contrast sensitivity.

spatial data

spatial data any observations or measurements with a direct or indirect reference to a specific location or geographical area.

spatial density

spatial density density that can be changed by altering the amount of space while keeping the number of individuals constant. There is some evidence that the effect of spatial density on crowding is less than that of social density.

spatial discrimination

spatial discrimination the ability to detect differences in the location of stimuli within multidimensional space.

spatial disorder

spatial disorder a disorder of space perception, usually associated with a lesion of the parietal lobe of the brain. It involves impaired memory for locations, constructional apraxia, route-finding difficulties, and poor judgment of the localization of stimuli. Individuals may underestimate the distance of far objects, overestimate the distance of near objects, or be unable to align objects according to instructions.

spatial frequency

spatial frequency the number of repeating elements in a pattern per unit distance. In a simple pattern of alternating black and white vertical bars (an example of a square-wave grating), the spatial frequency is the number of pairs of black and white bars per degree of visual angle, usually expressed as cycles per degree (cpd). See also contrast sensitivity.

spatial intelligence

spatial intelligence the ability to mentally manipulate objects in space and to imagine them in different locations and positions. It is one of the distinct intelligences in Gardner’s multiple-intelligences theory and also a primary mental ability (S) in Thurstone’s theory of primary abilities.

spatial learning

spatial learning the acquisition of knowledge about the locations of environmental objects and their relative relationships to one another. For example, many nonhuman animals are able to orient within their home range, as demonstrated by their ability when foraging to venture forth and return home in a nonrandom and efficient manner, and they can remember visual or other cues associated with landmarks in order to locate important resources. Spatial learning has been studied for decades in numerous species through the use of Morris water mazes, radial mazes, T mazes, and other labyrinthine tasks. Although the hippocampus is essential to spatial learning, the cortex of the parietal lobe, the precuneus, and other brain structures are selectively involved in the process as well.

spatial memory

spatial memory the capacity to remember the position and location of objects or places, which may include orientation, direction, and distance. Spatial memory is essential for route learning and navigation.

spatial neglect

spatial neglect see unilateral neglect.

spatial orientation

spatial orientation the ability to perceive and adjust one’s location in space in relation to objects in the external environment. See spatial ability.

spatial relationships

spatial relationships the three-dimensional relationships of objects in space, such as their distance apart and their position relative to each other. Also called spatial relations. See also depth perception; spatial ability; spatial intelligence.

spatial summation

spatial summation a neural mechanism in which an impulse is propagated by two or more postsynaptic potentials occurring simultaneously at different synapses on the same neuron, when the discharge of a single synapse would not be sufficient to activate the neuron. Compare temporal summation.

spatial threshold

spatial threshold see two-point threshold.

spatial updating

spatial updating the ability of a moving person to mentally update the locations of objects initially seen, heard, or touched from a different observation point. This cognitive process is crucial for maintaining perceptual stability despite gross and frequent displacements of space following saccadic eye movements (see saccade) and other activities. It is an extraordinarily complex phenomenon involving several neural structures, including the hippocampus, the parieto-occipital sulcus, the precuneus, and posterior areas of the parietal cortex. See also spatial cognition.

spatial vision

spatial vision the ability of the eye and brain to encode and represent spatial patterns of light. The mechanisms of spatial vision are critical for all behavior that involves the processing of visual information.

spatial-temporal reasoning

spatial-temporal reasoning the ability to conceptualize the three-dimensional relationships of objects in space and to mentally manipulate them as a succession of transformations over a period of time. Spatial-temporal reasoning is a cognitive ability that plays an important role in fields such as architecture, engineering, and mathematics, among others, and in basic tasks such as everyday movement of the body through space.

spaying

spaying n. the surgical removal of the ovaries of a female mammal as a sterilization procedure.

SPC

SPC abbreviation for statistical process control.

speaking in tongues

speaking in tongues see glossolalia.

Spearman correlation coefficient

Spearman correlation coefficient (symbol: ρ; rs) a nonparametric measure of statistical dependence between two variables that were measured on an ordinal scale; that is, the individual observations (cases) can be ranked into two ordered series. The Spearman correlation coefficient assesses how well the relationship between the variables can be described using a monotonic function. It ranges in value from +1 to −1. Also called Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient; Spearman’s rho. [Charles Spearman]

Spearman–Brown prophecy formula

Spearman–Brown prophecy formula the mathematical formulation of a basic tenet of classical test theory concerning the length (number of items) of a test and its influence on reliability, whereby increasing the number of items with similar content results in increased reliability for the test, and decreasing the number of items leads to decreased reliability. The formula allows a researcher to estimate the gains or losses in reliability that would occur with changes in test size. Also called Spearman–Brown prediction formula. [Charles Spearman; W. Brown, 20th-century British psychologist]

Spearman’s G

Spearman’s G in the two-factor theory of intelligence, general ability, represented by the factor g. [proposed in 1904 by Charles Spearman]

Spearman’s S

Spearman’s S in the two-factor theory of intelligence, a specific ability, represented by the factor s. [proposed in 1904 by Charles Spearman]

special aptitude

special aptitude see specific ability.

special care unit (SCU)

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special child

special child see child with special needs.

special education

special education specially designed programs, services, and instruction provided to children with learning, behavioral, or physical disabilities (e.g., visual impairment, hearing loss, neurological disorders) to assist them in becoming independent, productive, and valued members of their communities.

special factor

special factor see specific factor.

special needs

special needs the requirements of individuals with physical, mental, or emotional disabilities or with financial, community-related, or resource disadvantages. Special needs may warrant special education, training, or therapy.

special needs child

special needs child see child with special needs.

special psychiatric rapid intervention team (SPRINT)

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special school

special school a facility that provides focused and individualized education for children with disabilities or other disadvantages who are not prepared to cope with the intellectual and social demands in regular school settings.

special-ability test

special-ability test a focused examination given to determine whether a student possesses any extraordinary or unusual skills, talents, or abilities.

speciation

speciation n. the formation of new species. The process involves one population splitting into two or more populations that are reproductively isolated from each other. Over time, the accrued genetic differences between these populations become so great as to prevent successful interbreeding.

species

species n. in biological taxonomy, the basic unit of classification, consisting of a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. It is the main subdivision of a genus.

species recognition

species recognition the ability to determine whether another individual is from the same or a different species. Species recognition is important in mate selection to avoid breeding with another species. Cues used for species recognition include species-specific coloration, vocalizations, odors, and behavior.

species specificity of language

species specificity of language the theory that language is an innate characteristic unique to the species Homo sapiens. See language-origin theory; task specificity of language.

species-specific behavior

species-specific behavior behavior that is common to nearly all members of a particular species and expressed in essentially the same way. Human language is a prominent example.

species-specific defense reaction (SSDR)

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speciesism

speciesism n. discriminatory, prejudicial, or exploitative practices against nonhuman animals, often on the basis of an assumption of human superiority. See also animal rights. —speciesist n., adj.

specific ability

specific ability an ability used only for a particular intellectual task or a single test in a battery of tests. It does not correlate with other abilities, as opposed to general ability, which correlates at least moderately with other abilities. Also called special aptitude. See also specific factor.

specific aptitude

specific aptitude see aptitude.

specific developmental disorders

specific developmental disorders disorders in which some distinctive and circumscribed ability or area of functioning fails to develop properly from an early age but the difficulties are not attributable to intellectual disability, autism, or any other condition.

specific exploration

specific exploration see inspective exploration.

specific factor (s factor)

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specific hunger

specific hunger hunger for foods that satisfy a biological need for a specific nutrient found in those foods. For instance, a protein-deprived animal will seek protein-rich foods even when more palatable but protein-deficient foods are available.

specific language disability

specific language disability see language disability.

specific language impairment (SLI)

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specific learning disability (SLD)

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specific learning disorder

specific learning disorder see learning disorder. See also disorder of written expression; mathematics disorder; reading disorder.

specific nerve energies

specific nerve energies see specific-energy doctrine.

specific phobia

specific phobia an anxiety disorder, formerly called simple phobia, characterized by a marked and persistent fear of a specific object, activity, or situation (e.g., dogs, blood, flying, heights). The fear is traditionally defined as excessive or unreasonable and is invariably triggered by the presence or anticipation of the feared object or situation, which is either avoided or endured with marked anxiety or distress. In DSM–IV–TR, specific phobias are classified into five subtypes: (a) animal type, which includes fears of animals or insects (e.g., cats, dogs, birds, mice, ants, snakes); (b) natural environment type, which includes fears of entities in the natural surroundings (e.g., heights, storms, water, lightning); (c) blood-injection-injury type, which includes fears of seeing blood or an injury and of receiving an injection or other invasive medical procedure; (d) situational type, which includes fear of public transportation, elevators, bridges, driving, flying, enclosed places (see claustrophobia), and so forth; and (e) other type, which includes fears that cannot be classified under any of the other subtypes (e.g., fears of choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness; children’s fears of clowns or loud noises). DSM–5 retains these subtypes, but it omits the traditional characterization that each fear type must be excessive or unreasonable to meet diagnostic criteria, stipulating instead that the fear must arise out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the feared object or situation or to its context. A fear of loud noises, for example, would be considered understandable if experienced in the context of a war zone and thus would not qualify as a specific phobia.

specific thalamic projection system

specific thalamic projection system the direct sensory pathways via the thalamus for visual, auditory, and somesthetic impulses; that is, neurons that project to the thalamus from specific receptors and then from the thalamus to each of the specific sensory cortices.

specific transfer

specific transfer transfer of skills and knowledge acquired in one task to a similar task in which they are directly relevant. Compare general transfer.

specific variance

specific variance in factor analysis, the systematic variability that is specific to a particular variable and not shared with other variables. Specific variance contrasts with communality, the variability that a single variable shares with one or more of the other variables in the analysis, and random error, the unsystematic variability specific to a particular variable.

specific-attitudes theory

specific-attitudes theory the viewpoint that certain psychosomatic disorders are associated with particular attitudes. An example is an association between the feeling of being mistreated and the occurrence of hives. See also specific-reaction theory.

specific-energy doctrine

specific-energy doctrine the concept that the quality of a sensory experience is determined by the type of sensory receptor and its nerve channels; thus, the sense of pain originates with stimulation of pain receptors, hearing with receptors in the inner ear, and so on. Originally it was supposed that the different sensory channels had different forms of neural energy, but it was later realized that the specificity lies in the connections from sensory receptors to sensory areas in the cerebral cortex. Also called law of specific nerve energies. [elaborated in 1838 by Johannes Müller]

specific-reaction theory

specific-reaction theory a concept that an innate tendency of the autonomic nervous system to react in a particular way to a stressful situation accounts for psychosomatic symptoms. See also specific-attitudes theory.

specific-status characteristic

specific-status characteristic in expectation-states theory, any of various behavioral and personal characteristics relevant to the setting that people intentionally and unintentionally take into account when making judgments of their own and others’ competence, ability, and social value. Compare diffuse-status characteristic.

specificity

specificity n. 1. the quality of being unique, of a particular kind, or limited to a single phenomenon. For example, a stimulus that elicits a particular response is said to have specificity. 2. the probability that a test yields a negative diagnosis given that the individual does not have the condition for which he or she is being tested. Compare sensitivity.

specificity of behavior

specificity of behavior 1. the fact that certain behavior is elicited only by particular stimuli and therefore does not generalize beyond specific situations. 2. a fixed pattern of expected behavior in a situation.

specificity theory

specificity theory a theory holding that the mechanism of pain is—like vision and hearing—a specific modality with its own central and peripheral apparatus. According to this theory, pain is produced by nerve impulses that are generated by an injury and are transmitted directly to a pain center in the brain. Compare gate-control theory; pattern theory.

specious present

specious present the lived present, experienced as a distinct “moment” characterized by certain sense impressions and mental events. This sense of inhabiting a particular moment known as the present is psychologically strong but actually specious, because (a) time is continuous and ongoing and (b) the present instant is so infinitely short that it cannot be experienced. See also conscious moment; psychological moment; timeless moment. [introduced in 1882 by E. R. Clay (pseudonym for Irish-born U.S. philosopher E. Robert Kelly) and further developed by William James]

SPECT

SPECT acronym for single photon emission computed tomography.

spectator effect

spectator effect the effect on performance when a task is carried out in the presence of others. When an individual is confident of being able to perform the task (i.e., has high task confidence), spectators improve performance; when task confidence is low, they worsen it.

spectator role

spectator role a behavior pattern in which one’s natural sexual responses are blocked by performance anxiety. It involves observing oneself closely and worrying about how well or poorly one is performing sexually, rather than participating fully in the sexual activity; this prevents sexual arousal from occurring. [first described by U.S. sex researchers William H. Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia E. Johnson (1925–2013)]

spectator therapy

spectator therapy the beneficial effect on group-therapy members of observing the therapy of fellow members with similar or related problems.

spectral absorption

spectral absorption the ability of chemicals to absorb light of specific wavelengths. This is determined by passing lights of nearly pure wavelengths through solutions of the chemicals and measuring the amount of light absorbed. In visual spectral absorption, the principle is applied by measuring the degree to which different wavelengths of light alter retinal photopigment molecules.

spectral color

spectral color any one of the colors of the visible spectrum, produced when white light is refracted by a prism. The visible spectrum can be divided into some 130 distinguishable spectral colors by human observers. Also called spectral hue. Compare extraspectral hue.

spectral density

spectral density see sound spectrum.

spectral envelope

spectral envelope see envelope.

spectral scale

spectral scale a scale that depicts the colors of the spectrum for light of different wavelengths or frequencies by just noticeable differences (see difference threshold).

spectral sensitivity

spectral sensitivity the relative degree to which light of different wavelengths is absorbed by the photopigments of the retina. Each type of photoreceptor (i.e., rod or cone) has its own characteristic spectral sensitivity.

spectrally opponent cell

spectrally opponent cell a type of neuron in the visual system that is excited by light in certain regions of the visible spectrum and inhibited by light in other regions.

spectrogram

spectrogram n. see sound spectrography.

spectroscopy

spectroscopy n. the study of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, especially the visible spectrum, as it interacts with matter. The interpretation of the spectra so produced is used in chemical analysis, in examining molecular structure, and for many other purposes. Spectroscopy is performed using spectroscopes, spectrometers, or spectrophotometers.

spectrum

spectrum n. (pl. spectra) 1. a distribution of electromagnetic energy displayed by decreasing wavelength. In the case of the visible spectrum, it is the series of visible colors (with wavelengths in the range 400–700 nm) produced when white light is refracted through a prism. 2. a wide range of associated elements, qualities, actions, or occurrences. —spectral adj.

spectrum level

spectrum level the power per hertz of a sound, usually expressed in decibels sound-pressure level (dB SPL). For a waveform with a continuous spectrum, the power spectral density is the power contained in the sound’s bandwidth at a specific frequency f as the change in f approaches zero.

spectrum of consciousness

spectrum of consciousness 1. in transpersonal psychology, the full range of human psychological and spiritual experiences concomitant with states of mind. 2. in neurology and neuroscience, the full range of awareness or arousal. See consciousness.

speculation

speculation n. 1. conjectural thinking that is not necessarily supported by scientifically determined evidence. 2. a loosely supported theory or explanation. —speculative adj.

speculative psychology

speculative psychology a view of a psychological subject or issue that is based on conjecture or unsupported theory rather than experimental or research evidence. See armchair psychology; rational psychology.

speech

speech n. the product of oral–motor movement resulting in articulation of language: the utterance of sounds and words.

speech act

speech act an instance of the use of speech considered as an action, especially with regard to the speaker’s intentions and the effect on a listener. A single utterance usually involves several simultaneous speech acts (see illocutionary act). The study of speech acts is part of the general field of pragmatics.

speech amplification system

speech amplification system a system consisting of a microphone attached to a headset and a small amplifier designed to increase the volume of the voice of an individual who is unable to speak loudly because of a voice disorder or respiratory problem.

speech and language disorder

speech and language disorder any disorder that affects verbal or written communication. A speech disorder is one that affects the production of speech, potentially including such problems as poor audibility or intelligibility; unpleasant tonal quality; unusual, distorted, or abnormally effortful sound production; lack of conventional rhythm and stress; and inappropriateness in terms of age or physical or mental development. A language disorder is one that affects the expression or reception (comprehension) of ideas and feelings, potentially including such problems as reduced vocabulary, omissions of articles and modifiers, understanding of nouns but not verbs, difficulties following oral instructions, and syntactical errors. Although speech disorders and language disorders are two distinct entities, they often occur together and thus generally are referred to together.

speech and language pathology

speech and language pathology 1. inadequate or maladaptive communication behavior and disorders of speech, language, and hearing. 2. the clinical field focused on the study, evaluation, and treatment of speech, voice, and language disorders.

speech and language therapy

speech and language therapy see speech therapy.

speech anxiety

speech anxiety see public-speaking anxiety.

speech aphasia

speech aphasia a less common name for expressive aphasia.

speech apraxia

speech apraxia see apraxia.

speech area

speech area any of the areas of the cerebral cortex that are associated with language perception and production, either verbal or written. The speech production (output) areas tend to be located in the left hemisphere in Broca’s area. Speech perception and comprehension tend to be more bilateral, involving Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe. Activation maps for speech show widely regional distribution with some overlap in the classical language regions of the cortex.

speech audiometry

speech audiometry the measurement of hearing in terms of the reception of spoken words presented at controlled levels of intensity.

speech community

speech community a group of people who speak a particular language or variety of a language (e.g., a dialect).

speech derailment

speech derailment see derailment.

speech development

speech development see language development.

speech discrimination test

speech discrimination test a phonetically balanced word list used to measure an individual’s ability to understand speech.

speech error

speech error see slip of the tongue.

speech functions

speech functions the various purposes for which spoken language is used, primarily the communication of ideas or information, the maintenance of social relationships, and the expression of feelings or emotions.

speech impairment

speech impairment any problem that affects the production of speech. The term is occasionally used as a synonym for speech disorder (see speech and language disorder).

speech impediment

speech impediment popularly, any speech impairment or disorder. The term is no longer used in formal research or therapeutic practice.

speech intelligibility

speech intelligibility the degree to which speech sounds (whether conversational or communication-system output) can be correctly identified and understood by listeners in a particular environment. Background or other system noise is one of the most important factors influencing speech intelligibility. See also articulation index.

speech lateralization

speech lateralization hemispheric asymmetry in the control of speech production. For most individuals, speech production is located in the left cerebral hemisphere. See also language localization; speech area; Wada test.

speech origin

speech origin see language-origin theory.

speech perception

speech perception the process in which a listener decodes, combines, and converts an incoming stream of otherwise meaningless sound created by the speech production process into a meaningful sequence and phonological representation.

speech processor

speech processor a device that converts microphone or other input into patterns of electrical stimulation. For example, the processor in a cochlear implant converts sounds into electrical impulses to stimulate the auditory nerve, thus enabling comprehension of sound and speech.

speech production

speech production the psychophysical and neurophysiological processes by which a person uses his or her neural, articulatory, and respiratory capacities to generate spoken language.

speech recognition system

speech recognition system a computer software program capable of recognizing and responding to human speech. Such programs enable users to control computers and create and manipulate documents by dictation, which is especially important for individuals with disabilities who are unable to provide commands and data input with devices such as a keyboard, touch pad, or mouse.

speech rehabilitation

speech rehabilitation training to restore a lost or impaired speech function. Also called speech reeducation.

speech sound disorder

speech sound disorder in DSM–5, the term for phonological disorder.

Speech Sounds Perception Test

Speech Sounds Perception Test a test in the Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery used to measure a person’s ability to match a spoken nonsense word containing a double e (such as teeg) with its written counterpart.

speech synthesizer

speech synthesizer a computer or other system capable of producing artificial speech. Synthesizers may produce speech in response to input (e.g., from a keyboard or touch pad), or they may convert written text into speech. See also audiotactile device.

speech therapy

speech therapy the application of remedies, treatment, and counseling for the improvement of speech and language. Also called speech and language therapy.

speech-activated control

speech-activated control the use of voice commands to initiate functions of or input information to a device. An example is dialing a phone by speaking the number. Also called voice-activated control.

speech-reception threshold (SRT)

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speech-to-noise ratio

speech-to-noise ratio see signal-to-noise ratio.

speech-tolerance level

speech-tolerance level the decibels sound-pressure level (dB SPL) at which continuous speech is judged to be uncomfortably loud.

speech, language, and hearing center

speech, language, and hearing center a professionally staffed clinic or facility offering diagnostic and treatment services to people with communication impairments. The staff typically consists of experts in audiology, speech and language pathology, and speech and hearing sciences. Also called community speech and hearing center.

speechreading

speechreading n. see lipreading.

speed

speed n. slang for an amphetamine, especially methamphetamine.

speed dating

speed dating an approach to dating developed in the 1990s in which potential daters engage in a series of brief one-on-one encounters with other potential daters, after which each person indicates in a confidential manner whether he or she is interested in future dates with each of the people met. Only when both answer in the affirmative is contact information exchanged. Typical speed-dating events allow participants to interact with approximately 6 to 10 potential dates for 3 to 8 minutes each. The primary rationale underlying speed dating is that certain important determinants of attraction can only be evaluated in face-to-face interactions and that very brief interactions (sometimes called thin slices of behavior) are sufficient for conveying information about these determinants to potential daters.

speed test

speed test a type of test used to calculate the number of problems or tasks the participant can solve or perform in a predesignated block of time. The participant is often, but not always, made aware of the time limit. Compare power test.

speed–accuracy tradeoff

speed–accuracy tradeoff the tendency, when performing a task, for either speed or accuracy to be sacrificed in order to prioritize the other. In experiments, a researcher may vary the speed–accuracy criterion through instructions, payoffs, and deadlines, such that participants can respond quickly with many errors, slowly with few errors, or anywhere in between. In the area of motor control, Fitts’s law is a specific example of a speed–accuracy tradeoff.

speedball

speedball n. a colloquial name for a mixture of heroin and a powerful stimulant (e.g., cocaine or an amphetamine).

spell

spell n. 1. a hypnotic influence or any influence of one person over another considered similarly powerful and hard to explain. 2. a magical incantation or a curse. 3. a lay term for an episode of a physical or mental disorder.

spelling dyslexia

spelling dyslexia a type of visual word-form dyslexia manifested by letter-by-letter reading. For example, an affected individual reading the word dog would say, “D-O-G spells dog.” Such individuals may have normal spelling and writing ability but cannot read back what they have written down. In most cases, they have lesions located near the junctions of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes (the left angular gyrus) of the brain. Modern imaging studies also implicate these regions in word recognition.

sperm

sperm n. see spermatozoon.

sperm analysis

sperm analysis the evaluation of male fertility according to sperm count per milliliter of ejaculate and sperm morphology (i.e., form and structure) and motility. Also called seminal analysis.

sperm competition

sperm competition competition between the sperm of different males to fertilize the eggs of females that mate with multiple males. Among nonhuman animals, males have several strategies for dealing with sperm competition, including mate guarding, leaving an ejaculatory plug in the female genitalia to prevent other males from mating, or removing sperm from previous males prior to mating. Females have tactics to counter these strategies (see cryptic female choice). In the muriqui monkey of Brazil, for example, males produce sperm plugs that block the vagina but both females and other males can remove these plugs.

spermarche

spermarche n. a male’s first ejaculation of semen. Also called semenarche.

spermatic duct

spermatic duct see vas deferens.

spermatocyte

spermatocyte n. a cell that emerges during an intermediate stage of spermatogenesis in the male testis.

spermatogenesis

spermatogenesis n. the production of spermatozoa in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. Male germ cells (spermatogonia; sing. spermatogonium) lining the seminiferous tubules mature into primary spermatocytes, which undergo meiosis to eventually result in mature spermatozoa (four per spermatocyte). In the first meiotic division, each primary spermatocyte gives rise to two haploid secondary spermatocytes, each of which then undergoes a further division to form two spermatids. The latter, attached to Sertoli cells, mature into spermatozoa. The process is controlled by pituitary gonadotropins, which promote the release of testosterone from the interstitial cells of the testis, which in turn stimulates sperm production. Spermatogenesis is continuous in human males after the onset of puberty and seasonal in some other animal species. —spermatogenetic adj.

spermatorrhea

spermatorrhea n. the involuntary discharge of semen in the absence of orgasm.

spermatozoon

spermatozoon n. (pl. spermatozoa) a single male gamete that develops from a secondary spermatocyte following its development from spermatogonia of the seminiferous tubules. A spermatozoon fuses with a female gamete (see ovum) in the process of fertilization. Also called sperm. See also spermatogenesis.

spherical aberration

spherical aberration the failure of light rays to converge at the same focal point because of the curvature of a lens. See also astigmatism.

spherical lens

spherical lens a lens in which either or both of the surfaces are portions of a sphere.

sphericity

sphericity n. an assumption, encountered in a within-subjects analysis of variance of data obtained from the same individuals on multiple occasions, requiring the variations among each individual’s set of scores to be equal or the correlations among all time points to be constant. Results from analyses of variance that violate sphericity require adjustments to compensate for an increased propensity of the researcher to draw invalid conclusions by making a Type II error.

sphincter

sphincter n. a ring-shaped muscle that partly or wholly closes a body orifice, such as the anal sphincters or the iris of the eye.

sphincter control

sphincter control the ability to control the muscles that open and close the openings of the body, particularly the anal and urinary sphincters. Acquiring this ability is an important stage in physical development. See defecation reflex; toilet training.

sphincter morality

sphincter morality in psychoanalytic theory, personality characteristics and behaviors, such as obstinacy, extreme orderliness, and parsimony, that are associated with an anal-retentive personality. See anal personality.

sphingomyelin

sphingomyelin n. a phospholipid that occurs abundantly in animal cell membranes. It makes up about one tenth of the lipids of the brain.

sphingomyelin lipidosis

sphingomyelin lipidosis see Niemann–Pick disease.

sphygmograph

sphygmograph n. an instrument for measuring the strength, rapidity, and other characteristics of the pulse.

sphygmomanometer

sphygmomanometer n. see blood pressure.

spice

spice n. a cannabis-like drug that consists of dried leaves sprayed with synthetic chemicals and that is sold as incense. Also called K2.

spicy

spicy adj. 1. denoting the taste of highly flavored foods. Spiciness is conveyed mainly through activity of the trigeminal nerve (see trigeminal chemoreception) rather than the gustatory system. 2. denoting one of the primary odor qualities in Henning’s odor prism. —spiciness n.

spider phobia

spider phobia a persistent and irrational fear of spiders. Situations in which spiders may be encountered are often avoided or else endured with intense anxiety or distress. In DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, spider phobia is classified as a specific phobia, animal type. Also called arachneophobia; arachnophobia. See also animal phobia.

spike

spike n. 1. in behavioral neuroscience, a train of electrical signals recorded from an individual neuron in the brain. Spikes are the action potentials or signals generated by neurons to communicate with one another. 2. in a time-series analysis, a point in time at which there is a sharp increase followed by a rapid decrease in measurements on the dependent variable.

spike potential

spike potential see action potential.

spike-and-wave discharges

spike-and-wave discharges a pattern of brain waves on an electroencephalogram (see electroencephalography) that is characteristic of absence seizures. It consists of a sharp spike followed by a low-amplitude delta wave and occurs at a frequency of three per second.

spike-wave activity

spike-wave activity the pattern produced by an action potential of a neuron when amplified and projected onto the screen of an oscilloscope or a computer monitor. The waveform appears as a sharp, high peak, followed by a short dip below the baseline (the afterpotential), then a return to the predischarge level. The amplitude of the wave spike indicates the intensity of the discharge.

spina bifida

spina bifida any developmental anomaly in which the vertebral canal fails to close normally around the spinal cord; it is a neural tube defect. Individuals with spina bifida have difficulty with sensation, ambulation, and bowel and bladder control; experience weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the legs or feet; and are susceptible to infection. Meningomyelocele is the most common form of spina bifida.

spinal animal

spinal animal a nonhuman animal whose spinal cord has been surgically severed and therefore separated from communication with its brain, so that peripheral processes of the body are controlled only by the spinal cord and nerves.

spinal canal

spinal canal the passage that runs through the spinal column and contains the spinal cord.

spinal column

spinal column the backbone, consisting of a series of bones (vertebrae) connected by disks of cartilage (intervertebral disks) and held together by muscles and tendons. It extends from the cranium to the coccyx, encloses the spinal cord, and forms the main axis of the body. Also called spine; vertebral column.

spinal cord

spinal cord the part of the central nervous system that extends from the lower end of the medulla oblongata, at the base of the brain, through a canal in the center of the spine as far as the lumbar region. In transverse section, the cord consists of an H-shaped core of gray matter (see periaqueductal gray; anterior horn; dorsal horn) surrounded by white matter consisting of tracts of long ascending and descending nerve fibers on either side of the cord that are linked by the white commissure. The spinal cord is enveloped by the meninges and is the origin of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves. See also spinal root.

spinal cord disease

spinal cord disease any pathological condition caused by infection, injury, or a congenital defect of the spinal cord. Examples include Brown-Séquard’s syndrome, Horner’s syndrome, spinal meningitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and syringomyelia.

spinal cord injury

spinal cord injury any damage to the spinal cord caused by sudden or progressive external forces. Spinal cord injuries include contusion (bruising), hemorrhage, laceration, transection, and compression. See also incomplete spinal cord injury; radiculopathy; slipped disk.

spinal ganglion

spinal ganglion a collection of cell bodies of sensory neurons found in the dorsal root of each spinal nerve.

spinal gate

spinal gate in gate-control theory, a neural pathway in the spinal cord that regulates pain perception by opening and closing, thereby allowing or not allowing pain signals to excite dorsal horn transmission neurons. According to the theory, the gate can be influenced by physical, emotional, and behavioral factors. See also gating mechanism.

spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)

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spinal nerve

spinal nerve any of the 31 pairs of nerves that originate in the gray matter of the spinal cord and emerge through openings between the vertebrae of the spine to extend into the body’s dermatomes (skin areas) and skeletal muscles. The spinal nerves comprise 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves, and 1 coccygeal nerve. Each attaches to the spinal cord via two short branches, a dorsal root and a ventral root. See also spinal root.

spinal reflex

spinal reflex an automatic response controlled solely by neural circuits in the spinal cord, often relating to posture or locomotion. They are sometimes classed as segmental reflexes, if the circuit involves only one segment of the spinal cord, or as intersegmental reflexes, if the impulses must travel through more than one spinal segment. Reflexes that require brain activity are suprasegmental reflexes.

spinal root

spinal root the junction of a spinal nerve and the spinal cord. Near the cord, each spinal nerve divides into a dorsal root carrying sensory fibers and a ventral root carrying motor fibers, as stated by the Bell–Magendie law.

spinal shock

spinal shock a temporary loss of reflex functions below the site of an injury to the spinal cord.

spinal stenosis

spinal stenosis see stenosis.

spinal tap

spinal tap see lumbar puncture.

spindle cell

spindle cell a type of small neuron whose cell body is spindle shaped, being wider in the middle and tapering at the two ends. It should not be confused with a muscle spindle.

spindle waves

spindle waves electroencephalogram patterns associated with light sleep. See sleep spindles.

spine

spine n. see spinal column.

spinocerebellar tract

spinocerebellar tract a major bundle of nerve fibers that carries impulses from the muscles and other proprioceptors through the spinal cord to the cerebellum.

spinocerebellum

spinocerebellum see paleocerebellum.

spinomesencephalic tract

spinomesencephalic tract see anterolateral system.

spinoreticular tract

spinoreticular tract see anterolateral system.

spinothalamic tract

spinothalamic tract either of two ascending pathways for somatosensory impulses that travel through the spinal cord to the thalamus. They are part of the anterolateral system. The anterior spinothalamic tract serves touch and pressure sensations; the lateral spinothalamic tract carries principally pain and temperature information.

spiral ganglion

spiral ganglion the mass of cell bodies on the inner wall of the cochlea, near the organ of Corti, whose axons form the auditory nerve.

spiral test

spiral test a type of intelligence assessment in which the focused themes being evaluated are distributed throughout the test, instead of being grouped together, and become increasingly difficult as the test progresses. Each subsequent spiral of difficulty covers a different domain of intelligence.

spirit

spirit n. 1. the nonphysical part of a person: the mental, moral, and emotional characteristics that make up the core of someone’s identity. 2. a vital force seen as animating the bodies of living creatures, sometimes identified with the soul and seen as surviving death. 3. an immaterial being, such as a ghost or a deity. 4. in idealist philosophies, a universal mind or idea seen as a fundamental reality and a moving force of events in the world. See absolute idealism. 5. the mood, temper, or disposition that temporarily or permanently characterizes a person. 6. courage or morale.

spirit photography

spirit photography the attempt, popular in the late 19th century, to render visible the spirits of deceased individuals by photography. In particular, it was claimed that spirits often left faint imprints on photographs of their loved ones. The first alleged spirit photograph was produced in 1862 by the U.S. engraver William H. Mumler, who was subsequently tried (inconclusively) for fraud. Most of the supposed spirit images produced at this time seem to have been created using a simple process of double exposure or specially prepared plates.

spiritism

spiritism n. see spiritualism.

spiritual factor

spiritual factor any moral, religious, or mystical belief that plays a role in influencing behavior, emotions, or thoughts.

spiritual healing

spiritual healing see faith healing.

spiritual self

spiritual self see empirical self.

spiritualism

spiritualism n. 1. in metaphysics, the position that the fundamental reality of the universe is nonmaterial. 2. the belief that the spirits of the dead survive in another world or dimension and that it is possible for the living to receive communications from them through mediums. With magic and the occult arts, spiritualism may be considered the philosophical and religious counterpart to parapsychology. Also called spiritism. 3. the belief that all human and nonhuman animals, plants, and natural objects possess souls and are part of a larger, universal spirit. See panpsychism. —spiritualist adj., n. —spiritualistic adj.

spirituality

spirituality n. 1. a concern for or sensitivity to things of the spirit or soul, especially as opposed to materialistic concerns. 2. more specifically, a concern for God and a sensitivity to religious experience, which may include the practice of a particular religion but may also exist without such practice. 3. the fact or state of being incorporeal.

spirograph

spirograph n. an instrument for measuring and recording breath rate and volume.

spirometer

spirometer n. an instrument used for measuring the air capacity in the lungs. In speech therapy, it may be used to record breathing functions associated with speech production.

SPL

SPL abbreviation for sound-pressure level. See decibel.

splanchnic

splanchnic adj. denoting the abdominal organs or viscera. In combination with a qualifying prefix, this word is used in the names of various body types to indicate the abdomen (e.g., macrosplanchnic type, microsplanchnic type).

splanchnic nerve

splanchnic nerve any of certain nerves that serve the abdominal viscera. They originate in the ganglia of the sympathetic chain.

spleen

spleen n. 1. an organ that produces lymphocytes, filters and stores blood, and destroys old red blood cells. Although it is not necessary to maintain life, the absence of a spleen may predispose an individual to certain infections. 2. bad temper or ill will. 3. an old term for melancholy or depression.

splenium

splenium n. (pl. splenia) a blunt enlargement at the posterior end of the corpus callosum.

spline function

spline function a smoothed mathematical representation of a disjointed or disaggregated relationship between an independent variable (x) and a dependent variable (y), in which values of y vary sharply for different intervals of x. Each range of x thus has a different slope, and spline functions are formed by joining piecewise polynomials at fixed points called knots. Spline functions (or splines for short) are useful for fitting data that have random components, and are widely used for interpolation and approximation of data sampled at a discrete set of points (e.g., for time-series interpolation).

split brain

split brain a brain in which the two cerebral hemispheres have been separated by partial or complete destruction of the corpus callosum (see commissurotomy), thereby blocking direct communication between them. Split-brain surgery is used to treat otherwise intractable epilepsy, because it prevents cortical seizure activity from spreading between the hemispheres. Given the extensive communication between the two hemispheres in the intact brain, disruption of this activity in split-brain conditions is of considerable scientific interest. Also called divided brain.

split personality

split personality a lay term for an individual with dissociative identity disorder. It is sometimes confused with schizophrenia, which literally means “splitting of the mind,” but does not involve the formation of a second personality.

split recovery

split recovery a statute in which the plaintiff in a civil lawsuit is obligated to share his or her punitive damages with the state, which puts the money toward some cause intended to benefit society as a whole (e.g., a government medical assistance fund). The concept of split recovery is intended to address the common criticism that punitive damages tend to be excessive and provide a windfall for plaintiffs, which is contrary to their primary purpose of punishing defendants to deter future misconduct. Many argue that if punitive awards are intended to protect the public by discouraging socially impermissible conduct, then these awards should be split between the plaintiff and society at large. Currently, eight states have split recovery, although how much money each receives and how it is distributed varies widely. For example, in Alaska 50% of the plaintiff’s punitive award is given to the state and placed in its general treasury fund, whereas in Illinois the specific arrangements are determined on a case-by-case basis entirely at the discretion of the trial judge. Also called alternative distribution; restricted recovery; split award. See also curative damages.

split run

split run a method of testing the effectiveness of advertising and other promotions by showing an advertisement to one part of a product’s potential customer base and showing no advertisement (or a different advertisement) to the other part. Sales figures can be assessed from data supplied by stores in which the consumer provides identifying information (e.g., an identification card or membership card). See also coupon-return technique.

split treatment

split treatment see collaborative care.

split-ballot technique

split-ballot technique a procedure in which a sample is randomly divided into halves and each half receives a slightly different version of a questionnaire or survey designed to measure the same construct. The technique can be used to determine whether different versions of the survey have different outcomes (e.g., whether positioning of items on the questionnaire makes a difference in the outcomes). Also called split-half method.

split-brain technique

split-brain technique see commissurotomy.

split-half reliability

split-half reliability a measure of the internal consistency of surveys, psychological tests, questionnaires, and other instruments or techniques that assess participant responses on particular constructs. Split-half reliability is determined by dividing the total set of items (e.g., questions) relating to a construct of interest into halves (e.g., odd-numbered and even-numbered questions) and comparing the results obtained from the two subsets of items thus created. The closer the correlation between results from the two versions, the greater the internal consistency of the survey or instrument. The reliability of the total survey can be determined by applying the Spearman–Brown prophecy formula.

split-litter design

split-litter design in animal research, the assignment of litter mates to different groups in an experiment (e.g., the experimental group and the control group) to minimize genetic differences in the study. Also called split-litter technique.

split-plot design

split-plot design a variation of a full factorial design in which one of the independent variables is held constant while all other combinations of conditions are examined, often using different sample sizes or different randomization schemes. For example, consider a researcher examining the influence on crop yield of four different types of corn seed, three different types of fertilizer, and two different types of planting technique. He or she could have half of the participating farmers plant all of the seed types using one technique and the other half plant all of the seed types using the second technique. Split-plot designs are particularly common in agricultural and industrial contexts, in which certain conditions may be difficult to manipulate or change for experimental purposes. Data from such designs may be examined with a split-plot analysis of variance.

split-span test

split-span test a test in which brief auditory messages in the form of two different lists of digits or words are presented rapidly and simultaneously, one list to each ear. Participants are required to report as many digits or words as possible in any order. Typically, participants report first the stimuli presented to one ear, then those presented to the other.

splitting

splitting n. 1. in Kleinian analysis and Fairbairnian theory, a primitive defense mechanism used to protect oneself from conflict, in which objects provoking anxiety and ambivalence are dichotomized into extreme representations (part-objects) with either positive or negative qualities, resulting in polarized viewpoints that fluctuate in extremes of seeing the self or others as either all good or all bad. This mechanism is used not only by infants and young children, who are not yet capable of integrating these polarized viewpoints, but also by adults with dysfunctional patterns of dealing with ambivalence; it is often associated with borderline personality disorder. Also called splitting of the object. 2. in cotherapy, divisiveness that a client provokes between therapists to polarize them on treatment decisions and to undermine the therapeutic process. Also called splitting situation.

SPMSQ

SPMSQ abbreviation for Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire.

spongiform encephalopathy

spongiform encephalopathy see prion disease.

spongioblast

spongioblast n. a type of ectodermal cell (see ectoderm) that can develop into cells of the glia.

spontaneity test

spontaneity test a type of sociometric test in which an individual in a therapy group is encouraged to improvise freely in reenactments of typical life situations with other members of the group who have been judged to be emotionally related, positively or negatively, to that individual. The goal is to gain insight into interpersonal relationships that are not revealed by the standard sociometric test, which deals only with attraction and rejection among members in a group. [devised by Jacob L. Moreno]

spontaneity training

spontaneity training a personality-training program in which a client learns to act naturally and spontaneously in real-life situations by practicing such behavior in graduated sessions. Also called spontaneity therapy. [introduced by Jacob L. Moreno]

spontaneous abortion

spontaneous abortion see abortion.

spontaneous alternation

spontaneous alternation the instinctive, successive alternation among the options available in a situation involving discrete choices or exploration. For example, in a learning and memory experiment, a rat in a T maze tends to choose the left arm on one trial, the right arm on the next, then the left arm again, and so on.

spontaneous discharge

spontaneous discharge the firing of nerve impulses without direct influence from an external stimulus.

spontaneous imagery

spontaneous imagery unintended or unbidden mental images, as observed in drowsy or hypnagogic states.

spontaneous memorialization

spontaneous memorialization voluntary public response to unexpected and violent death. Examples include the placement of messages, flowers, and other objects at sites associated with terrorist attacks or personal tragedies (e.g., when a shopkeeper has been murdered or a child struck by a hit-and-run driver). The hallmark of spontaneous memorialization is an immediate emotional response on the part of individuals and small groups of people, as distinguished from institutionalized patterns of response.

spontaneous movement

spontaneous movement movement that results from impulse, occurring without premeditation or planning. Spontaneous movement decreases in some disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease.

spontaneous neural activity

spontaneous neural activity the apparently automatic firing of neurons, particularly in the absence of observable stimuli. See spontaneous discharge.

spontaneous recovery

spontaneous recovery the reappearance of a conditioned response, following either operant or classical conditioning, after it has been experimentally extinguished (see extinction).

spontaneous regression

spontaneous regression a phenomenon in which a person suddenly relives an event that occurred at an earlier age (e.g., from childhood) and may exhibit appropriate behavior for that age.

spontaneous remission

spontaneous remission a reduction or disappearance of symptoms without any therapeutic intervention, which may be temporary or permanent. It most commonly refers to medical, rather than psychological, conditions. See also waiting-list phenomenon.

spontaneous speech

spontaneous speech speech that is not in response to a specific question or direction.

spontaneous trait inference

spontaneous trait inference a judgment about an individual’s personality traits that is made automatically (i.e., without awareness or intention), usually on the basis of observed behavior. More specifically, spontaneous trait association is the phenomenon by which people who hear an individual describe negative or positive behaviors in others attribute the qualities implied by those behaviors to the speaker.

spoonerism

spoonerism n. a slip of the tongue in which two sound elements (usually initial consonants) are unintentionally transposed, resulting in an utterance with a different and often amusing sense. For example, a person might say sons of toil instead of tons of soil. [W. A. Spooner (1844–1930), British academic noted for slips of this kind]

sport

sport n. 1. a physical contest between individuals or teams that is conducted under codified rules, is controlled by nonparticipants, and can have only one winner. 2. in genetics, an organism that has undergone mutation and is distinctly different from its parents.

sport and exercise psychology

sport and exercise psychology a discipline focused on the development and application of psychological theory for the understanding and modification or enhancement of human behavior in the sport and physical exercise environment. This discipline evolved from an exclusive focus on sport performance and historically has been called sport psychology. However, health and well-being through regular participation in vigorous physical activity programs have become of increasing interest to researchers and practitioners to such an extent that the field is progressively becoming two separate disciplines as exercise psychology merges with health psychology.

Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ)

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sport psychology

sport psychology the application and development of psychological theory for the understanding and enhancement of human behavior in sport. Sport psychologists may work in such specific areas as clinical sport psychology, educational sport psychology, or research sport psychology, depending on their education, training, and focus in the field.

sport science

sport science the application of biophysical and social scientific methods to study sport behavior and improve performance. Sport science includes biological, mechanical, psychological, sociological, and managerial disciplines.

sport self-talk log

sport self-talk log see training log.

sport socialization

sport socialization the process of using sport as a medium for teaching and learning the skills and characteristics necessary to function effectively in a society. It includes learning respect for authority (e.g., a referee), fulfilling commitments (e.g., going to practice, not quitting the team), and so on.

sport sociology

sport sociology the application and development of sociological theory related to sport. Its primary focus is the role sport plays in societies, the organizations of sport, and the influence of culture on sport and of sport on culture.

sport-related life skills

sport-related life skills psychological skills learned for sport-related purposes that can be applied to behavior in other environments and situations. A notable example is group cooperation to achieve a desired outcome.

sports hypnosis

sports hypnosis hypnosis used to assist participants in sport to eliminate mind-sets that interfere with athletic performance or to develop those that enhance it.

sports imagery

sports imagery visualization used by participants in sport for learning and perfecting new skills, for mental rehearsal, and for controlling emotions. See kinesthetic imagery; mental practice; Sport Imagery Questionnaire.

sportsmanship

sportsmanship n. a situation-specific set of behaviors involving concern and respect for rules, opponents, and officials and a positive approach to participation in sporting events. The nature of sportsmanship depends on factors such as the type of sport, the level of play, and the age of the participant.

spotlight model of attention

spotlight model of attention a model of visual attention that likens the focus of attention to a spotlight. Information outside of the spotlight is presumed not to receive processing that requires attention. Compare zoom-lens model of attention.

Spranger’s typology

Spranger’s typology a system of classification that sorts humans by six basic cultural values: theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious. [proposed by Eduard Spranger (1882–1963), German philosopher and psychologist]

spread

spread n. see dispersion.

spread of effect

spread of effect see stimulus generalization.

spreading activation

spreading activation 1. in neuroscience, a hypothetical process in which the activation of one neuron is presumed to spread to connected neurons, making it more likely that they will fire. 2. in cognitive psychology, an analogous model for the association of ideas, memories, and the like, based on the notion that activation of one item stored in memory travels through associated links to activate another item. As each item is activated, further activation may spread through the network, making it more likely that associated items will be recalled. Spreading activation is a feature of some network-memory models of semantic memory.

spreading depression

spreading depression a propagating wave of silence in neuronal activity accompanied by a relatively large negative electric potential. Spreading depression occurs in regions of gray matter, including the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. It may occur spontaneously or be evoked by intense local electrical, chemical, or mechanical stimuli. Cortical spreading depression is related to migraine headaches.

spree murder

spree murder the act of killing people at two or more locations within a short period of time. See also mass murder.

SPRINT

SPRINT acronym for special psychiatric rapid intervention team.

spurious correlation

spurious correlation a situation in which variables are associated through their common relationship with one or more other variables but do not have a causal relationship with one another. For example, assume that data show that the total amount of damage in a fire increases as the number of firefighters at the scene increases. One cannot infer from this that calling fewer firefighters would decrease damage: There is a third variable—the initial size of the fire—that influences both the amount of damage and the number of firefighters present. See third-variable problem.

SQ3R

SQ3R n. one of a variety of study methods developed on the basis of research in cognitive psychology. The formula represents a method for enhanced learning of reading material. It consists of five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review.

SQAW

SQAW acronym for Sleep Questionnaire and Assessment of Wakefulness.

square matrix

square matrix a data array that has the same number of rows as columns. The number of rows and columns determines the order of the matrix (e.g., 3 rows by 3 columns is an order of 3), and any two square matrices of the same order can be added and multiplied. Square matrices are used in regression analysis, factor analysis, and other multivariate analytical techniques.

square-root transformation

square-root transformation a procedure for converting a set of data in which each value, xi, is replaced by its square root, another number that when multiplied by itself yields xi. Square-root transformations often result in homogeneity of variance for the different levels of the independent variable (x) under consideration. As with transformations generally, the goal is to obtain data that more closely meet the assumptions of a statistical procedure that is to be applied.

squared correlation coefficient

squared correlation coefficient see coefficient of determination.

squared multiple correlation coefficient

squared multiple correlation coefficient see coefficient of multiple determination.

squeeze technique

squeeze technique a technique for overcoming premature ejaculation. The penis is stimulated until the man is well aroused, then the partner briefly squeezes the head of the penis where it joins the shaft. When the squeeze is released, a pause in stimulation is taken for 30 seconds to 1 minute. The squeeze and pause lowers arousal, and stimulation is then resumed. After several stimulate–squeeze–pause–stimulate cycles, the man is stimulated to ejaculation. This procedure conditions the man to maintain an erection longer before ejaculation. [devised by U.S. sex researchers William H. Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia E. Johnson (1925–2013)]

SQUID

SQUID acronym for superconducting quantum interference device.

squint

squint n. see cross-eye; strabismus.

SRA

SRA abbreviation for Satanic ritual abuse. See Satanism.

SRCD

SRCD abbreviation for Society for Research in Child Development.

SRI

SRI abbreviation for serotonin reuptake inhibitor. See SSRI.

SRIF

SRIF abbreviation for somatotropin-release inhibiting factor. See somatostatin.

SRT

SRT 1. abbreviation for simple reaction time. 2. abbreviation for speech-reception threshold.

SRY

SRY abbreviation for sex reversal on Y. See sex differentiation.

SS

SS symbol for sum of squares.

SS interval

SS interval abbreviation for shock–shock interval.

SS regression

SS regression symbol for regression sum of squares.

SSA

SSA abbreviation for smallest space analysis.

SSDR

SSDR abbreviation for species-specific defense reaction.

SSE

SSE 1. abbreviation for subacute spongiform encephalopathy. See Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. 2. symbol for sum of squared errors. See error sum of squares.

SSRI

SSRI selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: any of a class of antidepressants that are thought to act by blocking the reuptake of serotonin into serotonin-containing presynaptic neurons in the central nervous system (see also serotonin agonist). The SSRIs have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of not only depression but also panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder as well as eating disorders and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. However, the relationship of the reuptake mechanism to the therapeutic qualities of these agents has not been clearly elucidated. SSRIs also block the activity of certain subtypes of serotonin autoreceptors, and this may also be associated with their therapeutic effects. SSRIs have fewer adverse effects than the tricyclic antidepressants and the monoamine oxidase inhibitors, but common side effects include nausea, headache, anxiety, and tremor, and some patients may experience sexual dysfunction. SSRIs include fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, citalopram, and fluvoxamine. Also called SRI (serotonin reuptake inhibitor).

SSS

SSS abbreviation for Sensation-Seeking Scale.

SST

SST 1. abbreviation for self-statement training. 2. abbreviation for single-session therapy. 3. abbreviation for social skills training. 4. abbreviation for stimulus sampling theory.

SSW

SSW abbreviation for Staggered Spondaic Word Test.

St. John’s wort

St. John’s wort a perennial flowering plant, Hypericum perforatum, that has an extensive history of folk use, particularly as a sedative, a treatment for nerve pain and malaria, and a balm for wounds, burns, and insect bites. It is currently a highly popular product used in the treatment of mild to moderate depression, anxiety, and insomnia. There is some research supporting its effectiveness for these purposes, but studies have not demonstrated the superiority of St. John’s wort over placebo in the management of major depression. There is also some research suggesting that the herb possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The active agents are presumed to be hypericin and related compounds. Hypericin is known to exert some effects common to other antidepressants, such as inhibition of the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. It may also exert some effects by modulating the neurotransmitters gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate. The agent should be used with caution, as it may interact adversely with or limit the effectiveness of a number of other drugs, particularly those used to treat HIV/AIDS and cancer and to prevent transplant rejection. It may also lead to serotonin syndrome if taken with other serotonergic antidepressants. Taken on its own, its side effects are rare but may include dry mouth, dizziness, diarrhea, nausea, increased sensitivity to sunlight, and fatigue.

stability

stability n. 1. the absence of variation or motion, as applied, for example, to genetics (invariance in characteristics), personality (few emotional or mood changes), or body position (absence of body sway). 2. in developmental psychology, the degree to which a person maintains the same rank order with respect to a particular characteristic (e.g., intelligence test performance) over time in comparison with peers. 3. the property of a system, either open or closed, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a constant condition. 4. see statistical stability.

stability coefficient

stability coefficient an index of reliability determined via a test–retest method, in which the same test is administered to the same respondents at two different points in time. For example, the stability coefficient of a psychological test may be estimated by determining the degree of similarity between participants’ scores across time: The more the two scores for each participant are alike, the higher the correlation between the two administrations and the greater the stability coefficient of the test. Also called coefficient of stability.

stabilized image

stabilized image an image on the retina that does not move when the eye is moved. A stabilized image will fade rapidly since neurons in the visual system are sensitive to change rather than to sustained stimulation. Even during visual fixation images are normally not truly stabilized, because very small eye movements (microsaccades) continually refresh the stimulation of the retina by moving the eyes relative to a target.

stabilizing selection

stabilizing selection the tendency of natural selection to function so as to maintain the existing mean of a population characteristic (e.g., mean height, mean neck length) over successive generations.

Stablon

Stablon n. a trade name for tianeptine.

Stadol

Stadol n. a trade name for butorphanol.

staff turnover

staff turnover see turnover.

staffing theory

staffing theory in ecological psychology, a conceptual model examining the psychological and interpersonal consequences of interacting in situations that are overstaffed or understaffed. It was formerly known as manning theory.

stage

stage n. a relatively discrete period of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning during other periods.

Stage 1 sleep

Stage 1 sleep the initial stage of NREM sleep, which is characterized by low-amplitude brain waves (4–6 Hz) of irregular frequency, a slow heart rate, and reduced muscle tension. See sleep stages.

Stage 2 sleep

Stage 2 sleep a stage of NREM sleep that is defined by regular bursts of waves of about 15 Hz (called sleep spindles) that progressively increase and then decrease in amplitude. See sleep stages.

Stage 3 sleep

Stage 3 sleep a stage of NREM sleep that is defined by the sleep spindles seen in Stage 2 sleep interspersed with larger amplitude delta waves (slow waves of 1–4 Hz). See sleep stages.

Stage 4 sleep

Stage 4 sleep a stage of NREM sleep that is defined by the presence of high-amplitude delta waves (slow waves of 1–4 Hz). See sleep stages.

stage fright

stage fright an anxiety reaction associated with speaking or performing in public. The individual becomes tense and apprehensive and may stutter, forget lines, or try to escape the situation. The apprehension may develop into panic symptoms or even a panic attack. See also performance anxiety.

stage sampling

stage sampling see multistage sampling.

stage theory

stage theory any hypothetical construct used to describe phases or steps in a process that occurs over time, such as a theory that development involves discontinuous phases marked by changes in functioning. Examples include Sigmund Freud’s stages of psychosexual development and Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development (see Piagetian theory). See also stages of change; stages of grief.

stage theory of strategy development

stage theory of strategy development see adaptive strategy choice model.

stages of change

stages of change the five steps involved in changing health behavior according to the transtheoretical model: (a) precontemplation (not thinking about changing behavior), (b) contemplation (considering changing behavior), (c) preparation (occasionally changing behavior), (d) action (practicing the healthful behavior on a regular basis, resulting in major benefits), and (e) maintenance (continuing the behavior after 6 months of regular practice). [developed by U.S. clinical psychologist James O. Prochaska (1942– )]

stages of grief

stages of grief a hypothetical model, originally described in 1969 by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, depicting psychological states, moods, or coping strategies that occur during the dying process or during periods of bereavement, great loss, or trauma. These begin with the denial stage, followed by the anger stage, bargaining stage, depression stage, and acceptance stage. The model is nonlinear in that the stages do not necessarily occur in the given sequence or for a set period of time; moreover, they can recur and overlap before some degree of psychological and emotional resolution occurs. Also called grief cycle model.

staggered entry design

staggered entry design in survival analysis, a research design that allows for the entry or exit of participants at any time throughout the course of the study. In a typical survival analysis design, all samples have a common origin—they start at the same time—and there is a single, terminal event (typically, death). By contrast, in a staggered entry design each participant begins the study at a particular time zero and has an ending point corresponding to the length of time that he or she was part of the study (i.e., until he or she experienced the event of interest or otherwise ceased participation). For example, consider a study of a new treatment method implemented at a specific hospital: There will be patients who survived over the entire study period, others who survived but entered the hospital after the study had already begun, and still others who moved away and lost contact with the researcher before the study was concluded.

Staggered Spondaic Word Test (SSW)

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stagnation

stagnation n. see generativity versus stagnation.

STAI

STAI abbreviation for State–Trait Anxiety Inventory.

stain

stain n. a chemical dye that is applied to tissue sections to render them more easily visible during microscopic examination. The choice of stain is determined by the type of tissue and the study objective.

staircase illusion

staircase illusion a three-dimensional impossible figure in which a set of stairs appears to continue rising or descending endlessly. It is frequently confused with the Schröder staircase. Also called Penrose staircase. [devised by British geneticist and mathematician Lionel S. Penrose (1898–1972) and British physicist Roger Penrose (1931– )]

staircase method

staircase method a variation of the method of limits in which stimuli are presented in ascending and descending order. When the observer’s response changes, the direction of the stimulus sequence is reversed. This method is efficient because it does not present stimuli that are well above or below threshold.

staircase phenomenon

staircase phenomenon 1. any of various phenomena that display graduated or stepwise changes in the response of physical or physiological systems to a series of stimuli. 2. in cardiac muscle, the increase in the force of cardiac contractions as heart rate is increased. 3. in skeletal muscle, the graduated sequence of increasingly stronger muscle contractions that occur when a sequence of identical stimuli is applied to a rested muscle. Also called treppe.

stakeholder

stakeholder n. in evaluation research, any of a program’s sponsors, funders, decision makers, personnel, or service recipients who either have an investment in the functioning of the program or are potentially affected by information resulting from the evaluation of its processes and outcomes. Conflict can occur between groups of stakeholders with different interests, especially in the specification or weighting of the evaluation objectives.

Stalevo

Stalevo n. a U.S. trade name for a drug combination of levodopa, carbidopa, and entacapone (a catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitor); it is used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, the symptoms of which are due to lack of striatal dopamine. As occurs with the Parkinson’s drug Sinemet, carbidopa in this combination enables levodopa to be administered in lower doses to achieve an effective concentration in the brain, where it is converted into dopamine. Stalevo’s additional ingredient, entacapone, increases and prolongs levodopa plasma levels, allowing increased dopaminergic stimulation.

stalking

stalking n. 1. a pattern of following or observing a person in an obsessional, intrusive, or harassing manner. The pursued individual is typically a partner from a failed intimate relationship but may be a mental health care provider, a public figure (see erotic delusion), or other person of interest to the stalker. Stalking may involve direct threats, the intent to cause distress or bodily harm, and interpersonal violence. In the United States, laws against stalking vary from state to state. See also domestic violence; intimate partner violence. 2. in animal behavior, see predation. —stalk vb. —stalker n.

stammering

stammering n. see stuttering. —stammer vb., n.

stance reflex

stance reflex 1. the automatic activity of skeletal muscle in maintaining the stability of the standing posture. 2. any automatic response that maintains a special standing posture, such as the stance reflexes of a sow in estrus that maintain the animal with its back arched and its body rigid.

standard application blank (SAB)

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standard Cox regression model

standard Cox regression model see Cox regression analysis.

standard deviation

standard deviation (symbol: SD) a measure of the variability of a set of scores or values within a group, indicating how narrowly or broadly they deviate from the mean. A small standard deviation indicates data points that cluster around the mean, whereas a large standard deviation indicates data points that are dispersed across many different values. The standard deviation is expressed in the same units as the original values in the sample or population studied, so that the standard deviation of a series of measurements of weight would be in pounds, for example. The standard deviation is equal to the square root of the variance. If a population of n values has a mean μ, then the standard deviation is √[Σ(Xi – μ)2/n]. For a subset of the population, with a mean value X̄, the sample standard deviation is √[Σ(Xi – X̄)2/(n – 1)]; that is, the divisor is (n – 1) rather than n. See also root mean square.

standard error

standard error (symbol: SE) a quantification of the inherent inaccuracy of a calculated population value that is attributable to random fluctuations within the sample data upon which it is based. It is expressed as the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. For example, the sample mean is the usual estimator of a population mean, yet different samples drawn from that same population will yield different values for the mean. Thus, to determine how much sample variability exists, the standard error of the mean may be obtained by taking the standard deviation of all of the means over all of the samples taken. Standard error is expressed in units given in the same scale of measurement that was used for the sample data (e.g., for a set of means that are given in weight the standard error unit is also a weight).

standard error of estimate

standard error of estimate (symbol: SEE) for a relationship between two variables (x and y) given by a regression equation, an index of how closely the predicted value of y for a specific value of x matches its actual value. If y’ is an estimated value from a regression line and y is the actual value, then the standard error of estimate is √[Σ(y – y’)2/n], where n is the number of points. The smaller the standard error of estimate, the more confident one can be in the accuracy of the estimated (predicted) y value.

standard error of measurement

standard error of measurement (symbol: SEM) an index of the reliability of an assessment instrument, representing the variation of an individual’s scores across multiple administrations of the same test. The larger the standard error of measurement, the greater the score variation across administrations. In essence, the standard error of measurement provides an indication of how confident one may be that an individual’s obtained score on any given measurement opportunity represents his or her true score.

standard error of the mean

standard error of the mean (symbol: SEM; σM) a statistic that indicates how much the average value (mean) for a particular sample is likely to differ from the average value for the larger population from which it is drawn. It is equal to σ/√n, where σ is the standard deviation of the original distribution and n is the sample size.

standard gamma distribution

standard gamma distribution see gamma distribution.

standard language

standard language the generally accepted version of a language that is associated with formal and official contexts and with high-status users. Typically, it will be the version used in mainstream media and taught to schoolchildren and second-language learners. Most languages have a number of nonstandard varieties that differ from the standard language in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

standard normal distribution

standard normal distribution see standardized distribution.

standard normal variable

standard normal variable any random variable whose probable value follows a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Also called unit normal variable.

standard observer

standard observer in color vision research, a hypothetical typical human visual system that is described in terms of mathematical functions and equations relating its quantitative visual responses to measurable physical characteristics of light stimuli. The descriptions are therefore psychophysical and used to achieve a shared technical description of the perceptual effects of light stimuli on human observers. The equations that define the standard observer are based on averages of laboratory measurements of the visual responses of human participants to particular light stimuli under particular viewing conditions. See also ideal observer.

standard stimulus

standard stimulus an item used as the basis of comparison in the quantitative investigation of physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. For example, in the method of adjustment, a participant may be presented with a sound of a particular intensity (the standard stimulus) and then asked to change the intensity of another sound to match.

standard treatment control

standard treatment control in a clinical trial, a type of control condition in which participants receive the treatment typically administered to a group of participants with a given medical problem. Another group of participants receives the experimental treatment. After the trial, the outcomes of the two groups are compared to see if the experimental treatment is better than, as good as, or worse than the standard treatment.

standardization

standardization n. 1. the process of establishing norms for a test. 2. the use of uniform procedures in test administration to ensure that all participants take the same test under the same conditions and are scored by the same criteria, which in turn ensures that results can be compared to each other. 3. the transformation of data into a distribution of standardized scores, often one having a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1, which produces derived measures of relative standing and allows for comparison of raw scores from different distributions. The z-score transformation is an example of a standardization.

standardization group

standardization group a sample used to establish reliable norms for the population that it represents. This is done by analyzing the results of the test administered to the sample and ascertaining the average performance level and the relative frequency of each deviation from the mean. The normal distribution thus created is then used for comparison with any specific future test score. For example, the standardization group for a new test of computer literacy in older adults might comprise a large set of test takers above age 60 whose characteristics (e.g., sex, ethnicity, race) reproduce those of the larger population for whom the test is intended. The arrangement of scores obtained by such a standardization group subsequently provides a point of comparison for the scores of other older adults who take the test. Also called norm group; standardization sample.

standardized coefficient

standardized coefficient any index derived from an analysis of two or more variables that have been transformed via standardization, which ensures their value ranges and variances are equivalent and thus appropriate for comparison. The term is most commonly used to denote the standardized regression coefficient or beta coefficient.

standardized distribution

standardized distribution a normal distribution whose values have undergone transformation so as to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Also called standard normal distribution; unit normal distribution.

standardized interview

standardized interview see structured interview.

standardized score

standardized score a value derived from a raw score by subtracting the mean value of all scores in the set and dividing by the standard deviation of the set. The advantage of standardized scores is that they are not reflective of the units of the measuring device from which they were obtained and thus can be compared to one another regardless of the device’s scale values. Several types of standardized score exist, including stanines, T scores, and z scores. Also called normal score; standard score. See also standardization.

standardized test

standardized test 1. an assessment instrument whose validity and reliability have been established by thorough empirical investigation and analysis. It has clearly defined norms, such that a person’s score is an indication of how well he or she did in comparison to a large group of individuals representative of the population for which the test is intended. 2. an assessment instrument administered in a predetermined manner, such that the questions, conditions of administration, scoring, and interpretation of responses are consistent from one occasion to another.

standards of practice

standards of practice a set of guidelines that delineate the expected techniques and procedures, and the order in which to use them, for interventions with individuals experiencing a range of psychological, medical, or educational conditions. Standards of practice have been developed by the American Psychological Association and other professional associations to ensure that practitioners use the most well researched and validated treatment plans available in their fields.

standpoint theory

standpoint theory a theory in postmodernism that proposes that the way an individual views the world is influenced by his or her perspective, which in turn is influenced by the individual’s social group memberships, experiences, location, situated knowledge, and other characteristics. When a person actively focuses on, recognizes, and acknowledges these influences, he or she has obtained a standpoint (i.e., a perspective is passive, but a standpoint is an active choice). [originated in 1807 by German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) in his studies of slavery]

Stanford Achievement Test

Stanford Achievement Test an assessment tool utilizing multiple-choice and open-ended questions designed to measure progress in reading, mathematics, language, spelling, listening, science, and social science. There is also an emphasis on higher level thinking and writing skills. Currently in its 10th edition (2003), the test reflects contemporary education practice with each new edition. [originally developed by Louis M. Terman]

Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale

Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale a standardized 12-item scale used to measure hypnotic susceptibility by means of the participant’s responses to various suggested actions, such as to fall forward, close the eyes, or lower an outstretched arm. [developed at Stanford University by Ernest R. Hilgard]

Stanford prison study

Stanford prison study a controversial 1971 study of the psychological effects of coercive situations, conducted by a research team under the direction of U.S. psychologist Philip G. Zimbardo (1933– ). The male participants were randomly assigned to the roles of either prisoner or guard in a simulated prison at Stanford University. A variety of methods and situations were used to depersonalize participants, diminish their sense of identity, and increase a sense of power on the one hand (guards) and powerlessness on the other (prisoners). The experiment was terminated after only 6 days of the originally scheduled 14, when several participants showed physical manifestations of stress and psychological trauma. The study was criticized on both ethical and methodological grounds but is often cited as an example of the power of the situation, because it illustrated the manner in which social contexts can influence and transform human behavior, often in very negative ways. See also Lucifer effect.

Stanford v. Kentucky

Stanford v. Kentucky a case resulting in a 1989 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that it is permissible to sentence people as young as 16 years of age to death.

Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale (SB)

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stanine

stanine n. a method of scaling scores on a point scale that ranges from a low of 1 to a high of 9, with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2. A stanine is a standard ninth, referring to the interval used in dividing the results into nine approximately equal parts. A stanine score of 1, 2, or 3 is below average; 4, 5, or 6 is average; and 7, 8, or 9 is above average. A stanine is a type of standardized score and is mainly used with school achievement tests.

stanolone

stanolone n. a semisynthetic analog of dihydrotestosterone used in the treatment of some breast cancers because of its tumor-suppressing capabilities.

stapedius muscle

stapedius muscle a middle ear muscle that controls the movement of the stapes, one of the ear ossicles. Its activation (the stapedius reflex) is part of the acoustic reflex.

stapes

stapes n. (pl. stapedes) see ossicles.

star

star n. in sociometry, an individual who is frequently chosen when group members select the other members whom they like the most, prefer to work or associate with, admire, and so on. Such individuals are the most popular, best-liked group members. Among children, this status is that of the popular child. See sociometric status.

star compass

star compass see sun compass.

startle response

startle response an unlearned, rapid, reflexlike response to sudden, unexpected, and intense stimuli (e.g., loud noises, flashing lights). This response includes behaviors that serve a protective function, such as closing the eyes, frowning by drawing the eyebrows together, compressing the lips, lowering the head, hunching the shoulders, and bending the trunk and knee. The reaction can be neutralized by context, inhibition, and habituation. Also called startle reaction.

starvation

starvation n. 1. chronic and severe undernourishment. Common physical effects of starvation include general weakness or asthenia, hunger pangs, sluggishness, and susceptibility to disease. Psychological effects include slowed thought processes, difficulty concentrating, apathy, irritability, reduced sexual desire, and loss of concern for appearance. Psychotic reactions seldom occur except when starvation is accompanied by infection or extreme stress. 2. severe deficiency of any vital resource, as in the oxygen starvation that may occur from exposure to low atmospheric pressure (see air-pressure effects).

stasis

stasis n. a condition of stability, equilibrium, or inactivity, as opposed to a state of flux or change. —static adj.

STAT

STAT abbreviation for Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test.

state

state n. the condition or status of an entity or system at a particular time that is characterized by relative stability of its basic components or elements. Although the components or elements are essentially qualitatively stable, it is possible for them also to be dynamic, as in a hyperactive state or a state of flux.

state anxiety

state anxiety anxiety in response to a specific situation that is perceived as threatening or dangerous. State anxiety varies in intensity and fluctuates over time. Compare trait anxiety. [defined in 1972 and 1983 by Charles D. Spielberger]

state orientation

state orientation a style of responding to dilemmas or conflicts that is characterized by prolonged analysis and assessment of alternatives rather than by swift, decisive action. The hesitation of state orientation thus leads to the perseveration of current mental and behavioral states. Compare action orientation.

state self-focus

state self-focus see self-focus.

state space

state space 1. a graphical representation used to characterize game playing and other search-based problem solving. A state space has four components: (a) a set of nodes or states, (b) a set of arcs linking subsets of the nodes, (c) a nonempty set of nodes indicated as the start nodes of the space, and (d) a nonempty set of goal nodes of the space. The goal nodes are identified by either a property of the state itself (e.g., a checkmate) or a property of the path leading to the goal state (e.g., the shortest path). An architecture such as a production system or classifier system can generate a state-space search. Computational state-space analysis and computer simulations of problem solving often are used as well in the study of how people pursue goal-directed behavior. See also graph; search; tree. 2. multidimensional space, particularly as related to the depiction of the results of classification methods used to group objects with similar characteristics and patterns of behavior.

state theories of hypnosis

state theories of hypnosis theories positing that hypnosis evokes a distinctive, altered state of consciousness in the hypnotized person. Compare nonstate theories of hypnosis.

State v. Mack

State v. Mack a case resulting in an influential 1980 Minnesota Supreme Court ruling that testimony based on memories uncovered during hypnosis, or after an eyewitness has undergone a hypnotic induction, is not admissible in court because hypnosis is an unreliable method of retrieving memories. This has been referred to as the per se exclusion rule. However, this rule banning hypnotically retrieved evidence does not apply to defendants. See Rock v. Arkansasrock-v-arkansas.

state-dependent behavior

state-dependent behavior actions that are affected by one’s emotional state, such as saying something hurtful to another while angry.

state-dependent learning

state-dependent learning learning that occurs in a particular biological or psychological state and is better recalled when the individual is subsequently in the same state. Recall may be diminished when the individual is in a different state. For example, a rat trained to run a maze while under the influence of a psychoactive drug (e.g., pentobarbital) may not run it as successfully without the drug. Also called dissociated learning. See also context-specific learning.

state-dependent memory

state-dependent memory a condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed. For example, alcohol may improve one’s recall of events experienced when one was previously under the influence of alcohol (although this level of recall is lower than recall under conditions in which both encoding and retrieval occur in sober states). A distinctive state may arise from a drug, a mood, or a particular place. See context-specific learning; mood-dependent memory; state-dependent learning.

state-specific science

state-specific science the concept of science as dependent on a particular state of consciousness, so that a change in consciousness might yield a different kind or content of science. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Charles T. Tart (1937– )]

State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

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statement validity analysis

statement validity analysis a collection of techniques used to assess the truth of statements given during investigations, such as the truth of allegations made by children during interviews concerning sexual abuse. The focus is on the words themselves, independent of case facts. Such analysis is based on the assumption that the flow and quality of truthful statements is different from fabricated ones and it involves examining the use of nouns, pronouns, and verbs; the inclusion of extraneous information; the use of such phrases as “I think,” which indicate lack of connection; and the balance between descriptions of activities before, during, and after the event in question. These provide various criteria that ostensibly enable interviewers to distinguish plausible from implausible accounts. Such methods are still being refined and their accuracy studied and debated. See also criterion-based content analysis.

states versus transformations

states versus transformations in Piagetian theory, the extent to which a child’s attention is focused on states (e.g., the appearance of an object) rather than transformations (i.e., what is done to the object), and vice versa, at different stages of cognitive development. At the preoperational stage, children center their attention on specific states and ignore the transformations between states, whereas the reverse is true for children at the concrete operational stage.

static ataxia

static ataxia loss of the ability to maintain a fixed position, resulting in excessive swaying and tottering when standing still with the eyes closed or an inability to balance the body on one leg or to extend the arm steadily.

static marriage

static marriage see closed marriage.

static response

static response a postural reflex that orients the body against a force, such as gravity. Also called static reflex.

static sense

static sense see sense of equilibrium.

stationarity

stationarity n. in time-series analysis, the property of being unchanging or “flat,” such that the data are without trends or periodic fluctuations and the mean, variance, and autocorrelation structure remain constant over time. Most statistical forecasting methods are based on the assumption that the time series of interest can be mathematically transformed into approximate stationarity (i.e., can be “stationarized”).

statistic

statistic n. 1. a number that represents a measurement of some characteristic, construct, variable, or other item of interest. 2. any function of the observations in a sample that may be used to estimate the unknown but corresponding value in the population. Examples include measures of central tendency (e.g., the mean, median, mode), measures of dispersion (e.g., standard deviation, variance), and distributional attributes (e.g., skewness, kurtosis). Statistics often are assigned Roman letters (e.g., M, s), whereas the equivalent values in the population (called parameters) are assigned Greek letters (e.g., μ, σ). —statistical adj.

statistical analysis

statistical analysis any of a wide range of techniques used to describe, explore, understand, explain, predict, and test hypotheses about data. It involves the examination of data collected from samples within populations as well as the use of probabilistic models to make inferences and draw conclusions.

statistical conclusion validity

statistical conclusion validity the degree to which the conclusions drawn from statistical analyses of data are accurate and appropriate. In other words, statistical conclusion validity addresses whether inferences about relationships (i.e., whether the independent variable and dependent variable covary and, if so, how strongly) are reasonable, given the observed data. It is related to but distinct from internal validity, which is concerned with the causality of the relationship.

statistical control

statistical control the use of statistical procedures to remove the influence of a particular factor that could not be eliminated or controlled by the experimental design in order to better analyze the relationship between two variables. For example, the relationship between age (x) and income earned (y) could be influenced by a third variable, years of education (z). Thus, if a researcher did not first remove the effects of education he or she might derive erroneous conclusions about the influence of age on income from his or her analysis. One type of statistical control is partial correlation. A second type is analysis of covariance.

statistical decision theory

statistical decision theory a branch of statistical science concerned with the use of data to arrive at decisions. It focuses upon identifying the values, uncertainties, and other issues relevant to a given decision. Specific equations are used to calculate the degree of loss associated with each course of action and determine the most advantageous choice.

statistical dependence

statistical dependence the situation in which the probability of one event occurring given the occurrence of another event is greater than the probability of occurrence of that first event in isolation. In other words, knowing information about one variable provides information about another. Compare statistical independence. See also dependent events.

statistical determinism

statistical determinism the position that the laws of probability can be used to predict the likely number of events of a given kind that will occur in a given population under certain defined conditions (e.g., the number of coin tosses per 1,000 that will be heads; the number of male Americans age 70 who will die in a 12-month period).

statistical error

statistical error see error.

statistical hypothesis

statistical hypothesis a research question posed in a statistically testable form. For example, if a researcher is interested in whether one treatment leads to a more positive outcome than another treatment, he or she could reframe the question in terms of mean differences, such that the null hypothesis is 0 (no difference between treatments) and the alternative hypothesis is not 0 (the difference between treatments is greater or lesser than zero). See also hypothesis testing.

statistical independence

statistical independence the condition in which the occurrence of one event makes it neither more nor less probable that another event will occur. In other words, knowing information about one variable provides no information about the other variable. Compare statistical dependence. See also independent events.

statistical learning theory

statistical learning theory a theoretical approach in which mathematical models are used to describe processes of learning. The term often is applied specifically to stimulus sampling theory but can be applied more generally to other theories as well.

statistical model

statistical model a formal description of the relationships between two or more variables in the form of a mathematical equation. It is statistical in that the variables are related in a stochastic rather than a deterministic manner, with each set of possible observations on a variable linked to a set of probability distributions. Many statistical tests involve comparing a particular model with the observed data.

statistical prediction

statistical prediction the process of using correlations between variables to hypothesize about future events and outcomes. For example, a university administrator may use a regression equation to predict a student’s college grade point average with reasonable accuracy from measures of performance in high school, such as scores on tests and final grades in classes.

statistical process control (SPC)

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statistical psychology

statistical psychology the application of statistical methods and models to organize, summarize, and interpret data so as to derive descriptions and explanations of cognitive, behavioral, social, and other psychological phenomena.

statistical significance

statistical significance the degree to which a research outcome cannot reasonably be attributed to the operation of chance or random factors. It is determined during significance testing and given by a critical p value, which is the probability of obtaining the observed data if the null hypothesis (i.e., of no significant relationship between variables) were true. Significance generally is a function of sample size—the larger the sample, the less likely it is that one’s findings will have occurred by chance. See also clinical significance; practical significance; significance level.

statistical stability

statistical stability consistency of results across samples, study designs, and analyses. A meta-analysis may be used to examine the stability of means, correlations, and other parameter estimates obtained from different studies of the same population. See also stability coefficient.

statistical test

statistical test any mathematical technique or procedure used to evaluate the correctness of an empirical hypothesis by determining the likelihood of the sample results occurring by chance. Statistical testing will reveal the probability of committing a Type I error if the null hypothesis is rejected. See hypothesis testing; statistical significance.

statistics

statistics n. the branch of mathematics in which data are used descriptively or inferentially to find or support answers for scientific and other quantifiable questions. It encompasses various techniques and procedures for recording, organizing, analyzing, and reporting quantitative information. See also descriptive statistics; inferential statistics; summary statistics. —statistical adj. —statistician n.

statoconium

statoconium n. (pl. statoconia) see otolith.

statokinetic dissociation

statokinetic dissociation see Riddoch’s phenomenon.

status

status n. 1. the reputation or position of an individual or group relative to others, such as an individual’s standing in a social group. See social status. 2. a persistent condition, as in status epilepticus.

status differentiation

status differentiation the gradual rise to positions of greater authority by some individuals within a group, accompanied by decreases in the authority exercised by other members.

status epilepticus

status epilepticus a continuous series of seizures. It is a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical treatment, usually by intravenous medication.

status generalization

status generalization the tendency for individuals who are known to have achieved or been ascribed authority, respect, and prestige in one context to enjoy relatively higher status in other unrelated contexts. Well-known athletes or wealthy individuals, for example, may rise rapidly to positions of authority in groups even when these diffuse-status characteristics (athleticism, wealth) are not relevant in the current group context. See also expectation-states theory.

status incongruence

status incongruence 1. a mismatch between related status dimensions, such as between a person’s socioeconomic level and educational background. 2. a perceived mismatch between a person’s characteristics and his or her role in a particular context. For example, a very young supervisor creates status incongruence in the supervisor–worker dyad by reversing the traditional assumption that managers are older and more experienced than employees. 3. unjust inconsistency in the allocation of status in a group, organization, or society, resulting from biased appraisals of the accomplishments of members of stigmatized groups.

status offense

status offense a nondelinquent, noncriminal act considered to be illegal because the perpetrator belongs to a certain group or class of people, most often children. For example, status offenses of minors include truancy, curfew violations, and underage drinking, whereas owning a gun would be a status offense for a felon.

status planning

status planning see language planning.

status relations

status relations patterns of relative prestige and respect that determine deference and authority within a group or organization—that is, the “chain of command,” dominance hierarchy, or pecking order. Also called authority relations.

status symbol

status symbol any indicator of a person’s prestige or high status in a group or society, such as expensive or rare possessions, an extravagant lifestyle, or membership in prestigious clubs. The term applies particularly to those indicators that individuals deliberately choose to communicate, often to give a falsely high impression of their status level to others.

status-quo bias

status-quo bias see behavioral economics.

statutory rape

statutory rape the criminal offense of having sexual intercourse with an individual who is not qualified to give lawful consent because she or he is under the statutory age of consent. In the United States, the age of consent ranges from 14 to 18 years old, depending on each state’s law.

STD

STD abbreviation for sexually transmitted disease.

steady state

steady state a condition of stability or equilibrium. For example, in behavioral studies, it is a state in which behavior is practically the same over repeated observations in a particular context. In pharmacology, it refers to a consistent, effective plasma (or other fluid) concentration of a medication in the body as a result of regular, often daily, doses to replace the amount of the drug that is excreted.

stealing thunder

stealing thunder a courtroom strategy in which admissions of facts to the jury are made by one attorney before these same facts are brought up by the opposing attorney. It is intended to reduce the impact this information may have on the jury.

stealth juror

stealth juror a juror who conceals his or her biases from the judge or attorneys during voir dire, usually in the hope of influencing the outcome of the trial or gaining money or publicity (e.g., via interviews or book deals) from the case.

steatopygia

steatopygia n. the presence of large quantities of fat in the buttocks. In some cultures, steatopygia is considered an element of female beauty.

Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome

Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome see progressive supranuclear palsy. [John C. Steele and John Clifford Richardson, 20th-century Canadian neurologists; Jerzy Olszewski (1913–1964), Polish-born Canadian neuropathologist]

Steinert’s disease

Steinert’s disease see myotonic muscular dystrophy. [Hans Gustav Wilhelm Steinert (1875–1911), German physician]

Steinzor effect

Steinzor effect in discussion groups, the tendency for individuals to speak immediately after those sitting opposite them speak. The effect is strongest in leaderless groups. See also head-of-the-table effect. [Bernard Steinzor (1920–2010) U.S. clinical psychologist]

Stelazine

Stelazine n. a trade name for trifluoperazine.

stellate cell

stellate cell any of a number of types of small nerve cells that have many branches, resembling a star; hence stellate. See also cortical layers.

stem cell

stem cell a cell that is itself undifferentiated but can divide to produce one or more types of specialized tissue cells (e.g., blood cells, nerve cells). Because of this ability, stem cells act as a kind of continual repair system for the living organism by replenishing specialized cells. Stem cells found in embryos (embryonic stem cells) are produced in humans during the blastocyst stage of development and are capable of forming any type of tissue cell; stem cells that occur in adults (adult stem cells) are more limited in the range of cell types they can produce. Because of this difference, many researchers believe that human embryonic stem cells hold greater potential for the development of therapeutic treatments than do adult stem cells. Nonetheless, the use of adult stem cells to treat some diseases has been common since the 1960s (e.g., the use of bone marrow stem cells in the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma), and research continues on the potential use of both types of stem cells as renewable sources of replacement cells and tissues to treat a range of conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, spinal cord injury, diabetes, and arthritis. There are ethical concerns about human embryonic stem cell research, mainly because harvesting such cells involves destroying the embryo and thus, for some, raises questions about the rights of the unborn.

stem-and-leaf plot

stem-and-leaf plot a graphical method of presenting data that have been measured on an interval scale. A basic stem-and-leaf plot comprises two columns separated by a vertical line; the right column lists the last digit of each data point (the “leaves”) and the left column lists all of the other digits from each data point (the “stems”). Each stem is listed only once and no numbers are skipped, even if that means some stems have no leaves. The leaves are listed in increasing order of magnitude in a row to the right of each stem. For example, consider the following hypothetical values for participants measured on a particular variable: 55 57 58 59 74 75 77 79 79 83 83 86 87 92 95 99 107The stem-and-leaf plot for these values is:Also called stemplot.

stem-completion task

stem-completion task see word-stem completion.

steno-

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stenosis

stenosis n. the abnormal narrowing of a body conduit or passage. Carotid stenosis is narrowing of a carotid artery, such as by atherosclerosis, which limits blood flow to the brain; aortic stenosis is narrowing of the aortic valve leading from the left ventricle, thereby restricting blood flow from the heart to the general circulation; pyloric stenosis restricts the flow of stomach contents into the small intestine; and spinal stenosis is a narrowing of the opening in the spinal column, thereby restricting the spinal cord and resulting in numbness and pain in the lower back and legs. —stenotic adj.

stenosis of aqueduct of Sylvius

stenosis of aqueduct of Sylvius a hereditary or familial disorder, transmitted as an X-linked recessive gene, marked by massive head enlargement at birth and hydrocephalus due to narrowing of the cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of Silvius). In some cases, the disorder develops insidiously after adulthood rather than as a congenital condition.

stepdown selection

stepdown selection see backward elimination.

stepdown test

stepdown test a memory test used in studies of shock-avoidance learning in rats and mice. When the animal first steps down from an elevated platform in the test chamber, it receives a brief foot shock. On subsequent test trials, the animal is usually much slower to step down, indicating its memory for the shock experience; a lack of hesitation in stepping down on postshock trials is considered a sign of cognitive impairment. Also called stepdown avoidance.

stepfamily

stepfamily n. a family unit formed by the union of parents one or both of whom brings a child or children from a previous union (or unions) into the new household. Also called blended family; reconstituted family.

stepping reflex

stepping reflex a reflex movement elicited during the first few weeks of human life by holding an infant upright with his or her feet touching a flat surface and moving the infant gently forward.

stepup selection

stepup selection see forward selection.

stepwise regression

stepwise regression a group of regression analysis techniques that enter predictor (independent) variables into (or delete them from) the regression equation one variable (or block of variables) at a time according to some predefined criterion. It is contrasted with simultaneous regression, which enters all variables at the same time. Also called stepwise multiple regression.

stereoacuity

stereoacuity n. see stereoscopic acuity.

stereoblindness

stereoblindness n. the inability to see depth using the cue of binocular disparity, causing impaired depth perception. Stereoblindness is thought to affect 5% to 10% of the general population. It is associated with strabismus during early childhood but may also be caused by occipitotemporal brain injury.

stereochemical smell theory

stereochemical smell theory the concept that certain odors are perceived because they are produced by odorants whose stereochemical properties have certain shapes. Seven classes of odorants are postulated: camphoraceous, ethereal, floral, minty, musty, pungent, and putrid. The odorant molecules are thought to fit receptors in a lock-and-key manner that causes the neural membrane to become depolarized or hyperpolarized, which in turn is the cue that produces an odor experience. Since many odorants that share a similar molecular structure produce different odor experiences, it has been hypothesized that the lock-and-key principle may be modified by the orientation of the molecules at the receptor surfaces. Also called lock-and-key theory; steric theory of odor.

stereocilia

stereocilia pl. n. see hair cell.

stereognosis

stereognosis n. the ability to identify the shape of an object by touch.

stereogram

stereogram n. a picture perceived to have depth because it is produced by the binocular summation of two separate images of the same scene, each image slightly offset from the other in the horizontal plane. Although a stereoscope is commonly used to view the images, some observers can fuse the two images by simply crossing or uncrossing their eyes.

stereoisomers

stereoisomers n. see isomers.

stereopsis

stereopsis n. depth perception provided by means of the binocular disparity of the images in the two eyes. Also called stereoscopic depth perception; stereoscopic vision. See also anaglyph.

stereoscope

stereoscope n. a device that presents two slightly disparate pictures of the same scene, one to each eye. The separate retinal images fuse to produce a binocular, three-dimensional image (see stereogram).

stereoscopic acuity

stereoscopic acuity visual acuity for the perception of depth. Also called stereoacuity.

stereoscopic depth perception

stereoscopic depth perception see stereopsis.

stereoscopic motion picture

stereoscopic motion picture a motion picture in which the dimension of depth is provided by recording the scene through two cameras, each with the perspective of one eye. When each sequence of images is presented to the correct eye at the same time, three-dimensional stereoscopic depth is perceived (see depth perception; stereopsis).

stereoscopic vision

stereoscopic vision see stereopsis.

stereotaxis

stereotaxis n. active movement of an organism in response to touch or direct contact with a solid object or surface. See taxis. —stereotaxic adj.

stereotaxy

stereotaxy n. determination of the exact location of a specific area within the body (e.g., the exact location of a nerve center in the brain) by means of three-dimensional measurements. Stereotaxy is used for positioning microelectrodes, cannulas, or other devices in the brain for experimental, diagnostic, or therapeutic purposes and for locating an area of the brain prior to surgery. It involves the coordinated use of a stereotactic atlas, a map of the brain featuring a coordinate system and consisting of images and schematic representations of nerve fibers and other structures and serial sections of the brain, and a stereotactic instrument, a device that prohibits damage to neighboring tissues by holding the individual’s head absolutely still in the appropriate position. Also called stereotactic localization; stereotactic technique. —stereotactic or stereotaxic adj.

stereotropism

stereotropism n. an orienting response of an organism to touch or contact with a solid object or surface. —stereotropic adj.

stereotype

stereotype n. a set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs, expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the members of a group or social category. Stereotypes, like schemas, simplify and expedite perceptions and judgments, but they are often exaggerated, negative rather than positive, and resistant to revision even when perceivers encounter individuals with qualities that are not congruent with the stereotype (see negative stereotype; positive stereotype; prejudice). See also exemplar theory; gender stereotype; kernel-of-truth hypothesis; sex-role stereotype. —stereotypic adj.

stereotype accuracy

stereotype accuracy the ability to accurately determine in what way and to what extent a person’s traits correspond to a stereotype associated with his or her age group, ethnic group, professional group, or other relevant group. Compare differential accuracy.

stereotype threat

stereotype threat an individual’s expectation that negative stereotypes about his or her member group will adversely influence others’ judgments of his or her performance and that a poor performance will reflect badly on the member group. This expectation may undermine the individual’s actual ability to perform well. In an academic setting, for example, it has been shown that African American students’ performance in tests of intellectual ability can suffer because of anxiety induced by thinking that they are expected to perform poorly and will be judged according to negative stereotypes about Black intelligence. See also prejudice. [identified in 1995 by U.S. psychologists Claude M. Steele (1946– ) and Joshua Aronson (1961– )]

stereotyped behavior

stereotyped behavior inflexible behavior that follows a particular pattern and does not alter with changing conditions.

stereotyped movement

stereotyped movement a repeated movement or gesture, such as a tic, rocking, or head banging.

stereotypic movement disorder

stereotypic movement disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a disorder characterized by repetitive, nonfunctional, and often self-injurious behaviors, such as head banging, biting or hitting parts of the body, rocking, or hand waving. It may be associated with intellectual disability and can arise at any age, though typically its onset begins in early childhood. Stereotypic movement disorder is distinguished from other disorders marked by repetitive or persistent movements, such as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and obsessive-compulsive disorder; by stereotyped movements that may occur without self-injury in a neurodevelopmental disorder such as autistic spectrum disorder; or by involuntary movements resulting from the effects of a medication or other substance (as in tardive dyskinesia) or from another medical condition such as Huntington’s disease.

stereotypy

stereotypy n. persistent repetition of the same words, movements, or other behavior, particularly as a symptom of disorder (e.g., autism, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia). Stereotypy is also seen in nonhuman animals under conditions of social isolation, early social deprivation, or neglect. See stereotypic movement disorder.

steric theory of odor

steric theory of odor see stereochemical smell theory.

sterility

sterility n. 1. the condition of being incapable of producing offspring, because of either infertility or surgical or medical intervention (see sterilization). 2. the condition of being incapable of supporting microbial life because of treatment with chemicals, radiation, or heat. —sterile adj.

sterilization

sterilization n. the process of rendering an organism incapable of sexual reproduction. This may be accomplished surgically (see vasectomy; castration; hysterectomy; ovariectomy; salpingectomy; tubal ligation), or it may result from injury or from exposure to radiation, heat, or chemicals.

Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT)

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steroid

steroid n. any organic molecule that is based on four interconnected hydrocarbon rings. The male and female sex hormones are steroids, as are the corticosteroids and other natural substances, such as vitamin D and cholesterol.

steroid hormone

steroid hormone any of a class of hormones whose molecular structure is based on the steroid nucleus of four interconnected rings of carbon atoms. Examples include the sex hormones and corticosteroids.

steroid use

steroid use the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids to improve performance, fitness, or appearance. See also performance enhancing drug.

stethograph

stethograph n. see pneumograph.

Stevens law

Stevens law a psychophysical relationship stating that the psychological magnitude of a sensation is proportional to a power of the stimulus producing it. This can be expressed as Ψ = ksn, where Ψ is the sensation, k is a constant of proportionality, s is the stimulus magnitude, and n is a function of the particular stimulus. Also called Stevens power law. See also Fechner’s law; Weber’s law. [Stanley Smith Stevens]

Stevens–Johnson syndrome

Stevens–Johnson syndrome a condition marked by eruptions of fluid-filled blisters on the skin, mucous membranes, eyes, and genitals. It has a fatality rate of 1% to 5% and may be associated with an adverse reaction to anticonvulsant and antibiotic agents. It is a variant of toxic epidermal necrosis. [Albert M. Stevens (1884–1945) and Frank C. Johnson (1894–1934), U.S. pediatricians]

Stewart–Morel syndrome

Stewart–Morel syndrome a disorder characterized by hypertrophy of the frontal bone of the skull, obesity, headache, disturbances affecting the nervous system, and a tendency toward intellectual disability. Also called Morel’s syndrome. [Douglas Hunt Stewart (1860–1943), U.S. surgeon; Ferdinand Morel (1888–1957), Swiss psychiatrist]

sthenic type

sthenic type a constitutional type characterized by strength and vigor; it is roughly equivalent to the athletic type in Kretschmer typology.

sthenometer

sthenometer n. an instrument for measuring muscle strength.

STI

STI abbreviation for sexually transmitted infection. See sexually transmitted disease.

stick shaker

stick shaker in ergonomics, a device within a joystick or other stick control that uses vibration to provide feedback to the operator in certain situations (e.g., the stall of an aircraft engine, wind, turbulence).

stiffness

stiffness n. 1. inflexibility of the muscles and joints due to injury, dystonia, or over- or underuse. 2. a characteristic, due to the springlike properties of muscles, that determines how the force exerted by a muscle varies as a function of its length for a fixed level of activation.

stigma

stigma n. the negative social attitude attached to a characteristic of an individual that may be regarded as a mental, physical, or social deficiency. A stigma implies social disapproval and can lead unfairly to discrimination against and exclusion of the individual.

Stigma Impact Scale (SIS)

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stigmatophilia

stigmatophilia n. sexual interest in and arousal by a partner who is tattooed or has scars, or by having oneself tattooed, particularly in the genital area.

Stiles–Crawford effect

Stiles–Crawford effect a difference in the perceived brightness or perceived color of a stimulus depending on whether light rays enter the pupil near the edge or through the center. [Walter Stiles (1901–1985), British physicist; Brian H. Crawford (1906–1991), British physiologist]

Stilling Color Vision Test

Stilling Color Vision Test a test consisting of pseudoisochromatic charts containing dots of various hues, saturations, and intensities developed for the detection of abnormal color perception. Some of the dots form numbers that are visible to the normal eye but not to the color-blind or color-weak eye. Now obsolete, it is the predecessor to the commonly used Ishihara Test for Color Blindness. [developed in 1877 by German ophthalmologist Jakob Stilling (1842–1915)]

stim test

stim test short for stimulation test, a technique often used prior to a formal polygraph test to convince examinees that the examiners are infallible in detecting deception. In one variation of the stim test, an examinee is told to select cards from a deck and then to lie about the identity of each card chosen. The examiner ostensibly uses questions about each card selection and the examinee’s own physiological indicators to determine each card’s actual identity. In reality, the examiner relies on a marked deck to correctly identify the cards chosen by the examinee.

stimulant

stimulant n. any of various agents that excite functional activity in an organism or in a part of an organism. Stimulants are usually classified according to the body system or function excited (e.g., cardiac stimulants, respiratory stimulants). In psychology, the term usually refers to the CNS stimulants (or psychostimulants).

stimulant intoxication

stimulant intoxication see amphetamine intoxication; cocaine intoxication.

stimulant use disorder

stimulant use disorder in DSM–5, a diagnostic category reflecting disordered use of amphetamine-type substances, cocaine, and other stimulants. It combines DSM–IV–TR’s separate abuse and dependence diagnoses for these substances, thereby removing amphetamine abuse, amphetamine dependence, cocaine abuse, and cocaine dependence as distinct entities. Mild, moderate, and severe cases of stimulant use disorder are determined according to the number of symptoms that individuals using these substances may present (e.g., craving; drug-seeking behavor; social and other dysfunction caused by stimulant use; stimulant tolerance, etc.); the number ranges from a minimum of two symptoms for mild cases to more than six for severe.

stimulant withdrawal

stimulant withdrawal see amphetamine withdrawal; cocaine withdrawal.

stimulate

stimulate vb. 1. to animate, excite, or rouse to activity or heightened action. 2. to apply a stimulus to a sensory receptor or to an excitable cell (e.g., neuron or muscle cell).

stimulating occupation

stimulating occupation a physical activity or task, such as dancing, that has an arousing and stimulating effect. Compare sedative occupation.

stimulation

stimulation n. the act or process of increasing the level of activity of an organism, particularly that of evoking heightened activity in (eliciting a response from) a sensory receptor, neuron, or other bodily tissue. See also electrical stimulation.

stimulation effects

stimulation effects the physiological changes produced when a stimulus alters the membrane potential of a neuron or muscle cell, resulting in a nerve impulse or muscle contraction. Changes in electric potentials are frequently measured, as are resultant changes in localized blood flow and temperature.

stimulator

stimulator n. a device used to apply electric current to excite or stimulate a receptor. An early type of stimulator was an induction coil wired to a vibrator that would convert direct-current electricity into pulsations. Modern stimulators incorporate a device for controlling the rate of change in the electric current, since a steady current flow has little stimulus effect.

stimulus

stimulus n. (pl. stimuli) 1. any agent, event, or situation—internal or external—that elicits a response from an organism. See conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus. 2. any change in physical energy that activates a sensory receptor. See distal stimulus; proximal stimulus.

stimulus coding

stimulus coding the form in which a stimulus is remembered, such as a cognitive map.

stimulus continuum

stimulus continuum a series of stimuli related to each other along a specific dimension (e.g., a series of tones in the diatonic scale, an unbroken series of shades of blue).

stimulus control

stimulus control the extent to which behavior is influenced by different stimulus conditions. It can refer to different responses occurring in the presence of different stimuli or to differences in the rate, temporal organization, or topography (see response topography) of a single response in the presence of different stimuli.

stimulus differentiation

stimulus differentiation 1. a process whereby an organism learns to discriminate between two or more stimuli by responding differently to them, such as by responding in the presence of one stimulus but not the other. See also discrimination learning. 2. in Gestalt psychology, the process of distinguishing different parts or patterns in a visual field.

stimulus discrimination

stimulus discrimination the ability to distinguish among different stimuli (e.g., to distinguish a circle from an ellipse) and to respond differently to them.

stimulus element

stimulus element any of the individual features of a complex stimulus, such as its shape or color.

stimulus equivalence

stimulus equivalence the condition in which two or more related stimuli elicit the same response. Stimuli meet the mathematical definition of equivalence if they can be shown to exhibit reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. For example, in the context of an arbitrary matching to sample procedure, if a stimulus is chosen when it also appears as the sample, reflexivity has been shown. If Stimulus A is chosen when B is the sample, and B is chosen when A is the sample, symmetry has been shown. If B is chosen when A is the sample, C is chosen when B is the sample, and C is chosen when A is the sample, transitivity has been shown.

stimulus evaluation checks (SECs)

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stimulus filtering

stimulus filtering the specialization of the nervous system so that only critical stimuli reach the brain and irrelevant stimuli do not. Female bullfrogs have two auditory organs that respond only to the two dominant frequencies in male courtship calls. Moths have ears with only two neurons: The neurons respond only to sounds in the frequency range of bat ultrasound, and successive filters in the moth’s central nervous system ensure that only bat-produced sounds reach the brain.

stimulus function

stimulus function 1. the role of a stimulus in evoking a response. For example, the taste and texture of ice cream in the mouth function to elicit licking and swallowing. 2. the mathematical relationship between the magnitude of a stimulus and the size of the response.

stimulus generalization

stimulus generalization the spread of effects of conditioning (either operant or classical) to stimuli that differ in certain aspects from the stimulus present during original conditioning. If responding is indistinguishable from that seen in the presence of the original stimulus, generalization is said to be complete (or no attention is commanded by the stimulus difference). If responding is different enough to be detected, discrimination is evident as well as generalization. See also stimulus control.

stimulus gradient

stimulus gradient the variations in a stimulus along a given dimension (e.g., a change in loudness).

stimulus object

stimulus object see object.

stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA)

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stimulus overload

stimulus overload the condition in which the environment presents too many stimuli to be comfortably processed by an individual, resulting in stress and behavior designed to restore equilibrium. See also communication overload; information overload; sensory overload.

stimulus proposition

stimulus proposition the content of a situation brought up as a mental image. Stimulus propositions are part of the bioinformational theory of how and why imagery works to enhance performance. See also response proposition.

stimulus salience

stimulus salience the importance, intensity, and detectability of a stimulus. Higher salience is usually associated with quicker learning.

stimulus sampling

stimulus sampling a procedure for increasing the generalizability of research results by using multiple stimuli within a category as representative of an experimental condition, as opposed to selecting a single stimulus whose unique characteristics may distort results. For example, a study investigating the effects of gender on monetary generosity would demonstrate stimulus sampling if it employed many males and females to elicit donations from participants instead of using a single male and a single female.

stimulus sampling theory (SST)

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stimulus set

stimulus set in reaction-time experiments, the expectancy or readiness associated with concentration on the stimulus. See mental set.

stimulus situation

stimulus situation all the components of an occurrence or experience that, taken as a whole, comprise a stimulus to which an organism responds. The term is used to highlight the complexity of behavior-arousing events that are unitary patterns comprising many elements (e.g., a concert, an athletic competition). This approach differs from that of traditional behavior analysts, who tend to break down stimuli into smaller, separate elements.

stimulus strength

stimulus strength the actual intensity of a stimulus or its ability to elicit a desired response.

stimulus substitution

stimulus substitution a way of characterizing the outcome of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus is said to have taken on the functions of the unconditioned stimulus. For example, in Ivan Pavlov’s early experiments, the sound of a tone paired with food eventually came to elicit salivation, just as the food did; that is, the tone substituted for the food. This characterization is no longer widely accepted.

stimulus value

stimulus value 1. the strength of a given stimulus, measured in standard units (e.g., a shock of 40 volts). 2. a theoretical characteristic of a stimulus said to index its effectiveness as a reinforcer.

stimulus-bound

stimulus-bound adj. 1. relating to a perception that is largely dependent on the qualities of the stimulation and thus involves little or no interpretation. 2. describing behavior that occurs in response to the presence of a specific stimulus (e.g., hungering for and eating a specific food after seeing it). 3. characterizing an individual whose behavior tends to be inflexible and determined primarily by the nature of the stimulus. 4. describing a person, usually a child, who has a poor attention span, is distracted by irrelevant stimuli, and therefore performs below his or her intellectual capacity.

stimulus-element approach

stimulus-element approach see configural-cue approach.

stimulus-independent and task-unrelated thoughts (SITUTs)

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stimulus-intensity dynamism

stimulus-intensity dynamism in Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning, the concept that the greater the stimulus strength, the greater the organism’s response strength.

stimulus–response (S–R)

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stimulus–response chain

stimulus–response chain see response chain.

stimulus–response compatibility

stimulus–response compatibility the extent to which the relationship between stimulus and response facilitates response. Speed and accuracy are affected by this relationship; for instance, a left keypress in response to a stimulus on the left will be quicker and more accurate than a right keypress for a stimulus on the left. This is an example of an element-level compatibility effect, which results from the mapping of individual stimuli to responses within a set. A verbal response to a verbal stimulus is quicker and more accurate than a spatial response to a verbal stimulus. This is an example of a set-level compatibility effect.

stimulus–response theory

stimulus–response theory see S–R psychology.

stimulus–stimulus learning model

stimulus–stimulus learning model see S–S learning model.

stirrup

stirrup n. see ossicles.

STM

STM abbreviation for short-term memory.

stochastic

stochastic adj. 1. random or undetermined; arising from chance. 2. describing a system or process that follows a probability pattern, such that events may be analyzed according to their statistical probability but not accurately predicted. See probabilism.

stochastic independence

stochastic independence the condition in which two systems or processes are statistically unrelated, so that one is in no way contingent upon the other.

stochastic model

stochastic model 1. a model in which one or more of the inputs allow for random variation, thus generating a range of potential outcome values. Stochastic models are used to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes occurring under varying conditions. They are widely used in the social and behavioral sciences and also in the financial world. Compare deterministic model. 2. in artificial intelligence, a model based on co-relational analysis, usually Bayesian, used for simulating situations as well as fault diagnosis. Although mathematically well founded, unless simplifying assumptions are made, such models are computationally intractable for complex situations. See graph.

stochastic process

stochastic process a random process: a sequence of events with a random probability pattern such that the occurrence of any event in the sequence is independent of past events. For example, the number of people in a doctor’s office who have colds during a 1-month period could be said to follow a stochastic process. In contrast to deterministic processes, stochastic processes involve some indeterminacy, and their development over time may only be described by probability distributions. A Markov chain is a stochastic process.

stochastic variable

stochastic variable see random variable.

Stockholm syndrome

Stockholm syndrome a mental and emotional response in which a captive (e.g., a hostage) displays seeming loyalty to—even affection for—the captor. The captive may come to see law enforcement or rescuers as the enemy because they endanger the captor. The name derives from the case of a woman who was held hostage in 1973 during a bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden, and became so emotionally attached to one of the robbers that she broke her engagement to another man and remained faithful to her former captor during his prison term. [term coined by Swedish psychiatrist and criminologist Nils Bejerot (1921–1988)]

stocking anesthesia

stocking anesthesia a sensory conversion symptom in which there is a loss of sensitivity in the foot and in part of the calf (i.e., areas that would be covered by a stocking) that cannot be explained by a general medical condition or organic dysfunction. Also called foot anesthesia; shoe anesthesia. See also glove anesthesia.

stomach loading

stomach loading the experimental process of expanding a balloon into a nonhuman animal’s stomach or filling the stomach with water or an inert substance.

stop

stop n. see plosive.

stop-signal task

stop-signal task a procedure used in choice-reaction tasks in which a signal instructing the participant to withhold the response is presented on some trials at varying intervals after presentation of the stimulus. This is done to determine at what point in processing a response can no longer be inhibited.

storage

storage n. the state of an item that is retained in memory, after encoding and before retrieval. See also retention.

storage capacity

storage capacity the amount of information that can be retained in memory. Sensory memory and short-term memory are believed to have limited capacities; long-term memory may have an unlimited capacity.

storage-and-transfer model of memory

storage-and-transfer model of memory see multistore model of memory.

storm-and-stress period

storm-and-stress period a period of emotional turmoil. The phrase was used by G. Stanley Hall to characterize adolescence, which he believed to correspond to the turbulent transition from savagery to civilization. It is a translation of the German Sturm und Drang, which was the title of a 1776 drama by Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger and was subsequently applied to a German literary movement. Also called Sturm und Drang period.

story model

story model a theory of juror decision making that proposes that jurors organize trial information into narratives or stories to aid comprehension and retention of evidence. See also narrative method.

story-recall test

story-recall test a neuropsychological assessment of memory that requires an individual to recall details of a story that is told or read to him or her.

storytelling

storytelling n. 1. the recounting by a client of the events, concerns, and problems that led him or her to seek treatment. Therapists can learn much about the motives and origins of conflicts by attending carefully (see active listening) to the stories that clients bring to the session. 2. the use of symbolic talk and allegorical stories by the therapist to aid the client’s understanding of issues. Also called therapeutic storytelling.

stotting

stotting n. a stiff-legged jumping display, shown by many species of ungulates, in which all four legs are off the ground at the same time. Stotting appears to communicate to predators that the individual has detected them and has enough vigor to make capture difficult. Studies show that predators are more likely to give up a hunt when an animal stots.

STP

STP see DOM.

strabismic amblyopia

strabismic amblyopia see developmental amblyopia.

strabismometer

strabismometer n. an instrument for measuring extent of strabismus.

strabismus

strabismus n. any chronic abnormal alignment of the eyes, making normal binocular fixation and thus binocular vision impossible. Because strabismic eyes look in different directions, they give the brain conflicting messages, which may result in double vision. Alternatively, the brain may simply ignore, or suppress, one eye’s view altogether. The most common form of strabismus occurs horizontally: One or both eyes deviate inward (convergent strabismus, see cross-eye) or outward (divergent strabismus). However, the deviation may be upward (hypertropia), downward (hypotropia), or in rare cases, twisted clockwise or counterclockwise (cyclotropia). Also called heterotropia; squint. —strabismic adj.

straight

straight 1. adj. a colloquial term for heterosexual. 2. n. slang for a heterosexual person.

strain

strain 1. n. the state of a system on which excessive demands are made. Examples include muscular strain (excessive tension in a muscle usually due to an activity overload) and psychological strain, usually due to an emotional overload. 2. n. a specific group within a species whose members possess a common distinguishing characteristic. 3. n. excessive effort or exertion. 4. vb. to distort, alter, or injure as a result of such excess or the application of external force. 5. vb. to filter.

straitjacket

straitjacket n. an article of clothing that was formerly used to restrain patients in psychiatric hospitals from injuring themselves or others and, in some cases, for punishment. It consisted of a canvas shirt with overlong sleeves that bound the patient’s arms to the chest and were wrapped around and then fastened behind the back. Currently, if a means of physical restraint for patients is needed a system of wrist and ankle holds that limit the patient’s range of motion is used. Also called camisole.

Strange Situation

Strange Situation an experimental technique used to assess quality of attachment in infants and young children (up to the age of 2). The procedure subjects the child to increasing amounts of stress induced by a strange setting, the entrance of an unfamiliar person, and two brief separations from the parent. The reaction of the child to each of these situations is used to evaluate the security or insecurity of his or her attachment to the parent. See insecure attachment; secure attachment. [devised in 1978 by Mary D. Salter Ainsworth]

strange-hand sign

strange-hand sign a tactile perceptual disorder characterized by an inability to recognize one’s own hand, usually the left. Individuals may be able to write with the left hand but do not believe the writing is their own or, when clasping the two hands, may be unable to acknowledge the left hand as their own without visual clues. The disorder is caused by a defect of the corpus callosum of the brain. It is similar to, and is often considered a synonym for, alien hand syndrome.

stranger anxiety

stranger anxiety the distress and apprehension experienced by young children when they are around individuals who are unfamiliar to them. Stranger anxiety is a normal part of cognitive development: Babies differentiate caregivers from other people and display a strong preference for familiar faces. Stranger anxiety usually begins around 8 or 9 months of age and typically lasts into the 2nd year. Also called fear of strangers. See also separation anxiety; xenophobia.

stranger distress

stranger distress see distress.

strangulated affect

strangulated affect in psychoanalytic theory, an inhibition or retention of the normal discharge of emotion, leading to a substitute discharge in the form of physical symptoms. This theory was advanced in Sigmund Freud’s early formulations to explain the dynamics of conversion hysteria; it was later supplanted by the concept of repression.

strata

strata pl. n. see stratum.

strategic family therapy

strategic family therapy a group of approaches to family therapy in which the focus is on identifying and applying novel interventions to produce behavioral change rather than on helping the family gain insight into the sources of their problems. Also called strategic intervention therapy.

strategic human resource management (SHRM)

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strategic intervention therapy

strategic intervention therapy see strategic family therapy.

strategic therapy

strategic therapy any intervention that is based on the belief that an individual’s problems are caused by ineffective solutions and on a problem-solving approach that focuses on pursuing a therapeutic strategy to promote change in the individual’s behavior rather than to understand his or her underlying intrapsychic factors.

strategy

strategy n. a program of action designed to achieve a goal or accomplish a task. The term is used in a variety of contexts. For example, in artificial intelligence, it denotes a specific approach used for designing searches of a problem or game space. Strategies in this sense are used to determine which state in the search is to be considered next and are often called heuristics. In biology, however, the term refers to an approach for ensuring reproductive success, as in a K-strategy or an r-strategy.

strategy choice model

strategy choice model see adaptive strategy choice model.

stratification

stratification n. arrangement into a layered configuration, as in social stratification. —stratify vb.

stratified sampling

stratified sampling the process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups (strata) in such a way that each subgroup is represented. For example, in a study of college students, a researcher might wish to examine people from different majors (e.g., social sciences, physical sciences, humanities). The selection procedure within each of these strata may be random or systematic. In stratified random sampling, a chance process (e.g., a random number generator) is used to select individuals, whereas in stratified systematic sampling an objective, orderly procedure is applied to choose individuals (e.g., listing all of the students within each major alphabetically and choosing every 10th case).

stratum

stratum n. (pl. strata) a layer (typically one of a number of parallel layers) in a structure, such as a level or class within society (see social stratification) or any of the subpopulations in survey sampling.

stream of consciousness

stream of consciousness the notion that the contents of subjective consciousness are a continuous, dynamic flow of ideas, images, feelings, sensations, intuitions, and so forth, rather than a series of discrete, static components. Apart from its context in philosophy of mind and studies of perception, the idea of consciousness as a stream also found highly influential expression in the modernism of early 20th-century writers, such as James Joyce, Marcel Proust, and Virginia Woolf. Also called stream of thought. [introduced in 1890 by William James]

stream olfactometer

stream olfactometer an olfactometer that has a constant flow or stream of air into which an odorant can be introduced. See also blast olfactometer.

streaming

streaming n. 1. in audition, the perception of a sequence of sounds as a unitary phenomenon. Under certain conditions, several streams may be perceived nearly simultaneously, as in musical counterpoint. See fission. 2. in education, the separation of students into different categories (streams) of academic ability based on, for example, test results or prior achievements, with each stream having a unique curriculum designed for the needs and capabilities of those within it.

streaming media

streaming media audio and video that are seen and heard by the user as they are being delivered by the provider. Typically, the term refers to multimedia computer presentations, but television and radio are also considered to be streaming media.

street hustler

street hustler see male homosexual prostitution.

street intelligence

street intelligence the skills people apply in their everyday lives. The term evolved from research conducted in the 1990s by psychologists Terezhina Nunes, David Carraher, and others, who found that street children in Brazil did very poorly in paper-and-pencil tests of the skills that they showed themselves well able to use in street contexts. The street intelligence of these children can be viewed as situated intelligence (see situated cognition) that failed to transfer to a specific testing environment.

strength of association

strength of association in statistics, the degree of relationship between two or more variables, as measured by such indices as a correlation coefficient, coefficient of determination, eta squared, or omega squared.

strephosymbolia

strephosymbolia n. 1. a perceptual disorder characterized by the mirrorlike reversal of objects. 2. a reading difficulty characterized by a tendency to transpose or reverse letters while reading or writing (e.g., tap for pat or p for q). [defined in 1937 by U.S. psychiatrist Samuel Torrey Orton (1879–1948)]

stress

stress n. 1. the physiological or psychological response to internal or external stressors. Stress involves changes affecting nearly every system of the body, influencing how people feel and behave. For example, it may be manifested by palpitations, sweating, dry mouth, shortness of breath, fidgeting, accelerated speech, augmentation of negative emotions (if already being experienced), and longer duration of stress fatigue. Severe stress is manifested by the general adaptation syndrome. By causing these mind–body changes, stress contributes directly to psychological and physiological disorder and disease and affects mental and physical health, reducing quality of life. See also chronic stress. [first described in the context of psychology around 1940 by Hungarian-born Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907–1982)] 2. in linguistics, emphasis placed on a word or syllable in speech, generally by pronouncing it more loudly and deliberately than its neighboring units and slightly prolonging its duration. See also accent.

stress casualty

stress casualty a member of the armed forces who is unable to perform his or her duties because of exposure to operational stresses or risk factors. Such stress may result in somatic and behavioral symptoms. The primary cause is an imminent external threat to life, leading to inability to cope with the threat and a consequent overwhelming feeling of helplessness.

stress hormone

stress hormone a chemical that is part of the body’s response to threats and other stressors. The primary stress hormone is cortisol. Others include epinephrine, norepinephrine, and corticotropin. Together they put the body into a state of alertness (see fight-or-flight response), accompanied by increased heart rate and respiration, dilated pupils, sweating, diminished sensitivity to pain, and redirection of blood from the gastrointestinal tract to muscles. Long-term exposure to stress hormones, as in ongoing child abuse or living in a war zone, is one of the causes of posttraumatic stress disorder and has been implicated in the etiology of depression and cancer.

stress immunity

stress immunity 1. a highly developed capacity to tolerate emotional strain. 2. failure to react to stressful situations or events.

stress immunization

stress immunization the concept that mild stress experienced early in life makes an individual better able to handle stress later in life.

stress incontinence

stress incontinence 1. a type of urinary incontinence that occurs during physical exertion or physical experiences, such as laughing or coughing, that apply increased pressure to the abdomen and bladder. 2. any form of incontinence whose origin is a high level of stress.

stress interview

stress interview an interview in which the person being questioned is deliberately subjected to confrontational, emotionally unsettling, or otherwise stressful conditions, such as a combination of aggressive questioning and environmental influences (e.g., harsh lighting). Such techniques are mainly associated with police or military interrogations; in personnel selection, they have sometimes been used to assess an individual’s ability to manage pressure and handle stress but are generally considered of questionable validity.

stress management

stress management the use of specific techniques, strategies, or programs—such as relaxation training, anticipation of stress reactions, and breathing techniques—for dealing with stress-inducing situations and the state of being stressed. See also preventive stress management.

stress reaction

stress reaction a pronounced or excessive by-product of conditions of pressure or strain. Examples are extreme feelings of tension or panic, disorganized speech patterns, and accidents caused by the effects of alcohol, drugs, or emotional stress.

stress test

stress test 1. an examination or evaluation designed to ascertain an individual’s capacity to perform a relatively complex task under purposefully stressful conditions. 2. a medical evaluation designed to assess the effects of stress, typically induced by physical exercise, on cardiac function. The most common of such procedures is a test in which the patient walks or runs on a treadmill while cardiac, respiratory, or other physiological processes are monitored. 3. in multidimensional scaling, a measure that indicates the reliability or goodness of fit of the solution. Stress tests also are used to determine the number of dimensions to be included in the scaling solution.

stress tolerance

stress tolerance the capacity to withstand pressures and strains and the consequent ability to function effectively and with minimal anxiety under conditions of stress. See also stress immunity.

stress training

stress training activities designed to help individuals understand the causes of stress and learn strategies for managing it. Training conducted in both simulated and real-life situations is seen as necessary to prepare individuals in high-risk occupations (e.g., soldiers) to operate in stressful conditions and to recognize and manage the effects of stress they are likely to experience on the job. See also combat and operational stress control.

stress-decompensation model

stress-decompensation model a concept of the development of abnormal behavior as a result of high levels of stress that lead to the gradual but progressive deterioration of normal behavior to a level that is highly disorganized and dysfunctional.

stress-induced analgesia

stress-induced analgesia a reduced sensitivity to pain that an organism may experience when exposed to extreme physical trauma. For example, soldiers in combat may ignore injuries and instead respond to other threats to their lives, and injured animals fleeing predators may ignore their injuries in order to avoid capture. The precise mechanism is uncertain but may be related to the production of large quantities of endorphins.

stress-inoculation training (SIT)

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stress–vulnerability model

stress–vulnerability model the theory that a genetic or biological predisposition to certain mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, mood disorders) exists and that psychological and social factors can increase the likelihood of symptomatic episodes. See also diathesis–stress model.

stressor

stressor n. any event, force, or condition that results in physical or emotional stress. Stressors may be internal or external forces that require adjustment or coping strategies on the part of the affected individual.

stressor aftereffects

stressor aftereffects the residual effects that follow exposure to environmental stressors. Immediately after exposure to acute or chronic stressors (e.g., noise, crowding, traffic congestion, social conflict), individuals may manifest negative effects, such as reduced motivation to persist with a task or a decrease in altruistic behavior.

stretch marks

stretch marks see stria atrophica.

stretch receptor

stretch receptor a receptor cell that responds primarily to stretching of muscles. Stretch receptors include the muscle spindles of skeletal muscle.

stretch reflex

stretch reflex the contraction of a muscle in response to stretching of that muscle. Stretch reflexes support the body against the pull of gravity. Also called myotatic reflex. See also extensor thrust.

stria atrophica

stria atrophica purplish scarlike lesions, later becoming white, on the breast, thighs, abdomen, and buttocks. They are associated with pregnancy, rapid growth during puberty and adolescence, Cushing’s syndrome, and topical or prolonged treatment with corticosteroids. Known colloquially as stretch marks.

stria terminalis

stria terminalis the smaller of the two efferent pathways from the amygdala in the brain (see also ventral amygdalofugal pathway). Its fibers carry impulses from the corticomedial group of amygdaloid nuclei to the septal, hypothalamic, and thalamic areas.

stria vascularis

stria vascularis see scala media.

striate cortex

striate cortex the first region of the cerebral cortex that receives visual input from the thalamus, particularly from the lateral geniculate nucleus. The striate cortex is located in the occipital lobe and contains a dense band of myelinated fibers in layer IVb that appears as a white stripe (stripe of Gennari). Neurons in the striate cortex project to visual areas in the prestriate cortex and to subcortical visual nuclei. Also called Brodmann’s area 17; primary visual cortex. See also V1.

striated muscle

striated muscle see skeletal muscle.

striatum

striatum n. see basal ganglia.

strict scrutiny

strict scrutiny a test used to ascertain whether a law violates a fundamental right granted under the U.S. Constitution. The government must show that although such a law treats some people favorably and others unfavorably, it is nevertheless the least inequitable way of handling an important issue. The test is often invoked in the context of discrimination based on race, gender, or nationality.

stridor dentium

stridor dentium see bruxism.

stridulation

stridulation n. see vocal communication.

string

string n. in linguistics, a linear sequence of words or word elements that can be subjected to formal analysis.

striving for superiority

striving for superiority in the individual psychology of Alfred Adler, the idea that human beings are motivated by an innate, sovereign drive for realizing their full potential. This drive is defined as the urge for completion and perfection rather than for superiority in the sense of social status or domination over others.

stroboscope

stroboscope n. a device that allows very rapid presentation or illumination of a sequence of images. When sequential still images are presented by a stroboscope, the perception of movement is created, as in a motion picture.

stroboscopic illusion

stroboscopic illusion 1. the apparent motion of a series of separate stimuli occurring in close consecutive order, as in motion pictures. 2. the apparent motionlessness or reverse motion of a moving object, such as a rotating fan, produced by illuminating it with a series of intermittent light flashes. Also called stroboscopic effect. See also windmill illusion.

stroke

stroke n. disruption of blood flow to the brain, which deprives the tissue of oxygen and nutrients, causing tissue damage and loss of normal function and, potentially, tissue death. A stroke may result from a hemorrhage of a blood vessel in the brain (see hemorrhagic stroke) or an embolism or thrombus blocking an artery in the brain (see embolic stroke; thrombotic stroke). This term is often used interchangeably with cerebrovascular accident. See also cerebral infarction; cerebrovascular disease; lacunar stroke; transient ischemic attack.

strong ego

strong ego see ego strength.

Strong Interest Inventory (SII)

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strong law of effect

strong law of effect see law of effect.

strong law of large numbers

strong law of large numbers see law of large numbers.

strong methods

strong methods 1. problem-solving techniques that are specific to a particular domain or application, such as medical diagnosis. 2. in artificial intelligence, programs that incorporate knowledge specific to a particular application or domain such as knowledge of the rules of chess in building a chess-playing program. Compare weak methods.

Stroop Color–Word Interference Test

Stroop Color–Word Interference Test a three-part test in which (a) color names are read as fast as possible; (b) the colors of bars or other shapes are rapidly named; and, most importantly, (c) color hues are named quickly when used to print the names of other colors (such as the word green printed in the color red). The degree to which the participants are subject to interference by the printed words is a measure of their cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and response inhibition (or disinhibition). In clinical neuropsychology, this test is commonly used to assess dysfunction of the frontal lobes of the brain. Also called Stroop test. See also response conflict. [J. Ridley Stroop (1897–1973), U.S. psychologist]

Stroop effect

Stroop effect the finding that the time it takes a participant to name the color of ink in which a word is printed is longer for words that denote incongruent color names than for neutral words or for words that denote a congruent color. For example, if the word blue is written in red ink (incongruent), participants take longer to say “red” than if the word glue is written in red ink (neutral) or if the word red is written in red ink (congruent). See Stroop Color–Word Interference Test. [J. Ridley Stroop]

structural analysis

structural analysis 1. in psychology, any theory of the organization of mind or personality that attempts to differentiate between component parts and to define the relationship of part to part and part to whole. Such an analysis can be contrasted with one based on function, dynamics, or behavior. See personality structure; structural model. 2. in linguistics, an analysis of a word, phrase, sentence, or longer unit in terms of its formal constituents. See phrase-structure grammar. 3. any analysis based on the ideas or methods of structuralism.

structural approach

structural approach see structural model.

structural coefficient

structural coefficient in structural equation modeling, a measure of the amount of change expected in an outcome or dependent variable given a one-unit change in the causal or independent variable and no change in any other variable.

structural commitment

structural commitment in U.S. sociologist Michael P. Johnson’s tripartite model of marital commitment, a form of commitment in which a person feels tied to a relationship because of external factors. For example, it is often engendered by the anticipated financial cost or lost social or family connections that would result from ending a relationship. It often leads people to remain in dissatisfying relationships. Also called constraint commitment. Compare moral commitment; personal commitment.

structural constraint theory

structural constraint theory see neonativism.

structural disorder

structural disorder a disorder related to a defect in or damage to the structure of an organ or tissue, such as the nervous system.

structural equation modeling

structural equation modeling (SEM) any of a broad range of multivariate analysis methods, including factor analysis and path analysis, that examine variances and covariances in order to find interrelationships among latent variables. For example, assume a researcher hypothesizes that job satisfaction leads to happiness. Both are latent variables that are not directly observable but are defined in terms of other measurable variables, such as judgments of job performance from supervisors and peers; self-reports about attitudes toward pay, supervision, type of work, and other job characteristics; results from psychological tests; and so forth. The researcher could use the measurable data to generate an equation representing the strength and nature of the links among the latent variables.

structural family therapy

structural family therapy a type of family therapy that assesses the subsystems, boundaries, hierarchies, and coalitions within a family (its structure) and focuses on direct interactions between the family members (enactment) as the primary method of inducing positive change. Structural family therapy stresses that when appropriately induced to do so, families with problems will discover their own alternatives to their ineffective patterns of relating to one another. For example, a structural family therapist working with a family whose daughter is anorexic would examine such family issues as the framework of authority, the rules that govern the assumption of roles, the various functions that members perform, and the coalitions created by the bonding of certain family members, and then would encourage all members to use this information to develop more productive patterns of interaction that in turn can mitigate the stresses within the family context surrounding the daughter’s condition. Also called structural therapy. [developed in the 1970s by Argentinian-born U.S. family therapist Salvador Minuchin (1921– )]

structural group

structural group a therapeutic group made up of individuals selected for those characteristics that would make them most likely to be successful in achieving the goals sought in the therapy. People of different types, temperaments, personalities, and educational levels are combined in a group, based on the concept that their interaction will maximize each other’s benefits in the therapeutic process. Also called structured group. [devised by Jacob L. Moreno]

structural hypothesis

structural hypothesis see structural model.

structural integration

structural integration see rolfing.

structural matrix

structural matrix see structured interactional group psychotherapy.

structural model

structural model 1. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the view that the personality comprises three divisions or functions: (a) the id, which represents instinctual drives; (b) the ego, which controls id drives and mediates between them and external reality; and (c) the superego, which comprises moral precepts and ideals. Sigmund Freud proposed this model in 1923 to replace his earlier topographic model, in which the mind was divided into three regions: the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious. Also called structural approach; structural hypothesis; structural theory. See also dynamic model; economic model. 2. in statistics, any theoretical representation of the relationships among a dependent variable and multiple independent variables, whether continuous or discrete. Techniques to derive such models include latent class analysis, path analysis, and structural equation modeling.

structural psychology

structural psychology see structuralism.

structural therapy

structural therapy 1. see structural family therapy. 2. a system of treatment for children with autism, which provides a structured environment emphasizing physical and verbal stimulation in a gamelike setting. The purpose is to increase the amount and variety of stimuli received by the children, thereby helping them relate to their environment in a more realistic manner.

structural zero

structural zero an entry in a table that is certain to be zero because it corresponds to an impossible outcome, as opposed to an entry that has an empirical value of zero. For example, in studying friendships, one might ask each of 15 people to indicate who among the others is a friend. This would yield a 15 × 15 contingency table or matrix, with 1 representing “is a friend” and 0 representing “is not a friend.” Although there would be empirical zeros in some cells to represent not-a-friend responses, all entries along the diagonal of the matrix are structural zeros since they represent one person’s response with regard to himself or herself rather than to another person.

structuralism

structuralism n. 1. a movement considered to be the first school of psychology as a science, independent of philosophy. Usually attributed to Wilhelm Wundt, but probably more strongly and directly influenced by Edward Bradford Titchener, structuralism defined psychology as the study of mental experience and sought to investigate the structure of such experience through a systematic program of experiments based on trained introspection. Also called structural psychology. 2. a movement in various disciplines that study human behavior and culture that enjoyed particular currency in the 1960s and 1970s. The movement took its impetus from the radically new approach to linguistic analysis pioneered by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913). Against the prevailing historical and comparative approaches, Saussure maintained that a language is a closed system that must be approached through the detail of its internal structure; linguistic signs (written or spoken words) acquire meaning not through their relationships to external referents but through their structural relationships to other signs in the same system (see arbitrary symbol). The meaning of any particular use of language is therefore grounded in the total abstract system of that language, which is largely defined by a pattern of functional contrasts between elements (see binary feature; minimal pair). The structuralist model of language was extended to cover essentially all social and cultural phenomena, including human thought and action, in the work of French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009). For structuralists in anthropology and the other social sciences, there is a connection between the events of the lived world and a deeper structure of abstract relationships and ideas that provides meaning to the events. Structuralist explanations play down individual autonomy and agency, positivistic science, and linear-time causation in favor of explanations in terms of structural and systemic influences operating in the present to produce rule-governed behavior, the true nature of which can be revealed as the underlying structures are revealed. In the 1960s, structuralist ideas exerted a major influence on literary studies; they also provided a basic intellectual framework for the new field of semiotics, which studies the ways in which verbal and nonverbal signs acquire meaning within particular codes of signification. During subsequent decades, structuralism increasingly gave way to poststructuralism.

structuralist

structuralist 1. n. a therapist who believes that changing the organizational structure of a group or system, such as a family, will change and improve its patterns of interaction. 2. n. an adherent of structuralism. 3. adj. of or relating to structuralism.

structure

structure n. 1. a relatively stable arrangement of elements or components organized to form an integrated whole. Structure is often contrasted with function to emphasize how something is organized or patterned rather than what it does. See also bidirectionality of structure and function. 2. a complex entity consisting of organized components. 3. according to Jean Piaget, any of the entities that together comprise the enduring knowledge base by which children interpret their world. A structure is equivalent to a scheme. —structural adj.

structure coefficient

structure coefficient 1. in regression analysis, a correlation coefficient indicating the extent of relationship between scores on a particular manifest variable and scores on a latent or predicted variable derived from the entire set of variables. It is used to quantify the importance of an observed variable. 2. in discriminant analysis, a value representing the association between a particular variable being considered as a differentiator of group membership and the discriminant function scores derived from the full set of predictor variables.

structure of an attitude

structure of an attitude the set of properties related to the content of mental representations associated with an attitude, the number of these representations, and the strength and the pattern of associations among these representations. See also tripartite model of attitudes.

structure of intellect model (SOI)

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structure word

structure word see function word.

structured autobiography

structured autobiography see autobiography.

structured group

structured group see structural group.

structured interactional group psychotherapy

structured interactional group psychotherapy a form of group therapy in which the therapist provides a structural matrix for the group’s interactions. This is usually achieved by selecting a different member of the group to be the focus of the interaction—the target patient—in each session. [developed by U.S. psychiatrists Harold I. Kaplan (1928–1998) and Benjamin J. Sadock (1933– )]

structured interview

structured interview a method for gathering information, used particularly in surveys and personnel selection, in which questions, their wordings, and their order of administration are determined in advance. The choice of answers tends to be fixed and determined in advance as well. With structured interviews, answers can be aggregated and comparisons can be made across different samples or interview periods; interviewees can be assessed consistently (e.g., using a common rating scale); and order effects are minimized. Also called standardized interview. Compare unstructured interview. See also patterned interview.

structured learning

structured learning a complex system of psychotherapy based on the idea of psychological skills training that is, teaching individuals the skills associated with leading healthy and satisfying lives and then helping them gain the ability to consistently and reliably apply these skills outside of the therapeutic setting. This approach involves four essential components: modeling, role play, performance feedback, and transfer of training. The individual is provided with examples of specific behavior to be imitated, is allowed to practice that behavior, is given feedback regarding the performance of the behavior, and completes homework assignments that encourage the use of the behavior in real-world situations. [developed in the mid-1970s by U.S. psychologists Arnold P. Goldstein (1933–2002), Robert P. Sprafkin (1940– ), and N. Jane Gershaw (1945– )]

structured learning group

structured learning group a type of interpersonal learning group that helps participants gain self-insight, develop improved interpersonal skills, and solve interpersonal problems through a series of relatively specific exercises, activities, and assignments.

structured observation

structured observation a systematic method of collecting behavioral data within a controlled environment, often used in research with infants and young children, in which observers measure overt actions and interpersonal processes. In structured observation, researchers (a) select which behaviors are of interest and which are not, (b) clearly define the characteristics of each behavior so that observers all agree on the classification, and (c) note the occurrence and frequency of these targeted behaviors in the situation under analysis. Interaction process analysis and SYMLOG are examples. Structured observation differs from naturalistic observation, which involves observing individuals in their own environments outside of the laboratory.

structured play

structured play organized play that is governed by rules and controlled or directed by an adult. A teacher-initiated classroom play activity is an example. Compare free play.

structured Q sort

structured Q sort see Q sort.

structured stimulus

structured stimulus a well-defined, well-organized stimulus, the perception of which is influenced more by the characteristics of the stimulus than by those of the perceiver. Compare unstructured stimulus.

structures of the whole

structures of the whole see operation.

structuring

structuring n. 1. the explanation by a counselor or therapist, usually during the first session of a course of treatment, of the specific procedures and conditions of the therapeutic process. This explanation includes the intended results of treatment, time restrictions, fees, and the function and responsibilities of both client and counselor or therapist. See also contract. 2. in education, the use of behavioral instructions to a student to decrease disruptions in the classroom.

struggle for existence

struggle for existence see competition for resources.

strychnine

strychnine n. an alkaloid derived from nux vomica. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system (see CNS stimulant)—through its ability to antagonize the inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine—and a powerful convulsant, with death usually resulting from paralysis of muscles of respiration. Strychnine has long been used as a rodenticide, and this use continues to the present; there are, however, no clinical applications for it. No marked tolerance develops for it, and increased susceptibility to poisoning is likely from repeated exposure.

student counseling

student counseling see educational counseling.

student–teacher evaluation

student–teacher evaluation see students’ evaluation of teaching.

student’s disease

student’s disease the condition of individuals who believe they have the symptoms of a disease or mental disorder that they have been studying or that they have read or heard about.

Student’s t distribution

Student’s t distribution see t distribution. [Student, pseudonym of William S. Gosset]

Student’s t test

Student’s t test see t test. [Student, pseudonym of William S. Gosset]

Studentization

Studentization n. a procedure to eliminate a nuisance parameter in particular calculations. It transforms a statistic whose distribution of probable values relies upon the unknown parameter into one whose distribution relies on quantities that can be derived from the sample data. Such transformed statistics are described as “Studentized.” [Student, pseudonym of William S. Gosset (1876–1937), British statistician]

Studentized range statistic

Studentized range statistic (symbol: q) a statistic used in Tukey’s honestly significant difference test and other multiple comparison tests to establish critical values for rejecting the null hypothesis. It is the range of a sample expressed in units of the standard distribution for that sample. [Student, pseudonym of William S. Gosset]

Studentized residual

Studentized residual in regression analysis, a standardized statistic describing the variation between obtained and predicted values. It is calculated by obtaining the difference between the empirical value of an observation and the value of that observation predicted by a model, and then dividing that difference (called a residual) by an estimated standard deviation. Studentized residuals are used to identify regression equations that are a poor fit for the observed data. [Student, pseudonym of William S. Gosset]

Students of the International Positive Psychology Association (SIPPA)

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students’ evaluation of teaching (SET)

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study

study 1. n. a research investigation conducted for the purpose of understanding, explaining, describing, or predicting some phenomenon of interest. It may be conducted in the laboratory or natural environment, and it may yield quantitative or qualitative data. 2. n. any attempt to acquire and remember information. 3. vb. to engage in study.

Study of Values

Study of Values see Allport–Vernon–Lindzey Study of Values.

study skill

study skill any method used to facilitate the process of learning material, such as outlining, taking notes, underlining, or silent recitation.

study-phase retrieval theory

study-phase retrieval theory see spacing effect.

stupor

stupor n. 1. a state of lethargy and impaired consciousness, in which an individual is disoriented, unresponsive, and immobile. 2. inability to speak (see mutism).

Sturge–Weber syndrome

Sturge–Weber syndrome a congenital disorder marked by malformation of meningeal blood vessels (hemi- or leptomeningeal angioma), a facial port-wine stain, glaucoma, and focal-motor seizures. Skin pigmentation may occur on one or both sides of the face or extend into the scalp area. Other features include muscle weakness, paralysis, developmental delay, and intellectual disability. Also called encephalofacial angiomatosis; Kalischer syndrome; Parkes–Weber syndrome; Sturge–Weber–Dimitri syndrome. [William A. Sturge (1850–1919) and Frederick Parkes Weber (1863–1962), British physicians; Vicente Dimitri (1885–1955), Austrian physician; S. Kalischer, German physician]

Sturm und Drang period

Sturm und Drang period see storm-and-stress period.

stuttering

stuttering n. a disturbance in the normal fluency and time sequencing of speech. It is characterized by frequent repetition or prolongation of sounds, syllables, or words, with hesitations and pauses that disrupt speech. The disorder interferes with one’s ability to communicate with others, especially during stressful situations (e.g., public speaking), and it can be exacerbated by one’s awareness of and anxiety over the dysfluency. The struggle to speak may also be accompanied by behaviors such a rapid eye blinking, trembling lips, or fist clenching. By contrast, speaking in unison with another person, reading orally, or singing may temporarily reduce stuttering. The disorder affects about 1% of all children, with onset occurring between 2 and 7 years of age. Mild cases usually recover spontaneously by the age of 16, but more severe cases may persist into adulthood. In formal diagnostic nomenclature, stuttering is the term used in DSM–IV–TR; it is identified as childhood-onset fluency disorder in DSM–5. Also called stammering. See also primary stuttering; secondary stuttering. Compare cluttering. —stutter vb., n.

stuttering gait

stuttering gait a gait characterized by hesitancy in taking steps: a walking pattern observed in certain patients with conversion disorder or schizophrenia. In some cases, it is neurological in origin, as with Parkinson’s disease.

STX

STX abbreviation for saxitoxin.

stylistic ratings

stylistic ratings a system of evaluating works of art in terms of their technical attributes, as opposed to the reactions or preferences of those who view the art. Stylistic ratings may be based on factors such as shapes, lines, composition, surface textures, and reproduction of objects or people portrayed.

stylus maze

stylus maze a maze that is “run” by moving a stylus through the various pathways. The task may be performed visually or tactually.

subacute spongiform encephalopathy (SSE)

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subarachnoid hemorrhage

subarachnoid hemorrhage bleeding into the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain. It may be the result of trauma or a ruptured aneurysm. Initial symptoms are caused by increasing intracranial pressure and can include headache and loss of consciousness as escaping blood distends the spaces beneath the arachnoid (see cisterna), causing compression or spasm of the blood vessels of the thalamus and upper brainstem.

subarachnoid space

subarachnoid space a space beneath the delicate arachnoid mater, the middle of the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord. It is occupied by cerebrospinal fluid, which drains into the superior sagittal sinus through arachnoid granulations.

subcallosal gyrus

subcallosal gyrus a portion of the limbic system behind the cingulate cortex. Its functions are reciprocal to those of the cingulate cortex: It inhibits motor neuron activity, whereas the cingulate cortex enhances motor neuron functions.

subception

subception n. 1. short for subliminal perception. 2. according to Carl Rogers, a strategy for keeping unconscious a subliminal, emotion-provoking stimulus that threatens or is incongruent with one’s self-concept.

subcommissural organ

subcommissural organ a group of secretory ependymal cells on the dorsal wall of the third ventricle of the brain, near the cerebral aqueduct. One of the circumventricular organs, its exact function is unknown.

subconscious

subconscious n. a lay term that is widely used to denote the unconscious or preconscious mind as described by Sigmund Freud or the general idea of subliminal consciousness. It is also popularly associated with autosuggestion and hypnosis. Because of its imprecision, the term is now generally avoided by psychologists. See also coconsciousness. —subconscious adj.

subcortical

subcortical adj. relating to structures or processes in the brain that are located or take place beneath the cerebral cortex. See also subcortical center.

subcortical aphasia

subcortical aphasia aphasia resulting from damage to subcortical (deeper) areas of the brain (e.g., the basal ganglia) rather than to cortical areas.

subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy

subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy see Binswanger’s disease.

subcortical center

subcortical center any region of the brain at a level below the cerebral cortex that has a particular function or functions. Subcortical centers include the thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia. Within each subcortical structure may be several special centers, such as nuclei of the hypothalamus that regulate sleep, water balance, protein metabolism, and sexual activity.

subcortical dementia

subcortical dementia dementia caused by damage to or dysfunction of the subcortical (deeper) structures of the brain that may be due, for example, to Parkinson’s disease. It is marked by cognitive slowing, memory impairment (specifically, poor encoding and retrieval but intact storage), visuospatial abnormalities, and mood and affect disturbances. Compare cortical dementia.

subcortical learning

subcortical learning 1. learning that occurs in areas of the brain below the cortex. For example, some simple habits or associations may be learned subcortically (e.g., in the cerebellum). 2. learning that occurs during cortical spreading depression; that is, during a temporary suppression of cortical activity induced by an injection of potassium chloride into the cortex.

subcultural delinquency

subcultural delinquency see socialized delinquency.

subculture

subculture n. a group that maintains a characteristic set of customs, behaviors, interests, or beliefs that serves to distinguish it from the larger culture in which the members live. See also counterculture. —subcultural adj.

subculture of violence

subculture of violence see culture of honor.

subcutaneous injection

subcutaneous injection injection of a drug beneath the skin, often in the upper arm or thigh where there is an adequate layer of subcutaneous tissue. Although the subcutaneous route is used mainly to inject fluids, medications may also be administered subcutaneously in the form of slowly absorbed pellets. Also called hypodermic injection. See also administration; skin popping.

subcutaneous sensibility

subcutaneous sensibility the sensitivity of nerve receptors (e.g., Pacinian corpuscles) beneath the skin.

subdelirious state

subdelirious state the precursor of full delirium, marked by restlessness, headache, irritability, hypersensitivity to sound and visual stimuli, and emotional instability. Also called subdelirium.

subdural

subdural adj. lying beneath the dura mater, the outermost of the coverings (meninges) of the brain and spinal cord.

subdural hematoma

subdural hematoma an accumulation of blood due to bleeding between the dura mater membrane and the brain surface. Because the hematoma enlarges and cannot escape through the skull, it causes pressure that distorts brain structures. The bleeding may occur over a period of days or weeks, producing symptoms of confusion, memory loss, or other neurological deficits that may be mistaken as signs of dementia in an older person.

subdural hemorrhage

subdural hemorrhage bleeding beneath the dura mater, the outermost of the meningeal membranes that surround the brain. It typically occurs as a result of head injury, and the specific symptoms may vary according to the brain area affected by the bleeding.

subfecundity

subfecundity n. see fecundity.

subfornical organ

subfornical organ a structure in the brain that is responsive to angiotensin II and contributes to thirst and drinking behavior. One of the circumventricular organs, it is located below the fornix.

subgoal

subgoal n. a goal that serves as an intermediary step to attaining an ultimate goal (i.e., the goal object). For example, completing an outline of an essay may be a subgoal of completing the essay itself—the ultimate goal.

subgranular zone

subgranular zone see dentate gyrus.

subiculum

subiculum n. (pl. subicula) a region of the forebrain adjacent to the hippocampus that has reciprocal connections with the hippocampus and the dentate gyrus. It forms part of the hippocampal formation. Also called hippocampal gyrus.

subitize

subitize vb. to perceive how many objects are presented, without counting. See apprehension span. [from Latin subito, “at once”]

subject

subject n. 1. generally, the individual human or nonhuman animal that takes part in an experiment or research study and whose responses or performance are reported or evaluated; less frequently, the “subject” may also be an institution, group, or other entity. Many now recommend that the term participant be used for humans, considering the word subject to be depersonalizing and to imply passivity and submissiveness on the part of the experimentee. 2. in linguistics, the principal noun phrase in a clause or sentence about which something is stated (compare predicate). The subject is usually (but not always) the agent of the main action and in English can usually be identified as the noun phrase whose number and person govern the form of the main verb. 3. an area or branch of knowledge or a course of study.

subject bias

subject bias the influence that research participants’ knowledge about aspects of the research has on their responses to experimental conditions and manipulations. For example, a participant who knows he or she is in the treatment group as opposed to the control group might behave differently than he or she would otherwise. See demand characteristics.

subject history

subject history 1. background information about a participant in a study, such as sociological, occupational, and educational data. 2. events that a research participant experiences outside of the controlled environment of the study and that may threaten its internal validity. See history effect.

subject matching

subject matching see matching.

subject maturation

subject maturation see maturation.

subject of consciousness

subject of consciousness 1. the observing ego, or “I.” See also nominative self; self as observer. 2. the subject matter, or contents, of conscious experience. Compare object of consciousness.

subject role

subject role a coherent set of behaviors assumed by a research participant in response to his or her perceptions of what is required or expected in the situation.

subject sophistication

subject sophistication a familiarity with general research procedures that may influence a person’s behavior as a participant in a study. It is an issue of particular concern in deception research, as participants may significantly modify their behavior (e.g., specifically searching for any evidence of deceit in the experimental procedure) as they become increasingly knowledgeable about the nature of deception in experiments. Sources of sophistication include participating in research previously, talking to participants from other studies, and reading about studies in the mass media.

subject variable

subject variable an experience or characteristic of a research participant that is not of primary interest but nonetheless may influence study results and thus must be accounted for during experimentation or data analysis. Examples include age, marital status, religious affiliation, and intelligence. A variable of this type is neither manipulated by the experimenter, as an independent variable might be, nor is it usually changed in the course of the experiment, as a dependent variable might be. Also called background variable.

subject-matter expert

subject-matter expert on a cross-functional team, a member who contributes highly specialized knowledge of or expertise in a specific job, task, or skill.

subjection

subjection n. the state of being under the control of another individual or of a government or other organization, especially where this is felt to be oppressive. See also social subordination.

subjective

subjective adj 1. taking place or existing only within the mind. 2. particular to a specific person and thus intrinsically inaccessible to the experience or observation of others. 3. based on or influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudices. Compare objective.

subjective attribute

subjective attribute a perceptual quality that is uniquely dependent on the individual who experiences it (e.g., a particular taste or color).

subjective colors

subjective colors see Fechner’s colors.

subjective competitive situation

subjective competitive situation an individual’s perception, evaluation, and acceptance of a situation as meeting the criteria of an objective competitive situation.

subjective contour

subjective contour an edge or border perceived in an image as a result of the inference of the observer. A common form of a Kanizsa figure contains a triangle with sides that consist of subjective contours. Also called illusory contour.

subjective expected utility (SEU)

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subjective expected value

subjective expected value in analyses of decision making, the extent to which an outcome is (a) desired or valued and (b) thought to be probable by the decision maker. The choice of one alternative over others is to a considerable extent a function of the personal (or subjective) value placed by an individual on a specific act or outcome as well as the perceived probability (expectation) that the given alternative will lead to that outcome. Many analyses assume that the alternative selected is the one for which the product of the expectation and the subjective value is the highest.

subjective idealism

subjective idealism in philosophy, the metaphysical position that what is normally considered the external world is in fact constructed partly or wholly by individual perceiving minds. See idealism; solipsism.

subjective norm

subjective norm a perception that an individual has regarding whether people important to that individual believe that he or she should or should not perform a particular behavior. See also theory of planned behavior; theory of reasoned action.

subjective organization

subjective organization the creation of one’s own idiosyncratic set of associations or groupings among items to be learned in order to facilitate memory. [proposed by Endel Tulving]

subjective prior

subjective prior see prior distribution.

subjective probability

subjective probability an estimate, derived from subjective experience, of the likelihood of a given event or outcome. The subjective probability estimate is used in calculating the subjective expected utility. Also called personal probability.

subjective psychology

subjective psychology a psychological approach that focuses on introspective or phenomenological data. Compare objective psychology.

subjective responsibility

subjective responsibility in the moral reasoning typical of children over the age of 10, the idea that an individual’s motives should be taken into account when judging an act. Compare objective responsibility. [proposed by Jean Piaget]

subjective scoring

subjective scoring see objective scoring.

subjective test

subjective test an assessment tool that is scored according to personal judgment or to standards that are less systematic than those used in objective tests. Some essay examinations are examples of a subjective test. Although there are no necessarily right or wrong answers, responses are scored based on appraisals of their appropriateness or quality.

subjective tone

subjective tone any tonelike sound that is perceived by an individual but not present in the acoustic input. This covers a broad range of percepts, including combination tones, tinnitus, and auditory hallucinations.

subjective visual field

subjective visual field the visual field as experienced by a particular observer.

subjective well-being (SWB)

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subjective-equality point

subjective-equality point see point of subjective equality.

subjectivism

subjectivism n. 1. in general, any position holding that judgments of fact or value reflect individual states of mind rather than states of affairs that can be said to be true or false independent of individual interpretation. 2. in ethics, the proposition that the ideals, such as “the good,” to which ethical propositions refer are reflections of personal judgment rather than independent realities. Subjectivism holds that ethical prescriptions reduce to mere statements of personal or cultural preference. Compare objectivism. —subjectivist n., adj.

subjectivity

subjectivity n. 1. in general, the tendency to interpret data or make judgments in the light of personal feelings, beliefs, or experiences. 2. in empirical research, the failure to attain proper standards of objectivity.

subjects-to-variables ratio

subjects-to-variables ratio the number of research participants compared to the number of research variables (e.g., 5 to 1) in a study. The subjects-to-variables ratio provides a guideline for determining what size sample to use to ensure the greatest power when conducting a statistical analysis, such as multiple regression or factor analysis.

subjects’ rights

subjects’ rights see participants’ rights.

subjunctive

subjunctive n. in linguistics, the mood of a verb used to indicate that a situation is hypothetical or not yet realized, as in If I were in your position or I insist that she go now. Compare imperative; indicative; interrogative.

sublimation

sublimation n. in classical psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression and redirected into new, learned behaviors, which indirectly provide some satisfaction for the original drives. For example, an exhibitionistic impulse may gain a new outlet in choreography; a voyeuristic urge may lead to scientific research; and a dangerously aggressive drive may be expressed with impunity on the football field. As well as allowing for substitute satisfactions, such outlets are posited to protect individuals from the anxiety induced by the original drive. —sublimate vb.

Sublimaze

Sublimaze n. a trade name for fentanyl.

subliminal

subliminal adj. denoting or relating to stimuli that are below the difference threshold or absolute threshold. —subliminally adv.

subliminal consciousness

subliminal consciousness 1. a level of consciousness at which a stimulus may affect behavior even though the person is not explicitly aware of it. See subliminal perception. 2. in the psychological theory of British writer Frederic William Henry Myers (1843–1901), a marginal region of consciousness that he posited as an explanation for telepathy and other alleged parapsychological phenomena. Myers believed that the subliminal consciousness had a transpersonal dimension, and this aspect of his theory is sometimes held to have influenced Carl Jung’s notion of the collective unconscious. See also superconscious.

subliminal learning

subliminal learning information, habits, or attitudes acquired from exposure to stimuli presented below the threshold for conscious awareness (i.e., subliminally).

subliminal perception

subliminal perception the registration of stimuli below the level of awareness, particularly stimuli that are too weak (or too rapid) for an individual to consciously perceive them. There has been much debate about whether responses to subliminal stimuli actually occur and whether it is possible for subliminal commands or advertising messages to influence behavior. Experimental evidence indicates that subliminal commands may not directly affect behavior but may prime later responses (see subliminal priming). Compare supraliminal perception.

subliminal persuasion

subliminal persuasion the presentation of information in a manner that may change people’s attitudes without their conscious awareness of the content of the information to which they have been exposed. Subliminal persuasion usually involves extremely brief presentations of visual stimuli (e.g., words, pictures).

subliminal priming

subliminal priming stimulation below the threshold of awareness that changes the probability of the later occurrence of related cognitive tasks. See priming; repetition priming.

subliminal process

subliminal process see unconscious process.

subliminal propaganda

subliminal propaganda a form of propaganda in which images or words are displayed too quickly for the conscious mind to perceive. They may, however, influence a person nonconsciously.

subliminal stimulation

subliminal stimulation stimulation that is below the threshold intensity required to elicit a response (see subliminal perception). Also called subliminal stimulus.

submission

submission n. compliance with or surrender to the requests, demands, or will of others. Compare dominance.

submissive signal

submissive signal in animal behavior, a signal given by a subordinate to a dominant animal indicating that it will not continue to compete with the other for resources. By using submissive signals low-ranking individuals avoid being attacked, and overall levels of physical aggression are reduced. See appeasement behavior; threat display.

submissiveness

submissiveness n. a tendency to comply with the wishes or obey the orders of others. —submissive adj.

subnormal

subnormal adj. denoting something that is below (often significantly below) the normal or expected level. The use of this term with reference to intelligence is now largely obsolete, and the term below average is generally used.

subnormal period of neuron

subnormal period of neuron a period of time, measured in milliseconds, when neuron excitability is below normal. It follows an absolute refractory period or a period of supernormal excitability.

suboccipital puncture

suboccipital puncture an alternative procedure to lumbar puncture for obtaining access to the subarachnoid space for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It involves the insertion of a needle into the cisterna magna through an area near the base of the skull to collect cerebrospinal fluid. Also called cistern puncture.

subordinate

subordinate n. 1. one who is subject to the control or authority of another, as in the subordinate–supervisor relationship in the workplace. 2. in nonhuman animal social groups, an individual who in competition for resources is less likely to obtain the resources than another animal. In a stable social group, individuals readily learn which are dominant and which are subordinate so that resource distribution occurs with minimal fighting or direct aggression. See also animal dominance.

subordinate category

subordinate category a subdivision of a basic-level category formed at a more specific level of categorization. For example, Siamese cat is a subordinate category of the basic-level category cat, and rocking chair is a subordinate category of chair. A subordinate category is usually characterized by (a) a high level of resemblance among its members and (b) a relatively low level of difference between its members and those of neighboring categories (e.g., Siamese cats tend to look quite similar to each other but do not look very different from Orientals). The name of the subordinate category often incorporates the name of the basic-level category, as in the examples given above.

subordinate clause

subordinate clause see clause; embedded sentence.

subordination

subordination n. 1. the placing of something into a lower ranking category or group. More specifically, it is the state of being subservient to and considered less important than others. 2. in linguistics, see coordination.

Suboxone

Suboxone n. a trade name for buprenorphine in combination with naloxone.

subpopulation

subpopulation n. a subgroup of a larger population of individuals or cases. For example, if the population of interest in a research study is all U.S. college undergraduates, one could divide the students into subpopulations by state (e.g., individuals attending college in California, New York, etc.).

subsample

subsample n. a subset of a sample of individuals or cases selected for study. For example, if one chooses a random group of college students for research purposes, one could divide the students into subsamples by major (e.g., individuals from the group who are majoring in psychology, mathematics, etc.).

subscale

subscale n. a scale that taps some specific constituent or otherwise differentiated category of information as part of a larger, overall scheme. For example, a test of intelligence might consist of several subscales (or subtests) assessing verbal and performance aspects or dimensions of intelligence, which in combination yield a verbal intelligence score, a performance intelligence score, and an overall intelligence score.

subspecies

subspecies n. see breed.

substance

substance n. 1. a drug of abuse (e.g., alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, an inhalant), a medication (e.g., a sedative or anxiolytic), or a toxin that is capable of producing harmful effects when ingested or otherwise taken into the body. See substance-related disorder. 2. in philosophy, that which has an independent, self-sufficient existence and remains unalterably itself even though its attributes or properties may change. Philosophers have differed over what qualifies as a substance and whether reality consists of a single substance (see monism) or more (see dualism; pluralism).

substance abuse

substance abuse a pattern of compulsive substance use marked by recurrent significant social, occupational, legal, or interpersonal adverse consequences, such as repeated absences from work or school, arrests, and marital difficulties. DSM–IV–TR identifies nine drug classes associated with abuse: alcohol, amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, phencyclidines, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of substance dependence: If the criteria for abuse and dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given. In DSM–5, however, both have been subsumed into substance use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)

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substance abuse treatment

substance abuse treatment inpatient and outpatient programs designed to help individuals diagnosed with substance dependence (i.e., dependence on alcohol or any other drug) to achieve abstinence. These include but are not limited to short- and long-term residential programs (colloquially known as “rehab”), clinic- and hospital-based outpatient programs, methadone maintenance therapy, and twelve-step programs. Also called drug abuse treatment. See also alcohol rehabilitation.

substance dependence

substance dependence in DSM–IV–TR, a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating continued use of a substance despite significant substance-related problems. There is a pattern of repeated substance ingestion resulting in tolerance, withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended, and an uncontrollable drive to continue use. DSM–IV–TR identifies 10 drug classes associated with dependence: alcohol, amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidines, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. Often used synonymously with the term addiction, substance dependence has been subsumed with substance abuse under the category substance use disorder in DSM–5 and is no longer considered a distinct diagnosis. Also called chemical dependence.

substance intoxication

substance intoxication a reversible syndrome due to the recent ingestion of a specific substance, including clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement. Although symptoms vary by substance, there are some common manifestations: for example, perceptual disturbances; mood changes; impairments of judgment, attention, and memory; alterations of heartbeat and vision; and speech and coordination difficulties. DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5 identify 10 drug classes associated with intoxication: alcohol, amphetamines, caffeine, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, phencyclidines, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics.

substance intoxication delirium

substance intoxication delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible substance-specific syndrome that develops over a short period of time (usually hours to days) following heavy consumption of the substance. It includes disturbance of consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention), accompanied by changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with intoxication with that substance. See alcohol intoxication delirium; amphetamine intoxication delirium; cocaine intoxication delirium; phencyclidine intoxication delirium.

substance P

substance P a neuropeptide that functions as a neurotransmitter in both peripheral and central nervous systems. It belongs to the neurokinin family of transmitters. High concentrations of neurons containing substance P are localized in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, where they play a role in the modulation of pain. In peripheral tissues, substance P acts as a vasodilator. It also has a role in sexual behavior and has been implicated in the regulation of mood.

substance use disorder

substance use disorder a catchall diagnosis encompassing varying degrees of excessive use of a substance. In DSM–5, the diagnosis combines and replaces DSM–IV–TR’s substance abuse and substance dependence as distinct classifications, with subordinate categories of specific “use disorders” following the same pattern of consolidation: alcohol use disorder, for example, combines and replaces alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. Other use disorders whose diagnostic criteria in DSM–5 subsume the former abuse–dependence distinction include those involving caffeine; cannabis; hallucinogens (e.g., phencyclidine use disorder); inhalants; opioids; sedative, hypnotics, or anxiolytics; stimulants (e.g., amphetamine, cocaine); and tobacco.

substance withdrawal

substance withdrawal a syndrome that develops after cessation of prolonged, heavy consumption of a substance. Symptoms vary by substance but generally include physiological, behavioral, and cognitive manifestations, such as nausea and vomiting, insomnia, mood alterations, and anxiety. DSM–IV–TR identifies six drug classes associated with withdrawal: alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, opioids, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. DSM–5 lists tobacco in place of nicotine and further identifies caffeine and cannabis as being associated with a withdrawal syndrome.

substance-induced anxiety disorder

substance-induced anxiety disorder clinically significant anxiety (e.g., generalized anxiety, panic attacks, phobic symptoms) caused by the direct physiological effects of exposure to a drug, toxin, or other substance. The anxiety symptoms may be associated with substance intoxication (e.g., alcohol, amphetamines, caffeine), substance withdrawal (e.g., alcohol, cocaine, sedatives), medication use (e.g., anesthetics, anticholinergics, thyroid medication), or exposure to heavy metals and toxins (e.g., gasoline, paint, carbon dioxide).

substance-induced mood disorder

substance-induced mood disorder in DSM–IV–TR, significant and persistent emotional disturbance believed to be caused directly by the physiological effects of a substance, which may be a drug of abuse, a medicinal drug, or a heavy metal or toxin (e.g., gasoline, paint, an organophosphate insecticide). When caused by a drug of abuse, the mood disturbance must be more severe than that normally experienced as part of substance intoxication or substance withdrawal. Medications that can cause mood disturbance include antihypertensives, steroids, psychotropic drugs, and many others. In DSM–5, the disturbance is called substance/medication-induced depressive disorder.

substance-induced persisting amnestic disorder

substance-induced persisting amnestic disorder a disturbance in memory due to the persisting effects of a substance (see amnestic disorder). The ability to learn new information or to recall previously learned information is impaired severely enough to interfere markedly with social or occupational functioning and to represent a significant decline from a previous level of functioning. See alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder; sedative-, hypnotic-, or anxiolytic-induced persisting amnestic disorder.

substance-induced persisting dementia

substance-induced persisting dementia multiple cognitive deficits due to the persisting effects of substance abuse. The most notable feature is impaired memory, but there may also be aphasia (impaired expression or understanding of language), apraxia (inability to perform skilled or complex movements), agnosia (impaired ability to interpret sensations correctly), and executive dysfunction. See also alcohol-induced persisting dementia.

substance-induced psychotic disorder

substance-induced psychotic disorder in DSM–IV–TR, prominent hallucinations or delusions due to the direct physiological effects of a substance and not arising as part of a withdrawal syndrome. The equivalent term in DSM–5 is substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder. Also called hallucinosis. See alcohol-induced psychotic disorder; amphetamine-induced psychotic disorder; cannabis-induced psychotic disorder; hallucinogen-induced psychotic disorder.

substance-related disorder

substance-related disorder any of various disorders caused by the effects of a drug or a toxin. The term in DSM–5 encompasses substance use disorders and substance-induced disorders (e.g., intoxication, withdrawal) caused by alcohol; opioids; stimulants (e.g., amphetamine, cocaine); sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics; and other substances. The term also broadly includes mental disorders (e.g., delirium, depression, psychosis) that may be induced by intoxication or withdrawal from various substances, including some medications.

substantia gelatinosa

substantia gelatinosa a gelatinous-appearing mass of extensively interconnected small neurons at the tip of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Some cells in the substantia gelatinosa contain endorphins and are involved in regulation of pain. Neurons of the substantia gelatinosa extend into the medulla oblongata, where they form the spinal trigeminal nucleus.

substantia nigra

substantia nigra a region of gray matter in the midbrain, named for its dark pigmentation, that sends dopaminergic neurons to the basal ganglia. Depletion of dopaminergic neurons in this region is implicated in Parkinson’s disease.

substantive rationality

substantive rationality the rationality of a decision, as opposed to the rationality of the processes used to arrive at the decision. Compare procedural rationality.

substantive significance

substantive significance see practical significance.

substantive universal

substantive universal see language universal.

substitute formation

substitute formation see symptom formation.

substitutes for leadership theory

substitutes for leadership theory a contingency theory of leadership proposing that leadership is not important to effective group performance in some work situations. For instance, a highly structured task (see task structure) may substitute for a directive leader and a highly cohesive work group may substitute for a considerate, supportive leader. See situational leadership theory. [developed in 1978 by Steven Kerr and U.S. organizational behaviorist John Michael Jermier (1950– )]

substitution

substitution n. the replacement of one thing with another. In psychoanalytic theory, it denotes the replacement of unacceptable emotions or unattainable goals with alternative feelings or achievable aims. Substitution may be viewed as a positive adaptation or solution (e.g., adoption when one cannot have a child of one’s own) or as a negative, maladaptive response (e.g., emotional eating after a frustrating day at the office). See also defense mechanism.

substitution hypothesis

substitution hypothesis see alteration hypothesis.

substitution pharmacotherapy

substitution pharmacotherapy the prescription of legal drugs to help substance abusers stop taking illegal drugs, particularly opioids, as in the prescribed substitution of methadone for heroin. Also called substitution therapy. See cross-dependence.

substitution test

substitution test any examination in which the test taker exchanges one set of symbols for another. For example, a person might be required to substitute numbers with letters according to a specific code or to substitute a word in a sentence with a grammatically equivalent alternative. Substitution tests often are used in neuropsychology to evaluate cognitive function and identify individuals with brain damage, dementia, and other conditions.

substrate

substrate n. 1. a basis or foundation, such as the physical medium on which an animal or plant lives or grows. 2. a chemical compound that is acted on by an enzyme. The substrate binds specifically to the enzyme’s active site, thereby lowering the energy required for the reaction, which can therefore proceed much faster. When the process is over, the substrate has been changed into different molecules (reaction products), although the enzyme is unchanged. The released enzyme then repeats the process with another substrate of the same composition.

subtest

subtest n. a separate division of a test or instrument, usually with an identifiable content (e.g., the multiplication subtest of a mathematics test).

subthalamic nucleus

subthalamic nucleus a component of the subthalamus that receives fibers from the globus pallidus as a part of the descending pathway from the basal ganglia. It forms part of the extrapyramidal tract.

subthalamus

subthalamus n. a part of the diencephalon of the brain, wedged between the thalamus and the hypothalamus. It contains the subthalamic nucleus and functions in the regulation of movements controlled by skeletal muscles, together with the basal ganglia and the substantia nigra. —subthalamic adj.

subtherapeutic dose

subtherapeutic dose a dose of a drug that does not achieve a particular therapeutic effect. Although this is generally not desired, drugs intended for one purpose may be administered in subtherapeutic doses to achieve a different effect. For example, the tricyclic antidepressants are rarely used in current practice in doses sufficient to alleviate depression; however, they are often used in low (subtherapeutic) doses to promote sleep or alleviate pain.

subthreshold potential

subthreshold potential a type of graded potential resulting from a stimulus that is not of sufficient intensity to elicit an action potential and does not travel far beyond the immediate region of stimulation. See also decremental conduction; local potential.

subtotal hysterectomy

subtotal hysterectomy see hysterectomy.

subtraction method

subtraction method see Donders’s method.

subtractive bilingualism

subtractive bilingualism see additive bilingualism.

subtractive mixture

subtractive mixture a form of color mixture in which pigments are combined, causing some wavelengths to be absorbed or subtracted from the mixture. Compare additive color mixture. See also color subtraction.

subtractive principle

subtractive principle a rule of color mixture stating that the perceived color of a target that absorbs some wavelengths of light will be complementary to the absorbed wavelengths.

subtype

subtype n. in diagnostic classification, a subordinate category of a disorder. In DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, for example, specific phobias are divided into several subtypes, such as specific phobia, animal type (e.g., fear of snakes); specific phobia, situational type (e.g., fear of flying); and others.

Subutex

Subutex n. a trade name for buprenorphine.

subventricular zone

subventricular zone an area of the lateral ventricles. It is the largest zone in which neurogenesis occurs in the adult brain and one of the two main such areas, the other being the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus.

subvocal speech

subvocal speech covert speech associated with faint movements of the lips, tongue, and larynx that resemble speech movements but are inaudible. People often use subvocal speech, for example, when commenting to themselves on their own and others’ actions, perceptions, and feelings.

successful aging

successful aging avoidance of disease and disability, maintenance of cognitive capacity, continued active engagement in life, and adaptation to the aging process through such strategies as selective optimization with compensation.

successful intelligence

successful intelligence in the triarchic theory of intelligence, the ability to succeed in life according to one’s own definition of success, via adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of environments. Successful intelligence involves capitalizing on strengths and compensating for or correcting weaknesses through the use of analytical, creative, and practical skills, which in combination enable one to perform a wide variety of tasks.

successive contrast

successive contrast see color contrast; contrast.

successive discrimination

successive discrimination in conditioning, a discrimination between stimuli that are presented in succession.

successive induction

successive induction the succession of movements of limbs or other body parts in a pattern of antagonistic reflex actions. In walking, for example, successive induction requires alternate flexion and extension of muscles in the lower limbs.

successive reproduction

successive reproduction see repeated reproduction.

successive-approximations method

successive-approximations method see method of successive approximations.

successive-intervals method

successive-intervals method see method of successive intervals.

succinimide

succinimide n. any of a group of chemically related drugs that are effective in the treatment of absence seizures. Discovered in a search for an antidote for drug-induced convulsions, they produce a sedative effect and may cause behavioral changes. Ethosuximide is an example of a succinimide and is sold in the United States under the trade name Zarontin.

succinylcholine

succinylcholine n. a drug that relaxes skeletal muscles, used intravenously in anesthesia and before electroconvulsive treatment. It is a neuromuscular blocking agent that does not relieve pain or produce sedation. U.S. trade name (among others): Anectine.

succorance need

succorance need in the personology of Henry Alexander Murray, the need for protection, aid, and support.

succubus

succubus n. a demon or evil spirit in female form believed to have sexual intercourse with sleeping men. Compare incubus.

sucker effect

sucker effect a phenomenon in which individuals reduce their personal investment in a group endeavor because of their expectation that others will think negatively of them for working too hard or contributing too much (considering them to be a sucker). Compare compensation effect. See also collective effort model.

sucking reflex

sucking reflex a basic reflex in which the young of many mammals (including human infants) grasp a nipple with their lips and draw milk into their mouths by suction.

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

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sudden insight

sudden insight sudden knowledge or understanding of the truth or essential nature of something, such as a problem or complex situation. See aha experience; discontinuity hypothesis; eureka task; inspiration.

sudden unexpected nocturnal-death syndrome

sudden unexpected nocturnal-death syndrome see nightmare-death syndrome.

sufentanil

sufentanil n. a short-acting opioid that binds to opioid receptors and is used as an analgesic supplement in the maintenance of balanced general anesthesia. See also fentanyl. U.S. trade name: Sufenta.

suffering

suffering n. the experience of pain or acute distress, either physical or psychological, in response to a physical trauma or a significant event, particularly one that is threatening or involves loss (e.g., the death of a loved one).

sufficient condition

sufficient condition see condition.

sufficient estimator

sufficient estimator an estimator that utilizes all the relevant or useful information from a sample in order to approximate a population parameter. For example, the sample mean is a sufficient estimator for the population mean. Also called sufficient statistic.

suffix

suffix n. in linguistics, a morpheme that is added to the end of a word or word stem to create an inflected or derived form, such as -s in books, -ing in driving, and -ment in encouragement. See affixation; infix; prefix.

suffix effect

suffix effect impaired memory of the last items of an auditorily presented list when the list is followed by an item that does not need to be recalled.

suggestibility

suggestibility n. 1. an inclination to readily and uncritically adopt the ideas, beliefs, attitudes, or actions of others. 2. an occasional synonym for hypnotic susceptibility. See primary suggestibility; secondary suggestibility; tertiary suggestibility.

suggestion

suggestion n. 1. an idea or potential course of action presented to another for consideration. 2. the process of inducing acceptance of an idea or course of action, especially through indirect or subtle means. See also autosuggestion; prestige suggestion.

suggestion therapy

suggestion therapy a type of psychotherapy in which distressing symptoms are alleviated by direct suggestion and reassurance. The technique is sometimes used in hypnotherapy. A suggestion may be accompanied by an explanation of the meaning and the purpose of the symptoms, but no attempt is made to modify the client’s basic personality.

sui juris

sui juris having the ability to make legal decisions and possessing full civil rights (Latin, literally: “of his own right”). A person who is sui juris must have reached the age of maturity (typically 18 years old), be fully mentally competent, and not be under the guidance or protection of another (as in a conservatorship).

suicidal crisis

suicidal crisis a situation in which suicide is threatened or attempted.

suicidal gesture

suicidal gesture an attempted suicide or similar self-destructive behavior, especially when the risk of death is low. See also parasuicide.

suicidal ideation

suicidal ideation thoughts about or a preoccupation with killing oneself, often as a symptom of a major depressive episode. Most instances of suicidal ideation do not progress to attempted suicide.

suicidality

suicidality n. the risk of suicide, usually indicated by suicidal ideation or intent, especially as evident in the presence of a well-elaborated suicidal plan.

suicide

suicide n. the act of killing oneself. Frequently, suicide occurs in the context of a major depressive episode, but it may also occur as a result of a substance use or other disorder. It sometimes occurs in the absence of any psychiatric disorder, especially in untenable situations, such as extreme or prolonged bereavement or declining health. See also attempted suicide; passive suicide. —suicidal adj.

suicide attempt

suicide attempt see attempted suicide.

suicide by cop

suicide by cop the act, by one who is suicidal, of purposely eliciting deadly police gunfire on oneself. Also called copicide, officer-assisted suicide; police-assisted suicide.

suicide-prevention center

suicide-prevention center a crisis-intervention facility dealing primarily with individuals who have suicidal thoughts or who have threatened or attempted suicide. Suicide-prevention centers are usually staffed by social workers or paraprofessionals who are trained to respond to such emergencies in person or over a telephone hotline. Suicide-prevention centers also provide community education and outreach, and staff may offer bereavement support to the relatives and loved ones of an individual who has died by suicide.

suicidology

suicidology n. a multiprofessional discipline devoted to the study of suicidal phenomena and their prevention. Major groups involved are (a) scientists (epidemiologists, sociologists, statisticians, demographers, and social psychologists), (b) clinicians (clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, trained volunteers, and members of the clergy), and (c) educators (public health educators and school and college personnel). The term suicidology was coined by Edwin S. Shneidman, a founder of the discipline.

suk-yeong

suk-yeong n. see koro.

sukra prameha

sukra prameha a culture-bound syndrome found in Sri Lanka, with symptoms similar to those of shen-k’uei.

sulcus

sulcus n. (pl. sulci) a groove, especially one on the surface of the cerebral cortex. The term is often used synonymously with fissure. —sulcal adj.

sulcus centralis

sulcus centralis see central sulcus.

sulcus principalis

sulcus principalis in the brain of monkeys, a groove that marks the boundary between the dorsolateral frontal cortex and the ventrolateral frontal cortex. Adjacent cortical tissue has been implicated in perception and in working memory.

Sullivan’s interpersonal theory

Sullivan’s interpersonal theory see interpersonal theory. [Harry Stack Sullivan]

sum of cross-products

sum of cross-products a statistical value obtained for two sets of variables xi and yi defined by the summation Σ (xi – ӯ) (yi – ȳ), where ӯ is the mean value of xi and ȳ the mean value of yi. It is used in the multivariate analysis of variance.

sum of products

sum of products the value obtained by multiplying each pair of numbers in a set and then adding the individual totals. For example, for the set of number pairs 2, 4 3, 5 6, 6 1, 4 the sum of cross-products is (2 × 4) + (3 × 5) + (6 × 6) + (1 × 4) = 8 + 15 + 36 + 4 = 63.

sum of squared errors

sum of squared errors (symbol: SSE) see error sum of squares.

sum of squares

sum of squares (symbol: SS) the number obtained by determining the deviation of each point in a data set from some value (such as a mean or predicted value), multiplying each deviation by itself, and adding the resulting products. Thus, for a set of variables xi, Σ(xi – x̄)2, where x̄ is the mean value of xi. For example, if an analysis yields a mean score of 5 but a person’s actual score is 7, the squared deviation for that individual is (7 − 5)2 = 22 = 4: This would be added to the squared deviations of all other individuals in the sample. Various types of sums of squares are calculated in analysis of variance, regression analysis, and other statistical procedures. See error sum of squares.

sum strategy

sum strategy a simple addition strategy used by young children that involves counting together the two addends of a problem. For example, for the problem 3 + 2 = ?, a child would say, “1, 2, 3…4, 5.”

sumatriptan

sumatriptan n. see triptan.

summary statistics

summary statistics a set of numbers used to communicate succinctly the most important descriptive information about a collection of raw data. For example, the variance, central tendency, skewness, and kurtosis may be used to summarize a sample data set.

summated rating scale

summated rating scale a type of assessment instrument comprising a series of statements measuring the same construct or variable to which respondents indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement. The number of response options for each item varies, often from 5 to 7 points (e.g., from strongly agree to strongly disagree). The response values for individual items may be summed to obtain a total or average score that reflects a person’s general attitude toward the construct of interest. A Likert scale is the most commonly used summated rating scale. Also called summated rating method; summated scale.

summating potential

summating potential a slowly changing electric potential that is recorded in the cochlea and is evoked by sound.

summation

summation n. 1. the process in which a neural impulse is propagated by the cumulative effects of two or more stimuli that alone would not be sufficient to activate the neuron. See spatial summation; temporal summation. 2. the increased intensity experienced in a sensation when two stimuli are presented to a receptor in rapid succession or to adjacent areas. 3. (symbol: Σ) a mathematical operation involving the addition of numbers, quantities, or the like. For example, in a set of related values (x 1, x 2, x 3, …xn ), a summation of all values of the set is indicated by Σ i=ni=1 xi , Σ n1, or Σ i Often, the limits on the summation sign are omitted when what is intended is otherwise obvious.

summation effect

summation effect a feature of binocular cells in the visual cortex in which the activity of the cell is greater when stimulation occurs through both eyes than when stimulation occurs through one eye. A similar phenomenon occurs in the auditory system; when both ears are stimulated, there is a binaural summation effect of enhanced loudness.

summation time

summation time the longest interval between two successive stimuli such that they are perceived as a single, continuous stimulus.

summative evaluation

summative evaluation 1. the appraisal of a student’s achievement at the conclusion of an educational program. Also called terminal assessment. 2. in evaluation research, an attempt to assess the overall effectiveness of a program in meeting its objectives and goals after it is in operation. This is in contrast to formative evaluation, which is used to help in the development of the program. Also called ex post facto evaluation. See also outcome evaluation.

summer depression

summer depression an atypical variant of seasonal affective disorder in which major depressive episodes tend to occur in the summer months.

sun compass

sun compass the use of the sun as a directional stimulus in orientation and navigation. Because the sun appears to move across the sky during the day and has different trajectories in different seasons, a sun compass must be coupled with some form of time estimation. To head south at 9 a.m., one needs to keep the sun on the left, but at 3 p.m., one needs to keep the sun on the right. Studies of several species, ranging from bees to fish and birds, have demonstrated a time-compensated sun compass. For nocturnal species, there is evidence of a star compass.

sunburst maze

sunburst maze a specific radial maze variation consisting of 20 arms projecting from a hub in a pattern resembling sunbeams spreading across the sky, used by Edward C. Tolman in the 1940s to study cognitive maps. In his experiments, rats were trained to follow a particular route in a sunburst maze from the start to a designated goal. The original route was then blocked and the animals had to choose an alternative path, only one of which pointed toward the goal box. The fact that many rats chose the arm that led to the location of the goal box was taken as evidence that they understood the spatial relation between the start and the goal and could take the shortest path to get there.

sundown syndrome

sundown syndrome the tendency, particularly among older adults with dementia or individuals in institutional care, to experience reduced levels of psychological functioning late in the day. Also called sundowning.

sunk-costs effect

sunk-costs effect see behavioral economics.

suo yang

suo yang see koro.

superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)

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superconscious

superconscious n. 1. in certain Eastern traditions, with variation (see Buddhism; Hinduism; Taoism), a state in which the individual attains supreme knowledge, freedom from pain, and perfect spiritual insight. Practices such as meditation and yoga (among others) may be directed toward the achievement of this state. 2. in the tradition of humanistic psychology, a higher state of awareness that is associated with creative inspiration, spiritual insight, and the attainment of peak experiences. See being cognition. 3. in the writings of Italian psychiatrist Roberto Assagioli (1888–1974), a synonym for transpersonal awareness. See transpersonal psychology. 4. in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, another name for the collective unconscious.

superego

superego n. in psychoanalytic theory, the moral component of the personality that represents parental and societal standards and determines personal standards of right and wrong, or conscience, as well as aims and aspirations (see ego-ideal). In the classic Freudian tripartite structure of the psyche, the ego, which controls personal impulses and directs actions, operates by the rules and principles of the superego, which stem from parental demands and prohibitions. The formation of the superego occurs on an unconscious level, beginning in the first 5 years of life and continuing throughout childhood and adolescence and into adulthood, largely through identification with the parents and later with admired models of behavior. See also primitive superego.

superego anxiety

superego anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety caused by unconscious superego activity that produces feelings of guilt and demands for atonement. Compare ego anxiety; id anxiety.

superego resistance

superego resistance in psychoanalytic theory, a type of resistance to psychoanalysis that is created by the superego. It generates a sense of guilt and gives rise to the need for punishment in the form of persistent symptoms. Compare id resistance; repression resistance.

superego sadism

superego sadism in classical psychoanalytic theory, the aggressive, rigid, and punitive aspect of the superego, or conscience. Its energy is derived from the destructive forces of the id, and its intensity and strength are dependent on the violent and sadistic fantasies of the child’s primordial strivings. See sadism.

superficial

superficial adj. 1. in anatomy, located close to or at the surface of the body or of an organ. 2. having no deep significance or real substance.

superior

superior adj. in anatomy, higher, above, or toward the head. Compare inferior.

superior canal dehiscence

superior canal dehiscence a rare hearing and balance disorder due to a thinning layer of bone in the inner ear that causes hypersensitivity to sound and motion. Symptoms include sudden dizziness; loss of balance; rapid, uncontrollable eye movements; falling down after a loud noise; autophony; and hearing loss.

superior colliculus

superior colliculus either of a pair of rounded prominences (colliculi) in the brain, one of which lies near each cerebral peduncle, rostrally to the inferior colliculus and immediately beneath the pineal gland. The superior colliculus receives fibers from the optic tract and projects fibers to several stations, including the lateral geniculate nucleus and the reticular formation. The superior colliculus gives rise to the tectospinal tract and is involved in orienting movements of the head and eye toward external stimuli. See also blindsight.

superior function

superior function in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, the function among the four basic functions—seeing, thinking, intuiting, and feeling—that rules the conscious ego and dominates the other three, which become inferior functions in the unconscious. The superior function determines the functional type of the individual.

superior intelligence

superior intelligence an arbitrary category of general intelligence attained by only 15% of the population. It includes individuals with an IQ of 120 or more on both the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale.

superior longitudinal fasciculus

superior longitudinal fasciculus a bundle of nerve fibers that connects ridges (gyri) in the cerebral cortex as distant as the frontal lobe and the occipital lobe. Most are short fibers that connect closer gyri. Near the middle of the fasciculus, some fibers coming from both directions turn abruptly upward into the motor and somatosensory areas of the cortex.

superior oblique

superior oblique the extrinsic eye muscle that rotates the eye upward when the eye is pointing toward the nose and that contributes to upward motion (together with the superior rectus) when it contracts with the eye pointing straight ahead.

superior olivary complex (superior olivary nucleus; superior olive)

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superior rectus

superior rectus the extrinsic eye muscle that rotates the eye upward when the eye is pointing away from the nose and that contributes to upward motion (together with the superior oblique) when it contracts with the eye pointing straight ahead.

superior sagittal sinus

superior sagittal sinus a part of the system of veins that drain blood from the cerebral tissues. It runs across the top of the cerebral cortex, draining venous blood from an area above the eye to the transverse sinus, which empties into the internal jugular vein.

superior temporal gyrus

superior temporal gyrus a ridge (gyrus) that extends along the upper surface of the temporal lobe of the brain, bounded above by the lateral sulcus and laterally by the superior temporal sulcus. It has a role in speech perception and production.

superiority complex

superiority complex in the individual psychology of Alfred Adler, an exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities and accomplishments that derives from an overcompensation for feelings of inferiority. See compensation. Compare inferiority complex.

superman

superman n. the usual English translation of the German word Ubermensch, introduced by Friedrich Nietzsche. For Nietzsche, the superman represents an ideal type of human life, one who brings into reality the most creative and powerful attributes of humanity, who seizes life courageously in response to the Wille zur Macht (see will to power), and who avoids the “slave mentality” that Nietzsche took to be characteristic of the culture of his time. As Nietzsche considered few capable of such affirmative, authentic living, the ideal is essentially aristocratic and nondemocratic. Although the concept has no racial elements, the Nazis later used it to affirm the supposed superiority of the Aryan race and to justify aggression and oppressive racial policies.

supernatural

supernatural adj. of or relating to phenomena that appear to depart from or transcend the laws of the physical universe, especially when these phenomena are taken to be the work of gods, demons, or spirits. Compare preternatural. —supernaturalism n.

supernormal

supernormal adj. 1. exceeding or beyond the normal. 2. in psychometrics, denoting a category of individuals or their attributes that are far above the normal range.

supernormal stimulus

supernormal stimulus a stimulus that by virtue of being larger or more intense than normally encountered natural stimuli has a greater behavioral effect than the natural stimuli. For example, a gull presented with its own egg and a much larger, artificial egg will attempt to incubate the larger egg. See peak shift; sensory bias.

superordinate category

superordinate category a high-level category that subsumes a number of basic-level categories. For example, animal is a superordinate category including the basic-level categories cat, fish, elephant, and so on. A superordinate category is usually characterized by (a) low levels of resemblance between members and (b) fundamental differences between its members and those of other categories (e.g., an elephant is not much like a fish, but both are very different from a tree).

superordinate goal

superordinate goal 1. a goal that takes precedence over one or more other, more conditional goals. 2. a goal that can be attained only if the members of two or more groups work together by pooling their skills, efforts, and resources. In the Robbers Cave experiment studying intergroup conflict reduction, superordinate goals were introduced by creating emergencies and problems that could be resolved only through the joint efforts of both groups.

superposition

superposition n. see linear system.

supersaturated design

supersaturated design a type of factorial design in which dozens of independent variables that influence a single dependent variable of interest are assessed simultaneously to identify those vital few that are most influential. In a supersaturated design, the number of variables being investigated exceeds the number of runs or trials conducted; algorithms and other criteria exist to determine the appropriate number of runs to conduct. Such designs commonly are used for screening purposes, wherein the goal is to identify a small number of dominant active factors with minimal cost.

supersensitivity

supersensitivity n. heightened responsiveness to a particular neurotransmitter. For example, prolonged blockade of dopamine receptors by some antipsychotic drugs leads to an increase in the number of dopamine receptors; discontinuation of the drug may then result in a marked increase of psychotic symptoms, a condition called supersensitivity psychosis.

superstition

superstition n. 1. an irrational belief in the significance or magical efficacy of certain objects or events (e.g., omens, lucky charms) or a custom or act based on such belief. 2. any unscientific belief accepted without question. —superstitious adj.

superstitious behavior

superstitious behavior the behavior that results from accidental reinforcement of an action so that the organism continues to repeat it. For example, a rat that turned in a circle before accidentally hitting a bar and obtaining food might continue turning in a circle before each bar press.

superstitious control

superstitious control the illusion that one can influence outcomes through various practices designed to protect oneself, alter the environment, or affect a situation. Such practices include following specific behavior patterns (see superstitious ritual). Some people maintain that superstitious control serves a positive psychological function in averting the development of learned helplessness. See faith healing; magical thinking.

superstitious ritual

superstitious ritual a specific pattern of behavior that is believed to control one’s performance and its outcome when there is no rational reason for this belief. Failure to follow the ritual is believed to have negative effects on performance and outcome. In sport, for example, such rituals might include putting items of a uniform on in a specific order or having team members enter a competition venue in a specific order. Also called superstitious routine.

supertaster

supertaster n. a person with uncommonly low gustatory thresholds and strong responses to moderate concentrations of taste stimuli. Supertasters have unusually high numbers of taste buds.

supervalent thought

supervalent thought an extreme preoccupation with a single train of thought. See obsession; rumination.

supervenience

supervenience n. in philosophy, the condition in which a higher level property of something is inseparable from the lower level constituents of that thing, such that change in this property only occurs when the lower level constituents change. The term is usually used in a materialist sense to refer to the idea that conscious experience (i.e., a higher level property of the brain) supervenes on—that is, it is entirely dependent on—neural processes (lower level properties of the brain). —supervene vb. —supervenient adj.

supervised analysis

supervised analysis see control analysis.

supervision

supervision n. oversight: critical evaluation and guidance provided by a qualified and experienced person (the supervisor) to another individual (the trainee) during the learning of a task or process. In psychotherapy and counseling, supervision by a senior therapist or counselor is required while the trainee learns therapeutic techniques. In rural and other remote settings where the task of providing face-to-face supervisory services to trainees is complicated by geographic constraints, telesupervision has been used to provide feedback to a trainee via technology such as e-mail, telephone, or videoconferencing. A prescribed number of hours of supervision is required by state licensing boards as part of the requirements for obtaining a license in a mental health field.

supervisory analysis

supervisory analysis see control analysis.

Supervisory Attentional System (SAS)

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supervisory control

supervisory control in ergonomics, the role allocated to the human operator in highly automated systems. The operator is responsible for system monitoring, interpretation, decision making, and manual correction or intervention. Reducing the operator’s role to one of supervisory control may result in either optimal or degraded performance, depending chiefly on system design. See also clumsy automation; function allocation.

superwoman syndrome

superwoman syndrome a set of characteristics found in a woman who performs or attempts to perform all the duties typically associated with several different full-time roles, such as wage earner, mother, homemaker, and wife.

supination

supination n. 1. the act of turning the forearm so that the palm faces upward, or the condition resulting from this action. 2. the act of turning the foot so that the sole faces inward and the medial (inner) margin is raised (as in walking on the outside of one’s feet), or the condition resulting from such an action. 3. the state or condition of being supine (see posture). Compare pronation. —supinate vb.

supine

supine adj. see posture.

supplementary motor area (SMA)

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supplication

supplication n. a strategy for self-presentation that involves depicting oneself as weak, needy, or dependent so as to motivate others to provide assistance or care. —supplicate vb.

supply reduction

supply reduction see demand reduction.

support group

support group a group similar in some ways to a self-help group in that members who share a problem come together to provide help, comfort, and guidance. A primary distinguishing feature of support groups is in their leadership: a professional or agency-based facilitator who often does not share the problem of members. In addition, support groups often last for only a limited predetermined number of sessions, and a fee for attendance is sometimes charged. Also called social support group.

supported employment

supported employment a vocational rehabilitation program that places individuals with disabilities directly into the paid competitive working environment as quickly as possible. With an emphasis on matching an individual with an appropriate employer and work environment, it involves individualized, rapid placement and ongoing support, training, and assessment that take into account the person’s vocational and personal needs. Supported employment differs from employment in a sheltered workshop in that the latter occurs in a controlled, noncompetitive working environment. See also transitional employment.

supported housing

supported housing a program that offers homeless individuals access to permanent housing in the larger community and a wide range of community-based treatment and support services designed to maximize independent living skills and successful community integration. See homelessness.

supported living

supported living a situation in which people with intellectual or developmental disabilities live singly or in small groups in homes where assistance in performing activities of daily living and learning independent living skills is available. Varying degrees of assistance are provided by staff, depending on the skills of the particular residents.

supported retirement

supported retirement a daily or regular program of activity for an aging or aged person with intellectual disability that emphasizes socialization and recreational engagement, rather than the habilitation activities and vocational involvement typical of adult day services.

supportive psychotherapy

supportive psychotherapy a form of therapy that aims to relieve emotional distress and symptoms without probing into the sources of conflicts or attempting to alter basic personality structure. It emphasizes reassurance, reeducation, advice, persuasion, remotivation, and encouragement of desirable behavior. It is frequently applied to individuals with relatively minor or limited problems, as well as to fragile or hospitalized patients, as a means of maintaining morale and preventing deterioration.

supportive services

supportive services 1. programs ancillary to the treatment or rehabilitation of people with illnesses or disabilities. 2. social service programs (e.g., child care, transportation) that are necessary to enable an individual to participate in the workforce or function more independently.

supportive-expressive psychotherapy

supportive-expressive psychotherapy a form of brief psychodynamic psychotherapy that focuses on the therapist–client relationship and on relationships outside of therapy to define a central relationship pattern that is the focus of treatment. [developed by U.S. psychologists Lester Luborsky and Paul Crits-Christoph]

supportiveness

supportiveness n. in psychotherapy and counseling, an attitude or response of acceptance, encouragement, or reassurance displayed by the therapist or counselor toward the client.

suppository

suppository n. a bullet-shaped medicinal preparation for rectal administration. It dissolves in the rectum to release its active component, which is absorbed through the rectal mucosa. It is primarily used to treat constipation and hemorrhoids. Vaginal suppositories are available for treating gynecological conditions.

suppressed anger syndrome

suppressed anger syndrome see hwa-byung.

suppression

suppression n. 1. a conscious effort to put disturbing thoughts and experiences out of mind, or to control and inhibit the expression of unacceptable impulses and feelings. It is distinct from the unconscious defense mechanism of repression in psychoanalytic theory. 2. see conditioned suppression; response suppression. —suppress vb.

suppressive therapy

suppressive therapy a form of psychotherapy directed toward the reinforcement of the client’s defense mechanisms and the suppression (rather than expression) of distressing experiences and feelings. Compare expressive therapy.

suppressor effect

suppressor effect a reduction in the correlation between two variables due to the influence of a third variable. Compare reinforcer effect.

suppressor variable

suppressor variable a condition or characteristic that is associated with an independent variable, such that the correlation between the independent variable and the dependent variable is less than what it would be otherwise.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

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supraliminal

supraliminal adj. describing stimulation that is above the difference threshold or absolute threshold.

supraliminal perception

supraliminal perception 1. perception of stimuli that are above the absolute threshold (i.e., that are not subliminal). 2. the processing of above-threshold information that is ignored by the perceiver. Examples include the hum of conversation in a crowded room or visual information displayed very briefly during experiments on perception. Compare subliminal perception.

supramarginal gyrus

supramarginal gyrus a ridge on the inferior parietal lobe that is near Wernicke’s area and is reportedly involved in the articulation and phonological processing of words. Lesions on this gyrus have been associated with some forms of aphasia.

supranuclear palsy

supranuclear palsy see progressive supranuclear palsy.

supraoptic nucleus

supraoptic nucleus a particular collection of neurons in the hypothalamus that lies above the optic chiasm. Neurons in this nucleus project to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and secrete the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin.

suprarenal gland

suprarenal gland see adrenal gland.

suprasegmental

suprasegmental adj. in linguistics, denoting the phonological features of speech that extend over a series of segments rather than forming individual phonemes. In English, the principal suprasegmental features are tone (pitch), stress, and juncture. Also called prosodic. See also paralanguage; prosody.

suprasegmental reflex

suprasegmental reflex see spinal reflex.

surd

surd n. an unvoiced consonant.

surface agraphia

surface agraphia see lexical agraphia.

surface color

surface color a color perceived as localized on a surface, as opposed to a color that permeates an object (bulky color) or a film color that is not localized to a surface or an object.

surface dyslexia

surface dyslexia a form of acquired dyslexia in which a person is overly reliant on spelling-to-sound correspondence and therefore has difficulty reading irregularly spelled words. Surface dyslexia manifested as a form of developmental dyslexia has also been described. See also deep dyslexia. [first described in 1973 by British neuropsychologists John C. Marshall (1939–2007) and Freda Newcombe (1925–2001)]

surface structure (s-structure)

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surface therapy

surface therapy psychotherapy directed toward relieving the client’s symptoms and emotional stress through such measures as reassurance, suggestion, and direct attempts to modify attitudes and behavior patterns, rather than through exploration and analysis of unconscious motivation and underlying dynamics. Compare depth therapy.

surface trait

surface trait in Cattell’s personality trait theory, a characteristic manifested as a group of interrelated observable behaviors. For example, arriving early for appointments and leaving the office only after one’s work is complete are visible manifestations of the characteristic of conscientiousness. Surface traits appear consistently and are thought to cluster and to reflect source traits, which are regarded as the underlying building blocks of personality.

surgency

surgency n. a personality trait marked by cheerfulness, responsiveness, spontaneity, and sociability but at a level below that of extraversion or mania. [defined by Raymond B. Cattell] —surgent adj.

surplus energy theory

surplus energy theory the hypothesis that children and young animals engage in locomotor play because they have excess energy that needs to be expended. See also play.

surprise

surprise n. an emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment. It is considered by some theorists to be one of the emotions that have a universal pattern of facial expression. The physiological response includes raising or arching the eyebrows, opening the eyes wide, opening the mouth wide in an oval shape, and gasping.

surprisingness

surprisingness n. in psychological aesthetics, a measure of the degree to which one’s expectations are disconfirmed by a work of art.

surrogate

surrogate n. 1. a person or object that substitutes for the role of an individual who has a significant position in a family or group. See father surrogate; mother surrogate. 2. more generally, any person or entity that substitutes for another.

surrogate decision making

surrogate decision making a provision in law or a regulation permitting the appointment of a surrogate for a person frequently one with intellectual disability, dementia, or mental disorder who is not competent to make specific decisions regarding consent to medical, surgical, or other health care procedures. The surrogate makes these determinations on behalf of the person.

surrogate father

surrogate father see father surrogate.

surrogate mother

surrogate mother see mother surrogate.

surrogate variable

surrogate variable see proxy variable.

sursumvergence

sursumvergence n. the deviation or turning upward of one eye in relation to the other. See strabismus.

survey

survey 1. n. a study in which a group of participants is selected from a population and data about or opinions from those participants are collected, measured, and analyzed. Information typically is gathered by interview or self-report questionnaire, and the results thus obtained may then be extrapolated to the whole population. 2. vb. to carry out a survey.

survey error

survey error the degree to which the results of a survey are inaccurate, due to such factors as sampling bias, content or measurement flaws, or the response biases of participants. See measurement error; sampling error.

survey knowledge

survey knowledge an overall mental representation of a spatial environment, as if one had a bird’s-eye view of the environment, as contrasted with specific route knowledge (see route learning).

survival analysis

survival analysis a family of statistical methods used to model a variety of time-related outcomes. The simplest application of survival analysis involves estimating the amount of time until the occurrence of an event (e.g., death, illness, graduation, marriage) for a group of individuals, but the technique also may be applied to compare durations for two or more groups and to build multivariate models that explain variation in duration. Also called event history analysis.

survival instinct

survival instinct see self-preservation instinct.

survival of the fittest

survival of the fittest the tendency of individuals that are better adapted to a particular environment to be more successful at surviving and producing offspring. This concept is inherent in the theory of evolution by natural selection, as proposed in the 1850s by British naturalists Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913). See also competition for resources; Darwinian fitness; social Darwinism. [coined by Herbert Spencer in Principles of Biology (1864) and adopted by Darwin as a synonym for natural selection in the fifth edition of his Origin of Species (1869, Chapter 4)]

survival rate

survival rate in survival analysis, a value used to indicate the frequency of a particular event’s occurrence at a specific point in time. For example, in a health study, the survival rate (i.e., occurrence of death) may be lower within the 1st year of the diagnosis of a moderately serious disease but become progressively higher over time as the disease becomes more serious.

survival ratio

survival ratio in survival analysis, a value used to indicate the elapsed time prior to an event of interest (e.g., disease onset, death) in relation to the total amount of time studied. Larger survival ratios indicate a longer time until the event’s occurrence.

survival value

survival value the degree to which a behavioral, physiological, or physical trait will contribute to reproductive success. A trait that can be shown to increase the probability of reproductive success in a given environment has high survival value.

survivor guilt

survivor guilt remorse or guilt for having survived a catastrophic event when others did not or for not suffering the ills that others had to endure. It is a common reaction stemming in part from a feeling of having failed to do enough to prevent the event or to save those who did not survive. Survivor guilt is also experienced by family members who are found not to carry deleterious genetic mutations that have led to disease and, often, death in other family members, or by family or friends who feel that they did not do enough to succor their loved ones prior to death.

survivorship

survivorship n. 1. the process of living through and surviving severe disease (e.g., cancer), traumatic life events (e.g., child abuse), or environmental disaster (e.g., earthquake). 2. the state of living into very old age.

susceptibility

susceptibility n. vulnerability: readily affected by or at increased risk of acquiring a particular condition, such as an infection, injury, or disorder.

susceptibility rhythms

susceptibility rhythms cyclical variations in sensitivity to infections or allergic responses.

SUSOPS

SUSOPS acronym for sustained operations.

suspended rootogram

suspended rootogram see hanging rootogram.

suspensory ligament

suspensory ligament see zonules.

suspicious jealousy

suspicious jealousy a type of jealousy in which a person fears the loss of a valued relationship to a rival even though the person’s partner has not misbehaved and there is no factual basis for this worry. Although suspicious jealousy is unfounded, it may give rise to emotions and behaviors (e.g., anger, conflict, snooping, stalking) that create the selfsame loss of a relationship that the jealous person seeks to avert. Compare reactive jealousy.

suspiciousness

suspiciousness n. mistrust of the motives or sincerity of others. Although a degree of suspiciousness in certain situations can be natural and likely serves the purposes of self-preservation or survival, extreme, pervasive suspiciousness is a common characteristic of individuals with paranoid personality disorder.

sustained attention

sustained attention attentional focus on a task for an extended length of time. Compare absorption.

sustained operations (SUSOPS)

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sustained-release preparation

sustained-release preparation see slow-release preparation.

susto

susto n. a culture-bound syndrome occurring among Latinos in the United States and populations in Mexico, Central America, and South America. After experiencing a frightening event, individuals fear that their soul has left their body. Symptoms include weight loss, fatigue, muscle pains, headache, diarrhea, unhappiness, troubled sleep, lack of motivation, and low self-esteem. Also called chibih; espanto; pasmo; perdida del alma; tripa ida.

swallowing

swallowing n. the process by which ingested material (food, liquid, etc.) is transferred from the mouth cavity to the stomach, which involves a complex series of reflex muscle contractions and relaxations. The muscles of the cheeks, tongue, and roof of the mouth first contract to form a chute, after which the tongue presses upward and backward against the hard palate. As the substance to be swallowed passes toward the back of the mouth, the soft palate is raised to close the opening to the nasopharynx. At the same time, the epiglottis is lowered over the opening to the trachea (windpipe) to prevent food or fluid entering the respiratory system, and the larynx moves upward to form a seal against the lower side of the epiglottis. As the substance swallowed enters the esophagus, it is moved along by alternate contractions of two layers of muscles (composed of, respectively, longitudinal and circular muscle fibers) so that the food or fluid is advanced toward the stomach, regardless of body position. Also called deglutition.

swarm intelligence

swarm intelligence see animal intelligence.

SWB

SWB abbreviation for subjective well-being.

sweating

sweating n. the discharge of a secretion (sweat, which comprises water, salts, and various chemicals) from the sweat glands in the skin. Sweating is important in the control of body temperature. Also called perspiration.

sweet

sweet adj. denoting the pleasurable taste associated with sugars, an immediate source of energy. Sugars are detected by specialized proteins contained in a subset of taste receptor cells mainly toward the front of the tongue (see fungiform papillae). —sweetness n.

swinging

swinging n. slang for uninhibited sexual expression, as in partner swapping and other forms of group sex, one-night stands, and experimentation with unusual sexual activities (e.g., bondage and discipline).

switch cost

switch cost in studies of task switching, the loss of efficiency associated with redirecting attention from one task to another.

switch device

switch device the input mechanism that allows a person to activate an environmental control device. See also control device; feedback device; target device.

switch process

switch process the process by which a person with a bipolar disorder experiences the transition from a major depressive episode to a manic episode or vice versa. These processes usually include brief periods of relatively unimpaired functioning.

switchback design

switchback design a type of within-subjects design in which participants are assigned to multiple experimental conditions in a specific pattern that controls for personal and time-related variations that may influence individuals’ responses. For example, suppose a researcher is investigating the effect of three types of instruction (A, B, and C) on the performance of six participants, each of whom has a different learning curve. A switchback arrangement for such a study might be A C B A C B C B A B A C A C B A C B C B A B A C Each row represents a distinct time period and each column represents a specific participant, with only two instruction types switching back and forth for any given participant.

switching

switching n. 1. in psychotherapy, changing the course of the discussion during a session. This may be done by the client, either purposefully or nonconsciously, when the discussion is too close to sensitive issues. Switching may also be done by the therapist to change the discussion to more relevant therapeutic issues. 2. in dissociative identity disorder, the often rapid movement between one personality and another.

SWLS

SWLS abbreviation for Satisfaction With Life Scale.

Sydenham’s chorea

Sydenham’s chorea see chorea. [Thomas Sydenham (1624–1689), English physician]

syllabary

syllabary n. a writing system that represents each syllable (rather than each phoneme) with a separate symbol. For instance, Japanese and Cherokee writing systems use syllabaries either in whole or in part. Compare alphabet.

syllable

syllable n. in linguistics, a unit of articulation consisting of a stand-alone vowel or a vowel combined with one or more consonants. The syllable length of a speaker’s sentences is often used as a standard of comparison in psycholinguistic research and in psychometric tests of language development and mental ability. —syllabic adj.

syllogism

syllogism n. a form of deductive reasoning in which a categorial proposition (i.e., one taking the form all X are Y, no X are Y, some X are Y, or some X are not Y) is combined with a second proposition having one of its terms in common with the first to yield a third proposition (the conclusion). For example: All men are mortal; some men are tall; therefore some mortals are tall. Of the numerous possible combinations of terms, only 24 are formally valid. An example of an invalid syllogism would be Some women are tall; all mothers are women; therefore some mothers are tall. Although the conclusion is doubtless empirically correct, it cannot be deduced from these premises. —syllogistic adj.

Sylvian aqueduct

Sylvian aqueduct see cerebral aqueduct.

Sylvian fissure

Sylvian fissure see lateral sulcus.

sym-

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symbiosis

symbiosis n. 1. any relationship in which two species live together in close association, especially one in which both species benefit (see mutualism). For example, in tropical Amazonia, a species of ant lives on a particular tree species that it uses for food and shelter, at the same time removing lichen and other parasites that might harm the tree. Also called biological symbiosis. 2. the stage in infantile development when the infant’s dependence is total and he or she is neither biologically nor psychologically separated from the mother. See also separation–individuation. [proposed by Hungarian-born U.S. child psychoanalyst Margaret Schönberger Mahler (1897–1985)] 3. a mutually reinforcing relationship in which one individual is overdependent on another to satisfy needs. Such a relationship hampers the development or independence of both individuals and usually results in dysfunction when the dominant individual is unwilling to provide for the dependent individual. Also called symbiotic relationship. —symbiotic adj.

symbiotic infantile psychosis

symbiotic infantile psychosis see symbiotic psychosis.

symbiotic marriage

symbiotic marriage a marriage or partnership of codependency, whereby the individuals are entirely reliant upon each other for the gratification of certain psychological needs. Compare synergic marriage.

symbiotic psychosis

symbiotic psychosis an obsolete name for a condition, occurring in children between the ages of 2 and 5, that is characterized by complete emotional dependence on the mother, inability to tolerate separation from her, reactions of anger and panic if any separation is threatened, and developmental lag. Some of these features are characteristic of separation anxiety disorder. Also called symbiotic infantile psychosis; symbiotic infantile psychotic syndrome. [first described by Hungarian-born U.S. child psychoanalyst Margaret Schönberger Mahler (1897–1985)]

symbiotic relationship

symbiotic relationship see symbiosis.

symbol

symbol n. 1. any object, figure, or image (e.g., flag, logo, pictogram, religious symbol such as a cross) that represents something else. A written or spoken word can be regarded as a particular kind of symbol (see arbitrary symbol; signifier). In literature and art, symbols are generally suggestive rather than explicit in their meaning: For example, a rose may suggest ideas of beauty, love, femininity, and transience without being limited to any of these meanings in particular. Carl Jung maintained that the symbols of religion, mythology, and art throw special light on the collective unconscious. See also sign. 2. in classical psychoanalytic theory, a disguised representation of a repressed idea, impulse, or wish. See also symbolization. 3. in safety engineering, a pictorial device used in risk communications to warn workers or consumers of the hazards associated with tools or systems. See signal word panel. —symbolic adj.

symbol grounding

symbol grounding the process of establishing and maintaining the correspondence between symbolic representations of objects and the actual physical objects in the real-world environment. For example, if a child is instructed to retrieve the green box from the shelf, he or she cannot do so properly unless able to associate the internal representation of the item conveyed by the concepts of “green” and “box” with the appropriate sensory experience actually associated with the physical object itself. Also called perceptual anchoring.

symbol-substitution test

symbol-substitution test see code test.

symbol–digit test

symbol–digit test a task in which a person is given a list of symbols, each with a corresponding digit, and then a long list of symbols without the digits, each of which the person has to fill in. The test measures the number of symbol–digit pairs completed in a fixed time or the time taken to complete a fixed number of pairs. See also code test.

Symbolic

Symbolic n. the realm of symbols or signifiers: one of three aspects of the psychoanalytic field defined by French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981). The achievement of symbolization marks the beginning of ego differentiation and is associated with the infant’s entrance into the world of language, culture, law, and morality. The other two realms are the Imaginary and the Real. See also mirror phase; name-of-the-father.

symbolic action

symbolic action see symptomatic act.

symbolic attitude

symbolic attitude the evaluation of an attitude object based on the extent to which it is seen as consistent or inconsistent with a person’s moral values. See also value-expressive function of an attitude.

symbolic displacement

symbolic displacement the process of transferring a response, usually emotional, from its original stimulus to one that represents it.

symbolic function

symbolic function in Piagetian theory, the cognitive ability to mentally represent objects that are not in sight. For example, a child playing with a toy can mentally picture and experience the toy even after it has been taken away and he or she can no longer see it. Symbolic function emerges early in the preoperational stage and is expressed through deferred imitation, language, symbolic play, and mental imagery. Also called semiotic function.

symbolic interactionism

symbolic interactionism a sociological theory that assumes that self-concept is created through interpretation of symbolic gestures, words, actions, and appearances exhibited by others during social interaction. In contrast to Freudian and other approaches that postulate extensive inner dispositions and regard social interaction as resulting from them, symbolic interactionists believe that inner structures result from social interactions. U.S. social thinkers George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) are recognized exponents of this view. See generalized other; looking-glass self; reflected appraisals.

symbolic learning theory

symbolic learning theory a theory that attempts to explain how imagery works in performance enhancement. It suggests that imagery develops and enhances a coding system that creates a mental blueprint of what has to be done to complete an action.

symbolic logic

symbolic logic the systematic use of symbols in logical analysis. In modern symbolic logic, the symbols used are those of mathematics, particularly those of set theory. The language of mathematics is well suited to the investigation of the precise conditions of validity in arguments because it is an artificial language, lacking the connotations and subjective meanings present in a natural language, and because relations between mathematical entities are simple and precisely defined. See logic.

symbolic matching to sample

symbolic matching to sample see arbitrary matching to sample.

symbolic mode

symbolic mode see symbolic representation.

symbolic modeling

symbolic modeling see participant modeling.

symbolic play

symbolic play a form of play in which the child uses objects as representations of other things. For example, a child may put a leash on a stuffed animal, take it for a walk, and attempt to feed it. Symbolic play may or may not be social. See also imaginary companion.

symbolic process

symbolic process 1. in cognitive psychology, any cognitive activity in which ideas, images, or other mental representations serve as mediators of thought. The term is often used to distinguish the higher mental processes from either (a) lower cognitive functions, such as perception, or (b) neurophysiological activities that underlie processing at the symbolic level. See also symbolic thinking; thinking. 2. in classical psychoanalytic theory, see symbolization.

symbolic representation

symbolic representation the process of mentally representing objects and experiences through the use of symbols (including linguistic symbols). In Jerome Seymour Bruner’s theory of cognitive development, it is one of three modes of representing knowledge (compare enactive representation; iconic representation). A child in this mode (called the symbolic mode or stage) is able to depict and convey ideas through the use of words, sounds, and play; the child can, for example, imagine that he or she is a fire engine and make siren noises while pushing a block that represents a speeding engine.

symbolic reward

symbolic reward something that has no intrinsic value but is nevertheless prized because it represents something of value. For example, being listed in a city’s social register may be regarded as a symbolic reward for attainment of high social standing.

symbolic stage

symbolic stage 1. see preoperational stage. 2. see symbolic representation.

symbolic thinking

symbolic thinking the ability to think about objects and events that are not within the immediate environment. It involves the use of signs, symbols, concepts, and abstract relations, as evidenced by language, numeracy, and artistic or ritual expression. Archaeological finds suggest that symbolic thinking may have evolved in humans much earlier than previously thought, possibly toward the end of the Lower Paleolithic period (i.e., more than 70,000 years ago). See also symbolic process.

symbolism

symbolism n. 1. the use of symbols, which is a necessary component of thinking, language use, and numeracy and therefore a fundamental feature in human culture generally (see semiotics; symbolic thinking). In particular, symbolism is central to the literary and visual arts. A specific, early modernist movement, referred to as Symbolism, developed in France in the mid- to late 19th century as a reaction to realism and naturalism. The writing, primarily poetry and drama, was highly evocative and made extensive use of indirect symbolic language to represent character, situation, and action. Leading exponents were the French poets Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891), and Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898) and the Belgian dramatist Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949). 2. see symbolization.

symbolization

symbolization n. 1. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the substitution of a symbol for a repressed impulse, affect, or idea in order to avoid censorship by the superego (e.g., dreaming of a steeple or other phallic symbol instead of a penis). Also called symbolism. 2. in social-cognitive theory, the ability to think about one’s social behavior in terms of words and images. —symbolize vb.

SYMLOG

SYMLOG n. systematic multiple level observation of groups: a theory and observational system for studying group behavior. The model assumes that group activities and group members can be classified along three dimensions (dominance–submissiveness, friendliness–unfriendliness, and acceptance–nonacceptance of authority) and that groups whose behavioral profiles are characterized by dominance, friendliness, and acceptance of authority usually work together more effectively. See also structured observation. [developed by U.S. social psychologist Robert Freed Bales (1916–2004)]

Symmetrel

Symmetrel n. a trade name for amantadine.

symmetrical distribution

symmetrical distribution a distribution in which the frequency of values above the mean are a mirror image of those below the mean. Compare asymmetrical distribution.

symmetry

symmetry n. 1. the mirrorlike correspondence of parts on opposite sides of a center, providing balance and harmony in the proportions of objects. This is considered an aesthetically pleasing quality. Distinct patterns of symmetry are widely produced. For example, almost all ornamental bands fall into one of seven types of band symmetry, and essentially all patterned wallpaper can be grouped into 17 types of plane symmetry. 2. one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive objects as coherent wholes organized around a center point; this is particularly evident when the objects involve unconnected regions bounded by borders. Also called law (or principle) of symmetry. 3. in mathematics and statistics, equality relative to some axis. More specifically, it is a condition in which values are arranged identically above and below the middle of a data set (see normal distribution) or above and below the diagonal of a matrix. Many standard statistical techniques are appropriate only for symmetrical data, such that nonsymmetrical data often are transformed into a roughly symmetrical form prior to analysis. Compare asymmetry. 4. see stimulus equivalence. —symmetrical adj.

symmetry compulsion

symmetry compulsion a compulsion to arrange objects in a certain way (e.g., in a room) or in a particular order (e.g., on a desk). Symmetry compulsion is associated with obsessions about neatness or perfection. It can be a symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder or, sometimes, of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

symmetry test

symmetry test a method of determining whether a graphical representation of a data set demonstrates symmetry about its x-axis, y-axis, or origin, so that knowing the arrangement of values for one portion of the graph (e.g., values above the mean) enables one to determine the values for the opposite, mirror-image portion of the graph (i.e., values below the mean). If the data do possess such symmetry, they can be analyzed using statistical techniques that assume a normal distribution.

sympathectomy

sympathectomy n. a surgical procedure in which portions of the sympathetic nervous system are excised, severed, or otherwise disrupted. In chemical sympathectomy, this is accomplished by the administration of specific drugs.

sympathetic chain

sympathetic chain either of two beadlike chains of ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system, one chain lying on each side of the spinal column.

sympathetic division

sympathetic division see sympathetic nervous system.

sympathetic ganglion

sympathetic ganglion any of the ganglia that form part of either sympathetic chain.

sympathetic induction

sympathetic induction the process in which one person’s expressed emotion elicits a similar emotion in another person. See empathy; sympathy.

sympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. Anatomically it consists of preganglionic autonomic neurons whose fibers run from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord to the chains of sympathetic ganglia. From these arise the fibers of postganglionic autonomic neurons, which innervate organs ranging from the eyes to the reproductive organs. It is defined functionally in terms of its ability to act as an integrated whole in affecting a large number of smooth muscle systems simultaneously, usually in the service of enhancing the fight-or-flight response. Typical sympathetic changes include dilation of the pupils to facilitate vision, constriction of the peripheral arteries to supply more blood to the muscles and the brain, secretion of epinephrine to raise the blood-sugar level and increase metabolism, and reduction of stomach and intestinal activities so that energy can be directed elsewhere. Thus, the sympathetic nervous system tends to antagonize the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system. Also called sympathetic division.

sympathetic–adrenal–medullary axis (SAM)

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sympathomimetic drug

sympathomimetic drug any pharmacological agent that stimulates activity in the sympathetic nervous system because it potentiates the activity of norepinephrine or epinephrine or has effects similar to these neurotransmitters (hence it is also known as an adrenergic drug). Sympathomimetic drugs include the amphetamines and ephedrine.

sympathy

sympathy n. 1. feelings of concern or compassion resulting from an awareness of the suffering or sorrow of another. 2. more generally, a capacity to share in and respond to the concerns or feelings of others. See also empathy. 3. an affinity between individuals on the basis of similar feelings, inclinations, or temperament. —sympathetic adj. —sympathize vb.

sympatric

sympatric adj. describing species that occupy the same habitat or overlapping habitats. Species that do not occupy the same habitat are described as allopatric.

symphorophilia

symphorophilia n. sexual interest and arousal derived from stage-managing the occurrence of a disaster and then watching it. The person may masturbate during the disaster or do so afterward while looking at pictures of the event or thinking about it. —symphorophile n.

symptom

symptom n. 1. any deviation from normal functioning that is considered indicative of physical or mental pathology. See disease; disorder; syndrome. 2. in general, any event that is indicative of another event; for example, a series of strikes is a symptom of economic unrest. —symptomatic adj.

symptom bearer

symptom bearer see identified patient.

symptom checklist

symptom checklist any self-report inventory used to assess the severity of symptoms of a given disorder, as in the Beck Depression Inventory, or across a range of disorders, as in the Symptom Checklist-90–Revised. Symptom checklists are often used in both clinical and research settings to measure treatment progress and outcomes.

Symptom Checklist-90–Revised (SCL-90–R)

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symptom cluster

symptom cluster a group of related symptoms that usually occur together, as in a syndrome.

symptom complex

symptom complex see syndrome.

symptom formation

symptom formation 1. in psychoanalytic theory, the development of a somatic or behavioral manifestation of an unconscious impulse or conflict that provokes anxiety. Also called substitute formation. 2. the process by which the indications of physical or psychological pathology develop.

symptom removal

symptom removal in psychotherapy, elimination of symptoms through direct treatment without addressing underlying issues and unconscious motivation. See also surface therapy.

symptom specificity

symptom specificity a hypothesis stating that people with psychosomatic disorders display abnormal responses to stress in particular physiological systems. According to this hypothesis, a person’s complaints will center around a particular organ (e.g., the heart) and set of related symptoms (e.g., cardiovascular symptoms) rather than involving a variety of complaints about different organs or systems.

symptom substitution

symptom substitution in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the development of a symptom to replace one that has cleared up as a result of treatment. It is said to occur if the unconscious impulses and conflicts responsible for the original symptom are not dealt with effectively. Symptom substitution is often used as an argument against therapies aimed at symptom removal alone, as in behavior therapy and some forms of hypnotherapy; however, this argument has not been validated.

symptom-context method

symptom-context method a system of gathering data as symptoms arise in vivo in the psychotherapy session as an aid to psychotherapy research, case formulation, and treatment. It is similar to the core conflictual relationship theme method. [developed by Lester Luborsky]

symptomatic act

symptomatic act an action that appears to be intended for one purpose (or to have no particular purpose) but that betrays a hidden intention or meaning. In classical psychoanalytic theory, such acts are thought to represent repressed impulses, affects, or ideas. Also called symbolic action. See also compromise formation; Freudian slip; parapraxis; symptom formation.

symptomatic epilepsy

symptomatic epilepsy see epilepsy.

symptomatic treatment

symptomatic treatment treatment directed toward the relief of distressing symptoms, as opposed to treatment focused on underlying causes and conditions. Symptomatic treatment of chronic migraines, for example, would involve the use of analgesics to relieve pain without attempting to discover why the migraines are occurring.

symptomatology

symptomatology n. 1. the combined signs, markers, or indications of a disease or disorder. 2. the scientific study of the markers and indications of a disease or disorder.

Symptoms of Dementia Screener (SDS)

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syn- (sym-)

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Synanon

Synanon n. a residential drug treatment program that utilized confrontation and peer pressure to encourage its members to deal with their addiction. Founded in California in 1958 by Charles Dederich (1914–1997), himself a recovering alcoholic, Synanon was the first major drug treatment program in the United States, and its tough love approach to overcoming addiction was widely publicized as innovative and effective. It evolved into an experimental commune that Dederich proclaimed as a religion in the mid-1970s. Thereafter, amid accusations of authoritarian practices within the community and Dederich’s no-contest plea to charges of attempted murder, Synanon declined in prominence and was eventually disbanded in 1991.

synapse

synapse n. the specialized junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron). In most synapses, the knoblike ending (terminal button) of the axon of a presynaptic neuron faces the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron across a narrow gap, the synaptic cleft. The arrival of a neural signal triggers the release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles in the terminal button into the synaptic cleft. Here the molecules of neurotransmitter activate receptors in the postsynaptic membrane and cause the opening of ion channels in the postsynaptic cell. This may lead to excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic cell, depending on which ion channels are affected. Also called synaptic junction. See also axo-axonal synapse; electrical synapse. —synaptic adj.

synapse rearrangement

synapse rearrangement a refinement of synaptic connections, involving the loss of some synapses and the establishment of others, that is often seen in development or that follows loss of or damage to some neurons.

synaptic bouton

synaptic bouton see axon.

synaptic cleft

synaptic cleft the gap within a synapse between the knoblike ending of the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a neighboring neuron. The synaptic cleft is typically 20 to 30 nm wide. Also called synaptic gap.

synaptic depression

synaptic depression the reduced ability of a synapse to transmit a neural signal. It is a form of neural plasticity.

synaptic junction

synaptic junction see synapse.

synaptic knob

synaptic knob see axon.

synaptic pruning

synaptic pruning a neurodevelopmental process, occurring both before birth and up to the second decade of life, in which the weakest synapses between neurons are eliminated. In schizophrenia research, it is hypothesized that premature or excessive pruning may account for some forms of the disorder.

synaptic transmission

synaptic transmission see neurotransmission.

synaptic transmitter

synaptic transmitter see neurotransmitter.

synaptic vesicle

synaptic vesicle any of numerous small spherical sacs in the cytoplasm of the knoblike ending of the axon of a presynaptic neuron that contain molecules of neurotransmitter. The transmitter is released into the synaptic cleft when a nerve impulse arrives at the terminal button.

synaptogenesis

synaptogenesis n. the formation of synapses between neurons as axons and dendrites grow. See also experience-dependent process; experience-expectant process.

syncheiria (synchiria)

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synchronic linguistics

synchronic linguistics see diachronic linguistics.

synchronicity

synchronicity n. in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, the simultaneous occurrence of events that appear to have a meaningful connection when there is no explicable causal relationship between these events, as in extraordinary coincidences or purported examples of telepathy. Jung suggested that some simultaneous occurrences possess significance through their very coincidence in time.

synchronism

synchronism n. the simultaneous occurrence or existence of phenomena. —synchronic adj. —synchronous adj.

synchronization

synchronization n. in electroencephalography, a pattern of brain-wave activity that appears to be coordinated. See delta wave.

synchronized sleep

synchronized sleep see NREM sleep.

synchronous brood

synchronous brood see asynchronous brood.

synchronous correlation

synchronous correlation in longitudinal designs, the degree of relationship between variables at a specific moment in time.

synchrony

synchrony n. 1. the simultaneous occurrence of things or events. 2. the rhythmic coordination of speech and movement that occurs nonconsciously both in and between individuals during communication: In self-synchrony, the individual’s bodily movements (e.g., hand gestures, head movements) tend to be synchronized with his or her own speech; in interactional synchrony, the movements of the listener correspond with the speech and movements of the speaker. The latter term also denotes an interaction between a parent and infant that is characterized by attunement even to small shifts in the responses or signals between them. Parent–infant synchrony in the first months of life has been shown to predict secure attachment in the infant and to promote the child’s later emotional and social development. [originally studied in the 1970s by U.S. psychologist William S. Condon and U.S. psychiatrist Louis W. Sander (1918–2012)] 3. in dance therapy, the act of moving together in harmony, which tends to bring people into greater emotional closeness. —synchronous adj.

syncope

syncope n. fainting: a transient loss of consciousness resulting from sudden reduction in the blood supply to the brain. The most common type is vasovagal syncope in which the drop in blood supply is caused by heightened vagus nerve activity in response to certain triggers, such as standing up too quickly or experiencing unpleasant stimuli (e.g., the sight of blood, severe emotional distress). —syncopal adj.

syncretic thought

syncretic thought the first, or prelogical, stage of thinking in a child’s life, characterized by egocentric and frequently animistic thought processes. For example, a simple block may be called a car, or a broomstick may be ridden as a horse. At this stage, connections are likely to be purely accidental: If the sun shines brightly on the child’s birthday, for example, the child may think that the birthday is the reason for the sun to shine. See animism. [proposed by Jean Piaget]

syncretism

syncretism n. the integration of elements from two or more systems, theories, or concepts into a new system, theory, or concept. The term is mainly applied to systems in which cultures, beliefs, or doctrines that may appear incompatible are nevertheless combined. —syncretic adj.

syndrome

syndrome n. a set of symptoms and signs that are usually due to a single cause (or set of related causes) and together indicate a particular physical or mental disease or disorder. Also called symptom complex.

synecdoche

synecdoche n. see metonymy.

synectics model

synectics model an educational approach that emphasizes creative problem solving and the development of teaching methods that enhance student creativity, such as encouraging metaphorical thinking.

synergic marriage

synergic marriage a marriage or partnership that is enhanced by the contributions the partners can make in satisfying each other’s psychological needs in a positive manner. Compare symbiotic marriage.

synergism

synergism n. the joint action of different elements such that their combined effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects, as, for example, in drug synergism. —synergistic adj.

synergistic muscles

synergistic muscles muscles that work together to produce a specific action, such as flexion or extension of a limb. See also agonist; antagonist.

synergy

synergy n. the coordination of forces or efforts to achieve a goal, as when a group of muscles work together in order to move a limb. Also called coordinative structure. —synergic adj.

synesthesia (synaesthesia)

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synkinesis (synkinesia)

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synonym

synonym n. a word that has exactly or almost exactly the same meaning as another word in the same language, so that the two are ordinarily interchangeable. Compare antonym. —synonymous adj.

synopsia

synopsia n. a form of synesthesia in which specific colors are associated with specific tones. Also called synopsy.

syntactics

syntactics n. the structural and grammatical aspects of language, as distinguished from semantics.

syntax

syntax n. the set of rules that describes how words and phrases in a language are arranged into grammatical sentences, or the branch of linguistics that studies such rules. With morphology, syntax is one of the two traditional subdivisions of grammar. —syntactic or syntactical adj.

syntaxic mode

syntaxic mode the highest stage in experiencing the world, characterized by consensual validation, the development of logical, reality-oriented thinking, and the expression of ideas in a commonly accepted language. [defined by Harry Stack Sullivan]

synthesis

synthesis n. 1. the bringing together of disparate parts or elements—be they they physical or conceptual—into a whole. For example, biosynthesis is the process by which chemical or biochemical compounds are formed from their constituents, and mental synthesis involves combining ideas and images into meaningful objects of thought. 2. in philosophy, the final stage of a dialectical process: a third proposition that resolves the opposition between thesis and antithesis. The synthesis then serves as the thesis in the next phase of the ongoing dialectic. This use of the term is particularly associated with the thought of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831). See also dialectical materialism. —synthetic adj.

synthetic approach

synthetic approach the combining (synthesizing) of various processes, systems, skills, or other components into a more complex whole as a means of learning or better understanding the whole. For example, a synthetic approach to learning to read is one in which the child first learns to recognize written letters and understand their associated sounds before learning to combine letters into syllables and words. Compare analytic approach.

synthetic cannabinoid

synthetic cannabinoid see tetrahydrocannabinol.

synthetic language

synthetic language see fusional language.

synthetic opioid

synthetic opioid see opioid.

synthetic speech

synthetic speech speech produced by a machine, usually a computer. Speech synthesis algorithms differ in complexity and in other ways, and therefore the speech they produce varies in quality (intelligibility and naturalness). Compare compressed speech; digitized speech.

synthetic validity

synthetic validity in industrial and organizational settings, a technique for inferring the validity of a selection test or other predictor of job performance from a job analysis. It involves systematically analyzing a job into its elements, estimating the validity of the test or predictor in predicting performance on each of these elements, and then combining the validities for each element to form an estimate of the validity of the test or predictor for the job as a whole. Synthetic validity can be useful in estimating the validity of selection procedures in small organizations where the larger samples required in concurrent validity and predictive validity are not available. See also job-component validity.

syntonia

syntonia n. a high degree of emotional responsiveness to the environment. —syntonic adj.

syphilis

syphilis n. a contagious disease caused by infection with the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum. Syphilis is usually a sexually transmitted disease, but it can be transmitted through a break or cut in the skin or mucous membrane; it can also be transmitted by an infected pregnant woman to an unborn child. Untreated, syphilis progressively destroys body tissues, particularly those of the heart and nervous system. See also cerebral syphilis; general paresis.

syringe exchange program

syringe exchange program see needle exchange program.

syringomyelia

syringomyelia n. a disorder marked by the presence of a fluid-filled cavity in the spinal cord that expands and elongates over time, causing progressive damage to the spinal cord and resulting in weakness in the arms and legs and loss of temperature and pain sensation. Syringomyelia may occur as a complication of trauma, meningitis, hemorrhage, a tumor, or congenital defects.

syrinx

syrinx n. (pl. syringes) see animal vocalization; vocal communication.

system

system n. 1. any collective entity consisting of a set of interrelated or interacting elements that have been organized together to perform a function. 2. an orderly method of classification or procedure (e.g., the Library of Congress Classification system). 3. a structured set of facts, concepts, and hypotheses that provide a framework of thought or belief, as in a philosophical system. See conceptual system. 4. a living organism or one of its major bodily structures (e.g., the respiratory system). —systematic adj.

System 1

System 1 in the dual process theory of reasoning and decision making, a mode of thought comprising rapid, implicit, and automatic cognitive operations. System 1 is contrasted with the slow, explicit, and controlled processes of System 2. In other words, System 1 is intuitive and affective (i.e., what “feels right”), whereas System 2 is logically analytical and deliberate (i.e., what “makes sense”). Additionally, System 1 relies on associative memory and thus has a high capacity and entails little effort; System 2 relies on working memory and thus has a limited capacity and entails greater effort. Errors of judgment arise from concurrent failures in both systems: The automatic operations of System 1 generate a faulty intuition, which the controlled operations of System 2 fail to detect and correct. For example, when deciding whether it is more dangerous to travel by car or airplane, a person may quickly recall horrific images of airline disasters and erroneously conclude that flying is more dangerous. This might then be compounded by a failure to think analytically about the total number of automobile versus airline accidents. A variety of other labels have been proposed over the years for this distinction, including impulsive versus reflective, intuition versus reasoning, experiential versus rational, heuristic versus systematic, and Type 1 versus Type 2.

system flow diagram

system flow diagram in ergonomics, a flow chart used to illustrate the movement of materials or people within a work system or to illustrate the direction of movement of information.

system model of evaluation

system model of evaluation a method of assessing organizational effectiveness in terms of a working model of an organization as a multifunctional social unit capable of maintaining itself. It is concerned with assessing the allocation of resources by the organization to reach an optimum level of operation, rather than with assessing the effectiveness of the organization in achieving public goals.

systematic approach

systematic approach see topographic model.

systematic behavioral universal

systematic behavioral universal see psychological universal.

systematic desensitization

systematic desensitization a form of behavior therapy in which counterconditioning is used to reduce anxiety associated with a particular stimulus. It involves the following stages: (a) The client is trained in deep-muscle relaxation; (b) various anxiety-provoking situations related to a particular problem, such as fear of death or a specific phobia, are listed in order from weakest to strongest; and (c) each of these situations is presented in imagination or in reality, beginning with the weakest, while the client practices muscle relaxation. Since the muscle relaxation is incompatible with the anxiety, the client gradually responds less to the anxiety-provoking situations. See also covert desensitization; in vivo desensitization; reciprocal inhibition. [introduced by Joseph Wolpe]

systematic error

systematic error error in which the data values obtained from a sample deviate by a fixed amount from the true values within the population. For example, a scale that repeatedly provides readings 0.5 g lower than the true weight would be demonstrating systematic error. Systematic errors tend to be consistently positive or negative and may occur as a result of sampling bias or measurement error. Compare random error.

systematic multiple level observation of groups

systematic multiple level observation of groups see SYMLOG.

systematic observation

systematic observation an objective, well-ordered method for close examination of some phenomenon or aspect of behavior so as to obtain reliable data unbiased by observer interpretation. Systematic observation typically involves specification of the exact actions, attributes, or other variables that are to be recorded and precisely how they are to be recorded. The intent is to ensure that, under the same or similar circumstances, all observers will obtain the same results.

systematic processing

systematic processing see heuristic-systematic model.

systematic random sampling

systematic random sampling see systematic sampling.

systematic rational restructuring

systematic rational restructuring a system of psychotherapy in which the client is encouraged to imagine anxiety-provoking situations while talking about them in a realistic manner that reduces his or her anxieties.

systematic replication

systematic replication the process of conducting a study again but with certain consistent differences, often in an attempt to extend the original research to different settings or participants. For example, a systematic replication could refine the design (e.g., by using more participants) or the methodology (e.g., by using more standardized procedures or objective measures). Compare direct replication.

systematic sampling

systematic sampling a type of sampling process in which all the members of a population are listed and then some objective, orderly procedure is applied to randomly choose specific cases. For example, the population might be listed alphabetically and every seventh case selected. Also called quasirandom sampling; systematic random sampling.

systematic variance

systematic variance see unsystematic variance.

systematics

systematics n. see biological taxonomy.

systematized delusion

systematized delusion a false, irrational belief that is highly developed and organized, with multiple elaborations that are coherent, consistent, and logically related. Compare fragmentary delusion.

systemic

systemic adj. concerning or having impact on an entire system. For example, a systemic disorder affects an entire organ system or the body as a whole.

systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

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systemic mucopolysaccharidosis

systemic mucopolysaccharidosis see Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome.

systemic thinking

systemic thinking a combination of analytical and synthetic thinking that takes account of the impact of a system (or organization) and all its components together. Analytical thinking is concerned with breaking down a concept into its component parts, whereas synthetic thinking is the process of combining components to make a complete whole.

systems analysis

systems analysis the process—and the specialty area itself—of studying any system (e.g., the circulatory system, an organization, a family) so as to comprehend or clarify its internal workings and its purposes, often with a view to improving interrelations among constituent elements or to achieving a desired end more effectively. —systems analyst n.

systems engineering

systems engineering a discipline that adopts an integrated, multidisciplinary approach to the design and analysis of work systems in order to account for the complex interdependencies of system components, people, and processes. Its goal is to enhance efficiency and safety. See ergonomics; macroergonomics; sociotechnical systems approach. See also engineering psychology; human factors engineering.

systems of support

systems of support a framework for identifying the nature and profile of services and supports required by a person with intellectual disability. This is based on considerations of intellectual functioning and adaptive skills, psychological and emotional factors, physical health and etiological factors, and environmental or situational factors.

systems theory

systems theory see general systems theory.

systolic blood pressure

systolic blood pressure the pressure of the blood against the arterial walls produced by the contraction of the heart muscles as the blood is forced into the aorta and the pulmonary artery. See blood pressure. Compare diastolic blood pressure.

SΔ

SD symbol for discriminative stimulus. SD symbol for standard deviation.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'S'

Terms Starting with "S"

s

S

s 2

S and M

S data

s factor

S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)

S-shaped curve

s-structure

S–

S–(R–O) model

S–O association

S–O–R psychology

S–R

S–R learning model

S–R psychology

S–R–O learning model

S–S learning model

S/N

S+

S1

S2

SA

SAB

saccade

saccadic dysmetria

saccadic speed

saccadic time

saccule

sacral division

sacral nerve

sacred disease

SAD

sadism

sadness

sadomasochism

sadomasochistic personality

SADS

Saethre–Chotzen syndrome

safe compartment

safe sex

safety and health education

safety behavior

safety device

safety engineering

safety need

safety psychology

safety signal

sagittal

sagittal fissure

Saint Dymphna’s disease

Saint Vitus’s dance

salary compression

salicylate

salicylism

salience hypothesis

salient

saline

saliromania

salivary gland

salivary reflex

salivation

Salpêtrière

salpingectomy

saltation

saltatory conduction

salty

Salvia

SAM

same-sex marriage

SAMHSA

sample

sample correlation coefficient

sample distribution

sample mean

sample reliability

sample size

sample space