Terms Starting with "B"

1094 terms

B and D

B and D abbreviation for bondage and discipline.

B cell

B cell see lymphocyte.

B coefficient

B coefficient see regression coefficient.

B fiber

B fiber a myelinated nerve fiber (axon) of the autonomic nervous system. B fibers are approximately 2 mm or less in diameter and transmit impulses to the sympathetic chain. See also A fiber; C fiber.

B lymphocyte

B lymphocyte see lymphocyte.

B wave of electroretinogram

B wave of electroretinogram a large, positive electrical wave pattern that is recorded from the eye when the retina is stimulated by light. The electrical response is detected by an electrode placed on the anesthetized surface of the eye. See electroretinography.

B-cognition

B-cognition n. see being cognition.

B-love

B-love n. see being love.

B-motivation

B-motivation n. see metamotivation.

B-value

B-value n. see metaneed.

baah-ji

baah-ji n. see bah-tschi.

babbling

babbling n. prespeech sounds, such as dadada, made by infants from around 6 months of age. Babbling is usually regarded as practice in vocalization, which facilitates later speech development. See baby talk; prespeech development. —babble vb.

Babinski reflex

Babinski reflex the reflex occurring in a healthy infant in which the big toe extends upward and the other toes fan out when the sole of the foot is gently stimulated. This response is elicited in newborns to monitor central nervous system development. The Babinski reflex is normal up to about 2 years of age; in adults, it is an indication of neurological disorder and called Babinski’s sign. [Joseph F. Babinski (1857–1932), French neurologist]

Babkin reflex

Babkin reflex a neonatal reflex in which infants open their mouths and twist their heads in response to pressure on their palms. [Boris Petrovich Babkin (1877–1950), Russian-born Canadian neurologist]

Babor’s Type A–Type B distinction

Babor’s Type A–Type B distinction a two-part typology used to group substance abusers, particularly those who abuse alcohol, for research purposes and to determine appropriate treatment options for them. Type A substance abusers have fewer childhood risk factors and start drinking or taking drugs later in life than Type B substance abusers, who have more severe problems related to their substance use, worse psychopathological functioning, and more stress. [developed by U.S. psychologist Thomas F. Babor (1944– )]

baby blues

baby blues a colloquial name for the transient depressive symptoms experienced by many women during the first 10 days after giving birth. It should be distinguished from postpartum depression. Also called maternity blues; postpartum blues.

baby brain

baby brain a colloquial term for the memory deficits, reasoning and spatial learning difficulties, and other cognitive problems popularly believed to be experienced by pregnant women. Although often attributed to increases in hormone levels and external stressors, baby brain remains controversial among medical professionals, many of whom dispute not just its supposed characteristic but its very existence. Critics contend that the phenomenon actually results from sleep deprivation and inaccurate self-reports of problems. Additionally, empirical research is limited and contradictory. Although some studies provide support for the phenomenon, showing temporarily diminished brain volume in women during pregnancy and a smaller hippocampus in pregnant than in nonpregnant rats, others indicate that pregnancy does not adversely affect cognition and may actually enhance it. Also called pregnancy brain.

baby talk

baby talk 1. the type of speech used by a young child. 2. the type of speech used by adults and older children when talking to infants or very young children. See infant-directed speech.

babyfacedness

babyfacedness n. the attribute of having an adult face with configural features resembling those of an infant, that is, large eyes, full cheeks, a round shape, a protruding forehead, and a small nose and chin. Research has shown that babyfaced adults are often assumed to possess childlike qualities, such as higher levels of innocence and lower levels of competence. This assumption and its influence upon how babyfaced people are treated by others is termed the babyface overgeneralization effect.

BAC

BAC abbreviation for blood alcohol concentration.

back-clipping

back-clipping n. see clipping.

back-formation

back-formation n. the creation of a new word on the mistaken assumption that an existing word must be derived from it. This usually involves the elimination of an apparent affix or inflection, as in the creation of the verb enthuse from enthusiasm. The term is also applied to a word formed in this way. Also called inverse derivation; retrogressive formation. See also clipping.

back-propagation algorithms (backprop algorithms)

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back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot

back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot a variation of a stem-and-leaf plot in which the trailing digits (leaves) from two data sets are displayed on either side of the same central column of initial values (stem). The leaf values from one data set are given on the right-hand side while those of the second group are shown on the left-hand side. For example, consider the following hypothetical sets of test scores obtained by participants on two different occasions: 79 79 83 83 86 87 92 99 and 80 81 82 83 87 87 90 99 The back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot for these values is

back-translation

back-translation n. see translation and back-translation.

backbone

backbone n. see spinal column.

backcrossing

backcrossing n. the process of crossbreeding a hybrid animal or plant with a member of the genetic line from which the hybrid was originally derived. The offspring of the mating is known as a backcross.

background

background n. 1. in perception, any aspect of the environment that forms a setting for the primary stimulus or stimuli. See also figure–ground. 2. in general, the sum total of a person’s upbringing, education, training, and experience.

background variable

background variable see subject variable.

backtrack search

backtrack search a graph search strategy that considers states in a graph recursively. If the present state is not the goal state, then its first child (node) is examined. If this child is not the goal state, then its first child is taken. If there are no children of a state, then the next sibling of the present state is considered. If there are no further siblings of a state, then the sibling of the state’s parent has to be considered. This process continues until either a goal state is found or there are no further states to examine. States, their siblings, and their children are usually (but not necessarily) considered in a left-to-right format.

backup reinforcer

backup reinforcer in behavior modification, a reward given to a client or patient in return for tokens he or she has earned. See also token economy.

backward association

backward association the formation of an associative link between one item and an item that precedes it in a series or sequence. Compare forward association.

backward chaining

backward chaining see chaining.

backward conditioning

backward conditioning a procedure in which an unconditioned stimulus is consistently presented before a neutral stimulus. Generally, this arrangement is not thought to produce a change in the effect of a neutral stimulus. Occasionally, however, the neutral stimulus may take on inhibitory functions, presumably because its occurrence signals that the unconditioned stimulus is completed or will not occur at all. It may also take on excitatory functions as a result of pseudoconditioning. Also called backward pairing. Compare forward conditioning.

backward displacement

backward displacement in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, a result in which the participant’s “call” or guess matches the outcome of the previous trial in the series rather than the current one. If this effect occurs consistently, it may be taken as evidence of retrocognition. Compare forward displacement.

backward elimination

backward elimination a technique used in regression analysis in which the goal is to forecast an outcome or response variable according to a subset of predictor variables narrowed down from a large initial set. In background elimination, all available predictors are included originally and then examined one at a time, with any predictors that do not contribute in a statistically meaningful manner systematically dropped until a predetermined criterion is reached. Also called backward deletion; backward selection; stepdown selection. See also stepwise regression.

backward masking

backward masking see masking.

backward pairing

backward pairing see backward conditioning.

backward reading

backward reading reading letters or words in reverse order, for example, deb for bed, or Car my is this for This is my car.

backward search

backward search a problem-solving strategy in which the solver works backward from the end goal of the problem to the beginning. An example would be finding the path through a maze by working from the end of the maze to the beginning. See also working backward.

baclofen

baclofen n. a skeletal muscle relaxant that inhibits transmission of synaptic reflexes at the spinal cord level. A GABAB receptorgabab-receptor agonist, it is often used in the treatment of reversible spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis or spinal cord injury. Baclofen has also been found to inhibit the rewarding properties of drugs with abuse potential (opiates, cocaine, etc.). U.S. trade name: Lioresal.

Baconian method

Baconian method the inductive method of scientific investigation first set out by Francis Bacon. The method involves the inference of general laws or principles from particular instances observed under controlled conditions (i.e., in experiments). To make sure that any such generalization is valid, the observer must seek not only positive instances of an association between things in which one event or state brings about another, but also negative instances in which the event or state fails to occur in the absence of the other (see method of exclusion; Mill’s canons). Finally, the observer tries to formulate an explanation for the causal connection so established. See inductive reasoning.

bacteremia

bacteremia n. see septicemia.

bacterial endocarditis

bacterial endocarditis inflammation of the heart lining (endocardium) due to bacterial infection and causing damage to the heart valves and impaired pumping action of the heart. Fever and other systemic symptoms ensue, including embolism and heart failure. The infection can be acquired by unhygienic intravenous drug administration or abuse.

bacterial meningitis

bacterial meningitis inflammation of the meninges, which form a protective covering for the brain and spinal cord, caused by bacterial infection, most commonly Neisseria meningitidis (the meningococcus), Haemophilus influenzae, or Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). Meningococcal meningitis is highly contagious because the bacteria are present in the throat as well as the cerebrospinal fluid. Common symptoms of bacterial meningitis, which can result in severe morbidity or mortality, include fever, headache, nausea, weakness, and confusion. See also meningitis; tuberculous meningitis.

bacterium

bacterium n. (pl. bacteria) a unicellular, prokaryotic microorganism, that is, an organism whose chromosome is not contained in a nuclear envelope. Bacteria are considered to represent an earlier stage in the evolution of life than eukaryotes (organisms whose chromosomes are contained in nuclear envelopes, i.e., all organisms except bacteria). In humans, many bacteria cause disease (e.g., tetanus, syphilis, tuberculosis), whereas others are beneficial (e.g., preventing the growth of harmful microbes in the large intestine and enhancing the immune response). —bacterial adj.

bad breast

bad breast in the psychoanalytic theory of Melanie Klein, the internalized representation (see introjection) of the mother’s breast as absent or unsatisfying. According to Klein, the infant first experiences the mother and the nourishing breast as part-objects with positive qualities—the good breast—and negative qualities—the bad breast. Klein thought that the development of these internalized representations of the breast was the first manifestation of splitting.

bad faith

bad faith an individual’s denial of his or her freedom as a human being or unwillingness to accept the undetermined and unforced nature of his or her actions. This often entails a denial of responsibility for the consequences of one’s actions and choices or hiding the truth from oneself intentionally. See also existential psychotherapy. [proposed by French existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)]

bad is stronger than good

bad is stronger than good the tendency for negative events, information, or feedback to have significantly more impact or influence on emotions, thoughts, or behavior than an equivalent positive event, information, or feedback. See positive–negative asymmetry; trait negativity bias.

bad me

bad me in the self-system theory of Harry Stack Sullivan, the internalized personification of impulses and behaviors that are considered to be negative by the self and, therefore, need to be hidden or disguised from others or from the self. In a child, for instance, the bad me may arise out of a sense of parental disapproval that in turn gives rise to anxiety and self-doubt. Compare good me; not me.

bad object

bad object in the psychoanalytic theory of Melanie Klein, an introjected part-object perceived as having negative qualities (see introjection). It is an early object representation that derives from splitting of the object into parts containing negative qualities (i.e., the bad object) and positive qualities (i.e., the good object). The creation of the bad object is understood as a means of managing internal anxiety over destructive impulses arising from frustration. The ego projects these impulses into an object and therefore often feels it to be an external threat or persecutor.

bad trip

bad trip see trip.

bah-tschi (bah-tsi; baah-ji)

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BAI

BAI abbreviation for Beck Anxiety Inventory.

bait shyness

bait shyness an alternative but less common name for conditioned taste aversion.

BAL

BAL abbreviation for blood alcohol level. See blood alcohol concentration.

balance

balance 1. n. a harmonious relationship or equilibrium of opposing forces or contrasting elements. See autonomic balance; balance theory; homeostasis. 2. n. the sense of equilibrium mediated by the vestibular system of the inner ear. 3. vb. to adjust forces to maintain something at a level from which it would ordinarily deviate.

balance control

balance control see balance training.

balance theory

balance theory a particular cognitive consistency theory specifying that people prefer elements within a cognitive system to be internally consistent with one another (i.e., balanced). Balanced systems are assumed to be more stable and psychologically pleasant than imbalanced systems. The theory has been primarily specified and tested within the context of systems involving three elements. These systems are sometimes referred to as P-O-X triads, in which P = person (i.e., self), O = other person, and X = some stimulus or event. [first proposed in 1946 by Fritz Heider]

balance training

balance training a form of physical or occupational therapy for individuals who experience difficulty with balance control (maintaining balance when standing, walking, or performing other activities). It involves a series of exercises designed to enhance muscular control and improve interpretation of information from the senses and may make use of trainer bicycles, tricycles with body supports and foot attachments, stilts, pogo sticks, rocker boards, and a rubber bouncing tube used like a trampoline. Balance training is also used by many athletes to enhance fitness, coordination, and performance.

balanced bilingual

balanced bilingual a person who has proficiency in two languages such that his or her skills in each language match those of a native speaker of the same age. Compare unbalanced bilingual. See bilingualism.

balanced design

balanced design any research design in which the number of observations or measurements obtained in each experimental condition is equal. For example, a health researcher interested in exercise and depression would be using a balanced design if he or she examined 50 people who exercise less than 30 minutes per day, 50 people who exercise between 30 and 60 minutes per day, and 50 people who exercise more than 60 minutes per day.

balanced Latin square

balanced Latin square a type of study design in which multiple conditions or treatments are administered to the same participants over time. It is a form of Latin square that must fulfill three criteria: Each treatment must occur once with each participant, each treatment must occur the same number of times for each time period or trial, and each treatment must precede and follow every other treatment an equal number of times. For example, consider the following balanced Latin square for an experimental design involving four treatments (A, B, C, and D) and four people: As shown, one person receives the treatments in the sequence A, B, D, and then C; a second person receives them in the sequence B, C, A, and D; a third person receives them in the sequence C, D, B, and A; and a fourth person receives them in the sequence D, A, C, and B.

balanced scale

balanced scale a test or survey in which, for each possible response, there is a response that means the opposite. A rating scale with the four alternatives very poor, poor, good, and very good is an example, as is a set of survey questions in which half of the questions characterize a particular trait (e.g., perceived stress level) in one direction (e.g., low) and the other half characterize the trait in the opposite direction (e.g., high).

Baldwin effect

Baldwin effect the influence on intraspecies evolution of behavior change and learning. An individual member of the species acquires a new ability that enables better adaptation to the environment and hence increases probability of survival; the propensity for acquiring this characteristic is conferred in turn on descendants of that species member until a genetic variation occurs and the characteristic itself becomes hereditary. The Baldwin effect was originally called organic selection. [described in 1896 by James Mark Baldwin]

Baldwin’s figure

Baldwin’s figure a horizontal line with a square at each end. Small squares at the ends of the line make the line look longer than when large squares are at the ends of the line. Also called Baldwin’s illusion. [James Mark Baldwin]

Bálint’s syndrome

Bálint’s syndrome a spatial and attentional disorder resulting from bilateral lesions in the parieto-occipital regions of the brain. It consists of inability to visually guide the hand to an object (optic ataxia), inability to change visual gaze (oculomotor apraxia), and inability to recognize multiple stimuli in a scene and understand their nature as a whole (simultanagnosia; see visual agnosia). [first described in 1909 by Rudolf Bálint (1874–1929), Hungarian physician]

ballet technique

ballet technique a structured form of dance therapy.

Ballet’s disease

Ballet’s disease a disorder marked by the loss of movements of the eye and pupil while autonomic responses remain normal. The condition is associated with hyperthyroid disorders, such as exophthalmic goiter (see exophthalmos). Also called Ballet’s sign; ophthalmoplegia externa. [Gilbert Ballet (1853–1916), French neurologist]

ballismus

ballismus n. involuntary throwing or flinging movements of the limbs, caused by severe muscle contractions due to neurological damage. It may involve both sides of the body or, in the case of hemiballismus (or hemiballism), one side only. Also called ballism.

ballistic

ballistic adj. describing a movement (or part of a movement) in which the motion, once initiated, is not altered by feedback-based corrections. Ballistic is sometimes also used, incorrectly, to describe any rapid movement.

Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA)

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band symmetry

band symmetry see symmetry.

banding

banding n. an approach to setting cutoff scores in personnel selection. Several ranges of scores known as score bands are identified, usually on the basis of the standard error of measurement for the test or predictor variable. Rather than being considered individually, all candidates who score within the same band are considered equally qualified. Consequently, hiring decisions are made from within band ranges, in contrast to traditional approaches that choose the highest scorer first, the next highest scorer second, and so forth.

bandpass filter

bandpass filter see filter.

bandwagon effect

bandwagon effect the tendency for people in social and sometimes political situations to align themselves with the majority opinion and do or believe things because many other people appear to be doing or believing the same.

bandwidth

bandwidth n. 1. a range of frequencies, usually expressed in hertz (cycles per second). In information theory, it is a measure of the amount of information that a communication channel can transmit per unit of time. 2. the range of information available from measuring instruments. Greater bandwidth is generally associated with lower accuracy (fidelity). 3. a window or range of data values that contains a point of interest. The term is often used in nonparametric regression and estimation problems.

bandwidth selectivity

bandwidth selectivity see frequency selectivity.

bangungut

bangungut n. a culture-bound syndrome observed mainly among young, healthy, Filipino males. The individual is often overheard screaming or moaning during sleep, apparently experiencing a terrifying nightmare; this is followed by unexpected death. Also called oriental nightmare-death syndrome.

banner advertisement

banner advertisement a relatively small advertisement displayed on a web page, often inducing consumers to click on the advertisement (typically a small graphic) to go to another website to learn more about the product.

baquet

baquet n. a large, shallow, covered tub containing water, iron filings, ground glass, and bottles arranged in patterns from which metal rods protrude, used by Franz Anton Mesmer in his attempts to cure patients with a variety of hysterical symptoms. Mesmer had his patients place the rods on ailing parts of their bodies so that they would experience the supposed healing power of magnetism. See animal magnetism; mesmerism.

bar display

bar display in ergonomics, a machine display in which fluctuating values of a system attribute are indicated by the length of rectangular bars of equal width. See also object display.

bar graph

bar graph a graph in which bars of varying height with spaces between them are used to display data for variables defined by qualities or categories. For example, to show the political affiliations of Americans, the different parties (e.g., Democrat, Republican, Independent) would be listed on the x-axis, and the height of the bar rising above each party would represent the number or proportion of people in that category. Also called bar chart; bar diagram. See also histogram.

bar hustler

bar hustler see male homosexual prostitution.

bar reflex

bar reflex a pathological phenomenon in which the lateral or vertical movement of one leg of a recumbent individual is followed by a similar movement of the other leg. This is usually a diagnostic sign of damage or disease in the anterior region of the frontal lobe.

bar-

BARS acronym for behaviorally anchored rating scale.

baragnosis

baragnosis n. an inability to judge the weights of objects held in the hand. It is usually a result of damage to the primary somatosensory cortex. Compare barognosis.

Bárány test

Bárány test a test designed to reveal whether the semicircular canals of the inner ear are functioning properly. The patient is rotated in a special chair—the Bárány chair—with his or her head in each of the planes that bring the three canals vertical to the direction of rotation. The resulting nystagmus (involuntary movements of the eyes) indicates whether the canals are functioning properly. Also called Bárány method. [Robert Bárány (1876–1936), Austrian physician]

barber’s-pole effect

barber’s-pole effect the perception that a rotating vertical cylinder with spiral markings (a barber’s pole) appears to be moving up, rather than simply rotating.

barbiturate

barbiturate n. any of a family of drugs derived from barbituric acid that depress activity of the central nervous system (see CNS depressant) and were previously widely used as anxiolytics, sedatives, hypnotics, and general anesthetics. They typically induce profound tolerance and withdrawal symptoms and depress respiration. Moreover, they can depress breathing completely—hence their use by individuals wishing to commit suicide. Barbiturates are commonly categorized according to their rates of action (including onset of effect, absorption, and excretion) as long acting, intermediate acting, short acting, or ultrashort acting. Their use became common in the 1930s, but they were rapidly supplanted in the 1970s by the benzodiazepines, which lack the lethality associated with overdose of the barbiturates. The group includes amobarbital, butabarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, primidone, and thiopental, among others. See sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic drug. The prototype of the group, barbital, was introduced into medical practice in 1903.

Bard–Cannon theory

Bard–Cannon theory see Cannon–Bard theory.

Bardet–Biedl syndrome (BBS)

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Barefoot v. Estelle

Barefoot v. Estelle a 1983 case resulting in a decision in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a death sentence after a psychiatrist testified at trial that the likelihood the defendant would reoffend was 100% and absolute, although the psychiatrist had never examined the defendant.

baresthesia

baresthesia n. the sensation of weight or pressure.

bargaining

bargaining n. the process in which two parties attempt to resolve their conflicting interests by trading resources in return for some benefits. Compare negotiation. —bargain vb.

bargaining stage

bargaining stage the third of the five stages of grief described by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. It is characterized by an attempt to negotiate a deal with God or fate that would delay one’s own death or that of an important other, or that would mitigate or end other great loss or trauma.

bariatrics

bariatrics n. a field of medicine that focuses on the study of obesity: its causes, prevention, and treatment.

barK

barK abbreviation for beta-adrenergic receptor kinase.

Barnum effect

Barnum effect the tendency to believe that vague predictions or general personality descriptions, such as those offered by astrology, have specific applications to oneself. Coinage of the term has been attributed to Paul Everett Meehl; it alludes to a remark allegedly made by U.S. showman Phineas T. Barnum (1810–1891) to the effect that “There’s a sucker born every minute.” The effect was termed the fallacy of personal validation by U.S. psychologist Bertram Robin Forer (1914–2000), who first studied it in 1949.

baro- (bar-)

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barognosis

barognosis n. the ability to estimate the weights of objects held in the hand. Compare baragnosis.

Barona equation

Barona equation an equation that uses demographic variables (such as age, education, and occupational history) to estimate IQ prior to brain injury or disease. [Andres Barona (1945– ), U.S. psychologist]

baroreceptor

baroreceptor n. a pressure receptor in the heart or a major artery that detects changes in blood pressure and communicates that information to the brain via the autonomic nervous system. Also called baroceptor.

barotitis

barotitis n. a disorder of the ear due to exposure to differing atmospheric pressures.

Barr body

Barr body see sex chromatin. [Murray L. Barr (1908–1995), Canadian anatomist]

barrier

barrier n. something that restricts, impedes, or blocks progress or the achievement of an ultimate objective or end. In psychological contexts, barriers are mental, emotional, or behavioral limitations in individuals and groups.

barrier-free environment

barrier-free environment a built space that is free of obstacles to individuals with physical and cognitive disabilities and permits safe, uninhibited movements. Environmental barriers can include street curbs, revolving doors or doors too narrow to admit wheelchairs, inaccessible toilets and washbowls, and elevator buttons that cannot be read by people with visual impairment. See also universal design.

Barron–Welsh Art Scale (BWAS)

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BARS

BARS acronym for behaviorally anchored rating scale.

Barthel Index

Barthel Index a form of functional status measurement that includes 10 items assessing an individual’s ability to perform activities of daily living independently. An individual is rated on a point scale regarding the degree of assistance required to perform each item, and the ratings are then combined to yield a total score. [Dorothea W. Barthel, 20th-century U.S. psychologist]

Bartholin’s glands

Bartholin’s glands see vestibular glands. [Caspar Bartholin (1655–1738), Danish anatomist]

Bartlett technique

Bartlett technique see repeated reproduction. [Frederic C. Bartlett]

Bartlett test for equality of variance

Bartlett test for equality of variance a procedure used to determine whether variation across two or more groups is equivalent, this being a critical assumption in analysis of variance and many other parametric methods. The Bartlett test is sensitive to scores that are not from a normal distribution. [Maurice Stevenson Bartlett (1910–2002), British statistician]

Bartley v. Kremens

Bartley v. Kremens a lawsuit resulting in a Pennsylvania court decision (1976) that extended due process protection and provision of legal counsel to children committed to mental facilities by their parents.

baryphony

baryphony n. speech characterized by a thick, heavy voice quality. Also called baryphonia.

BAS

BAS abbreviation for behavioral approach system.

basal age

basal age the highest mental age level at which a participant can answer all items on a standardized test correctly. The concept of mental ages is used relatively rarely in current testing. Compare ceiling age.

basal cell

basal cell see Type IV cell.

basal dendrite

basal dendrite any of several dendrites on a pyramidal cell that extend horizontally from the cell body. Compare apical dendrite.

basal forebrain

basal forebrain a region of the ventral forebrain near the corpus callosum containing cholinergic neurons that project widely to the cerebral cortex and hippocampus and are thought to be important in aspects of memory, learning, and attention. See basal nucleus of Meynert.

basal ganglia

basal ganglia a group of nuclei (neuron cell bodies) deep within the cerebral hemispheres of the brain that includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. The putamen and globus pallidus are together known as the lenticular (or lentiform) nucleus, the lenticular nucleus and caudate nucleus are together known as the corpus striatum, and the caudate nucleus and putamen are together called the striatum. The basal ganglia are involved in the generation of goal-directed voluntary movement. Also called basal nuclei.

basal magnocellular nucleus

basal magnocellular nucleus see basal nucleus of Meynert.

basal metabolism

basal metabolism the minimum energy expenditure required to maintain the vital functions of the body while awake but at rest and not expending energy for thermoregulation. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is measured in kilojoules (or calories) expended per kilogram of body weight or per square meter of body surface per hour.

basal nuclei

basal nuclei see basal ganglia.

basal nucleus of Meynert

basal nucleus of Meynert a collection of neurons in the basal forebrain that modulates the activity of many areas of the neocortex by providing cholinergic innervation. It is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease. Also called basal magnocellular nucleus; Meynert’s nucleus; nucleus basalis magnocelluaris. [Theodor H. Meynert (1833–1892), Austrian neurologist]

basal reader approach

basal reader approach a method of reading instruction through the use of a series of books. The vocabulary, content, and sequence of skills to be taught are thus determined by the authors.

basal skin resistance

basal skin resistance see skin resistance.

base

base 1. n. the lowest or most fundamental part of something. 2. adj. elemental, or having a primitive or basic nature.

base pair

base pair see DNA.

base rate

base rate 1. the naturally occurring frequency of a phenomenon in a population. An example is the percentage of students at a particular college who have major depressive disorder. This rate is often contrasted with the rate of the phenomenon under the influence of some changed condition in order to determine the degree to which the change influences the phenomenon. 2. in personnel psychology, the percentage of job applicants who would succeed in the job if all were hired. Base rates are used to measure the effectiveness of employment tests.

base structure

base structure see deep structure.

base-rate fallacy

base-rate fallacy a decision-making error in which information about the rate of occurrence of some trait in a population (the base-rate information) is ignored or not given appropriate weight. For example, given a choice of the two categories, people might categorize a man as an engineer, rather than a lawyer, if they heard that he enjoyed physics at school—even if they knew that he was drawn from a population consisting of 90% lawyers and 10% engineers. See representativeness heuristic.

baseline

baseline n. 1. data or information obtained prior to or at the onset of a study (e.g., before introduction of an intervention) that serves as a basis for comparison with data collected at a later point in time so as to assess the effects of particular manipulations or treatments. For example, a memory researcher may measure how many words from a list participants remember initially and then compare that figure to the number of words they remember following the use of a new mnemonic technique (i.e., the experimental manipulation). 2. more generally, any stable level of performance used as a yardstick to assess the effects of particular manipulations or changes.

baseline assessment

baseline assessment 1. a process of obtaining information about a participant’s status (e.g., ability level, psychological well-being) before exposure to an intervention, treatment, or other study manipulation. The information so obtained is compared to data gathered during the course of the research in order to identify any effects associated with the study conditions. 2. the measurement of characteristics of humans and other animals at a particular point in development in order to evaluate natural changes in these characteristics over time.

baseline characteristic

baseline characteristic any of various qualities of a participant that are assessed prior to a study or intervention as they may potentially influence outcome measures. For example, a researcher evaluating the effect of a new stress-reduction technique on health status may examine such baseline characteristics as sex, age, and ethnicity.

baseline functioning

baseline functioning see premorbid functioning.

baseline measure

baseline measure an observation of a participant’s response before the administration of any experimental intervention.

baseline performance

baseline performance the measured rate of a behavior before introduction of an intervention, which allows comparison and assessment of the effects of the intervention. For example, a baseline for being off task is established before an intervention aimed at increasing on-task classroom behavior is delivered.

bases of an attitude

bases of an attitude the types of information from which an attitude is derived. Traditionally, researchers have distinguished between three categories of bases: The affective basis refers to the emotions, feelings, and moods associated with the attitude object; the cognitive basis refers to beliefs about evaluative attributes associated with the attitude object; and the behavioral basis refers to responses, such as past behaviors and future intentions, associated with the attitude object. Also called components of an attitude. See also tripartite model of attitudes.

bashful bladder syndrome

bashful bladder syndrome see paruresis.

basic anxiety

basic anxiety in ego psychology, a feeling of being helpless, abandoned, and endangered in a hostile world. According to Karen D. Horney, it arises from the infant’s helplessness and dependence on his or her parents or from parental indifference. Defenses against basic anxiety and hostility may produce neurotic needs and neurotic trends, such as a submissive attitude, the need to exert power over others, or withdrawal from relationships. See also basic hostility.

basic category

basic category see basic-level category.

basic conflict

basic conflict in ego psychology, the conflict between a person’s dominant neurotic trend and his or her incompatible, nondominant neurotic needs, which must be kept repressed. [first described by Karen D. Horney]

basic emotion

basic emotion see primary emotion.

basic encounter

basic encounter a meaningful experience in one person’s relating to another that is characterized by mutual trust and empathy. The development and occurrence of such encounters in therapy and counseling contexts are considered to be beneficial to the therapeutic process and outcome for the client. See also client-centered therapy.

basic hostility

basic hostility in ego psychology, a feeling of hostility and resentment toward the parents that develops as a result of the basic anxiety that the infant feels at being dependent on them. To the extent that the infant fears the parents, basic hostility and anxiety are repressed and give rise to neurotic needs and neurotic trends. [defined by Karen D. Horney]

BASIC ID

BASIC ID see multimodal therapy.

basic mistake

basic mistake in the psychology of Alfred Adler, a factor arising in early childhood that affects a person’s lifestyle in later life and that may need to be corrected in order to resolve conflicts.

basic mistrust

basic mistrust see basic trust versus mistrust.

basic need

basic need see physiological need.

Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ)

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basic personality

basic personality a distinctive pattern of thought, feeling, and behavior supposedly found in people raised in the same culture, largely as a result of their subjection to the same child-rearing practices. The basic personality is in turn held to be responsible for many of a culture’s distinctive institutions, such as its religion and folklore. Also called basic personality structure; basic personality type. See also cultural determinism; national character. [proposed by U.S. psychoanalyst and psychocultural theorist Abram Kardiner (1891–1981)]

basic reflex

basic reflex any of the infant reflexes of sucking, eye movement, grasping, and sound orientation. According to Piagetian theory, basic reflexes are a feature of the first substage of the sensorimotor stage, in which infants know the world only in terms of their inherited action patterns.

basic research

basic research research conducted to obtain greater understanding of a phenomenon, explore a theory, or advance knowledge, with no consideration of any direct practical application. Also called pure research. Compare applied research.

basic rest–activity cycle (BRAC)

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basic rule

basic rule the fundamental rule of psychoanalysis that the patient must attempt to put all spontaneous thoughts, feelings, and memories into words without censorship, so that they can be analyzed to reveal unconscious wishes, conflicts, and emotions. Also called fundamental rule.

basic science

basic science scientific research or theory that is concerned with knowledge of fundamental phenomena and the laws that govern them, regardless of the potential applications of such knowledge. Also called fundamental science; pure science. Compare applied science.

basic skills

basic skills in education: reading, writing, and arithmetic. Proficiency in the basic skills has traditionally been viewed as essential for scholastic achievement.

basic technique (BT)

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basic trust versus mistrust

basic trust versus mistrust the first of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant either comes to view other people and himself or herself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of his or her environment. The growth of basic trust, considered essential for the later development of self-esteem and healthy interpersonal relationships, is attributed to a primary caregiver who is responsively attuned to the infant’s individual needs while conveying the quality of trustworthiness, whereas the growth of basic mistrust is attributed to neglect, lack of love, or inconsistent treatment. The child must experience both trust and mistrust to know how to truly trust.

basic-level category

basic-level category a category formed at the level that people find most natural and appropriate in their normal, everyday experience of the things so categorized. A basic-level category (e.g., bird, table) will be broader than the more specific subordinate categories into which it can be divided (e.g., hawk, dining table) but less abstract than the superordinate category into which it can be subsumed (e.g., animals, furniture). A basic-level category will usually meet the following criteria: (a) It represents a level of categorization at which high resemblance among members of the category co-occurs with low resemblance with members of different categories; (b) it represents the highest level at which members have a similar general shape and is therefore the highest level at which a single mental image can stand for the entire category; and (c) it represents the highest level at which numerous attributes can be listed, most of which will apply to most members of the category (see family resemblance). The name of the basic-level category will generally be the term most frequently applied to the things in question in natural language, the term earliest learned, and the term that is most readily remembered. Also called basic category; natural category.

basic-skills testing

basic-skills testing 1. a standardized, often state-regulated assessment of basic skills. 2. an examination of an individual’s ability to perform and understand fundamental tasks.

basilar artery

basilar artery an artery formed by the union of the two vertebral arteries. Its branches supply blood to the brainstem and to posterior portions of the cerebral hemispheres.

basilar membrane

basilar membrane a fibrous membrane within the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti. In response to sound, the basilar membrane vibrates; this leads to stimulation of the hair cells—the auditory receptors within the organ of Corti. The mechanical properties of the basilar membrane vary over its length (34 mm in humans), giving rise to a pattern of movement known as a traveling wave, or Békésy traveling wave. The location of the maximum movement depends on the frequency of the sound. This fundamental aspect of mammalian hearing was discovered by Georg von Békésy.

basket cell

basket cell a type of neuron found in the cerebellum.

basket ending

basket ending any of the nerve endings that are found around hair follicles and are responsible for sensations of contact and pressure.

basking in reflected glory (BIRGing)

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basolateral group

basolateral group one of the two main groups of nuclei in the amygdala within the brain and the largest portion of the amygdaloid complex. Its nuclei receive neuromodulatory input from various neurotransmitter systems in the basal forebrain and brainstem, are connected particularly with higher order sensory and limbic association areas, and project to the central amygdala. They are implicated in fear conditioning and emotional learning. Also called basolateral complex. See also corticomedial group.

BAT

BAT acronym for behavioral approach task.

Batesian mimicry

Batesian mimicry a form of mimicry in which a species that is nontoxic or palatable to predators mimics the physical shape or coloration of a toxic species. For example, some species of flies have black and yellow coloration similar to bees and wasps with stingers. When predators learn to avoid noxious prey and form generalizations about similar-looking animals, then nontoxic animals are more likely to survive by mimicking the toxic species. [Henry Walter Bates (1825–1892), British naturalist]

bath therapy

bath therapy the use of water immersion in therapy. See also hydrotherapy.

bathy-

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bathyesthesia

bathyesthesia n. awareness of sensations in the deep (subcutaneous) tissues of the body. Also called deep-pressure sensitivity; deep sensibility.

Batson v. Kentucky

Batson v. Kentucky a legal case resulting in a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that it is unconstitutional to exercise peremptory challenges during voir dire for the purpose of removing jurors on account of their race.

battered women

battered women women who are physically abused by their spouses or domestic partners. Woman beating is considered to surpass rape as the most underreported act of violent assault in the United States. Current data suggest that domestic violence against women is common and occurs in all social classes and ethnic and religious groups, as well as between same-sex partners. While the gender-based focus of this term reflects the higher incidence of domestic violence toward women, men may also be abused by domestic partners. See also intimate partner violence.

battered-child syndrome (BCS)

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battered-woman syndrome (BWS)

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batterer’s excuses

batterer’s excuses rationalizations given by individuals who beat their spouses or domestic partners. These may include claims of provocation, or that beating a spouse or partner is acceptable in the batterer’s culture, or that the batterer was angry. The victim of battering may come to believe in the batterer’s excuses, and such self-blame or other justifications for the abuser’s behavior can make it more difficult for the person to leave the relationship without adequate support. See also blaming the victim; cycle of violence.

battle fatigue

battle fatigue see combat stress reaction.

battle inoculation

battle inoculation training in simulated operational conditions (such as fire from real weapons) to prepare soldiers for deployment in combat. The battlefield performance of a soldier is directly related to the quality and amount of realistic unit and individual training that the soldier has received. Training must be related to the wartime mission of a unit and to the conditions it can expect to face. Live-fire training prepares soldiers for the shock and noise of combat. It not only helps to inoculate soldiers to the stresses of operations (including combat) but also enables them to learn methods for coping with their reactions to these stresses. Previous operational experience (especially in combat) also helps to prepare soldiers for future situations. See also stress training.

battle of the experts

battle of the experts a scenario in which expert witnesses from opposing sides of a legal dispute disagree over an issue that has to be decided to resolve the dispute. Such contradictory testimony is often of little help to the judge or jury in reaching a decision in the case.

battle shock

battle shock psychological impairment resulting from combat stress reactions. The expression was used in the Israeli Yom Kippur war to describe the condition of a combat stress casualty who was unable to tolerate further military combat.

battle/garrison dimensions

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battlefield recovery

battlefield recovery stressful tasks associated with the aftermath of an armed conflict, such as recovering casualties and bodies and identifying and burying the dead.

Bayes theorem

Bayes theorem a formula for calculating the probability that an event will occur that allows for the acquisition of new information regarding that event. For example, consider the probability that an individual will have a stroke within the next year. Using Bayes theorem, one could take an estimate of this probability based on general population data for that individual’s age group (i.e., the prior probability) and revise it to account for the results of that person’s stress tests and other cardiological markers, creating what is known as the posterior probability. [Thomas Bayes]

Bayesian

Bayesian adj. denoting an approach to statistical inference and probability that enables previously known (a priori) information about a population characteristic of interest to be incorporated into the analysis. In Bayesian methods, estimated quantities are based in part on empirical data (i.e., what was actually observed) and in part on collective or individual knowledge about what to expect in the population (as captured in a prior distribution). See also posterior distribution. [Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), British mathematician and theologian]

Bayesian inference

Bayesian inference a method of drawing conclusions about a characteristic of a population using both sample data and previously known information about that characteristic. It relies on Bayes theorem to derive posterior distributions from obtained observations and prior distributions. Compare frequentist inference. [Thomas Bayes]

Bayesian information criterion (BIC)

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Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development scales for assessing the developmental status of infants and young children ages 1 month to 42 months. Test stimuli, such as form boards, blocks, shapes, household objects (e.g., utensils), and other common items, are used to engage the child in specific tasks of increasing difficulty and elicit particular responses. The Bayley scales currently have five components. Tasks from the Mental scale are designed to evaluate such functions as perception, memory, and learning; those from the Motor scale measure gross and fine motor abilities, such as crawling, sitting, grasping, and object manipulation. The Behavior Rating scale (formerly called the Infant Behavior Record) contains detailed descriptions of specific categories of behavior that are graded on a 5-point scale. It supplements the Mental and Motor scales and provides an assessment of overall attention and arousal, orientation and engagement, emotion regulation, and motor quality. The final two components, the Social–Emotional scale and the Adaptive Behavior scale, use questionnaires to obtain parent or caregiver perceptions of their child’s development. The Bayley scales were originally published in 1969 and subsequently revised in 1993; the most recent version is the Bayley–III, published in 2005. [developed by Nancy Bayley]

BBB/G syndrome

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BBS

BBS acronym for Bardet–Biedl syndrome.

BCI

BCI abbreviation for brain–computer interface.

Bcl-2

Bcl-2 n. a family of genes whose protein products regulate programmed cell death.

BCS

BCS abbreviation for battered-child syndrome.

BDAE

BDAE abbreviation for Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination. See Boston Naming Test.

BDD

BDD abbreviation for body dysmorphic disorder.

BDI

BDI abbreviation for Beck Depression Inventory.

BDNF

BDNF abbreviation for brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

BDS

BDS abbreviation for Blessed Dementia Scale.

BEAM

BEAM abbreviation for brain electrical activity mapping.

beat

beat n. 1. a periodic change in loudness produced by superimposing two tones with similar frequencies. For example, the loudness of a 500 Hz tone and a 503 Hz tone when sounded together will fluctuate three times per second—the beat rate. 2. the periodic change in amplitude produced by superimposing two sinusoidal signals that are relatively close in frequency. See also roughness.

beating fantasy

beating fantasy in the classical psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud, a male or female child’s fantasy of being beaten by his or her father or mother. For both sexes, the fantasy is interpreted as an expression of the child’s oedipal desires toward the father and is said to be based on the child’s belief that the father beats the mother in the primal scene. Thus, the fantasy of being beaten provides sexual arousal.

Bechara Gambling Task

Bechara Gambling Task see Iowa Gambling Task.

Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)

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Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

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Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS)

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Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (BSS)

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Beck therapy

Beck therapy see cognitive therapy. [Aaron T. Beck]

Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome

Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome a growth disorder marked by enlarged tongue, large abdominal hernia, and enlarged viscera. Newborns may be born with an omphalocele (an opening in the wall of the abdomen) and develop hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Although children with this disorder are at increased risk for developing cancer, the majority reach adulthood with normal height and intelligence. The cause is usually unknown, but up to 15% of cases occur in families with more than one affected member. In those cases, it appears to be an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance and involves genes located on the short arm of chromosome 11 (locus 11p15). [described in the 1960s by John Bruce Beckwith (1933– ), U.S. physician, and Hans Rudolf Wiedemann (1915–2006), German pediatrician]

bed-sharing

bed-sharing n. a type of cosleeping in which an infant or young child sleeps with one or both parents in the same bed. Bed-sharing with infants is discouraged by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission because of the associated safety hazards and increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Also called family bed. Compare cobedding.

bed-wetting

bed-wetting n. the involuntary discharge of urine during sleep. Bed-wetting is considered problematic if it occurs in children older than 4 or 5 years of age; it is twice as common in boys. Also called sleep enuresis. See also elimination disorder; enuresis.

Bedlam

Bedlam n. the popular name for the Hospital of Saint Mary of Bethlehem in Bishopsgate, London, founded as a monastery in 1247 and converted into an asylum for the insane by Henry VIII in 1547. Many of the inmates were in a state of frenzy, and as they were shackled, starved, beaten, and exhibited to the public for a penny a look, general turmoil prevailed. The word itself thus became synonymous with wild confusion or frenzy. Sometimes the term bedlamism was used for psychotic behavior, and the term bedlamite for a psychotic individual.

bedsore

bedsore n. see pressure ulcer.

bee communication

bee communication the use of a set pattern of movements by a bee to communicate to other bees the direction and approximate distance to a source of food or a nest site. It comprises both a round dance and a waggle dance in the form of a figure 8; the intensity of these dances communicates the relative quality of a resource. The direction of the straight portion of the waggle dance with respect to gravity in the hive indicates the direction of the resource with respect to the sun. This dancing language is often cited as an example of bees’ ability to communicate about objects distant in time and space, but alternative explanations suggest that other signals (e.g., odors) are equally important in locating food sources.

before–after design

before–after design see pretest–posttest design.

begging

begging n. a series of vocalizations, often accompanied by mouth or bill opening, used by young nonhuman animals to entice their parents to feed them. In some species, each offspring has a distinct, individual form of begging that is used by parents for offspring recognition. Parents often give more food to the offspring with the most intense form of begging. In courtship, some adult females engage in begging, receiving food from a potential mate and in some cases reducing the male’s aggression.

behavior

behavior n. 1. an organism’s activities in response to external or internal stimuli, including objectively observable activities, introspectively observable activities (see covert behavior), and nonconscious processes. 2. more restrictively, any action or function that can be objectively observed or measured in response to controlled stimuli. Historically, behaviorists contrasted objective behavior with mental activities, which were considered subjective and thus unsuitable for scientific study. See behaviorism. —behavioral adj.

behavior analysis

behavior analysis the decomposition of behavior into its component parts or processes. This approach to psychology is based on the experimental analysis of behavior, in which behavior is the subject matter for research rather than an indicator of underlying psychological entities or processes. Emphasis is placed on interactions between behavior and the environment. See applied behavior analysis. [originally developed by B. F. Skinner]

behavior baseline

behavior baseline see behavioral baseline.

behavior chaining

behavior chaining see chaining.

behavior change

behavior change 1. a systematic approach to changing behavior through the use of operant conditioning. 2. any alteration or adjustment of behavior that affects a patient’s functioning, brought about by psychotherapeutic or other interventions or occurring spontaneously.

behavior checklist

behavior checklist a list of actions, responses, or other behaviors that are to be recorded each time they are observed, as by an experimental investigator, study participant, or clinician.

behavior coding

behavior coding a method of recording observations in which defined labels are used by specially trained individuals to denote specific qualities and characteristics of behaviors as they are witnessed. For example, a developmental researcher might use the following coding scheme for infant vocalizations: (a) vowels; (b) syllables (i.e., consonant–vowel transitions); (c) babbling (a sequence of repeated syllables); and (d) other (e.g., crying, laughing, vegetative sounds such as cooing). Behavior coding systems typically are specific to a given study and the behaviors under investigation.

behavior contract

behavior contract an agreement between therapist and client in which the client agrees to carry out certain behaviors, usually between sessions but sometimes during the session as well. Also called behavioral contract. See also contract; contingency contract.

behavior control

behavior control 1. the use of conditioning, therapeutic techniques, or other methods to steer individual or group behavior in a desired direction. For example, behavior control may be used to help children with conduct problems engage in more appropriate actions at school and at home. In some contexts, the term also refers to the misuse of certain treatments (e.g., drugs) to manage institutionalized individuals, particularly patients with mental illnesses. 2. see fate control.

behavior criterion

behavior criterion see behavioral criterion.

behavior deficit

behavior deficit see behavioral deficit.

behavior determinant

behavior determinant any factor that produces a behavioral effect.

behavior diary

behavior diary a detailed log of a person’s activities or responses as recorded by a trained observer or the individual himself or herself, usually on a regular basis over a specified interval of time. For example, a behavior diary might be used to log a study participant’s activities over a 24-hour period.

behavior disorder

behavior disorder any persistent and repetitive pattern of behavior that violates societal norms or rules, seriously impairs a person’s functioning, or creates distress in others. The term is used in a very general sense to cover a wide range of disorders or syndromes. Also called behavioral disorder. See also primary behavior disorder.

behavior disorders of childhood and adolescence

behavior disorders of childhood and adolescence observable behaviors in young people that deviate from the norm. The term is often used in special education and school placement.

behavior dysfunctions classification

behavior dysfunctions classification the classification of personal problems on the basis of behaviors rather than symptoms or hypothetical constructs. Such a classification leads the clinician to work on helping the patient change behaviors rather than treating syndromes or diseases.

behavior episode

behavior episode see behavioral sequence.

behavior field

behavior field any set of stimuli or conditions, or accumulation of factors, that produces a behavioral effect.

behavior genetics

behavior genetics see behavioral genetics.

behavior hierarchy

behavior hierarchy a ranking of possible responses based on the relative probabilities of their being elicited, with more probable behaviors ranked higher than less probable behaviors. Also called behavioral hierarchy.

behavior homeostasis

behavior homeostasis see behavioral homeostasis.

behavior homology

behavior homology see behavioral homology.

behavior integration

behavior integration see behavioral integration.

behavior management

behavior management the use of applied behavior analysis to produce significant change in human behavior. See also organizational behavior management.

behavior mapping

behavior mapping a technique of studying the activities of individuals within a space by noting what happens where. The degree of variability of behavior, as well as its association with certain types of environmental features, is a useful starting point to build or test hypotheses about, for example, architectural design. See also architectural programming.

behavior modification

behavior modification the use of operant conditioning, biofeedback, modeling, aversion conditioning, reciprocal inhibition, or other learning techniques as a means of changing human behavior. For example, behavioral modification is used in clinical contexts to improve adaptation and alleviate symptoms and in organizational contexts to encourage employees to adopt safe work practices. The term is often used synonymously with behavior therapy.

behavior observation

behavior observation the recording or evaluation of the ongoing behavior of one or more research participants by one or more observers. Behavior observation may be carried out live or through video media and often involves the use of rating scales, checklists, or charts.

behavior pattern

behavior pattern a complex arrangement of two or more responses that occur in a prescribed order. Behavior patterns are also referred to as chains of behavior, highlighting their nature as a complex linking of simpler segments of behavior. They may be formed via the operant conditioning of various segments presented in the appropriate order. Also called behavioral pattern.

behavior problem

behavior problem a pattern of disruptive behavior that generally falls within social norms and does not seriously impair a person’s functioning.

behavior rating

behavior rating use of a scale to assess the degree to which an individual displays one or more behaviors in a given situation.

Behavior Rating scale

Behavior Rating scale see Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development.

behavior record

behavior record a collection of observations of an organism’s behavior within a specified time frame. In animal studies, this involves documenting all observable actions of an individual within a defined period of time. In educational psychology, a behavioral record is a teacher’s written observations of a student’s behavior and personality (see anecdotal record).

behavior rehearsal

behavior rehearsal a technique used in behavior therapy or cognitive behavior therapy for modifying or enhancing social or interpersonal skills. The therapist introduces effective interpersonal strategies or behavior patterns to be practiced and rehearsed by the client until these are ready to be used in a real-life situation. The technique is also commonly used in assertiveness training. Also called behavioral rehearsal.

behavior reversal

behavior reversal a method of behavior modification in which the client, supervised by the therapist, practices desirable responses to interpersonal conflicts that are often opposite to his or her usual behavior.

behavior sampling

behavior sampling a data collection method in which the behaviors of one or more individuals are observed and recorded during a designated period of time. Observations can be made in either a natural or a research setting, and they may be conducted over multiple time periods with or without the awareness of the individual being observed.

behavior segment

behavior segment a distinct response that, when linked with other responses, forms a behavior pattern or chain. Also called behavioral segment.

behavior setting

behavior setting the geographical, physical, and social situation as it affects relationships and behavior. See also ecological psychology. [identified by U.S. developmental psychologist Roger G. Barker (1903–1990)]

behavior shaping

behavior shaping see shaping.

behavior system

behavior system 1. the different activities that can be undertaken to reach the same goal or carry out the same function; for example, communication is achieved through writing, speaking, or gestures. 2. the expression of important motives (e.g., hunger, sex, aggression), which varies between cultures and among individuals within the same culture who have had different training and experiences. Also called activity system.

behavior theory

behavior theory the assumption that behavior, including its acquisition, development, and maintenance, can be adequately explained by stimuli- and response-based principles of learning. Behavior theory attempts to describe environmental influences on behavior, often using controlled studies with laboratory animals. It encompasses historical approaches to formal theorizing, such as those of Clark L. Hull and Kenneth W. Spence, and the operant theory of B. F. Skinner, as well as contemporary approaches to behavior. Also called general behavior theory.

behavior therapy

behavior therapy a form of psychotherapy that applies the principles of learning, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning to eliminate symptoms and modify ineffective or maladaptive patterns of behavior. The focus of this therapy is upon the behavior itself and the contingencies and environmental factors that reinforce it, rather than exploration of the underlying psychological causes of the behavior. A wide variety of techniques are used in behavior therapy, such as behavior rehearsal, biofeedback, modeling, and systematic desensitization. Also called behavioral psychotherapy; conditioning therapy.

behavior-based safety

behavior-based safety an approach in safety engineering based on the premise that human behavior is learned and habitual and can thus be modified to avoid error and accidents. Its main application is in the field of training systems design, where the aim is to devise training programs that ingrain good safety habits. Additional applications include the design of organizational mechanisms to enhance workers’ involvement in safety programs and the design of machines or equipment to accord with the behaviors and habits of workers or consumers.

behavior-constraint theory

behavior-constraint theory the concept that an individual may acquire learned helplessness when repeated efforts fail to gain control over excessive or undesirable environmental stimuli.

behavioral activation

behavioral activation an intervention that explicitly aims to increase an individual’s engagement in valued life activities through guided goal setting to bring about improvements in thoughts, mood, and quality of life.

behavioral approach system (BAS)

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behavioral approach task (BAT)

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behavioral assessment

behavioral assessment the systematic study and evaluation of an individual’s behavior using a wide variety of techniques, including direct observation, interviews, and self-monitoring. When used to identify patterns indicative of disorder, the procedure is called behavioral diagnosis and is essential in deciding upon the use of specific behavioral or cognitive behavioral interventions.

behavioral avoidance test

behavioral avoidance test see behavioral approach task.

behavioral baseline

behavioral baseline a steady state of behavior against which the effects of introducing an independent variable may be compared. For example, a child may throw between six and eight tantrums per week over the course of several weeks. This level of tantrums could then serve as a behavioral baseline to assess the effectiveness of a treatment regimen. Also called behavior baseline.

behavioral cardiology

behavioral cardiology see cardiac psychology.

behavioral coaching

behavioral coaching the act of assisting an individual to change cognitive or physical behavior, or both, through demonstration, observation, and feedback.

behavioral confirmation

behavioral confirmation the process by which the actions of one person (the target) come to reinforce the expectations of another person (the perceiver) during the course of their social interaction. Behavioral confirmation processes are used to explain how expectations and beliefs, including stereotypes, come to affect reality. It is often considered a special case of the self-fulfilling prophecy or expectancy effect, but behavioral confirmation differs from these terms primarily in emphasizing that the target’s actual elicited behavior serves to confirm the perceiver’s initial beliefs. See also confirmation bias. [coined by Canadian-born U.S. psychologist Mark Snyder (1947– )]

behavioral congruence

behavioral congruence consistency between the aims, attitudes, and values professed by an individual or group and their observable behaviors. In personality research, for example, behavioral congruence occurs when individuals’ self-ratings are consistent with their actions, whereas in organizational contexts, it describes the situation in which employees’ personal goals and work-related behaviors are consistent with organizational goals.

behavioral consultation

behavioral consultation 1. indirect problem-solving services provided to an individual or organization by a specialized consultant utilizing behavior theory. 2. in school psychology, a model developed in the 1970s by U.S. educational psychologist John R. Bergan (1931– ) to address academic, social, or behavioral problems in students. The model combines applied behavior analysis with a step-by-step problem-solving approach to develop interventions and evaluate outcomes. The interventions are provided indirectly by a consulting school psychologist to a consultee—that is, to a teacher or other school professional—who directly applies them to students in need. A widely used adaptation of the model, conjoint behavioral consultation, was developed by U.S. educational psychologists Susan M. Sheridan (1960– ) and Thomas R. Kratochwill. It engages both teachers and parents collaboratively as consultees in the problem-solving process, with the guidance and support of a consulting school psychologist. See also mental health consultation.

behavioral contagion

behavioral contagion the rapid copying of the activities of one or a few people by others in the vicinity, often with little analysis of the situation. For example, audience members who all applaud or rise to a standing ovation after an initial person does, regardless of whether they actually enjoyed the performance, are demonstrating behavioral contagion. Also called behavior contagion. See also emotional contagion; mass contagion; social contagion.

behavioral contingency

behavioral contingency the relationship between a specific response and the frequency, regularity, and level of reinforcement for that response.

behavioral contract

behavioral contract see behavior contract.

behavioral contrast

behavioral contrast in research, an increased response for a more favorable reward following exposure to a less favorable reinforcer (positive contrast), or a decreased response for a less favorable reward following exposure to a more favorable reinforcer (negative contrast). The phenomenon illustrates that the effects of reinforcement depend on context.

behavioral coping

behavioral coping any strategy in which a person manages a stressful event or situation by modifying his or her actions. As with the converse cognitive coping, behavioral coping has several forms, including seeking social support or otherwise obtaining help from others, directly attempting to resolve the problematic situation, adjusting customary activities (e.g., by beginning an exercise routine, going on vacation), and expressing emotions.

behavioral counseling

behavioral counseling a system of counseling in which the primary focus is on changing client behavior through self-management, operant conditioning, and related techniques. Specific behaviors are targeted for modification, and intervention strategies and environmental changes are then established in order to bring about the desired modification.

behavioral couples therapy

behavioral couples therapy a couples therapy that focuses on interrupting negative interaction patterns through instruction, modeling, rehearsal, feedback, positive behavior exchange, and structured problem solving. This therapy can be conducted with individual couples or in a couples group format. When practiced with legally married partners, it is called behavioral marital therapy, though some practitioners use this term interchangeably with behavioral couples therapy. See also cognitive behavioral couples therapy; communication skills training; integrative behavioral couples therapy.

behavioral criterion

behavioral criterion an aspect of actual (rather than self-reported) behavior that must exist in a person for an accurate diagnosis to be made. Also called behavior criterion.

behavioral deficit

behavioral deficit the lack of certain age-specific aspects of behavior in an individual, who is therefore not developmentally on target. Also called behavior deficit.

behavioral diagnosis

behavioral diagnosis see behavioral assessment.

behavioral disorder

behavioral disorder see behavior disorder.

behavioral dynamics

behavioral dynamics the internal motivational patterns or causes underlying overt behavior.

behavioral ecology

behavioral ecology the study of the interaction between the environment and the behavior of organisms within that environment. Behavioral ecology is primarily concerned with adaptive aspects of nonhuman animal behavior, especially within a natural environment. Research formerly focused on the acquisition and use of resources, but more recent research has also studied the adaptive significance of social interactions, blending behavioral ecology with sociobiology.

behavioral economics

behavioral economics an interdisciplinary field concerned with understanding how heuristics, biases, and other psychological variables influence economic behavior. In contrast to the standard view within traditional economics that people are rational actors who always make choices to maximize their well-being, behavioral economists view human rationality as limited and subject to personal, social, and situational influences (see bounded rationality). Thus, they seek to devise more realistic, psychologically plausible models of economic behavior to account for a variety of decision-making anomalies and market inconsistencies that have been observed, such as loss aversion (the tendency to go to disproportionately great lengths to avoid perceived losses), temporal discounting (the tendency to prefer small rewards received sooner to larger ones received later), the endowment effect, the framing effect, the magnitude effect (the tendency to discount smaller gains more rapidly than larger ones), the sign effect (the tendency to discount gains more rapidly than losses), the status-quo bias (the tendency to keep things as they are and avoid making changes), and the sunk-costs effect (the tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested money, time, or effort). [derived primarily from the work of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky]

behavioral embryology

behavioral embryology the study of the behavior of embryos. Embryonic chickens and ducks display sensitivity to different types of sensory stimuli before hatching, and motor movements similar to those needed for feeding can be seen. Embryonic rats also display many sensory and motor capacities, as well as learning, prior to birth.

behavioral endocrinology

behavioral endocrinology the study of the relationships between the functioning of the endocrine glands and neuroendocrine cells (see neuroendocrinology) and behavior. A variety of endocrine glands, including the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands, have been shown to affect behavior. For example, gonadal secretion of sex hormones influences sexual behavior, and secretion of corticosteroids by the adrenal glands influences physiological and behavioral responses to stress.

behavioral engineering

behavioral engineering the use of technology to modify behavior, as in the use of metronomes to reduce stuttering. The term is also used as a synonym for behavior modification itself.

behavioral family therapy

behavioral family therapy a family treatment that is characterized by behavioral analysis of presenting problems and a focus on overt behavior change through application of learning-based behavioral principles and techniques of behavior therapy. Techniques used to modify targeted behavior patterns include behavior contracts, instruction, modeling, and rehearsal.

behavioral finance

behavioral finance a field, closely related to behavioral economics, that studies the impact of emotion, cognitive biases, and other psychological factors on financial decision making and hence on financial markets. In particular, behavioral finance emphasizes the role such factors play in irrational investment behavior (e.g., under- or overreaction to financial information) and its consequences in market fluctuations (e.g., financial bubbles, panics). See also mental accounting.

behavioral genetics

behavioral genetics the study of familial or hereditary behavior patterns and of the genetic mechanisms of behavior traits. Also called behavior genetics.

behavioral geography

behavioral geography the study of the cognitive processes by which humans form an understanding of their environment and the influence of these processes and this understanding on behavior. Researchers in the field are particularly interested in the analysis of cognitive maps, seeking to answer such questions as how well these maps correspond to the environments they represent and how people utilize them in understanding their surroundings and in making decisions about how to behave. For example, some behavioral geographers attempt to explain criminal activity or risk taking (e.g., living in flood plains) in terms of such an approach.

behavioral group therapy

behavioral group therapy a form of group therapy that applies learning-based behavioral principles and techniques, including modeling, rehearsal, social reinforcement, systematic desensitization, and other methods of behavior therapy, in the context of a group. See also cognitive behavioral group therapy.

behavioral health

behavioral health an interdisciplinary subspecialty of behavioral medicine that promotes a philosophy emphasizing individual responsibility in the maintenance of one’s own health and in the prevention of illness and dysfunction by means of self-initiated activities (jogging, exercising, healthy eating, not smoking, etc.). [proposed by U.S. psychologist Joseph D. Matarazzo (1925– )]

behavioral health care

behavioral health care see mental health care.

behavioral hierarchy

behavioral hierarchy see behavior hierarchy.

behavioral homeostasis

behavioral homeostasis an organism’s tendency to maintain stability or equilibrium through various behavioral processes. For example, temperature regulation is achieved via shivering, sweating, or panting, and satiety is achieved by the initiation and then cessation of feeding behavior. Also called behavior homeostasis. See also homeostasis.

behavioral homology

behavioral homology functional similarity (i.e., common behavior) across species, suggestive of a shared ancestral origin. Also called behavior homology.

behavioral immunogen

behavioral immunogen a behavior or lifestyle associated with a decreased risk of illness and with longer life. Examples of behavioral immunogens are moderate consumption of alcohol, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and a healthy diet. Compare behavioral pathogen.

behavioral incident

behavioral incident a single, separate behavioral event with a clearly defined start and finish (e.g., brushing one’s teeth), which may be combined with other events to form a behavioral sequence (e.g., a morning grooming routine of brushing one’s teeth, washing one’s face, and combing one’s hair).

behavioral inhibition

behavioral inhibition a temperamental predisposition characterized by restraint in engaging with the world combined with a tendency to scrutinize the environment for potential threats and to avoid or withdraw from unfamiliar situations or people. It is often related to social anxiety and a predisposition for greater physiological reactivity to novel situations. [first described by U.S. psychologists Jerome Kagan and J. Steven Reznick (1951– )]

behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

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behavioral integration

behavioral integration 1. the combination of separate individual behaviors into a synchronized or coordinated behavioral unit. 2. a model for environmentally sound behavior that specifies the relevant cognitions and affects and their interactions. Also called behavior integration.

behavioral interview

behavioral interview an approach to clinical interviewing that focuses on relating a problem behavior to antecedent stimuli and the consequences of reinforcement.

behavioral marital therapy

behavioral marital therapy see behavioral couples therapy.

behavioral medicine

behavioral medicine a field that applies behavioral theories and methods to the prevention and treatment of medical and psychological disorders. Areas of application include chronic illness, lifestyle issues (e.g., substance abuse, obesity), somatoform disorders, and the like. Behavioral medicine is an interdisciplinary field in which physicians, psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and others work together in patient care; it includes strong integration of biological, psychosocial, behavioral, and interpersonal perspectives in developing biopsychosocial models of illnesses and interventions to treat and manage them as well as to promote healthy behaviors. See also behavioral health.

behavioral mimicry

behavioral mimicry see mimicry.

behavioral model

behavioral model a conceptualization of psychological disorders in terms of overt behavior patterns produced by learning and the influence of reinforcement contingencies. Treatment techniques, including systematic desensitization and modeling, focus on modifying ineffective or maladaptive patterns.

behavioral modeling

behavioral modeling 1. a training technique in which workers are instructed on and then shown a skill or problem-solving method that they then practice using role play or a computer simulation. 2. any conscious or nonconscious imitation of the behavior of another person.

behavioral momentum

behavioral momentum the resistance to change through time of some activity in the face of manipulations intended to disrupt that activity. The more difficult it is to disrupt an activity, the greater its behavioral momentum.

behavioral neurochemistry

behavioral neurochemistry the study of the relationships between behavior and biochemical influences, including the effects of drugs on metabolic processes within the brain and the roles of different neurotransmitters and neuroregulatory substances.

behavioral neuropsychology

behavioral neuropsychology a subspecialty of clinical neuropsychology that integrates behavior therapy techniques into the treatment of individuals with brain damage.

behavioral neuroscience

behavioral neuroscience a branch of neuroscience and biological psychology that seeks to understand and characterize the specific neural circuitry and mechanisms underlying behavioral propensities or capacities.

behavioral observation scale (BOS)

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behavioral pathogen

behavioral pathogen a behavior or lifestyle that may increase the risk of developing illness or disability and may reduce life expectancy. Examples of behavioral pathogens are smoking, drug abuse, poor diet, unprotected sexual activity, and a sedentary lifestyle. Compare behavioral immunogen.

behavioral pattern

behavioral pattern see behavior pattern.

behavioral pediatrics

behavioral pediatrics a multidisciplinary specialty that is often part of pediatric psychology, clinical child psychology, and health psychology. Practitioners address such problems as habit disorders, oppositional behavior, sleep and eating disorders, and physical health problems (e.g., traumatic brain injury). In the medical literature, the specialty is also called developmental-behavioral pediatrics.

behavioral pharmacology

behavioral pharmacology a branch of pharmacology concerned with the physiological and behavioral mechanisms by which drugs operate, encompassing not only the effects of drugs on behavior but also how behavioral factors contribute to the actions of drugs and the ways in which they are used.

behavioral phenotype

behavioral phenotype a pattern of observable motor, cognitive, linguistic, and social abnormalities that is consistently associated with a disorder. In some cases, the behavioral phenotype may constitute a discrete psychological disorder; in others, the abnormalities are usually not regarded as symptoms of a psychological disorder.

behavioral plasticity

behavioral plasticity the degree to which behavior can be influenced and modified by social experience and learning. High plasticity leaves ample room for change, whereas low plasticity involves inflexible behavior patterns.

behavioral procedure

behavioral procedure any psychological procedure based on the principles and techniques of behavior theory. It may be used in basic research or in applied settings. See applied behavior analysis.

behavioral psychology

behavioral psychology an approach to understanding psychological phenomena that focuses on observable aspects of behavior and makes use of behavior theory for explanation. See also behaviorism.

behavioral psychotherapy

behavioral psychotherapy see behavior therapy.

behavioral rehearsal

behavioral rehearsal see behavior rehearsal.

behavioral relaxation training

behavioral relaxation training a form of relaxation training and behavior therapy that emphasizes labeling of sensations, modeling, reinforcement, and therapist feedback. See also progressive relaxation.

behavioral repertoire

behavioral repertoire see repertoire.

behavioral risk factor

behavioral risk factor any specific behavior or pattern of behaviors (e.g., overeating or smoking) that increases an individual’s likelihood of developing a disorder, disease, or syndrome.

behavioral science

behavioral science any of various disciplines that use systematic observation and experimentation in the scientific study of human and nonhuman animal actions and reactions. Psychology, sociology, and anthropology are examples.

behavioral segment

behavioral segment see behavior segment.

behavioral self-control training

behavioral self-control training a technique in behavior therapy that uses self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement, coaching, behavior contracts, and relapse prevention approaches+ to help clients achieve active coping strategies, to increase their sense of mastery, and to decrease undesired habits (e.g., nail biting). See also behavioral weight control therapy.

behavioral sequence

behavioral sequence a combination of behavioral incidents directed toward a particular goal or outcome (e.g., getting ready for work in the morning). Also called behavior episode.

behavioral sex therapy

behavioral sex therapy a form of sex therapy that uses behavior therapy methods to bring about changes to behavioral sequences that hinder healthy sexual functioning. Behavioral sequences can include those that are relationship-based (e.g., communication behaviors) or specifically sexually based (e.g., avoidance of sexual stimuli).

behavioral sink

behavioral sink the destructive behaviors among nonhuman animals that occur with overcrowding; these include increased aggression and decreased maternal behavior. This was an unexpected finding of studies in 1962 by U.S. experimental psychologist John B. Calhoun (1917–1995) in which rats were given unlimited food and water and allowed to reproduce without intervention. Population density increased rapidly, and the animals displayed increasingly pathological behavior.

behavioral sleep medicine (BSM)

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behavioral specialization

behavioral specialization in animal behavior, adaptation to the conditions and challenges of a specific environment as applied to the selection of habitats, food, and mates. For example, when foraging for foods in competition with other species, those individuals that specialize in a few types of foods, known as “specialists,” are usually more efficient in finding and processing food than are generalists. Finches in the Galápagos Islands have diverged, some specializing on insects, others on seeds. Within each of these broad groupings, some specialize on larger and others on smaller food items. Although behavioral specialization provides a competitive advantage in stable environments, generalists can respond more quickly to changing environments. Highly endangered species tend to show specialization.

behavioral study of obedience

behavioral study of obedience the experimental analysis, especially as carried out by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s, of individuals’ willingness to obey the orders of an authority. In Milgram’s experiment, each participant played the role of a teacher who was instructed to deliver painful electric shocks to other “participants” for each failure to answer a question correctly. The latter were in fact confederates who did not actually receive shocks for their many deliberate errors. Milgram found that a substantial number of participants (65%) were completely obedient, delivering what they believed were shocks of increasing intensity despite the protestations and apparent suffering of the victims. See also agentic state; destructive obedience.

behavioral technology

behavioral technology experimentally established procedures (influenced by scientific behavior analysis) that are designed to produce behavioral change.

behavioral teratology

behavioral teratology the study of impairments in behavior that are produced by embryonic or fetal exposure to toxic substances that affect the developing organism (see teratogen).

behavioral theory of leadership

behavioral theory of leadership any of various models that define and explain leadership in terms of the actions leaders take to influence others rather than in terms of their motivations, traits, or past experiences. In these models, leadership is viewed as a behavioral response that can be learned. See also leadership theories.

behavioral toxicity

behavioral toxicity an adverse behavioral change produced by psychotropic drugs, for example, insomnia, sedation, impaired psychomotor activity, or changes in mental status.

behavioral toxicology

behavioral toxicology the study of the behavioral impact of toxic exposure. There is increasing evidence that many toxins produce subtle behavioral changes, often in neurosensory functioning, at levels far below thresholds for detectable neurological damage. Perhaps the best known example is lead, which is now banned from gasoline and interior paint in many countries because of its low-level toxicological effects on the behavior of developing children.

behavioral weight control therapy

behavioral weight control therapy any intervention that uses the principles and techniques of behavior therapy to help clients change eating and exercise habits to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. Practiced in group or individual sessions, these techniques include self-monitoring, behavior contracts, environmental change (e.g., eating seated and only in a specific room), and reinforcement (e.g., social or monetary). See also behavioral self-control training.

behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS)

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behaviorism

behaviorism n. an approach to psychology, formulated in 1913 by John B. Watson, based on the study of objective, observable facts rather than subjective, qualitative processes, such as feelings, motives, and consciousness. To make psychology a naturalistic science, Watson proposed to limit it to quantitative events, such as stimulus–response relationships, effects of conditioning, physiological processes, and a study of human and animal behavior, all of which can best be investigated through laboratory experiments that yield objective measures under controlled conditions. Historically, behaviorists held that mind was not a proper topic for scientific study since mental events are subjective and not independently verifiable. With its emphasis on activity as an adaptive function, behaviorism is seen as an outgrowth of functionalism. See descriptive behaviorism; methodological behaviorism; neobehaviorism; radical behaviorism.

behaviorist

behaviorist n. a person who espouses the principles of behaviorism and whose activities are deliberately guided by those principles. See also behavior analysis; behavior modification.

Behrens–Fisher problem

Behrens–Fisher problem the problem of comparing the means of two samples drawn from different populations when the variances of these populations are not assumed to be equal. In other words, the problem involves the difficulty of making statistical inferences in the absence of equal population variances. The Behrens–Fisher problem may be addressed in many ways, such as by using a t test to estimate a probability level (p value) or by using confidence intervals to estimate the range of uncertainty around the mean difference. [W.U. Behrens; Ronald Aylmer Fisher]

being cognition (B-cognition)

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being love (B-love)

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being motivation

being motivation see metamotivation.

being psychology

being psychology a psychological perspective that deals with “persons insofar as they are ends-in-themselves.” It is concerned with acknowledgment of the sacred, the unique, and the incomparable in individual human beings. See also humanistic psychology; self-actualization. [developed by Abraham Maslow]

being value

being value see metaneed.

being-beyond-the-world

being-beyond-the-world n. in existential psychology, the potential for human beings to transcend the limitations of being-in-the-world, usually through selfless love. See also Dasein. [introduced by Swiss existential psychologist Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966)]

being-in-the-world

being-in-the-world n. in theories and clinical approaches derived from existentialism, the particular type of being characteristic of humans, in contrast to the type of being of nonhuman animals, inanimate objects, or abstractions. The term is roughly synonymous with Dasein, the term used by German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). The word being is meant to emphasize that human existence is an activity more than a state or condition. Similarly, world is meant to convey a much richer and more meaningful ground for human life than would be conveyed by a more sterile term, such as environment. Being-in-the-world is by its very nature oriented toward meaning and growth; while it characterizes the type of being of all humans, it is also unique for every person and can be seen to be offering an explanation of what in other psychological traditions might be called identity or self. Compare being-beyond-the-world. See also world design.

being–not being

being–not being the fundamental issue that, according to German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), motivates human beings, namely, the question of existence and nonexistence (personhood and mortality). See Dasein.

Békésy audiometer

Békésy audiometer the first automatic audiometer with patient-controlled push-button responses and an ink recorder to graph the audiogram throughout the testing process. It yields tracings for continuous and interrupted tones at controlled frequencies. [Georg von Békésy]

Békésy traveling wave

Békésy traveling wave see basilar membrane. [Georg von Békésy]

Bekhterev’s nystagmus

Bekhterev’s nystagmus a form of nystagmus that develops after the loss of a second labyrinth. Nystagmus occurs after the destruction of the first of the two labyrinths but eventually subsides, only to recur as a compensatory effect after loss of the second labyrinth. Also called compensatory nystagmus. [Vladimir M. Bekhterev]

bel

bel (symbol: B) n. see decibel.

belief

belief n. 1. acceptance of the truth, reality, or validity of something (e.g., a phenomenon, a person’s veracity), particularly in the absence of substantiation. 2. an association of some characteristic or attribute, usually evaluative in nature, with an attitude object (e.g., this car is reliable).

belief bias

belief bias the tendency to be influenced by one’s knowledge about the world in evaluating conclusions and to accept them as true because they are believable rather than because they are logically valid. Belief bias is most often assessed with syllogistic reasoning tasks in which the believability of the conclusion conflicts with logical validity. For example, given the syllogisms All flowers have petals; roses have petals; therefore, roses are flowers and All fish can swim; tuna are fish; therefore, tuna can swim, an individual is more likely to rely upon prior knowledge and personal beliefs and to accept both conclusions as valid when in fact only the second is logically valid.

belief in a just world

belief in a just world see just-world hypothesis.

belief perseverance

belief perseverance the tendency to maintain a belief even after the information that originally gave rise to it has been refuted or otherwise shown to be inaccurate.

belief system

belief system a set of two or more beliefs, attitudes, or both that are associated with one another in memory. See also attitude system.

belief–desire reasoning

belief–desire reasoning the process by which one explains and predicts another’s behavior on the basis of one’s understanding of the other’s desires and beliefs. Belief–desire reasoning is the basis for theory of mind. See also mindblindness.

belittling

belittling n. acting, speaking, or thinking in a way intended to lessen the perceived value or status of the target. —belittle vb.

bell and pad

bell and pad a device used in treatments aimed at controlling nocturnal enuresis (bed-wetting) in children. If the child begins to lose bladder control while asleep, an electric circuit within a bed pad sets off an alarm upon initial detection of the urine, thus awakening the child before he or she wets the entire bed.

bell curve

bell curve the characteristic curve obtained by plotting a graph of a normal distribution. With a large rounded central peak tapering off on either side, it resembles a cross-sectional representation of a bell. Also called bell-shaped curve.

Bell–Magendie law

Bell–Magendie law the principle that the ventral roots of the spinal cord are motor in function and the dorsal roots are sensory. [Charles Bell (1774–1842), Scottish surgeon and anatomist; François Magendie (1783–1855), French physiologist]

Bell’s mania

Bell’s mania see lethal catatonia. [Luther Vose Bell (1806–1862), U.S. physician]

Bell’s palsy

Bell’s palsy paralysis of the facial nerve, causing weakness of the muscles on one side of the face and resulting in a distorted expression, inability to close the eye, and often taste loss and sensitivity to sound. [Charles Bell (1774–1842), Scottish surgeon and anatomist]

Bell’s phenomenon

Bell’s phenomenon the upward and outward movement of the eye that normally occurs when attempting to close the eye. It is seen most prominently in individuals with Bell’s palsy when they attempt to close the eye on the affected side. [Charles Bell]

belladonna alkaloid

belladonna alkaloid any substance obtained from the shrub Atropa belladonna (commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade). Such substances were known to the ancient Hindus and were used in the Middle Ages as poisons (the genus is named for Atropos, eldest of the mythological Fates, who cuts the thread of life). Their pharmacology was unknown until the 1860s, when they were found to affect heart rate, salivary secretion, and other body functions. Atropine and scopolamine are the best known examples.

belladonna delirium

belladonna delirium delirium due to the effects on the central nervous system of large doses of belladonna alkaloids, such as atropine and scopolamine. Symptoms, in addition to delirium, include hallucinations and overactive coordinated limb movements.

belladonna poisoning

belladonna poisoning poisoning due to ingestion of berries of the belladonna plant, Atropa belladonna (also called deadly nightshade). These contain atropine, which paralyzes the parasympathetic nervous system. The symptoms include visual hallucinations, mutism, dilated pupils, unresponsiveness, and disorientation.

belle indifférence

belle indifférence see la belle indifférence.

Bellevue scale

Bellevue scale see Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

belonging

belonging n. the feeling of being accepted and approved by a group or by society as a whole. Also called belongingness.

belongingness principle

belongingness principle see principle of belongingness.

below average

below average denoting a range of intellectual functioning that is just below the average range, roughly between 80 and 90 on most IQ scales, and is inconsistent with the presence of intellectual disability. Such a range may also be described as low normal or dull normal, but below average is now the preferred term.

below-average effect

below-average effect the tendency of a person to underestimate his or her intellectual and social abilities relative to others. The below-average effect is common when the skill in question is relatively hard (e.g., sculpting human figures from clay), whereas the opposite above-average effect generally occurs when the skill in question is relatively easy (e.g., operating a computer mouse). Also called worse-than-average effect.

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

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Benadryl

Benadryl n. a trade name for diphenhydramine.

bench trial

bench trial a trial in which the judge, not a jury, decides the defendant’s guilt or innocence.

benchmark

benchmark n. a measure of best performance for a particular process or outcome, which can be used as a reference to improve performance in other settings.

benchmark job

benchmark job a specific job that is used as a reference point for the purpose of evaluation or comparison. Jobs chosen as benchmarks tend to be well known, remain consistent across diverse organizations and industries, and have readily available external market data. They can therefore be and are used to create job descriptions, set pay levels, and measure performance. See classification method; factor-comparison method.

Bender Visual–Motor Gestalt Test

Bender Visual–Motor Gestalt Test a visuoconstructive test in which the participant first copies line drawings of 16 geometric figures onto blank pieces of paper (Copy Phase) and then redraws them from memory (Recall Phase). All reproductions are scored on a 5-point scale, ranging from 0 (no resemblance) to 4 (nearly perfect). The test is appropriate for individuals ages 4 years and older and is used to assess visual–motor functioning and perceptual ability. It is sometimes also used, albeit controversially, in conjunction with personality tests to determine the presence of emotional and psychological disturbances, such as schizophrenia. Originally developed in 1938 with 9 figures, the test (often shortened to Bender–Gestalt) is now in its second edition (published in 2003). [Lauretta Bender (1897–1987), U.S. psychiatrist]

bends

bends n. see decompression sickness.

beneffectance

beneffectance n. a combination of benevolence and effectiveness. According to the U.S. social psychologist who coined the term, Anthony G. Greenwald (1939– ), people routinely distort memories of their own prior actions so as to enhance their own sense of beneffectance. That is, they engage in motivated distortion of information so as to appear to themselves and others as morally good, well intentioned, competent, and successful. See positive illusion.

Benham’s top

Benham’s top a disk with a black and white design that appears to consist of colored rings when rotated. See Fechner’s colors. [Charles E. Benham (1860–1929), British scientist]

benign

benign adj. 1. in mental health, denoting a disorder or illness that is not serious and has a favorable prognosis. 2. denoting a disease condition that is relatively mild, transient, or not associated with serious pathology. Compare malignant.

benign familial macrocephaly

benign familial macrocephaly see macrocephaly.

benign senescence (benign senescent forgetfulness)

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benign stupor

benign stupor 1. a state of unresponsiveness, immobility, and indifference to one’s surroundings that is unlikely to be permanent. 2. psychomotor retardation and apathy that often occur in severe major depressive episodes.

benny

benny n. (pl. bennies) slang for an amphetamine tablet. See amphetamines.

Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT)

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Benzedrine

Benzedrine n. a trade name for racemic amphetamine: that is, a mixture of levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.

benzene

benzene n. a volatile solvent that, when chronically inhaled, can cause kidney failure and death. See inhalant.

benzisoxazole

benzisoxazole n. a class of atypical antipsychotics that include risperidone and iloperidone.

benzodiazepine

benzodiazepine n. any of a family of drugs that depress central nervous system activity (CNS depressants) and also produce sedation and relaxation of skeletal muscles. Benzodiazepines include the prototype chlordiazepoxide; other anxiolytics such as alprazolam, clonazepam, and diazepam; and hypnotics such as estazolam, flurazepam, quazepam, temazepam, and triazolam. They are commonly used in the treatment of generalized anxiety, panic disorder, and insomnia and are useful in the management of acute withdrawal from alcohol and of seizure disorders. Clinically introduced in the 1960s, they rapidly supplanted the barbiturates, largely due to their significantly lower toxicity in overdose. Members of the group show considerable variation in abuse potential, and prolonged use can lead to tolerance and psychological and physical dependence.

benzodiazepine agonist

benzodiazepine agonist any drug that facilitates the binding of benzodiazepines to subunits of the benzodiazepine receptor complex (see GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor).

benzodiazepine antagonist

benzodiazepine antagonist any agent that prevents the binding of benzodiazepines and related chemicals to the benzodiazepine receptor site on the GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor complex. Benzodiazepine antagonists in clinical use include flumazenil.

benzothiadiazide

benzothiadiazide n. see thiazide diuretic.

benztropine

benztropine n. an anticholinergic drug used in the management of adverse side effects of conventional antipsychotic drugs and as an adjunct in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. U.S. trade name: Cogentin.

berdache

berdache n. see two-spirit.

bereavement

bereavement n. the condition of having lost a loved one to death. The bereaved person may experience emotional pain and distress (see grief; traumatic grief) and may or may not express this distress to others (see mourning; disenfranchised grief); individual grief and mourning responses vary. Bereavement may also signify a change in social status (e.g., from wife to widow). —bereaved adj.

bereavement exclusion

bereavement exclusion in DSM–IV–TR, a statement that rules out, as symptoms of a major depressive episode, an individual’s responses to the death of a loved one (e.g., sadness) unless they last longer than 2 months after the death, markedly impair function, or are accompanied by such symptoms as suicidal ideation. DSM–5 has replaced this exclusion with a broader statement that characterizes an individual’s normal responses to various types of significant loss (e.g., bereavement, financial ruin, disability) as nonetheless meriting careful clinical consideration of the possibility that they may co-occur with a major depressive episode. See also persistent complex bereavement disorder.

bereavement program

bereavement program any of a variety of treatment services (e.g., support groups, grief counseling) offered to individuals coping with the death of a loved one.

bereavement therapy

bereavement therapy therapy or counseling provided to individuals who are experiencing loss following the death of a loved one. The therapy may address issues of separation, grieving, and carrying on with life. See also grief counseling.

Bereitschaftspotential (BP)

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Berger rhythm

Berger rhythm see alpha wave. [Hans Berger (1873–1944), German neuropsychiatrist]

beriberi

beriberi n. a nutritional disease caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency and characterized by neurological symptoms and cardiovascular abnormalities. See also Wernicke’s encephalopathy.

Berkeley Growth Study

Berkeley Growth Study a study seeking to understand the mental abilities relevant at different ages of life, as well as their importance. A group of participants was followed beginning at 21 months of age for a period of over 50 years (from 1928 to 1982). [conducted by Nancy Bayley]

Bernoulli distribution

Bernoulli distribution a theoretical distribution of the number of trials required before the first success is obtained in a Bernoulli process (see Bernoulli trial). Such a distribution is defined by two values: 0 and 1. Usually a value of 0 is used to denote a failure (i.e., the item of interest does not occur) and a value of 1 is used to denote a success (i.e., the item of interest does occur). On this basis, the likeliness of a success is denoted as p and the likeliness of a failure is denoted as q = 1 − p. For example, a single toss of a coin has a Bernoulli distribution with p = 0.5 (where 0 = heads and 1 = tails). A Bernoulli distribution is a special case of a binomial distribution. [Jacques Bernoulli (1654–1705), Swiss mathematician and scientist]

Bernoulli trial

Bernoulli trial a single experiment in which the only two possible outcomes are success or failure. Usually a value of 0 is used to denote a failure (i.e., the item of interest does not occur) and a value of 1 is used to denote a success (i.e., the item does occur). A sequence of Bernoulli trials is known as a Bernoulli process. See also Bernoulli distribution. [Jacques Bernoulli]

Berry syndrome

Berry syndrome see Treacher Collins syndrome. [reported in 1889 by George Andreas Berry (1853–1929), British physician]

berserk

berserk 1. adj. destructive or violent. 2. n. one who is destructive or violent. The term is derived from an Old Norse word literally meaning “bearshirt,” used to describe ancient Norse warriors who wore bearskins during battle and fought with great strength and fury. The term is now rather archaic.

Bessel’s correction

Bessel’s correction an adjustment used to reduce bias when calculating the variance and standard deviation in a sample. Specifically, it is the use of n − 1 instead of n in the denominator of the computational formulas used to compute these values, where n is the number of observations in the sample. [Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846), German-born Russian astronomer and mathematician]

BEST

BEST acronym for Biographical Evaluation and Screening of Troops.

best fit

best fit the theoretical pattern that best accounts for the relationships among variables in a data set. For example, a regression equation having the best fit to sample data is the one that minimizes differences between observed and predicted values. On a scatterplot, a line of best fit provides a visual depiction of this pattern, allowing extrapolation to values not part of the original data set. It is important to note that the best-fitting pattern is not necessarily the one that generated the observed data, as other patterns not considered may provide a superior fit.

best frequency (BF)

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best interests of the child

best interests of the child a standard used by courts to make child custody decisions, namely, that the potential for the child to lead a happy and successful life should be given greater weight than the rights of either parent or caregiver.

best-first search

best-first search a problem-solving strategy in which various possible paths to a solution are evaluated in terms of the likelihood that they will prove successful and the path judged most promising is attempted first. See heuristic search.

bestiality

bestiality n. sexual excitement or gratification obtained by a human through anal or genital intercourse or other sexual contact with a nonhuman animal. Also called zooerastia; zooerasty. See also sodomy; zoophilia.

beta

beta (symbol: β) n. 1. the likeliness of committing a Type II error in research. 2. the effect of a predictor variable on an outcome variable, such as in regression analysis or structural equation modeling.

beta alcoholism

beta alcoholism see Jellinek’s alcoholism species.

beta blocker

beta blocker see adrenergic blocking agent.

beta coefficient

beta coefficient the multiplicative constant in a regression analysis that indicates the change in an outcome variable associated with the change in a predictor variable after each has been standardized to have a distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. A beta coefficient controls for the effect of other predictors included in the analysis and thus allows for direct comparison of the individual variables despite differences in measurement scales (e.g., salary measured in dollars and educational degree measured in years of schooling). Also called beta weight.

beta distribution

beta distribution a family of probability distributions whose values range from 0 to 1 and whose shape is defined by two quantities (parameters) referred to as α and β. A beta distribution provides the likelihood of obtaining each of the possible values within the 0, 1 range.

beta error

beta error see Type II error.

Beta examination

Beta examination see Army tests.

beta level

beta level the likeliness of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is in fact false, that is, the probability of making a Type II error. The beta level for a given statistical procedure is related to the power of that procedure (β level = 1 – power).

beta movement

beta movement see apparent movement.

beta receptor

beta receptor see beta-adrenergic receptor.

beta rhythm

beta rhythm see beta wave.

Beta test

Beta test see Army tests.

beta wave

beta wave in electroencephalography, the type of brain wave (frequency 13–30 Hz) associated with alert wakefulness and intense mental activity. Also called beta rhythm.

beta weight

beta weight see beta coefficient.

beta-adrenergic receptor

beta-adrenergic receptor a receptor that binds norepinephrine. There are two main types, designated β1 and β2. The former mediate stimulation of heart muscle, causing a faster and stronger heartbeat. The latter are associated with relaxation of smooth muscle, causing (for example) dilation of blood vessels and widening of airways. Also called beta adrenoceptor; beta adrenoreceptor; beta receptor. Compare alpha-adrenergic receptor.

beta-adrenergic receptor kinase (barK)

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beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agent

beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agent see adrenergic blocking agent.

beta-amyloid (β-amyloid)

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beta-endorphin

beta-endorphin n. a neuropeptide involved in pain and hunger that produces its analgesic effects by binding to opioid receptors and disinhibiting dopamine pathways. It is one of a number of endogenous opioids. See endorphin.

beta-glucuronidase deficiency

beta-glucuronidase deficiency deficiency of the enzyme β-glucuronidase, which is involved in the breakdown of complex carbohydrates (see mucopolysaccharidosis). This deficiency is characterized by enlarged liver or spleen, dermatan sulphate in the urine, bone malformations, white-cell inclusions, and intellectual disability. The condition occurs because of mutations in the GUSB gene in the short arm of chromosome 7. Also called mucopolysaccharidosis Type VII; Sly syndrome.

beta-secretase (β-secretase)

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betel nut

betel nut the seed of the areca palm (Areca catechu), which is chewed as a stimulant by local populations of India and the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It contains the drug arecoline.

bethanechol

bethanechol n. a cholinergic drug used to stimulate the bladder in the management of such conditions as lower motor neuron disease and postoperative or postpartum urinary retention. U.S. trade name: Urecholine.

betrayal

betrayal n. any act committed by one relationship partner that violates the other’s expectations of that partner (e.g., that he or she is trustworthy and has regard for the other’s well-being). Although the term betrayal is commonly associated with infidelity, most researchers use it in a broader sense to include such acts as lying, disloyalty, revealing secrets to outsiders, intentionally harmful behavior, lack of support, or broken promises. Betrayals can evoke strong emotions in victims and perpetrators and are usually harmful to relationships, sometimes leading directly to their termination. Alternatively, reparative actions by the perpetrator, such as an apology, can foster forgiveness by the victim, which allows the relationship to continue.

betrayal trauma theory

betrayal trauma theory a conceptual model for explaining why some children are unable to access memories of prior sexual or physical abuse. According to the theory, this sort of repression occurs when the perpetrator of the abuse is an adult on whom the child is emotionally dependent, and it develops out of the child’s need to preserve the attachment bond; hence the child is unable to access the stored memories of the abuse while the need for attachment is still strong. [first proposed in 1991 by U.S. cognitive psychologist Jennifer J. Freyd (1957– )]

better-than-average effect

better-than-average effect see above-average effect.

between-dimension consistency

between-dimension consistency see cross-dimension attitude consistency.

between-groups design

between-groups design see between-subjects design.

between-groups variance

between-groups variance the variation in experimental scores that is attributable only to membership in different groups and exposure to different experimental conditions. It is reflected in the analysis of variance by the degree to which the several group means differ from one another and is compared with the within-groups variance to obtain an F ratio. Also called between-subjects variance.

between-subjects analysis of variance

between-subjects analysis of variance an examination of the variance in a set of data obtained from a study in which a different group of participants is randomly assigned to each condition. In this procedure, the researcher determines how much of the variance in the obtained data is due to the influence of the variables under investigation and how much is due to random differences among the group members. For example, a researcher studying how amount of daily walking (e.g., none, 30 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes) affects quality of sleep might divide participants into different groups that each walk for one of the specified lengths of time and then evaluate the results using a between-subjects analysis of variance. Compare within-subjects analysis of variance.

between-subjects design

between-subjects design a study in which individuals are assigned to only one treatment or experimental condition and each person provides only one score for data analysis. For example, in a between-subjects design investigating the efficacy of three different drugs for treating depression, one group of depressed individuals would receive one of the drugs, a different group would receive another one of the drugs, and yet another group would receive the remaining drug. Thus, the researcher is comparing the effect each medication has on a different set of people. Also called between-groups design; independent-groups design. Compare within-subjects design.

between-subjects factor

between-subjects factor in an analysis of variance, an independent variable with multiple levels, each of which is assigned to or experienced by a distinct group of participants. In a study examining weight loss, for example, the different amounts of daily exercise under investigation would be a between-subjects factor if each was undertaken by a different set of people. Also called between-subjects variable.

between-subjects variance

between-subjects variance see between-groups variance.

Betz cell

Betz cell a type of large pyramidal cell found in the fifth layer of the cerebral cortex (see cortical layers), mainly in motor cortex. Betz cells are associated with muscle movement and have a low threshold of stimulation. [Vladimir A. Betz (1834–1894), Russian anatomist]

BEV

BEV abbreviation for Black English Vernacular.

Bewusstseinslage

Bewusstseinslage n. state of consciousness (German): a term used by followers of the Würzburg school to denote mental experiences or activities that cannot readily be analyzed into a chain of associations based on images or sensations. See imageless thought.

beyond reasonable doubt

beyond reasonable doubt the standard of proof required in a criminal trial. To convict a defendant, a jury must be convinced of the defendant’s guilt “beyond a reasonable doubt,” meaning there is no justifiable, rational cause for jury members to doubt the defendant’s guilt. This standard is considered to be equivalent to a moral certainty but is less than an absolute certainty.

beyondism

beyondism n. a secular “religion” devised by Raymond B. Cattell on the basis of evolutionary theory. Beyondism holds that evolution will lead to the advancement of humanity; therefore, anything that furthers evolution is good, and anything that hinders it is not good. If allowed to operate freely, evolutionary processes will solve many of the world’s problems through evolutionary competition, leading to the survival of some civilizations and the extinction of others. Because of this belief, and its support for voluntary eugenics, beyondism received much criticism as racist. See political genetics.

Bezold–Brücke phenomenon

Bezold–Brücke phenomenon the perception that bright illumination makes yellowish stimuli appear closer to yellow and bluish stimuli closer to blue. [Johann Friedrich W. von Bezold (1837–1907), German physicist; Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke (1819–1892), German physiologist]

BF

BF abbreviation for best frequency. See tonotopic organization; tuning curve.

BFOQ

BFOQ abbreviation for bona fide occupational qualification.

bhang

bhang n. the mildest preparation of cannabis, consisting of the whole Cannabis sativa plant, dried and powdered.

BHS

BHS abbreviation for Beck Hopelessness Scale.

bi- (bin-)

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BIA

BIA abbreviation for Body Image Assessment.

bias

bias n. 1. partiality: an inclination or predisposition for or against something. See also prejudice. 2. any tendency or preference, such as a response bias or test bias. 3. systematic error arising during sampling, data collection, or data analysis. See biased estimator; biased sampling. 4. any deviation of a measured or calculated quantity from its actual (true) value, such that the measurement or calculation is unrepresentative of the item of interest. —biased adj.

bias blind spot

bias blind spot the tendency of people to see themselves as less susceptible to nonconscious predispositions and cognitive influences than others. For example, people often consider their own political views to be objective and purely fact based, whereas they believe those who hold opposing political views are influenced by prejudice and party opinion. This bias stems from the fact that a person generally relies on introspection when assessing his or her own biases but relies on overt behavior when assessing bias in others. See also objectivity illusion. [introduced in 2002 by U.S. psychologists Emily Pronin, Daniel Y. Lin, and Lee Ross]

bias–variance tradeoff

bias–variance tradeoff the situation in which increasing the complexity of a model to better account for the observed relationships among a set of variables reduces the precision of any estimated values subsequently derived from that model. That is, the model becomes so specific to the particular sample from which it was derived that it no longer is an accurate representation of the larger population of interest. Researchers therefore tend to seek a balance, opting for either greater intricacy or greater certainty as circumstances warrant.

biased elaboration

biased elaboration the tendency to generate a particular valence of evaluative responses preferentially when elaborating attitude-relevant information. See also biasing factor; elaboration; objective elaboration.

biased estimator

biased estimator a value obtained from sample data that consistently under- or overestimates the true quantity in the larger population of interest. In other words, a biased estimator is one whose value on average differs from the value of the parameter it purports to represent. Also called biased statistic. Compare unbiased estimator.

biased sampling

biased sampling selecting individuals or other study units from a population in such a manner that the resulting sample is not representative of the population. Compare unbiased sampling. See also sampling bias.

biased scanning

biased scanning a hypothetical process in which people alter or maintain a particular self-concept by searching the contents of their memory in a selective manner, focusing on memories that fit a predetermined impression. The theory assumes that people have a wide range of implicit memories, enabling them to support different views of the self by selectively remembering certain events.

biased statistic

biased statistic see biased estimator.

biasing factor

biasing factor a variable that serves to bias the valence of elaboration of attitude-relevant information. See also biased elaboration; multiple roles in persuasion.

biastophilia

biastophilia n. a paraphilia involving sexual arousal and excitement based on surprising or attacking a stranger sexually.

bibliotherapy

bibliotherapy n. a form of therapy that uses structured reading material. Bibliotherapy is often used as an adjunct to psychotherapy for such purposes as reinforcing specific in-session concepts or strategies or enhancing lifestyle changes. Carefully chosen readings are also used by some individuals as self-help tools to foster personal growth and development, for example, by facilitating communication and open discussion of problems or enhancing self-concept.

BIC

BIC abbreviation for Bayesian information criterion.

bicalutamide

bicalutamide n. see antiandrogen.

bicameralism

bicameralism n. a highly controversial theory of primitive human mentality (posited to predate the development of consciousness) in which cognitive functions are divided between one hemisphere of the brain that “speaks” or “orders,” specifically through auditory hallucination, and another hemisphere that “listens” or “obeys.” The concept, proposed by U.S. psychologist Julian Jaynes (1920–1997) in his 1976 book The Origins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, has not received significant attention in neuropsychological research, although analogies have been drawn to neurological models describing the differing functions of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. The evolutionary aspect of the hypothesis contradicts current evidence about the origins of brain structures for consciousness and language.

bicuculline

bicuculline n. an alkaloid derived from the plant Dicentra cucullaria that acts as a competitive GABA antagonist at GABAA receptorsgabaa-receptors and has strong convulsant effects. It has no modern clinical applications but may be used experimentally in laboratory animals for various research purposes.

bidialectism

bidialectism n. the regular use of two or more dialects of a language by a person or within a speech community. Also called bidialectalism. See also code switching; diglossia. —bidialectal adj.

bidirectionality of structure and function

bidirectionality of structure and function the reciprocal interaction during development of some physical characteristic of an organism (e.g., brain cells) and the function emanating from that structure (e.g., the electrical firing of those cells). Such bidirectionality implies that development is not governed simply by a reading-out of the genetic code but is a dynamic process involving interaction at all levels of organization, from the genetic through the cultural.

Bidwell’s ghost

Bidwell’s ghost a second visual afterimage that appears in a hue complementary to the stimulus. Also called Purkinje afterimage. [Shelford Bidwell (1848–1909), British physicist]

Bielschowsky’s disease

Bielschowsky’s disease a condition marked by temporary loss of the ability to move the eyes in a vertical direction, up or down, in a synchronized manner. [Alfred Bielschowsky (1871–1940), German ophthalmologist]

Biemond syndrome

Biemond syndrome a disorder that combines intellectual disability, obesity, hypogonadism, abnormalities in the iris (a hole, split, or cleft), and excess fingers or toes. [A. Biemond 20th-century French physician]

Big Brothers Big Sisters of America

Big Brothers Big Sisters of America a volunteer association in which individuals act as mentors and positive role models to children typically from single-parent families. The Big Brother and Big Sister programs were created separately, and the two organizations merged in 1977.

Big Five personality model

Big Five personality model a model of the primary dimensions of individual differences in personality. The dimensions are usually labeled extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience, though the labels vary somewhat among researchers. See also five-factor personality model. [described by (among others) U.S. psychologists Lewis R. Goldberg (1932– ) and Gerard T. Saucier]

big lie

big lie a propaganda device in which a false statement of extreme magnitude is constantly repeated to persuade the public. The assumption is that a big lie is less likely to be challenged than a lesser one because people will assume that evidence exists to support a statement of such magnitude. Josef Goebbels, the propaganda minister in Nazi Germany, repeatedly used this technique when he charged the Nazis’ enemies with heinous crimes.

Big Sister program

Big Sister program see Big Brothers Big Sisters of America.

bigamy

bigamy n. the crime of marrying someone when already married to someone else. In cultures that permit individuals to have more than one spouse, this practice should be referred to as polygamy and not bigamy. Compare monogamy. —bigamist n. —bigamous adj.

bigorexia

bigorexia n. see muscle dysmorphia.

bigram

bigram n. any two-letter combination. In psycholinguistics research, the term typically refers to a within-word consecutive character sequence (e.g., paper contains the bigrams pa, ap, pe, and er), whereas in learning and memory research, it generally refers to a freestanding nonword (e.g., TL, KE).

BIID

BIID abbreviation for body integrity identity disorder.

bilabial

bilabial 1. adj. pertaining to the two lips. 2. adj. denoting a speech sound made with both lips, which stop or modify the airstream, for example, [b], [p], [m], or [w]. 3. n. a bilabial speech sound. See labial.

bilateral

bilateral adj. denoting or relating to both sides of the body or an organ. For example, bilateral symmetry is the symmetrical arrangement of an organism’s body such that the right and left halves are approximately mirror images of one another; bilateral transfer is the transfer of training or patterns of performance for a skill from one side of the body, where the skill (e.g., handwriting) was originally learned and primarily used, to the other side of the body. —bilaterally adv.

bilateral descent

bilateral descent in anthropology, a system of descent or inheritance in which both the male and the female lines of descent are recognized. Also called bilineal descent. Compare unilateral descent. See also descent group; matriarchy; patriarchy.

bilateral lesion

bilateral lesion a lesion that involves both sides of an organ, especially both cerebral hemispheres, which can arise directly through injury or disease or secondarily through such mechanisms as edema.

Bildungsroman

Bildungsroman n. a type of novel that describes the formation of the leading character’s self in the course of development (usually through a series of stages) from childhood to adulthood. The genre was established in Germany by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship (1795–1796) and has remained central to the German literary tradition. It was therefore an essential part of the intellectual climate in which the early psychoanalysts were educated and did their work. It might be argued that the classic “stage theories,” such as Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stages, Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages, Carl Jung’s process of individuation, and Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, grew out of this tradition. [German, literally: “education novel”; coined by German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) in a biography of German philosopher Friederich Schleiermacher (1768–1834)]

bilineal descent

bilineal descent see bilateral descent.

bilingual education

bilingual education instruction in two languages, typically in one’s native language and in the dominant language of the country in which one is educated. In transitional bilingual education, as students gain fluency, they shift to instruction solely in their nonnative language, usually within 2 to 3 years. In total immersion bilingual programs, the emphasis is solely on second-language acquisition for both native and nonnative speakers. For example, in the United States, immersion programs are most often conducted in either French or Spanish and may include English as a second language learners along with native English-speaking students.

bilingualism

bilingualism n. the regular use of two or more languages by a person or within a speech community. See additive bilingualism; biliteracy; early bilingualism; elite bilingualism; folk bilingualism. —bilingual adj.

bilirubin

bilirubin n. an orange-yellow bile pigment produced from breakdown products of the hemoglobin of red blood cells. Bilirubin is excreted in bile, feces, and urine. An excess of bilirubin is often a sign of a liver disorder (or, in babies, liver immaturity or incompatibility with the mother’s blood group) and may cause deposits of yellowish pigments in the skin and other tissues, a condition known as jaundice. See also hepatitis.

bilirubin encephalopathy

bilirubin encephalopathy a degenerative disease of the brain caused by deposition of the bile pigment bilirubin in the basal ganglia and brainstem nuclei. The condition results from disorders in producing or breaking down bilirubin in the liver. This may be seen in newborns who are unable to metabolize bilirubin adequately.

bilis

bilis n. a culture-bound syndrome found among Latino groups, who attribute it to extremely strong anger or rage. Symptoms include abrupt nervous tension, headache, screaming, stomach disturbances, vomiting, loss of weight, tremors, chronic tiredness, and—in extreme cases—loss of consciousness or death. The extreme anger is said to disturb the center of balance of hot and cold in the body, which upsets the material and spiritual aspects of the person. Also called colera; muina.

biliteracy

biliteracy n. the ability to read and write in two or more languages. See bilingualism. —biliterate adj.

bill of rights

bill of rights in health care, a document stating the entitlements a patient has with respect to providers, institutions, and third-party payers. See patients’ rights.

bimanual coordination

bimanual coordination coordination of the movements of the two hands.

bimanual interference

bimanual interference problems encountered when the two hands must each perform different movements or the same movement with different timing (e.g., in piano playing).

bimodal distribution

bimodal distribution a set of scores with two peaks or modes around which values tend to cluster, such that the frequencies at first increase and then decrease around each peak. For example, when graphing the heights of a sample of adolescents, one would obtain a bimodal distribution if most people were either 5’7” or 5’9” tall. See also multimodal distribution; unimodal distribution.

bin-

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binary choice

binary choice in decision making, a choice in which there are only two alternatives (e.g., yes or no, do or don’t do).

binary feature

binary feature in linguistics, a feature of the phonemic system of a language that has two mutually exclusive aspects, such as voiced–unvoiced (in English) or aspirated–unaspirated (in Hindi). Such features have a critical contrastive function, working rather like an on–off switch to distinguish one phoneme from another; in English, for instance, the otherwise very similar sounds [b] and [p] are recognized as distinct phonemes because the former is voiced and the latter unvoiced. Binary opposition of this kind is a key concept in the structuralist interpretation of language and in the wider structuralist movement generally (see structuralism). See also minimal pair. [first described by Russian linguist Roman Jakobson (1896–1982)]

binary hue

binary hue a hue that appears to be a mixture of two unique hues. Orange is a binary hue composed of red and yellow, which are considered unique because they are not produced by color mixing.

binary system

binary system a structure or organization composed of two elements or two kinds of elements. In computer science, it is a logical structure composed of two values, commonly called 0 and 1, based on the “off” and “on” modes of electrical circuits and devices. The principle of binary contrast is also of great importance in structuralism, particularly structural linguistics. See binary feature; minimal pair.

binary trial

binary trial a single experiment in which there are only two possible outcomes. For example, consider a behavioral researcher observing aggression in a group of schoolchildren during recess. If he or she makes a record every 1 minute, then each such period may be considered a binary trial, with aggression present or aggression absent as its only two possible outcomes.

binary variable

binary variable see dichotomous variable.

binasal hemianopia

binasal hemianopia the loss of vision in both the right half of the left visual field and the left half of the right visual field. It is caused by injury (compression) of the optic chiasm. See hemianopia.

binaural

binaural adj. pertaining to or perceived by both ears. Compare monaural.

binaural beat

binaural beat a periodic fluctuation in apparent position or in loudness when two tones differing slightly in frequency are presented to each ear separately but simultaneously. Binaural beats are not present in the stimulus but result from the binaural interaction between the tones that occurs within the auditory system.

binaural cue

binaural cue any difference in the sound arriving at the two ears from a given sound source (interaural difference) that acts as a cue to permit auditory localization. The common cues are interaural level differences (ILD), interaural time differences (ITD), and (closely related to ITD) interaural phase differences (IPD). Also called binaural difference.

binaural fusion

binaural fusion see fusion.

binaural hearing

binaural hearing see binaural.

binaural interaction

binaural interaction the interaction in the nervous system of signals from the two ears. It is especially important for localizing auditory stimuli.

binaural masking level difference

binaural masking level difference see masking level difference.

binaural summation effect

binaural summation effect see summation effect.

binding affinity

binding affinity the tendency of a particular ligand (e.g., neurotransmitter or drug) to bind to a particular receptor, measured by the percentage of receptors occupied by the ligand.

binding hypothesis

binding hypothesis a theory that offers a solution to the binding problem, proposing that the neural mechanism responsible for drawing together disparate information (e.g., different features of an object) from separate cortical areas and “binding” it into unified percepts is temporal synchrony: that is, the simultaneous firing of action potentials from individual neurons—each coding different properties—is the means by which they are organized into a single representation. Many suggest that feature binding is critical for conscious object perception.

binding problem

binding problem the theoretical issue of how the brain perceives and represents different features, or conjunctions of properties, as one object or event. This is problematic because different attributes of a stimulus (e.g., hue, form, spatial location, motion) are analyzed by different areas of the cerebral cortex and yet are experienced in consciousness as a unity; the binding problem is relevant in all areas of knowledge representation, including such complex cognitive representations as theory of mind.

Binet–Simon Scale

Binet–Simon Scale see Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale.

binge drinking

binge drinking 1. a single occasion of intense, extremely heavy drinking that results in intoxication. 2. a pattern of alcohol consumption characterized by the setting aside of repeated periods of time for intense, extremely heavy drinking, with or without sobriety in between. 3. for most men, ingesting five or more alcoholic drinks within 2 hours; for most women, four or more.

binge eating

binge eating consuming abnormally large quantities of food in a discrete time period with a concurrent sense of loss of control. Recurrent binge eating is associated with numerous adverse consequences, such as increased risk of obesity and its medical sequelae, as well as depression and other mental health problems. When the behavior is chronic and pervasive, it is diagnosed as a binge-eating disorder. See also bulimia nervosa.

binge-eating disorder

binge-eating disorder a disorder marked by recurring discrete periods of uncontrolled consumption of abnormally large quantities of food and by distress associated with this behavior. There is an absence of inappropriate compensatory behaviors (e.g., vomiting, laxative misuse, excessive exercise, fasting). Compare bulimia nervosa. See also eating disorder.

binocular

binocular adj. relating to the two eyes. Compare monocular.

binocular cell

binocular cell a cortical cell that responds to a stimulus presented to either the left or the right eye. Monocular cells, in contrast, require stimulation through a specific eye to generate a response.

binocular cue

binocular cue see depth cue.

binocular deprivation

binocular deprivation the deprivation of light to both eyes, as by sealing the eyelids. Compare monocular deprivation.

binocular disparity

binocular disparity the slight difference between the right and left retinal images. When both eyes focus on an object, the different position of the eyes produces a disparity of visual angle, and a slightly different image is received by each retina. The two images are automatically compared and, if sufficiently similar, are fused, providing an important cue to depth perception. Also called retinal disparity.

binocular flicker

binocular flicker an experimental paradigm in which each eye is stimulated separately with an intermittent light. The phase relationships of the illumination of each eye can be varied to investigate binocular interactions. [devised by Charles Scott Sherrington]

binocular fusion

binocular fusion see fusion.

binocular parallax

binocular parallax the differences in the two retinal images due to separation of the eyes.

binocular perception

binocular perception any visual experience enabled by stimulation through both eyes.

binocular rivalry

binocular rivalry the failure of the eyes to fuse stimuli (see fusion). For example, if horizontal bars are viewed through the left eye and vertical bars through the right eye, the perception is a patchy and fluctuating alternation of the two patterns, rather than a superimposition of the patterns to form a stable checkerboard.

binocular summation

binocular summation the phenomenon of increased sensation or increased magnitude of perceptual response that results from stimulation through both eyes, as compared to stimulation through one eye.

binocular suppression

binocular suppression the ability of stimulation through one eye to inhibit the response or sensitivity to stimulation through the other eye. See binocular rivalry.

binocular vision

binocular vision the normal coordinated function of the eyes that permits viewing of the surroundings in three dimensions. See stereopsis.

binomial distribution

binomial distribution the probability distribution for each possible sequence of outcomes on a variable that has only two possible outcomes, with the likeliness of obtaining each outcome remaining constant. For example, a binomial distribution of the results of trying to predict the outcomes of 10 coin tosses would display the probability of observing each possible set of results, including one success and nine failures, two successes and eight failures, and so forth. This distribution is often denoted by b(n,θ).

binomial nomenclature

binomial nomenclature see biological taxonomy.

binomial probability

binomial probability within a series of independent observations, the probability of observing a particular combination of outcomes for a variable that can assume only one of two values (e.g., 0 or 1; pass or fail) where there is a fixed likeliness of each value occurring. For example, consider a group of 10 individuals selected from a population of persons ages 40 to 45, with each selection unrelated to any other selection. A binomial probability could be calculated to determine the likeliness that seven of those individuals are married while three are not, given known information on the probability of persons of that age being married.

binomial test

binomial test a statistical procedure to determine whether an observed data pattern for a variable that can have only one of two values (often represented as 0 and 1) matches a theoretical or expected pattern. In other words, it tests whether the categorical proportions in the obtained data differ significantly from their proportions in the population from which they are believed to derive. See also binomial probability.

binomial variable

binomial variable a variable for which there are only two outcomes, typically designated 0 and 1, with each possible outcome having a specified likeliness of being observed. Flipping a coin is an example, as it may land on either heads or tails. See also binomial distribution.

Binswanger’s disease

Binswanger’s disease a progressive vascular dementia characterized by demyelination and multiple infarctions of subcortical white matter associated with hypertension and subsequent arteriosclerosis. Symptoms include loss of cognitive functioning, memory impairment, and changes in mood and behavior. Also called subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy. [Otto Ludvig Binswanger (1852–1929), German neurologist]

bio-

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bioacoustics

bioacoustics n. the study of acoustic communication and related behavior of nonhuman animals. This can involve study of the mechanisms of sound production and perception, the physical structure of animal signals, the alteration of animal sounds as they pass through different environments, and the influence of animal sounds on the behavior of other animals.

bioavailability

bioavailability n. the quantity of an administered drug that is available for distribution within the body to the target organ or site after absorption into the bloodstream.

biochemical approach

biochemical approach 1. the study of behavioral patterns, including mental disorders, from the standpoint of chemical changes. An example of this approach is the view that a mental disorder can be explained in terms of an excess or deficiency of certain substances in the nervous system, such as serotonin. 2. the use of psychotropic drugs in the treatment of mental disorders. See psychopharmacotherapy.

biochemical defect

biochemical defect any of numerous chemical imbalances or aberrations in the brain that may be associated with neurological or psychiatric disorder. Such disorders may be related to the production of specific neurotransmitters or the availability of other biochemical substances necessary for brain function.

biochemical marker

biochemical marker a variation in the chemical activity of an organism that accompanies a disorder, irrespective of whether it directly causes the disorder; an example is demonstrated in the dexamethasone suppression test. See also biological marker; clinical marker.

biochemistry

biochemistry n. the study of the chemical substances and processes of living organisms. —biochemical adj.

biocybernetics

biocybernetics n. the study of communication and self-regulatory activities within biological organisms; it represents an attempt to understand the functioning of living bodies in terms derived from information science. —biocybernetic or biocybernetical adj.

biodata

biodata pl. n. see biographical data.

biodynamics

biodynamics n. the study of dynamic processes within living organisms. See dynamic.

bioecological model

bioecological model see ecological systems theory.

bioecological theory of intelligence

bioecological theory of intelligence a theory postulating that intelligence develops as an interaction between biological dispositions and the environment in which these biological dispositions develop. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Stephen J. Ceci (1950– )]

bioelectric potential

bioelectric potential the electric potential of nerve, muscle, and other living tissue.

bioenergetics

bioenergetics n. a form of alternative psychotherapy that combines work with the body and the mind in treating emotional problems. Bioenergetics proposes that body and mind are functionally identical: What happens in the mind reflects what is happening in the body, and vice versa. It uses exercises and postural changes in an attempt to relieve chronic muscular tensions and rigidity attributed to emotional stress and unresolved emotional conflicts. The approach was developed by U.S. physician Alexander Lowen (1910–2008) and is based on the work of Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957).

bioengineering

bioengineering n. the application of engineering principles and science to living organisms and biological processes, particularly in the design, testing, and manufacture of devices that can substitute for impaired body parts or functions. —bioengineer n.

bioequivalence

bioequivalence n. a measure comparing the relative bioavailability of two forms or preparations of a drug. In bioequivalent drug preparations, the same proportion of unchanged, active drug reaches the systemic circulation. Bioequivalence may be a clinical issue when comparing two preparations of a drug (i.e., immediate-release vs. delayed-release) or when comparing trademarked drugs and their generic counterparts. —bioequivalent adj.

bioethics

bioethics n. the study of ethics and values relevant to the conduct of clinical practice and research in medicine and the life sciences. —bioethical adj.

biofeedback

biofeedback n. 1. information about bodily processes and systems provided by an organism’s receptors to enable it to maintain a physiologically desirable internal environment and make adjustments as necessary. 2. the use of an external monitoring device (e.g., electrocardiograph) to provide an individual with information regarding his or her physiological state. When used to help a person obtain voluntary control over autonomic body functions, such as heart rate or blood pressure, the technique is called biofeedback training. It may be applied therapeutically to treat various conditions, including chronic pain and hypertension. See also neurofeedback.

biogenesis

biogenesis n. the origin of living things from other living things. Biogenetics is the scientific study of the principles and processes governing the production of living organisms from other living organisms, including the mechanisms of heredity. —biogenetic adj.

biogenic

biogenic adj. 1. produced by living organisms or biological processes. 2. necessary for the maintenance of life.

biogenic amine

biogenic amine any of a group of amines that affect bodily processes and nervous system functioning. Biogenic amines are divided into subgroups (e.g., catecholamines, indoleamines) and include the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, histamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

biogenic amine hypothesis

biogenic amine hypothesis any of a variety of hypotheses, such as the catecholamine hypothesis and dopamine hypothesis, that consider abnormalities in the physiology and metabolism of biogenic amines essential to the etiology of certain mental disorders.

biogram

biogram n. a pattern of possible events involved in learning a biofeedback experience. The biogram may begin as a conscious memory device but through repeated trials eventually becomes subconscious in a manner similar to other learning experiences acquired through repeated trials.

biographical data

biographical data 1. information about a patient’s history and behavioral patterns, gathered by a therapist or medical professional primarily from the patient but sometimes from others who know or are related to him or her. 2. information on job candidates for use in personnel selection. The data are usually obtained from application forms or special questionnaires (biographical inventories) and include such items as age, sex, education, work experience, and interests. Also called biodata.

Biographical Evaluation and Screening of Troops (BEST)

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biographical inventory

biographical inventory see biographical data.

biographical method

biographical method the systematic use of personal histories—gathered through such means as interviews, focus groups, observations, and individual reflections and other narratives—in psychological research and analysis. This method emphasizes the placement of the individual within the context of social connections, historical events, and life experiences.

bioinformatics

bioinformatics n. the use of informatics in medicine and other life sciences, as in the analysis of public health, genomics, and biomedical research data. Also called biomedical informatics.

bioinformational theory

bioinformational theory a general theory of emotional–motivational organization, integrating cognitive and psychophysiological levels of analysis. It is concerned with how emotions are elicited and displayed and with how they interact; specifically, information about emotions is contained in associative memory networks that include action information (motor programs) and connections to subcortical motivation circuits. Emotions are viewed as context-specific action or response dispositions activated by input that modifies concepts in the emotion network. The model, originally forwarded in the 1970s as a theory of emotional imagery, was derived from research on fear and anxiety but has since evolved and acquired diverse applications across a variety of behavioral and emotional phenomena.

biological age

biological age age as determined by changes in bodily structure and performance that are normative at specific ages. Compare chronological age.

biological aging

biological aging see aging; primary aging; senescence.

biological clock

biological clock the mechanism within an organism that controls the periodicity of biological rhythms, including activity rhythms, even in the absence of any external cues. For example, a bird housed in constant light will continue to show patterns of activity and rest with approximately 24-hour rhythms due to the action of the biological clock. A biological clock in mammals is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Molecular mechanisms of the circadian rhythm are the same in insects and mammals. Also called internal clock.

biological determinism

biological determinism the concept that psychological and behavioral characteristics are entirely the result of constitutional and biological factors. Environmental conditions serve only as occasions for the manifestation of such characteristics. Compare environmental determinism. See determinism; genetic determinism; nature–nurture.

biological drive

biological drive an innate motivational state produced by depletion or deprivation of a needed substance (e.g., water, oxygen) in order to impel behavior that will restore physiological equilibrium. See also drive.

biological factor

biological factor any physical, chemical, genetic, or neurological condition associated with psychological disturbances.

biological fallacy

biological fallacy 1. the questionable assumption that all human phenomena, including rationality, culture, and ethics, can be explained with reference to strictly biological processes. In this sense, the biological fallacy is one of naturalistic reductionism. 2. in the controversial view of some ecological theorists, the “fallacy” of equating life with the life of individual organisms. The term implies that the vital force referred to as “life” is better understood as inherent in, or as a quality of, the totality of the ecosystem.

biological family

biological family a person’s blood relations as opposed to relations acquired through marriage, adoption, or fostering. See consanguinity.

biological intelligence

biological intelligence a level of mental ability of presumed biological origins required primarily for cognitive activity. The term was introduced to differentiate forebrain-functioning ability from traditional concepts of intelligence. Biological intelligence is measured with a battery of tests that also indicate evidence of brain injury. [defined by U.S. psychologist Ward C. Halstead (1908–1969)]

biological life events

biological life events age-related biological changes, such as puberty or menopause (see climacteric).

biological marker

biological marker a variation in the physiological processes of an organism that accompanies a disorder, irrespective of whether it directly causes the disorder. Also called biomarker. See also biochemical marker; clinical marker.

biological measures

biological measures assessments or other markers of processes or outcomes that are drawn from bodily activity or other natural biological systems or events. Such measures include assessments of cardiopulmonary, endocrine, nervous-system, and immune-system activity.

biological motion

biological motion motion performed by a living organism. See locomotion; taxis.

biological perspective

biological perspective an approach to abnormal psychology that emphasizes physiologically based causative factors, such as the amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease, and consequently tends to focus primarily upon biological therapies.

biological psychology

biological psychology the science that deals with the biological basis of behavior, thoughts, and emotions and the reciprocal relations between biological and psychological processes. It also addresses topics such as behavior-changing brain lesions, chemical responses in the brain, and brain-related genetics. It includes such fields as behavioral neuroscience, clinical neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, behavioral endocrinology, and psychoneuroimmunology. Also called biopsychology; physiological psychology; psychobiology.

biological rhythm

biological rhythm any periodic variation in a living organism’s physiological or psychological function, such as energy level, sexual desire, or menstruation. Such rhythms can be linked to cyclical changes in environmental cues, such as daylength or passing of the seasons, and tend to be daily (see circadian rhythm) or annual (see circannual rhythm). They also can vary with individuals and with the period of the individual’s life. Also called biorhythm; endogenous rhythm; internal rhythm; life rhythm. See also infradian rhythm; ultradian rhythm.

biological stress

biological stress a condition that imposes severe demands on the physical and psychological defenses of the organism. Examples include acute or chronic disease, a congenital or acquired disability or defect, exposure to extreme heat or cold, malnutrition or starvation, and exposure to some drugs (e.g., hallucinogens) or to toxic substances. See also stress.

biological symbiosis

biological symbiosis see symbiosis.

biological taxonomy

biological taxonomy the science of the classification of organisms. Traditional classifications group organisms into a hierarchical system of ranks, in ascending order: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom (see also domain). Species are named using binomial nomenclature, devised by Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) in 1758: Each species is given two names, the first for the genus to which it belongs and the second identifying the species itself; thus, human beings are classified as Homo sapiens. Also called systematics. See also cladistics.

biological theory of aging

biological theory of aging any of various explanations of aging based on either programmed biological changes (genetic senescence) or unpredicted changes (DNA damage).

biological therapy

biological therapy any form of treatment for mental disorders that attempts to alter physiological functioning, including drug therapies, electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery. Also called biomedical therapy.

biological transducing system

biological transducing system a biological system that converts energy or information from one form to another. See transduction.

biological warfare

biological warfare the use of agents such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins to incapacitate or destroy humans, nonhuman animals, or crops in war.

biologically primary ability

biologically primary ability an ability, such as language acquisition, that has been selected for in evolution and is acquired universally. Children typically are highly motivated to perform tasks involving these abilities. Compare biologically secondary ability. [postulated by U.S. psychologist David C. Geary (1957– )]

biologically secondary ability

biologically secondary ability an ability, such as reading, that builds upon a biologically primary ability but is principally a cultural invention and often requires repetition and external motivation for its mastery. [postulated by U.S. psychologist David C. Geary (1957– )]

biologism

biologism n. a predilection to make use of biological determinism and concepts from biology to explain behavior and psychological phenomena and to avoid psychological concepts and principles for such explanation. See also reductionism.

biology

biology n. the study of living organisms and life processes. —biological adj. —biologist n.

biomarker

biomarker n. see biological marker.

biomechanics

biomechanics n. the application of the principles of mechanics to the study of the structure and function of biological systems, which includes the study of the physical stresses and strains on organisms while at rest and in motion. The discipline includes occupational biomechanics, which examines the physical interaction of workers with their tools, machines, and materials so as to maximize performance while minimizing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders. —biomechanical adj.

biomedical engineering

biomedical engineering the branch of engineering that specializes in research and development of equipment for medical treatment, rehabilitation, and special needs. Examples of applications include devices to monitor the physiological condition of astronauts in space, the design and creation of artificial limbs and organs, and the development of ultrasound devices. See also bioengineering.

biomedical informatics

biomedical informatics see bioinformatics.

biomedical therapy

biomedical therapy see biological therapy.

biometrics (biometry)

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bionics

bionics n. the study of biological systems to learn how aspects of their perceptual and problem-solving behavior might be built into an electronic system, such as a computer. [bi(ology) + (electr)onics]

biophilia

biophilia n. a fundamental human attraction to and need for contact with the natural world. This idea was introduced in 1964 by Erich Fromm, who believed that subconscious seeking of connections with nature represents a positive psychological orientation toward life that benefits individuals’ functioning and overall well-being. In 1984, U.S. biologist Edward O. Wilson (1929– ) elaborated on the concept to develop the biophilia hypothesis, stating that humans have genetically based, evolutionarily determined attractions to specific landscapes and natural elements that create a propensity to affiliate with other living organisms. The hypothesis also holds that this enmeshment with nature plays an essential role in human cognitive, social, and emotional processes. Although Fromm contrasted biophilia with necrophilia, now it generally is contrasted with biophobia.

biophobia

biophobia n. a human fear of certain species (e.g., snakes, spiders) and general aversion to nature that creates an urge to affiliate with technology and other human artifacts, interests, and constructions rather than with animals, landscapes, and other elements of the natural world. Such fear is seen in many populations throughout the world, a pervasiveness that U.S. biologist Edward O. Wilson (1929– ) and others consider indicative of its innateness. U.S. ecologist David W. Orr, however, emphasizes that biophobia is culturally acquired, a product of modern living that distances people from the natural world to such a degree that they become indifferent to other organisms and antagonistic toward the environment. Compare biophilia.

biophysical system

biophysical system 1. any biological system that is described or studied in terms of its physical aspects, based on the application of physical laws and the techniques of physics. 2. the hormonal and genital components of the human sexual response. [defined by U.S. sex researchers William H. Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia E. Johnson (1925–2013)]

biophysics

biophysics n. the interface of biology and physics, involving the study of biological structures and processes (e.g., vision, hearing) according to the principles and methods of physics.

biopsy

biopsy n. the surgical removal and microscopic study of a small amount of tissue from an organ or body part believed to be diseased or otherwise abnormal. The biopsy specimen is examined for signs of malignancy or other abnormalities that would help determine the proper diagnosis and course of therapy.

biopsychology

biopsychology n. see biological psychology.

biopsychosocial

biopsychosocial adj. denoting a systematic integration of biological, psychological, and social approaches to the study of mental health and specific mental disorders. [coined by U.S. psychiatrist George L. Engel (1913–1999)]

biorhythm

biorhythm n. 1. a synonym of biological rhythm. 2. according to pseudoscientific belief, a regular biological cycle that can be charted like a sine wave and with which every individual is said to be programmed at birth. Usually this term is used to refer to any one of three basic cycles—physical, emotional, and intellectual—although other cycles (e.g., aesthetic, spiritual) and combinations of cycles have been proposed. It is maintained that these cycles continue unaltered until death and that good and bad days for various activities can be calculated accordingly. As with astrology, predictions made on this basis do not have a significantly different success rate from those made on a basis of pure chance.

biosocial

biosocial adj. pertaining to the interplay or mingling of biological and social factors, as with human behavior that is influenced simultaneously by complex neurophysiological processes and social interactions.

biosocial theory

biosocial theory any approach that explains personality or human behavior in terms of biological predispositions as influenced by social or environmental factors.

biosphere

biosphere n. collectively, all parts of the earth and its atmosphere in which living organisms exist.

biostatistics

biostatistics n. 1. data compiled about a population, including rates of birth, disease, and death (see vital statistics). See also demography. 2. the branch of statistics concerned with collecting and analyzing data that pertain to biological processes or health characteristics, especially in medicine and epidemiology. Also called biometrics; biometry. —biostatistical adj. —biostatistician n.

biosynthesis

biosynthesis n. 1. the production of chemical compounds by living organisms from nutrients by means of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. 2. the production of molecules of biological or medical interest, either in the laboratory or commercially, for example, by recombinant DNA technology. —biosynthetic adj.

biotaxis

biotaxis n. 1. the classification of living organisms by their anatomical features and traits. 2. the ability of living cells to orient themselves with respect to their environment. See neurobiotaxis. —biotactic adj.

biotechnology

biotechnology n. any technique that uses biological organisms, cells, or processes to produce products and services to meet human needs.

bioterrorism

bioterrorism n. a form of terrorism in which biological agents such as viruses and bacteria are deliberately released into air, water, or food to cause illness and death. Anthrax, for example, has been used in bioterrorism.

biotope

biotope n. in ecology, a physical region that can be defined by particular environmental characteristics.

biotransformation

biotransformation n. the metabolic process by which a substance (e.g., a drug) is changed from one chemical to another by means of a chemical reaction within a living system. The metabolites, or products, of this change may be active or inactive within the system.

biotransport

biotransport n. the transportation of substances within cells or into and out of cells across biological membranes. See active transport; ion pump; passive transport.

biotype

biotype n. 1. a group of individuals who are very similar or identical in their genotype (genetic makeup), although they may vary in phenotype (visible features). 2. a physical characteristic that distinguishes a population of organisms adapted to a particular environment and that does not occur in populations of the same species in other environments. —biotypic adj.

biotypology

biotypology n. the classification of human beings according to their constitutional, anatomical, physiological, and psychological characteristics. See also constitutional type.

bipedal locomotion

bipedal locomotion the ability to walk or run on two feet and in an upright position, as in human beings and birds. Great apes and bears engage in short periods of bipedal locomotion, especially when carrying food, traveling over wet ground, or looking for something to eat.

biperiden

biperiden n. a synthetic anticholinergic drug closely related to trihexyphenidyl but having greater affinity for nicotinic receptors than for muscarinic receptors, compared with trihexyphenidyl. It is used to manage symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonian symptoms induced by antipsychotic drugs. U.S. trade name: Akineton.

biphasic sleep

biphasic sleep see polyphasic sleep.

biplot

biplot n. a multivariate graphic that simultaneously displays information about variables and participants. Data about two or more variables usually are denoted by arrows or vectors, and specific measurements for individual cases usually are denoted by dots. Biplots often are used in principal components analysis.

bipolar

bipolar adj. denoting something with two opposites or extremities, such as a bipolar neuron or the bipolar disorders. —bipolarity n.

bipolar cell

bipolar cell see bipolar neuron.

bipolar disorder

bipolar disorder any of a group of mood disorders in which symptoms of mania and depression alternate. In DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, the group includes primarily the following subtypes: bipolar I disorder, in which the individual fluctuates between episodes of mania or hypomania and major depressive episodes or experiences a mix of these: bipolar II disorder, in which the individual fluctuates between major depressive and hypomanic episodes; and cyclothymic disorder. The former official name for bipolar disorders, manic-depressive illness, is still in frequent use.

bipolar electrode

bipolar electrode see electrode.

bipolar neuron

bipolar neuron a neuron with only two extensions—an axon and a dendrite—that run from opposite sides of the cell body. Cells of this type are found primarily in the retina (see retinal bipolar cell) and also elsewhere in the nervous system. Also called bipolar cell. Compare multipolar neuron; unipolar neuron.

bipolar rating scale

bipolar rating scale a set of response options whose lower- and upper-end terms are opposites. For example, a bipolar rating scale for motivation might include response options that range from very strong to very weak. Also called bipolar scale. Compare unipolar rating scale. See also semantic differential.

bipolar stimulation

bipolar stimulation the activation of a particular neuron or part of the brain through the use of an electrical current generated by a cathode and anode (see electrode) placed relatively close to each other.

bipolarity

bipolarity n. a construct of mutual exclusion and, by implication, a strong negative correlation between opposite dimensions. It typically is applied to affect or mood (e.g., happiness vs. sadness; enjoyment vs. irritation), but it also may be used to describe individual differences (e.g., introversion vs. extraversion). In contrast, the concept of unidimensionality is characterized by variation of a single attribute, such as a greater or lesser degree of pleasure.

bird flu

bird flu see avian influenza.

birds-of-a-feather phenomenon

birds-of-a-feather phenomenon the tendency to affiliate with or be attracted to others similar to oneself. As a result, groups and other interpersonal aggregates (e.g., romantic couples, friendship networks) tend to be composed of individuals who are similar to one another rather than dissimilar. See also homophily.

BIRGing

BIRGing acronym for basking in reflected glory.

birth cohort

birth cohort see cohort.

birth control

birth control voluntary regulation of the number and spacing of offspring, including (a) the prevention of conception using contraceptive devices or agents (e.g., intrauterine devices, male contraceptive devices, oral contraceptives, spermicides), the rhythm method, and surgical methods of sterilization (e.g., salpingectomy, vasectomy); and (b) the termination of pregnancy by induced abortion.

birth cry

birth cry the initial reflexive sound produced by a newborn infant when respiration begins.

birth defect

birth defect see congenital defect.

birth injury

birth injury physical damage incurred during birth, especially malformation or brain injury. Damage is most likely to occur in transverse or breech births, in instrumental deliveries (e.g., with forceps), in premature infants and multiple births, in episodes of anoxia or hypoxia, or in prolonged labor.

birth mother

birth mother see birth parent.

birth order

birth order the ordinal position of a child in the family (first-born, second-born, youngest, etc.). There has been much psychological research into how birth order affects personal adjustment and family status, but the notion that it has strong and consistent effects on psychological outcomes is not supported. Early interest in birth order appears in the work of Francis Galton and Sigmund Freud, but it was Alfred Adler who first proposed that birth order is an important factor in personality development. Current family-structure research sees birth order not so much as a causal factor but rather as an indirect variable that follows in importance more process-oriented variables (e.g., parental discipline, sibling interaction, genetic and hormonal makeup).

birth parent

birth parent the biological parent of a child, particularly the mother (birth mother), contrasted with the parent who may rear the child (see adoptive parent).

birth rate

birth rate the ratio of total live births to total population in a given community or geographical area within a specified period, often expressed as the number of live births per 1,000 population per year. Also called natality. Compare fecundity; fertility.

birth ratio

birth ratio the ratio of one kind of birth to another, such as the ratio of male to female births, multiple to total births, or teen births (births by teenage mothers) to total births. See also sex ratio.

birth rite

birth rite a culture-bound ceremony, religious ritual, or other customary practice associated with the prenatal period, birth, or infancy. In Western societies, such rites may include baptism, circumcision, or a secular naming ceremony. See rite of passage.

birth trauma

birth trauma in psychoanalytic theory, the psychological shock of being born, due to the sudden change from the security of the womb to being bombarded with stimuli from the external world. Sigmund Freud viewed birth as the child’s first anxiety experience and the prototype of separation anxiety. To Austrian psychoanalyst Otto Rank (1884–1939), who first proposed the idea of birth trauma, it was the crucial factor in causing neuroses. The theory was subsequently disproven by infant research. See also primal anxiety; primal trauma.

BIS

BIS abbreviation for behavioral inhibition system.

bisection

bisection n. the act of splitting something into two equal parts. In psychophysics it refers to a scaling method in which a participant adjusts a stimulus until it is perceived as halfway between two other stimuli with respect to a particular dimension.

biserial correlation coefficient

biserial correlation coefficient (symbol: rb; rbis) a measure of the strength of the association between a variable whose values may span a given range (e.g., grade point average) and a variable with only two discrete values (e.g., 0 or 1; pass or fail). It is distinct from the point biserial correlation coefficient in assuming that there is a normal distribution underlying most characteristics. Also called biserial r.

bisexuality

bisexuality n. sexual attraction to or sexual behavior with both men and women. Although much psychological research demonstrates the existence of a continuum of sexual attraction within most individuals, equal responsiveness to both sexes over the lifespan is relatively rare, appearing to be more common in women than in men and varying across cultures. —bisexual adj., n.

bisphenol A (BPA)

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bistable perceptual events

bistable perceptual events perceptions in which sensory stimuli, most often visual, are experienced as “flipping” between two mutually exclusive perspectives or meanings (see alternating perspective). For example, the Necker cube is usually seen in one of two alternating perspectives; the “young–old woman” visual illusion consists of alternating images of a young woman and then an old woman. See also ambiguous figure.

bit

bit n. 1. in computing, a variable that can take only the values of zero or one. [bi(nary) + (digi)t] 2. in information theory, the quantity of information that decreases uncertainty or the germane alternatives of a problem by one half. For example, if a dollar bill has been placed in one of 16 identical books standing side by side on a shelf, and one has to identify this book by asking a minimum number of questions that can be answered only by “yes” or “no,” the best way to begin would be to ask if the book is to the right (or to the left) of center. The answer to this question would provide one bit of information.

bite bar

bite bar 1. a device used to immobilize a participant’s head during studies of visual perception. A bite bar contains an impression of the participant’s teeth, so that when the bar is held between the jaws the head cannot move. 2. in animal research, a bar placed in the mouth to restrain animals during surgery or to immobilize animals that are being tested.

bitemporal hemianopia

bitemporal hemianopia a loss of vision in both the left half of the left visual field and the right half of the right visual field. It is caused by injury (compression) of the optic chiasm. See hemianopia.

bitter

bitter adj. denoting the unpleasant taste evoked by most alkaloids, glycosides, vitamins, and some salts. Each bitter chemical is recognized by one or more of a family of about 60 receptor proteins; some 15% of the human taste cells possess these proteins and therefore the capacity to signal bitterness. Bitter tastes are also associated with toxic chemicals. —bitterness n.

bivalence

bivalence n. in logic, the principle that there are two and only two truth values, so that every proposition is necessarily either true or false. Compare infinite-valued logic.

bivariate

bivariate adj. characterized by two variables or attributes. For example, a set of height and weight measurements for each participant in a study would be bivariate data. Compare multivariate; univariate.

bivariate distribution

bivariate distribution a distribution showing each possible combination of values for two random variables according to their probability of occurrence. For example, a bivariate distribution may show the probability of obtaining specific pairs of heights and weights among college students. Also called bivariate probability distribution.

bivariate frequency distribution

bivariate frequency distribution a distribution showing each possible combination of two categorical variables according to their observed frequency. For example, a researcher may use a bivariate frequency distribution to display how many male and female students at a university are majoring in particular fields of study.

bivariate probability distribution

bivariate probability distribution see bivariate distribution.

bizarre behavior

bizarre behavior behavior that is odd, strange, or unexpected, particularly if it is out of the ordinary for a given person. It may be a symptom of brain damage or a mental disorder, especially a psychotic disorder, such as schizophrenia.

bizarre delusion

bizarre delusion a belief that is clearly fantastic and implausible but is nonetheless maintained with conviction. For example, an individual with schizophrenia may believe that external forces are removing the thoughts from his or her mind (see thought withdrawal).

bizarreness effect

bizarreness effect see distinctiveness effect.

black box

black box a system in which both the input and output are observable but the processes that occur between them are unknown or not observable. Such internal processes must be hypothesized on the basis of known relationships between external factors and the resulting effects. For example, in the relationship between leadership ability (input) and on-the-job performance as a project manager (output), the role of the organizational climate could be considered a black box if it is not understood.

black box warning

black box warning see boxed warning.

Black English

Black English a vernacular of English used by the African American speech community. Its formal and sociolinguistic properties have been the subject of intensive linguistic scholarship, notably by U.S. linguist William Labov (1927– ). Also called African American Vernacular English (AAVE); Black English Vernacular (BEV); Ebonics.

black sheep effect

black sheep effect the tendency to evaluate a disreputable or disliked person more negatively when that person is a member of one’s own group rather than of some other group. Although an apparent contradiction of ingroup bias, the black sheep effect is explained by social identity theory: People respond negatively to those who act in ways that threaten their group’s identity, particularly when they affiliate strongly with their group .

blackboard

blackboard n. a software architecture consisting of a generally accessible global database (the blackboard) accessed by a number of “knowledge sources.” The modular knowledge sources interact independently, posting and consuming information to and from the blackboard. An early use of the blackboard approach was in the development of Hearsay, a program that recognized and interpreted voiced speech.

blacking out

blacking out see falling out.

blackout

blackout n. 1. total loss of consciousness produced, for example, by sudden lowering of the blood supply to the brain or by decreased oxygen supply. 2. amnesia produced by alcoholic intoxication. Also called alcoholic blackout.

bladder reflex

bladder reflex see micturition reflex.

Blake–Mouton managerial grid

Blake–Mouton managerial grid a model of leadership in which the behavior of the leader is assessed on two dimensions: concern for production and concern for people. The leadership style of a manager is described on 9-point scales on each dimension, giving a total of 81 possible styles. The five most often discussed styles are 9,1 (high concern for production, low concern for people: authoritarian); 1,9 (low production, high people: country club); 5,5 (medium production, medium people: compromiser); 1,1 (low production, low people: laissez faire); and 9,9 (high production, high people: team leadership). Also called two-dimensional leader behavior space. See also grid organizational development. [developed in 1964 by Robert R. Blake (1918–2004) and Jane S. Mouton (1930–1987), U.S. psychologists]

blaming the victim

blaming the victim a social psychological phenomenon in which individuals or groups attempt to cope with the bad things that have happened to others by assigning blame to the victim of the trauma or tragedy. Victim blaming serves to create psychological distance between the blamer and the victim, may rationalize a failure to intervene if the blamer was a bystander, and creates a psychological defense for the blamer against feelings of vulnerability.

blank screen

blank screen in psychoanalysis, according to Sigmund Freud, the metaphorical backdrop onto which the patient projects feelings and fantasies during the transference process. The screen is the psychoanalyst, who must remain neutral (blank) to enable the patient to feel free to give voice to his or her innermost thoughts. Contemporary psychoanalysts no longer believe that the psychoanalyst can be a totally neutral blank screen.

blank trial

blank trial a trial within an experiment that uses irregular or meaningless stimulus conditions to prevent the participant from guessing or giving automatic responses. See also catch trial.

blast noise

blast noise excessive acoustic exposure (noise), which may rupture the tympanic membrane (eardrum) or cause damage to the inner ear.

blast olfactometer

blast olfactometer an olfactometer that pulses an odorant into the nasal cavities via a blast of air. Because the blast has tactile as well as odor effects, most olfactometers now have a constant airstream into which odorants are introduced. See also stream olfactometer; Zwaardemaker olfactometer.

blastocyst

blastocyst n. the mammalian embryo at a very early stage of development. It consists of a tiny hollow sphere containing an inner cell mass, enclosed in a thin layer of cells that help implant the blastocyst in the uterine lining. Blastocyst formation in humans generally occurs on the 5th or 6th day following fertilization.

blastula

blastula n. a roughly spherical group of cells formed by division of the fertilized egg (zygote) during the early stages of embryonic development. It consists of a single layer of cells (the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled cavity (the blastocele). In mammals, the blastula is called a blastocyst.

blended family

blended family see stepfamily.

blending

blending n. in linguistics, the process of combining the beginning of one word with the end of another to create a wholly new term; for example, Reaganomics is a blend of (Ronald) Reagan and economics. See portmanteau neologism.

blepharospasm

blepharospasm n. a tonic spasm of the eyelid muscle that is manifested by an involuntary blinking or eye closure.

Blessed Dementia Scale (BDS)

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Bleuler’s theory

Bleuler’s theory a theory proposing a basic underlying symptomatology for schizophrenia. It defined four fundamental symptoms required for a diagnosis of the condition; the more obvious manifestations of schizophrenia (e.g., delusions, hallucinations) were regarded as accessory symptoms (see secondary symptoms) because they are shared with other disorders. [Eugen Bleuler]

blind

blind adj. 1. denoting a lack of sight. See blindness. 2. denoting a lack of awareness. In research, a blind procedure may be employed deliberately to enhance experimental control: A single blind is a procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental conditions under which they are operating; a double blind is a procedure in which both the participants and the experimenters interacting with them are unaware of the particular experimental conditions; and a triple blind is a procedure in which the participants, experimenters, and data analysts are all unaware of the particular experimental conditions.

blind alley

blind alley a type of maze pathway or passage whose only exit is its entrance. Also called cul-de-sac.

blind analysis

blind analysis an evaluation of data or conditions without specific knowledge or previous information about the topic being examined. For example, a clinical psychologist might diagnose a patient without having information concerning previous psychological diagnoses.

blind judgment

blind judgment an evaluation made without knowledge of information that might influence one’s assessment of the situation. Such an approach is used to eliminate conscious or nonconscious bias. Blind judgments are often used in clinical experiments, for example, judging patients’ current level of depression in the absence of information about which, if any, treatment they have received; and in scholarly peer review of manuscripts, in which the author’s institutional affiliation is not disclosed to the reviewer.

blind review

blind review an evaluation of a manuscript to assess its suitability for publication or of a grant proposal to assess its suitability for funding, as performed by a person who does not know the identity of the author or proposer.

blind spot

blind spot 1. in vision, the area of the monocular visual field in which stimulation cannot be perceived because the image falls on the site of the optic disk in the eye. 2. a lack of insight or awareness—often persistent—about a specific area of one’s behavior or personality, typically because recognition of one’s true feelings and motives would be painful. In classical psychoanalysis, it is regarded as a defense against recognition of repressed impulses or memories that would threaten the patient’s ego. See scotomization.

blind walk

blind walk a trust exercise used in a group setting (e.g., an encounter group) to help members develop mutual trust. Half of the group close their eyes; the other half become their partners and lead the “blind” people through various experiences. Roles are then reversed, and finally all members discuss their reactions to the experience.

blindness

blindness n. 1. profound, near-total, or total impairment of the ability to perceive visual stimuli. According to the World Health Organization’s international classification (1990), blindness is defined as visual acuity less than 20/400 in the better eye with best correction or a visual field less than 10° in the widest meridian in the better eye. In the United States, the criterion for legal blindness is visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with best correction or a visual field of 20° or less in the widest meridian of the better eye. 2. absence of usable vision with the exception of light perception. Major causes of organic blindness include inoperable cataract, uncontrolled glaucoma, retinitis pigmentosa, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, rubella, and brain injury. See also cortical blindness; functional blindness; low vision; visual impairment. —blind adj.

blindsight

blindsight n. the capacity of some individuals with damage to the striate cortex (primary visual cortex or area V1) to detect and even localize visual stimuli presented to the blind portion of the visual field. Discrimination of movement, flicker, wavelength, and orientation may also be present. However, these visual capacities are not accompanied by conscious awareness. The causes of blindsight are the subject of some debate: Because the neural pathway from the lateral geniculate nucleus to the striate cortex is nonfunctional in blindsighted people, it is thought that these capacities are either based on the visual collicular pathway (see colliculus; superior colliculus) or represent residual vision using surviving striate cortex. See also deaf hearing; numbsense.

blink response

blink response abrupt closure of the eyelids in response to bright light, shifting attention, or irritation of the eye. Also called blink reflex.

BLM (BLMS)

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bloating

bloating n. a feeling of distension in the abdomen that may have organic or psychogenic causes. It may be a feature of irritable bowel syndrome and is frequently encountered as a symptom of somatization disorder. Also called abdominal bloating.

blob

blob n. see cytochrome oxidase blob.

Bloch’s law

Bloch’s law a rule of temporal summation stating that visual threshold is reached when luminance × duration reaches a constant. If the brightness of a stimulus is halved, the stimulus can still be detected if its duration is doubled. Bloch’s law only holds for relatively brief (≤100 ms), dim stimuli. Also called Bunsen–Roscoe law.

block

block n. 1. an abrupt, involuntary interruption in the flow of thought or speech in which the individual is suddenly aware of not being able to perform a particular mental act, such as finding the words to express something he or she wishes to say. Also called mental block. See retrieval block; tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. 2. in psychotherapy, an obstacle to progress that is perceived as a barrier that cannot be crossed. 3. any physical, biochemical, or psychological barrier or obstacle that obstructs or impedes a process, function, or activity. 4. a group or subset of study participants who share a certain characteristic and are treated as a unit in an experimental design. 5. a set of variables entered as a single entity into a regression analysis or similar statistical procedure.

block design

block design a type of research study in which participants are divided into relatively homogeneous subsets (blocks) from which they are assigned to the experimental or treatment conditions. For example, in a simple block design to evaluate the efficacy of several antidepressants, participants with similar pretest depression scores might be grouped into homogeneous blocks and then assigned to receive different medications. The purpose of a block design is to ensure that a characteristic of the study participants that is related to the target outcome (i.e., a covariate) is distributed equally across treatment conditions. See complete block design; incomplete block design; randomized block design.

block randomization

block randomization a method for assigning study participants to experimental conditions in which individuals are arbitrarily divided into subsets or blocks and then some random process is used to place individuals from those blocks into the different conditions. For example, a researcher might divide participants into blocks of 10 and then randomly assign half of the people in each to the control group and half to the experimental group. Block randomization is distinct from blocking in that the block does not have any significance other than as an assignment unit.

block sampling

block sampling a technique, mainly used as part of a multistage procedure, for selecting units for study. A population is divided into groups (blocks) that each have approximately the same number of targets (e.g., adults to be interviewed), a random subset of those blocks is chosen, and a random subset of targets within each selected block is identified. This type of sampling helps to ensure that characteristics of the initial population are well represented in the final sample.

block-design test

block-design test an intelligence subtest, found most notably on the Wechsler intelligence scales, in which the respondent is asked to use colored blocks to match a specified design. The block-design test also is utilized in the diagnosis of mental disorder and mental deterioration. See also Kohs Block Design Test.

blocking

blocking n. 1. a process in which one’s flow of thought or speech is suddenly interrupted (see block). Also called thought deprivation; thought obstruction. 2. the process of grouping research participants into relatively homogeneous subsets on the basis of a particular characteristic. Such blocking helps adjust for preexisting patterns of variation between experimental units. See block design.

blocking factor

blocking factor in a block design, an attribute or variable used as a basis for subdividing study participants or other sampling units into homogeneous subsets.

Blocq’s disease

Blocq’s disease see astasia–abasia. [Paul O. Blocq (1860–1896), French physician]

blood alcohol concentration (BAC)

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blood glucose

blood glucose see blood sugar.

blood group

blood group a category of immunologically distinct, genetically determined traits based on the presence or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red blood cells. The most commonly used method of categorization is the ABO system, in which the basic categories are A, B, AB, and O. There are more than 20 other blood group systems, including the rhesus system (see Rh factor). The major initial work on blood groups and on the nature of blood transfusion was done at the beginning of the 20th century by Austrian physician Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943), who received a Nobel Prize for this research in 1930. Also called blood type.

blood levels

blood levels the relative amounts of various substances in a measured amount of blood. Blood levels involve comparison of observed levels with an amount or range taken to be normal or toxic. The amount may be expressed as a percentage, in milligrams or micrograms per 100 milliliters, millimoles, or micromoles per liter, or a similar measure. Also called circulating levels.

blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD)

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blood phobia

blood phobia a persistent and irrational fear of blood, specifically of seeing blood. Situations in which blood may be encountered are often avoided or else endured with intense anxiety or distress. An individual confronting blood experiences a subjective feeling of disgust and fears the consequences of the situation, such as fainting. In certain diagnostic classifications, such as DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, blood phobia is identified as a specific phobia, blood-injection-injury type. Blood phobia rarely is called hematophobia or hemophobia.

blood poisoning

blood poisoning see septicemia.

blood pressure

blood pressure the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of blood vessels, especially arteries. It varies with the strength of the heartbeat, the elasticity of the artery walls and resistance of the arterioles, and the person’s health, age, and state of activity. Blood pressure is measured using an instrument called a sphygmomanometer. The pressure measured during heart contraction (see systolic blood pressure) is higher than that measured when the heart is relaxed (see diastolic blood pressure). The readings are recorded (in millimeters of mercury) as systolic/diastolic; the normal resting blood pressure for an adult is less than 120/80. See also hypertension.

blood sugar

blood sugar the concentration of glucose in the blood, which is regulated by the pancreatic hormones insulin and glucagon. Glucose is an important source of energy for the body, particularly the brain. The normal level of blood sugar for humans, measured 12 hours after the last meal, generally ranges between 70 and 110 mg glucose per deciliter of blood. Abnormally high or low levels (see hyperglycemia; hypoglycemia) may indicate any of several disease states.

blood type

blood type see blood group.

blood–brain barrier

blood–brain barrier a semipermeable barrier formed by cells lining the blood capillaries that supply the brain and other parts of the central nervous system. It prevents large molecules, including many drugs, from passing from the blood to the fluid surrounding brain cells and to the cerebrospinal fluid, and thus it protects the brain from potentially harmful substances. Ions and small molecules, such as water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol, can cross relatively freely. Entry is also possible for lipid-soluble compounds, such as anesthetics, which diffuse through plasma membranes. Several anatomical features contribute to the barrier. Cells lining the capillary walls are joined together by tight junctions, which block the passage of molecules through the intercellular spaces found in capillaries elsewhere. Also, the brain capillaries lack pores, called fenestrations, which normally promote the passage of fluid and solutes. Furthermore, the brain capillaries are tightly enveloped in a sheath formed by star-shaped glial cells, called astrocytes. The barrier formed by these features helps maintain a constant environment in which the brain can function, but it also means that many potentially useful drugs cannot enter the brain from the bloodstream. See also area postrema.

bloodletting

bloodletting n. see phlebotomy.

Bloom’s taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy one of the first systematic classifications of the three domains—cognitive, affective, and psychomotor—that students use in attaining educational goals. Originally proposed in 1956, the taxonomy states that each domain is divided into levels from least to most complex, representing a cumulative hierarchy. The cognitive domain encompasses intellectual capacity. The remembering level is considered to be the lowest taxonomic category in this domain, since information can be recalled with a minimum of understanding. The highest level, creating, represents the cumulative contributions of the remembering level plus four others arranged in order of cognitive complexity: understanding, applying, analyzing, and evaluating. The affective domain encompasses emotional capacity, feelings, values, and attitudes and consists of five levels: receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and characterizing. The psychomotor domain includes movement, spatial relationships, and use of motor skills. Its hierarchy was not described in the original taxonomy, but a number of different hierarchies were proposed in the 1970s, generally organized around the degree of learned capacity with reflex, imitation, and perception at the lowest level and the creation or coordination of highly skilled movements at the highest level. Also called taxonomy of educational objectives. [proposed by a committee of college examiners chaired by U.S. educator Benjamin S. Bloom (1913–1999)]

blow

blow 1. n. slang for cocaine. 2. vb. to inhale cocaine or to smoke marijuana.

blow job

blow job slang for oral stimulation of the penis by a partner, which may occur as a part of foreplay or may be continued to the point of orgasm.

BLSA

BLSA abbreviation for Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.

blue

blue n. the color experienced when the eye is stimulated by energy in the short-wavelength portion (c. 500–445 nm) of the visible spectrum.

blue-collar worker

blue-collar worker an employee, such as a factory worker, who performs manual or technical physical labor. The term derives from the blue shirts traditionally worn by many industrial workers. Compare pink-collar worker; white-collar worker.

blue-sighted

blue-sighted adj. having unusual sensitivity to blue stimuli. When a yellowed lens is removed to alleviate a cataract, many patients report heightened sensitivity to blue stimuli.

blue–yellow blindness

blue–yellow blindness a rare type of partial color blindness marked by blue and yellow confusion.

blues

blues pl. n. a colloquial name for depressive symptoms, especially sadness or anhedonia. It usually implies that the symptoms are mild or transient. See also baby blues.

blunted affect

blunted affect a disturbance in which emotional responses to situations and events are dulled.

blur

blur n. the quality of an image that causes it to be indistinct, with smeared or vague borders.

blur point

blur point the minimum distance from the eye that a stimulus must be placed to appear blurred.

blurred vision

blurred vision see visual blurring.

blushing

blushing n. an involuntary reddening of the face, sometimes associated with feelings of embarrassment, self-consciousness, modesty, or shame.

BMI

BMI 1. abbreviation for body mass index. 2. abbreviation for brain–machine interface. See brain–computer interface.

BMLD

BMLD abbreviation for binaural masking level difference.

BMR

BMR abbreviation for basal metabolic rate. See basal metabolism.

BNSQ

BNSQ abbreviation for Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire.

BNT

BNT abbreviation for Boston Naming Test.

board certified

board certified denoting a physician or other health care professional who has passed an examination set by a specialty board and has been certified as a specialist in that area. A board-certified (or boarded) individual is known as a diplomate.

boarding home

boarding home see adult home; group home; halfway house.

Bobo doll

Bobo doll an inflatable plastic clown. In his studies of observational learning, Albert Bandura demonstrated that children who had watched a videotape of an adult being violent with a Bobo doll were more likely to behave aggressively toward the doll than were children who had watched an adult being nonviolent toward it.

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in the multiple-intelligences theory, the skills involved in forming and coordinating bodily movements, such as dancing, playing a violin, or playing basketball.

body

body n. 1. the entire physical structure of an organism, such as the human body. 2. the physical body as opposed to the mental processes of a human being. See mind–body problem. 3. the trunk or torso of a human or nonhuman animal. 4. the main part of a structure or organ, such as the body of the penis. 5. a discrete anatomical or cytological structure, such as the Barr body (see sex chromatin).

body awareness

body awareness the perception of one’s physical self or body at any particular time.

body boundaries

body boundaries the definiteness or indefiniteness of the outlines of a body. Barrier responses in Rorschach Inkblot Tests, such as “turtle with shell” and “man in armor,” indicate definite body boundaries, whereas penetration responses, such as “person bleeding” and “torn coat,” indicate indefinite boundaries.

body buffer zone

body buffer zone the physical distance a person prefers to maintain between him- or herself and one or more other individuals to avoid feeling uncomfortable. This zone varies depending on the relationship with the others; it is smaller, for example, when there is a close relationship. It also varies according to culture. See also bubble concept of personal space; interpersonal distance.

body build

body build a general measure of the body in terms of trunk, limb length, and girth.

body cell

body cell any tissue cell that is not a germ cell. It normally has the diploid number of chromosomes. Also called somatic cell.

body cognitions

body cognitions beliefs or attitudes about the features of one’s appearance. Characteristically negative and self-defeating thoughts are related to subjective dissatisfaction.

body concept

body concept the thoughts and feelings that constitute the way an individual views his or her body characteristics: that is, the conceptual image of one’s body. Compare body percept. See body image.

body disfigurement

body disfigurement an objective defect of appearance related to a congenital malformation, physical injury, or any disease process that modifies the physical integrity of the individual.

body distortion

body distortion see body-image distortion; body-size overestimation.

body dysmorphia

body dysmorphia an extreme disparagement of some aspect of appearance that is not supported by the objective evidence. There may be only a mild defect in the body feature or, in extreme cases, there may be no objective evidence of any malformation or oddity of appearance. See also body dysmorphic disorder; muscle dysmorphia.

body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)

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body ego

body ego in psychoanalytic theory, the part of the ego that develops out of self-perceptions of the body. It is the first manifestation of the core of the ego around which all perceptions of the self are grouped, including individual memories, sensations, ideas, wishes, strivings, and fantasies.

body electrode placement

body electrode placement the pattern or location of individual electrodes used to measure electrical properties of the heart, brain, skin, or other organ or system.

body esteem

body esteem the degree of positiveness with which individuals regard the various parts of their body and the appearance of those parts.

body ideal

body ideal the body type promoted within a culture and its media as most attractive or most appropriate to a person’s age, gender, and race. This is variously internalized, imposed, and resisted by individuals and groups.

body image

body image the mental picture one forms of one’s body as a whole, including its physical characteristics (body percept) and one’s attitudes toward these characteristics (body concept). Also called body identity. See also body schema.

Body Image Assessment (BIA)

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body integrity identity disorder (BIID)

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body language

body language the expression of feelings and thoughts, which may or may not be verbalized, through posture, gesture, facial expression, or other movements. For example, anger is usually indicated by a facial expression in which there are downward lines in the forehead, cheeks, and mouth, and the hands may be clenched. Body language is often called nonverbal communication.

body mass index (BMI)

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body memory

body memory a sensory recollection of trauma in the form of pain, arousal, tension, or discomfort, usually unaccompanied by words or images. Body memory is frequently the result of trauma occurring during the period of childhood amnesia, leading to a sensorimotor, rather than cognitive, encoding of the traumatic event. See also sensorimotor memory.

body narcissism

body narcissism 1. an exaggerated preoccupation or fascination with one’s own body and its erogenous zones. See also narcissism. 2. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the primary narcissism of the young infant.

body odor

body odor the odor produced by the action of bacteria on skin secretions, such as perspiration (which itself is nearly odorless). Attitudes toward body odor vary in different cultures.

body percept

body percept the mental image one forms of the physical characteristics of one’s own body, that is, whether one is slim or stocky, strong or weak, attractive or unattractive, tall or short. Compare body concept; body concept. See body image.

body positioning

body positioning the notion that body posture can affect memory. Specific kinesthetic and proprioceptive feedback may provide a context for enhancing learning and recall.

body rocking

body rocking see rocking.

body schema

body schema the cognitive organization of one’s appearance, including internal image, thoughts, and feelings. See body percept.

body temperature

body temperature a measure of body heat which is normally about 98.6°F (37°C) in humans. Body temperature affects all metabolic processes, and most cells must remain within the range of 32° to 113°F (0–45°C). Animals are characterized as endotherms or ectotherms according to how they regulate body temperature. See also heat effects; hypothermia.

body therapies

body therapies a group of physical therapies that seek to relieve psychological tensions and other symptoms through body manipulation, relaxation, massage, breathing exercises, and changes in posture and position of body parts. The therapies are based on the theory that the body and its functioning embody an individual’s basic personality and way of life. See also bodywork.

body type

body type a classification of individuals according to body build or physique. Some have theorized an association between aspects of physique and psychological traits, proposing a variety of constitutional types and somatotypes.

body-build index

body-build index an index of constitutional types. Individuals are grouped according to the formula (height × 100)/(transverse chest diameter × 6). Mesomorphs, who are muscular, fall within one standard deviation of the mean; narrowly built leptomorphs one standard deviation or more above the mean; and broadly built eurymorphs one standard deviation or more below the mean. [proposed by Hans Eysenck]

body-image avoidance

body-image avoidance behavioral manifestations of excessive concern with one’s appearance, evidenced by such behaviors as avoiding social functions and engaging in cover-up activities (e.g., wearing bulky and loose-fitting clothing) to obscure and hide aspects of the body with which one is dissatisfied.

body-image distortion

body-image distortion distortion in the subjective image or mental representation of one’s own body appearance, size, or movement. The term is usually applied to overestimation of body size or used to define the perceptual experiences of individuals with psychoses. Also called body-image disturbance. See also anorexia nervosa; body-size overestimation.

body-image ideals

body-image ideals personal standards of optimal appearance for various body features: idealized features as opposed to actual attributes of appearance.

body-size overestimation

body-size overestimation the specific tendency to overestimate the size of body features (e.g., width of waist, hips, or thighs) in relation to objective size measurements. It was once thought to be an essential feature of anorexia nervosa. See body-image distortion.

body–mind problem

body–mind problem see mind–body problem.

bodybuilding

bodybuilding n. the use of a weight-lifting program to build muscle bulk and to acquire muscle definition.

bodywork

bodywork n. an adjunctive therapy that may be recommended in addition to psychotherapy. It typically includes massage, movement, and exercises involving touch.

Bogardus Social Distance Scale

Bogardus Social Distance Scale an instrument used to measure individuals’ attitudes toward particular ethnic groups. Respondents are presented with different scenarios (e.g., having someone from a particular group as a work colleague) and must indicate the acceptability of each for the groups listed. It is assumed that individuals who would prefer to keep a greater social distance between themselves and members of a specific group are prejudiced against that group. The Bogardus scale is one of the most commonly used social distance scales. [Emory Bogardus (1882–1973), U.S. sociologist]

bogus pipeline

bogus pipeline fake apparatus used in attitude research to ascertain attitudes toward controversial or sensitive issues, about which participants would otherwise be tempted to answer dishonestly. The apparatus is attached to the participant, who is then informed, incorrectly, that it can detect whether the attitude he or she reports is a true one. In one study, it was found that use of the bogus pipeline resulted in a greater likelihood of admitting cocaine abuse, excessive drinking, and oral sex.

boilermaker’s deafness

boilermaker’s deafness a high-frequency hearing loss resulting from exposure to high-intensity noise. The condition has been known for many years but is increasingly prevalent due to the increased noise of highly industrialized society. See acoustic trauma.

BOLD

BOLD acronym for blood oxygenation level-dependent.

boldness

boldness n. the tendency to accept risk, a dimension of temperament observed in both humans and nonhuman animals. Thus, a bold preschooler may freely engage with unfamiliar classmates, and a bold rat may explore all available areas during an open-field test. Individual differences in boldness are presumed to arise from differences in the excitability of areas of the limbic system that are involved in the evaluation of stimulus saliency. For example, bold adults exhibit more bilateral nucleus accumbens activation and less bilateral amygdala activation when looking at the faces of strangers than do less bold adults. Compare shyness. See also shy–bold continuum.

bolstering of an attitude

bolstering of an attitude a method of reducing cognitive dissonance by generating new cognitive elements that are consistent with an attitude. This is presumed to offset the dissonance resulting from an inconsistent element.

bombesin

bombesin n. a neuropeptide, originally isolated from the skin of the fire-bellied toad and later found in mammals, that regulates the contraction of smooth muscle cells, suppresses appetite, and has a role in certain cancers.

bona fide group

bona fide group see natural group.

bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)

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bona fide pipeline measure

bona fide pipeline measure see evaluative priming measure.

bond

bond n. a relationship between two or more individuals that signifies trust and alliance. In a social context, the existence of bonds between individuals is such that each person feels an attraction toward the other and each expects their association to continue. In psychotherapy, the bond of a therapeutic alliance between therapist and client is considered beneficial to the treatment. See also pair bond.

bondage

bondage n. physical restraint of one person by another to arouse sexual pleasure in one or both partners.

bondage and discipline (B and D)

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bonding

bonding n. the process in which attachments or other close relationships are formed between individuals, especially between mother and infant. An early, positive relationship between a mother and a newborn child is considered by some theorists to be essential in establishing unconditional love on the part of the parent, as well as security and trust on the part of the child. In subsequent development, bonding establishes friendship and trust (see bond).

bone age

bone age a measure of the skeletal maturity of an individual based on the stage of ossification of bone, usually determined from X-rays of the hand and wrist.

bone conduction

bone conduction the transmission of sound waves to the inner ear through vibrations of bones in the skull.

bone pointing

bone pointing see voodoo death.

bone-conduction testing

bone-conduction testing an audiological procedure to determine if the hearing loss detected in air-conduction testing is a result of conductive or sensorineural factors. It is performed at controlled frequencies with a small bone-conduction vibrator that is attached to a headband and placed on the temporal bone behind the ear. See air–bone gap.

Bonferroni t test

Bonferroni t test see Dunn–Bonferroni procedure. [Carlo Emilio Bonferroni, (1892–1960), Italian mathematician]

Bonnet syndrome

Bonnet syndrome see Charles Bonnet syndrome.

bony labyrinth

bony labyrinth see labyrinth.

Boolean algebra

Boolean algebra a set of rules that simplify the expression of relatively complex logical statements by describing them in terms of different variables whose outcomes are either true or false. In Boolean algebra, which underlies digital computation systems, words are used to create logical combinations or operators (e.g., and, or, not). [George Boole (1815–1864), British mathematician and logician]

boomerang effect

boomerang effect a situation in which a persuasive message produces attitude change in the direction opposite to that intended. Boomerang effects occur when recipients generate counterarguments substantially stronger than the arguments contained in the original message.

booster session

booster session in therapy, particularly cognitive behavior therapy, any occasional periodic session, after the main sessions are officially ended, in order to reinforce progress or troubleshoot obstacles to continuance of positive changes made during the therapy.

bootstrapping

bootstrapping n. 1. any process or operation in which a system uses its initial resources to develop more powerful and complex processing routines, which are then used in the same fashion, and so on cumulatively. In language acquisition, for example, the term describes children’s ability to learn complex linguistic rules, which can be endlessly reapplied, from extremely limited data (see Quinian bootstrapping). 2. a statistical technique to estimate the variance of a parameter when standard assumptions about the shape of the data set are not met. For example, bootstrapping may be used to estimate the variance of a set of scores that do not follow a normal distribution. In this procedure, a subset of values is taken from the data set, a quantity (e.g., the mean) is calculated, and the values are reinserted into the data; this sequence is repeated a given number of times. From the resulting set of calculated values (e.g., the set of means), the summary value of interest is calculated (e.g., the standard deviation of the mean). See also jackknife. —bootstrap vb.

borderline

borderline 1. adj. pertaining to any phenomenon difficult to categorize because it straddles two distinct classes, showing characteristics of both. Thus, borderline intelligence is supposed to show characteristics of both the average and subaverage categories. See also borderline disorder; borderline state. 2. n. an informal or shorthand designation for someone with borderline personality disorder or its symptoms.

borderline case

borderline case see case.

borderline disorder

borderline disorder 1. see borderline personality disorder. 2. historically, any psychological condition that lies between normality and neurosis, between normality and psychosis, or between normal intelligence and intellectual disability.

borderline intelligence

borderline intelligence a level of measured intellectual performance between average and significantly subaverage intelligence. Some researchers define it as an IQ between 68 and 83, others as any IQ in the 70s, but it is most often associated with IQs in the range 70 to 75. IQs in the borderline range, especially above 75, do not justify a basis for diagnosis of intellectual disability. Also called borderline intellectual functioning; borderline mental retardation.

borderline personality disorder

borderline personality disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a personality disorder characterized by a long-standing pattern of instability in mood, interpersonal relationships, and self-image that is severe enough to cause extreme distress or interfere with social and occupational functioning. Among the manifestations of this disorder are (a) self-damaging behavior (e.g., gambling, overeating, substance use); (b) intense but unstable relationships; (c) uncontrollable temper outbursts; (d) uncertainty about self-image, gender, goals, and loyalties; (e) shifting moods; (f) self-defeating behavior, such as fights, suicidal gestures, or self-mutilation; and (g) chronic feelings of emptiness and boredom. See also mentalization.

borderline psychosis

borderline psychosis see borderline state.

borderline schizophrenia

borderline schizophrenia historically, a condition in which an individual inconsistently displays symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g., only under circumstances of high stress) but is in touch with reality most of the time.

borderline state

borderline state any condition in which an individual’s presenting symptoms are difficult to classify. Historically, borderline state (or borderline psychosis) more specifically referred to a condition in which an individual may become psychotic if exposed to unfavorable circumstances but has not currently lost touch with reality.

boredom

boredom n. a state of weariness or ennui resulting from a lack of engagement with stimuli in the environment. It is generally considered to be one of the least desirable conditions of daily life and is often identified by individuals as a cause of feeling depressed. It can be seen as the opposite of interest and surprise. —bored adj.

Borg scale

Borg scale either of two scales for measuring intensity of sensation and experience, enabling comparisons across people and across tasks. The RPE scale (rating of perceived exertion) is used specifically for measuring perceived effort in physical work. The CR10 scale (categorical rating with a scale from 1 to 10) is a general method that measures the magnitude of different sensations, including pain, loudness and noise, and brightness. These scales are used in psychophysics as well as in fitness training, ergonomics, and rehabilitation. [Gunnar Borg, 20th-century Swedish psychologist]

Börjeson–Forssman–Lehmann syndrome

Börjeson–Forssman–Lehmann syndrome a disorder characterized by microcephaly, severe intellectual disability, obesity, seizures, hypogonadism, and distinct facial features. Fully expressed primarily in males, it is caused by an X-linked recessive trait mutation in the PHF6 gene. [Mats Gunnar Börjeson (1922– ), Hans Axel Forssman (1912–1994), and J. O. Orla Lehmann (1927– ), Swedish physicians]

borna disease

borna disease a disease of mammals (especially horses) that is caused by a virus and can be transmitted to humans, typically via intranasal infection. It usually results in encephalopathy, which leads to ataxia, blindness, and other neurological disorders.

borstal system

borstal system a treatment approach for juvenile offenders that emphasizes rehabilitation through hard work and recreation, along with a period of supervision during reentry to society. The approach is named after the prison at Borstal in Kent, England, where it was first introduced in 1908.

BOS

BOS abbreviation for behavioral observation scale.

Boston Naming Test (BNT)

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Boston Process Approach

Boston Process Approach see process approach.

BOT

BOT abbreviation for Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency.

botany

botany n. the scientific study of plants. —botanical adj. —botanist n.

bottleneck model

bottleneck model any model of attention that assumes the existence of a limited-capacity channel (typically with a capacity of one item) at some specific stage of human information processing. In late-selection theories, this channel (the “bottleneck”) occurs after stimulus identification.

bottom-up design

bottom-up design an inductive approach to the design of a system or product. Such an approach involves identifying basic user requirements and allowing these to drive the design, as opposed to basing it on existing product designs or abstract models. Compare top-down design.

bottom-up processing

bottom-up processing information processing in which incoming stimulus data initiate and determine the higher level processes involved in their recognition, interpretation, and categorization. For example, in vision, features would be combined into objects, and objects into scenes, recognition of which would be based only on the information in the stimulus input. Typically, perceptual or cognitive mechanisms use bottom-up processing when information is unfamiliar or highly complex. Also called bottom-up analysis; data-driven processing. Compare top-down processing. See also shallow processing.

bottoming out

bottoming out a state of despair characterized by financial ruin, suicide attempts, or shattered family and other intimate interpersonal relationships that is frequently experienced by people with severe depression or addiction disorders (e.g., substance abusers and pathological gamblers).

bouffée délirante

bouffée délirante see acute delusional psychosis.

Boulder model

Boulder model see scientist-practitioner model.

bound energy

bound energy in psychoanalytic theory, psychic energy that is located within the ego and focused on the individual’s external reality. Bound energy is associated with the secondary processes and is contrasted with the free energy of the id.

bound morpheme

bound morpheme in linguistics, a morpheme that can occur only in combination with other morphemes. For example, the morpheme for the past tense -ed can only occur with a verb stem, as in kissed. Compare free morpheme.

boundary

boundary n. 1. a psychological demarcation that protects the integrity of an individual or group or that helps the person or group set realistic limits on participation in a relationship or activity. 2. in psychotherapy, an important limit that is usually set by the therapist as part of the ground rules in treatment. Boundaries may involve areas of discussion (e.g., the therapist’s personal life is off limits) or physical limits (e.g., rules about touching), which are guided by ethical codes and standards. Respect for boundaries by both the therapist and client is an important concept in the therapeutic relationship.

boundary ambiguity

boundary ambiguity uncertainty that arises in a family system when an individual’s status, role, or family membership is brought into question, most often as a result of separation, divorce, and remarriage. See permeable family.

boundary detector

boundary detector 1. any of the retinal ganglion cells that respond to a sharp edge in a receptive field, regardless of brightness or contrast on either side of the edge. These cells are most common in the retinas of frogs. See also feature detector. 2. any of a class of computational algorithms designed to detect edges in artificial vision or word segmentation in speech processing.

boundary issues

boundary issues 1. ethical issues relating to the proper limits of a professional relationship between a provider of services (e.g., a physician or a psychotherapist) and his or her patient or client, such that the trust and vulnerability of the latter are not abused (see boundary). A particular area of concern is professional–client sexual relations. 2. in health care, issues relating to the demarcations between different areas and levels of expertise and questions of who is best qualified to give certain types of treatment or advice.

boundary spanning

boundary spanning in organizational settings, identifying information external to the organization, selectively disseminating that information within the organization, and sending information known within the organization out into the external environment. Individuals who occupy boundary spanning roles, such as sales or account managers, both filter information and facilitate information transmission.

boundary system

boundary system in general systems theory, the semipermeable boundaries between living systems, permitting information to flow in either direction but posing the question of how much interpenetration and interdependence are feasible in a given social system. See also ego boundary.

bounded rationality

bounded rationality decision making in which the processes used are rational within the constraints imposed by (a) limitations in the individual’s knowledge; (b) human cognitive limitations generally; and (c) empirical factors arising from the complex, real-life situations in which decisions have to be made. The concept was introduced by Herbert A. Simon as a corrective to the assumption of classical economic theory that individuals can and will make ideally informed and rational decisions in pursuit of their own self-interest (see rational-economic man). See procedural rationality; substantive rationality. See also satisfice.

bourgeoisie

bourgeoisie n. see middle class.

bowel disorder

bowel disorder any disorder of the small or large intestine, which frequently occurs as a response to stress and anxiety (e.g., chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome).

bowel incontinence

bowel incontinence see fecal incontinence.

Bowen family systems theory

Bowen family systems theory see family systems theory.

box-and-whisker plot

box-and-whisker plot a graphical display of the central value, variance, and extreme values in a data set. A rectangle (box) is drawn along the vertical y-axis of the plot, which shows the range of data values. The length of the box indicates the middle 50% of scores and its two ends indicate the upper and lower hinges. Lines (whiskers) extending outward from the box denote variation in the upper and lower 25% of scores, while a separate line within the box indicates the score that falls in the very middle of the set (i.e., the median). Stars or other single points indicate extreme scores. A box-and-whisker plot is useful in exploratory data analysis for indicating whether a distribution is skewed and whether the data set includes any outliers; it can also be used to compare data sets when large numbers of observations are involved. Also called boxplot.

box-score method

box-score method a method of summarizing results from multiple studies of the same general research question that considers both statistically meaningful and nonmeaningful results but ignores the magnitude of the research findings (e.g., the size of a treatment effect). Meta-analysis generally is preferred over the box-score method.

Box–Cox transformation

Box–Cox transformation a transformation that enables the relationship between one or more predictor variables and an outcome variable to be described by a summative formula and thus to be plotted by a straight line when graphed. Based on maximum likelihood estimation, the technique transforms the outcome variable to obtain linearity and approximate normality in a data set. Compare Box–Tidwell transformation. [George E. P. Box (1919–2013) and David Roxbee Cox (1924– ), British statisticians]

Box–Tidwell transformation

Box–Tidwell transformation a transformation used to modify a set of predictor variables so that the relationship between those predictors and the outcome variable resembles a straight line. It is similar to the Box–Cox transformation for correcting nonlinearity but instead is applied to the independent variables (predictors) involved. [George E. P. Box (1919–2013), British statistician; Paul William Tidwell (1926–2013), U.S. chemist and statistician]

boxed warning

boxed warning an alert strongly recommended by the U.S. Food and Drug Administrationus-food-and-drug-administration to be included in the labeling of medications that have been found to have particularly serious or life-threatening side effects or that should be prescribed only under certain circumstances or to certain patient populations. The warning must be prominently displayed and in bold type. Also called black box warning.

boxer’s dementia

boxer’s dementia see dementia pugilistica.

BP

BP abbreviation for Bereitschaftspotential. See readiness potential.

BPA

BPA abbreviation for bisphenol A.

BPRS

BPRS abbreviation for Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale.

BPS

BPS abbreviation for British Psychological Society.

BRAC

BRAC abbreviation for basic rest–activity cycle.

brace

brace n. a device that supports or maintains the correct positioning of a part of the body, such as a limb, a joint, or the spine. Braces may be designed to permit flexion and motion and are typically intended for permanent or long-term use. They are distinct from splints, which are used to temporarily immobilize or protect a part of the body.

brachial plexus

brachial plexus a network of nerves that carries signals from the spinal cord to the shoulder, arm, and hand. Injury to the brachial plexus can impair control of these parts.

brachium

brachium n. (pl. brachia) 1. the upper arm, extending from the shoulder to the elbow. 2. in anatomy, a structure that resembles an arm, such as the brachium conjunctivum. —brachial adj.

brachium conjunctivum

brachium conjunctivum the superior cerebellar peduncle, a band of fibrous tissue extending from each hemisphere of the cerebellum to the pons.

Brachmann–de Lange syndrome

Brachmann–de Lange syndrome see Cornelia de Lange syndrome. [described in 1916 by Winfried Brachmann (1888–c. 1915), German physician, and in 1933 by Cornelia de Lange (1871–1950), Dutch pediatrician]

brachy-

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brachycephalic

brachycephalic adj. see cephalic index. —brachycephaly n.

brachymorph

brachymorph n. a body type characterized by an abnormally short, broad physique. Also called brachytype. —brachymorphic adj.

brachyskeletal

brachyskeletal adj. having abnormally short bones, particularly short leg bones. Also called brachyskelic.

bracketed morality

bracketed morality a temporary suspension of the usual moral obligation to consider equally the needs and desires of all persons that is due to contextual factors in a particular situation. Such a suspension occurs, for example, when participating in sporting events (see game reasoning).

brady-

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bradyarthria

bradyarthria n. see bradylalia.

bradycardia

bradycardia n. see arrhythmia.

bradyesthesia

bradyesthesia n. slowed or dulled sensation.

bradykinesia

bradykinesia n. abnormal slowness in the execution of voluntary movements. Also called bradykinesis. Compare hypokinesis. —bradykinetic adj.

bradylalia

bradylalia n. abnormal slowness or hesitation in speech. Also called bradyarthria; bradylogia.

bradylexia

bradylexia n. extreme slowness in reading that is not attributable to intellectual impairment. —bradylexic adj.

bradylogia

bradylogia n. see bradylalia.

bradyrhythmia

bradyrhythmia n. slowness of the rhythms of the heart.

brahmacharya

brahmacharya n. 1. continence or chastity (Sanskrit). In the Hindu tradition (see Hinduism), the term signifies continence in thought, word, and deed, which is one of the five virtues of the first stage of Raja-Yoga. It is also used to denote an ordination ceremony for novice monks as well as the first of the four stages into which human life is divided according to Vedic tradition. 2. in Buddhism, holy conduct of life. The term signifies a life lived in harmony with Buddhist rules of discipline and is used to describe the chaste lifestyle of a Buddhist monk.

braid cutting fetish

braid cutting fetish a fetish in which a person’s hair is cut as part of sexual activity.

Braid’s strabismus

Braid’s strabismus a form of strabismus in which hypnosis can be induced by causing the eyes to converge and turn upward. [James Braid]

braille

braille n. a system of letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and scientific and musical symbols adapted as a written language for people with severe visual impairment, using combinations of raised dots that can be touched. Each character comprises a specific pattern of six dots organized in two parallel vertical columns. Prefix symbols are used to indicate capitalization and numbers, and various other conventions are used to represent more than 200 common words or recurring letter combinations. [introduced in 1829 by Louis Braille (1809–1852), French teacher and inventor]

brain

brain n. the enlarged, anterior part of the central nervous system within the skull. The young adult human brain weighs about 1,450 g, and its outer layer (the cerebral cortex) contains over 10 billion nerve cells. The brain develops by differentiation of the embryonic neural tube along an anterior–posterior axis to form three main regions—the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain—that can be further subdivided on the basis of anatomical and functional criteria. The cortical tissue is concentrated in the forebrain, and the midbrain and hindbrain structures are often considered together as the brainstem. The functions of the brain are discussed in entries for the different parts of the brain. Also called encephalon. See also brain localization theory; evolution of the brain; split brain.

brain abscess

brain abscess a circumscribed collection of pus that may occur in any part of the brain and, depending on its location, may produce deficits in any neurological function. Brain abscesses are often secondary to infections.

brain atlas

brain atlas a collection of illustrations of details of brain structure.

brain atrophy

brain atrophy see cerebral atrophy.

brain bank

brain bank a program in which the brains of deceased people with specific neurological disorders are gathered to enable scientists to conduct intensive postmortem histopathological studies.

brain center

brain center any of various regions of the brain that have specific functions, such as the visual centers and the (alleged) hunger center.

brain comparator

brain comparator a theoretical structure in the brain that compares an intended movement with sensory feedback that results from the movement (see comparator). The cerebellum is believed to act as a brain comparator to coordinate and calibrate movements in response to visual and somatosensory feedback. See also corollary discharge.

brain concussion

brain concussion see concussion.

brain contusion

brain contusion see cerebral contusion.

brain damage

brain damage injury to the brain. It can have various causes, including prenatal infection, birth injury, head injury, toxic agents, brain tumor, brain inflammation, severe seizures, certain metabolic disorders, vitamin deficiency, intracranial hemorrhage, stroke, and surgical procedures. Brain damage is manifested by impairment of cognitive, motor, or sensory skills mediated by the brain.

brain death

brain death a state of extreme and irreversible unconsciousness in which neurological activity and vital physiologic functions have ceased, as opposed to cardiac death, in which cessation of natural cardiac activity and breathing indicates a patient is deceased. Although several professional organizations in neurology and related fields have specified their own guidelines for determining brain death, globally standardized criteria do not yet exist. For example, brainstem death is considered sufficient in the United Kingdom whereas whole-brain death is required in the United States. Despite such variability, many clinicians (as well as legal statutes) establish brain death through the concurrent presence of the following: nonresponsiveness to noxious or other stimuli, absence of breathing, absence of reflexes and spontaneous movement, and absence of electroencephalogram activity. Exact methods of evaluating these factors differ significantly across facilities—for example, different U.S. hospitals require different ancillary tests for cerebral blood flow and other characteristics, including angiography, positron emission tomography, sensory evoked potential recording, single photon emission computed tomography, and sonography (see ultrasound). Additionally, medical conditions and other complicating factors that temporarily depress brain function, such as hypothermia, drug overdose, and hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia, must be excluded before a definitive determination of brain death can be made. It must also be distinguished from the similar conditions of coma and a vegetative state. Also called cerebral death; irreversible coma.

brain disease

brain disease any degenerative, metabolic, and infectious disease that leads to brain damage.

brain disorder

brain disorder 1. any condition marked by disruption of the normal functioning of the brain. 2. an older term for an acute or chronic mental disorder caused by or associated with impairment of brain function and characterized by mild to severe impairment of cognition and mood. Also called brain syndrome.

brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM)

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brain fag

brain fag a culture-bound syndrome originating in west Africa and most often experienced by high school or college students. Symptoms typically include difficulties with concentration, memory, and understanding information; feelings of pain, tightness, and burning around the head and neck; blurred vision; and tiredness associated with excessive thinking.

brain fingerprinting

brain fingerprinting a forensic technique that uses neuroimaging (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging) to match brain activity of control subjects with that of possible criminal suspects when both are viewing crime-scene details. The technique is based on the theory that certain sensory-perceptual brain activity would be expected to become activated in an individual familiar with the crime’s details but not in an individual unfamiliar with them. [developed by Lawrence A. Farwell, U.S. scientist]

brain graft

brain graft the surgical transplantation or implantation of brain tissue to replace a damaged part or compensate for a defect.

brain growth

brain growth the increase in size, mass, and complexity of the brain. In humans, the brain grows very rapidly in the fetus and during the early postnatal years, reaching its maximum mass at about 20 years, after which there is a slow decline. Some regions of the brain grow more rapidly than others, well into the teenage years.

brain imaging

brain imaging study of the anatomy or activity of the brain through the intact skull by noninvasive computerized techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. See also nuclear imaging.

brain injury

brain injury see brain damage; brain trauma.

brain lesion

brain lesion any damage to an area of brain tissue caused by injury, disease, surgery, tumor, stroke, or infection. Also called cerebral lesion.

brain localization theory

brain localization theory any of various theories that different areas of the brain serve different functions. Since the early 19th century, opinion has varied between notions of highly precise localization and a belief that the brain, or large portions of it, function as a whole. In 1861, Paul Broca deduced from localized brain lesions that the speech center of the brain is in the left frontal lobe (see Broca’s area). Since then, many techniques, including localized electrical stimulation of the brain, electrical recording from the brain, and brain imaging, have added information about localization of function in the brain. For many investigators, however, the concept of extreme parcellation of functions has given way to concepts of distributed control by collective activity of different regions. See also mass action.

brain mapping

brain mapping the creation of a visual representation of the brain in which different functions are assigned to different brain regions. Mapping may be based on a variety of sources of information, including effects of localized brain lesions, recording electrical activity of the brain, and brain imaging during various behavioral states. See also brain localization theory.

brain nucleus

brain nucleus a cluster of cells within the cerebrum or cerebellum concerned with a specific function or functions. See nucleus.

brain pathology

brain pathology any disorder, disease, or pathological condition affecting the brain (e.g., tumor, stroke, traumatic injury). See also neuropathology.

brain plasticity

brain plasticity 1. the capacity of the brain to compensate for losses in brain tissue caused by injury or disease. See also recovery of function. 2. the capacity of the brain to change as a function of experience. The term plasticity in this sense was first used by William James in 1890.

brain potential

brain potential the electric potential of brain cells. See electroencephalography.

brain research

brain research investigation of the structure and functions of the brain, including, for example, (a) the administration of psychological and neurological tests after lesions have occurred in various areas; (b) the observation or measurement of the effects of stimulation or ablation of parts of the brain; (c) the use of gross and microscopic anatomical and histopathological techniques; (d) the study of the nature and functions of chemicals involved in neurotransmission; and (e) the use of electroencephalography and brain imaging techniques.

brain reserve

brain reserve a hypothesis proposing that some adult brains can tolerate pathological changes without overt signs of disturbance because of the capacity of remaining neurons in the central nervous system to compensate for damaged or destroyed tissue. Thus, a person with a high brain reserve can sustain a greater amount of brain injury or deterioration before manifesting symptoms than a person with low brain reserve can. Implicit to this concept is the notion of a critical threshold level of functioning neurons below which normal activities can no longer be maintained and symptoms of disorder appear. The validity of this hypothesis has been difficult to establish empirically, but the concept has been influential within neurology and cognitive science since it was first proposed to explain the observation that many individuals with Alzheimer’s disease who had extensive amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in their brains nonetheless showed few decrements in their intellectual abilities. This same discrepancy has since been observed in other types of dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and other neurological disorders. Indeed, the lack of a direct relationship between the degree of brain pathology and the clinical manifestation of that damage makes it difficult to diagnose these conditions in their early stages during which degenerative alterations of cerebral anatomy have begun accumulating and intervention would be most effective. Various operational definitions of brain reserve capacity are used in studies, including overall brain volume, component structure volumes, head circumference, cerebral glucose metabolism, cortical thickness, the number of brain neurons, the density of their interconnections, regional cerebral blood flow, neural transmission speed, and various parameters of the sensory evoked potential. The term brain reserve at times is used interchangeably with cognitive reserve, despite the differing theoretical emphases of the two concepts. Also called neural reserve. See also functional plasticity.

brain scan

brain scan any of a variety of techniques designed either to reveal structural or functional abnormalities of the diseased brain or to measure activity of the healthy brain. See brain imaging.

brain self-stimulation

brain self-stimulation see intracranial stimulation.

brain splitting

brain splitting surgical separation of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. See commissurotomy; split brain.

brain stimulation

brain stimulation stimulation of specific areas of the brain, for example by electrical stimulation or transcranial magnetic stimulation, as a means of determining their functions and their effects on behavior and as a therapeutic technique. Also called cerebral stimulation.

brain syndrome

brain syndrome see brain disorder.

brain trauma

brain trauma physical injury to the brain. It can be produced by, for example, a blow to the head, a gunshot wound, or a cerebrovascular accident. See concussion; head injury.

brain tumor

brain tumor any abnormal tissue growth (see neoplasm) within the confines of the skull. Damage may occur by the destruction of healthy tissue or through increased intracranial pressure as there is little room for the tumor to grow within the skull without compressing healthy tissue and interfering with the flow of blood and nutrients into the brain. Brain tumors can occur at any age, producing initial symptoms of headache, nausea, or sudden vomiting without apparent cause. As the tumor progresses, the patient may experience disturbances of vision, hearing, and smell, loss of coordination, changes in mental status, weakness, and paralysis. Seizures sometimes are caused by a tumor. See also glioma; meningioma.

brain waves

brain waves spontaneous, rhythmic electrical impulses emanating from different areas of the brain. Electroencephalographic brain-wave recordings are used to study sleep stages and cognitive processes. According to their frequencies, brain waves are classified as alpha waves (8–12 Hz), beta waves (13–30 Hz), delta waves (1–3 Hz), gamma waves (31–80 Hz), or theta waves (4–7 Hz). The first substantial account of brain waves was given in 1929 by German neuropsychiatrist Hans Berger (1873–1944).

brain weight

brain weight the weight of a brain, which is about 1,450 g for a young adult human. Brain weights for elephants and whales may exceed 7,000 g and 9,000 g, respectively. Human brain sizes usually increase until around the age of 20, then gradually diminish. Brain weight correlates significantly (on average, r = 0.4) with intelligence. See also brain growth.

brain-based learning

brain-based learning see neuroeducation.

brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

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brain-wave therapy

brain-wave therapy an alternative or adjunctive therapy in which alpha waves and theta waves are stimulated because they are posited to have a vital role in learning and memory and, hence, in therapeutic insight.

brain–computer interface (BCI)

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brain–machine interface (BMI)

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brainstem

brainstem n. the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and is involved in the autonomic control of visceral activity, such as salivation, respiration, heartbeat, digestion, and other so called vegetative functions.

brainstem auditory evoked response

brainstem auditory evoked response an event-related potential recorded from the brainstem in response to an auditory stimulus (see auditory evoked potential). Such recordings are used to diagnose abnormalities of the nervous system, hearing deficits in infants and young children, and neurological malfunctioning. Also called auditory brainstem evoked response; auditory brainstem response (ABR); brainstem evoked potential.

brainstem reticular formation

brainstem reticular formation see reticular formation.

brainstorming

brainstorming n. a problem-solving strategy in which ideas are generated spontaneously and uninhibitedly, usually in a group setting, without any immediate critical judgment about their potential value. See also creative thinking; divergent thinking. —brainstorm vb.

brainwashing

brainwashing n. a broad class of intense and often coercive tactics intended to produce profound changes in attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. Targets of such tactics have typically been prisoners of war and members of religious cults. See also psychological kidnapping.

brainwave entrainment

brainwave entrainment the natural synchronization of brain waves to a frequency or rhythm presented via music or some other environmental stimulus (e.g., noise). Some researchers believe that brainwave entrainment can be used to induce changes in mood.

branching

branching n. 1. a form of programmed instruction that provides additional steps, or branches, to be followed if the standard teaching material has not been adequately mastered to a given level of proficiency. Correct and incorrect answers lead to branches of new material so that students complete different sequences depending on how well they perform. Also called branching program. 2. in linguistics, a method of analyzing the formal structure of a sentence by representing it diagrammatically as a treelike structure with an organized hierarchy of branches and subbranches. In phrase-structure grammar, a tree diagram of this kind (also known as a phrase marker) is often used to illustrate the set of phrase-structure rules that generates a particular grammatical sentence: The diagram so produced will also be a constituent analysis of the sentence in question. Theories of branching have been used in predicting psycholinguistic phenomena and in creating linguistic typologies.

brand name

brand name the unique identifier that characterizes a product as belonging to a particular manufacturer or distributor. Examples are Starbucks coffee and Nike athletic shoes. Brand names enable consumers to differentiate between many products that serve the same function. A particular brand name may carry expectations of value, reliability, service, and perhaps status for the user. See also green brand.

brand-use survey

brand-use survey a survey in which consumers are interviewed to determine whether or not they purchased a particular brand of product that was featured in a specific advertising appeal. The brand-use survey may be accompanied by use of the pantry-check technique to validate results of the survey.

Brandeis brief

Brandeis brief a summary presented to the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Muller v. Oregon in 1908 that outlined the damaging effects on women of long working hours. It is considered to be one of the first examples of a legal brief that relies on extensive documentation of social science research in its argument. [Louis Dembitz Brandeis (1856–1941), U.S. Supreme Court justice]

branding

branding n. the process of creating a clear identity for a product, service, or organization through marketing strategies that include trademarks, packaging, and messaging that seek to underscore significant differences between the branded entity and the offerings of competitors. The goal of branding is to attract and retain loyal customers.

Brattleboro rat

Brattleboro rat a rat that has a mutation in the gene for vasopressin that prevents the animal from producing functional hormone. Brattleboro rats show symptoms of diabetes insipidus.

bravery

bravery n. see courage.

Brawner rule

Brawner rule see American Law Institute Model Penal Code insanity test.

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale an instrument used in both research and clinical settings to assess the neurological and behavioral status of newborns and infants up to 2 months old, as indicated by their responses to various stimuli (a light directed to the eye, a moving ball, a rattle, etc.). The Brazelton scale currently contains 14 neurologically and 26 behaviorally oriented items; the former are graded on a 4-point scale of intensity of response, and the latter on a 9-point scale. Originally developed in 1973, the scale was revised in 2000. Also called Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). [Thomas Berry Brazelton (1918– ), U.S. pediatrician]

BRCA1 and BRCA2

BRCA1 and BRCA2 the first two major genes found to be associated with susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancer. Cloned respectively in 1994 and 1995, BRCA1 and BRCA2 were the first major cancer genes for which widespread genetic testing was done; within several years, direct screening became available. The risk of breast cancer in women with mutations in one of these genes ranges from 56% to 85%, and this type of breast cancer tends to occur at a younger age than do most other types. Risk of ovarian cancer is also greatly increased. BRCA2 mutations are also associated with increased rates of male breast cancer, although these rates remain low (around 1% of all breast cancers). Because of incomplete penetrance of these genes, a small percentage of mutation carriers never develop breast, ovarian, or associated cancers. See also risk perception.

breadth-first search

breadth-first search a graph search strategy that considers states in a graph recursively: If the present state is not the goal state, then its sibling state is considered. If this sibling is not the goal state, then its sibling is considered. If there are no more siblings, then the first child of the first state is considered. This process continues until either a goal state is found or there are no further states to examine. States, their siblings, and their children are usually considered in a left-to-right format. Breadth-first search is often organized by a “queue” or “first-in is first-out” data structure.

breakthrough

breakthrough n. 1. a significant, sometimes sudden, forward step in therapy, especially after an unproductive plateau. 2. a major or significant advance in knowledge, research, or treatment.

breast

breast n. the human mammary (milk-producing) gland, consisting of milk-secreting cells and their ducts, fat cells, and connective tissue. Enlarged breasts in adult females are a characteristic of the human species that is not shared by other mammals; it may result from sexual selection. Enlarged breasts also may occur in human males (see gynecomastia).

breast envy

breast envy in the psychoanalytic theory of Melanie Klein, the idea that infants envy the nourishing capacity and creative power of the mother’s breast. Such envy may later be transformed into penis envy.

breast-feeding

breast-feeding see nursing.

breast-phantom phenomenon

breast-phantom phenomenon the illusion that an amputated breast is still present, often manifested as a tingling or, occasionally, painful sensation in the area of the missing organ; in some cases, the individual may even deny that the breast has been removed. It is thought that the brain’s representation of the breast remains intact and, in the absence of normal somesthetic stimulation, becomes active either spontaneously or as a result of stimulation from other brain tissue. See also phantom limb.

breathing

breathing n. the mechanism for ventilating the lungs, consisting of cycles of alternate inhalation and exhalation. See also hyperventilation; inspiration–expiration ratio; respiration.

breathing retraining

breathing retraining a technique used in behavior therapy and cognitive behavior therapy, particularly in the treatment of hyperventilation in panic and other anxiety disorders. The technique teaches clients slow diaphragmatic breathing through various methods, including therapist modeling and corrective feedback. See also progressive relaxation; stress management.

breathing-related sleep disorder

breathing-related sleep disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a primary sleep disorder marked by excessive sleepiness or insomnia arising from sleep disruption due to breathing difficulties during sleep, for example, sleep apnea. In DSM–5, the classification refers to three specific disorders: obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea (characterized by episodes of absent or reduced breathing during sleep and by daytime sleepiness); central sleep apnea (repeated episodes of absent or reduced breathing caused by variability in respiratory control during sleep); and sleep-related hypoventilation (decreased respiration during sleep). See dyssomnia.

breathwork

breathwork n. see rebirthing.

breathy voice

breathy voice a type of phonation in which the vocal cords vibrate as in normal voicing, but the glottal closure is incomplete, thus allowing air to leak between the cords throughout the vibration cycle. Examples are heard in normal articulation in the [h] sound in such words as behind and hippopotamus. When the voice is both weak and breathy, the condition is sometimes described as phonasthenia.

breech birth

breech birth see fetal presentation.

breed

breed n. a subtype within a species sharing certain characteristics that are distinct from other members of the species. German shepherds and Chihuahuas, for example, are different breeds of dogs. The term is typically used for variations that have been induced through selective breeding, as distinguished from subspecies, which are naturally occurring variations within a species.

breeding behavior

breeding behavior see mating behavior; sexual behavior.

bregma

bregma n. the location on the top of the skull that marks the junction of the sutures (immovable joints) between the frontal bone and the two parietal bones (forming the sides of the skull). It is used as a landmark for stereotactic and other procedures (see stereotaxy).

bride price

bride price in some cultures, a payment to the bride’s family made by the future husband or his family. Also called bridewealth. Compare dowry.

bridge to reality

bridge to reality see remotivation.

bridging

bridging n. a method used in multimodal therapy in which the therapist first focuses on the client’s preferred aspect of treatment (e.g., cognitions) before moving to another aspect (e.g., sensations) that the therapist believes may be more salient.

brief group therapy

brief group therapy group psychotherapy conducted on a short-term (time- or session-limited) or crisis-intervention basis and focused clearly upon a specific treatment goal. See time-limited psychotherapy.

brief intensive group cognitive behavior therapy

brief intensive group cognitive behavior therapy a form of cognitive behavior therapy conducted in a group setting over a relatively brief period of time but in lengthy sessions (e.g., all day) and often on consecutive days (e.g., weekends). The therapy is typically used to treat anxiety disorders, particularly panic disorder.

Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS)

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brief psychodynamic psychotherapy

brief psychodynamic psychotherapy a set of time-limited psychodynamic psychotherapy approaches intended to enhance client self-awareness and understanding of the influence of the past on present behavior. One particularly important issue is identified as the central focus for the treatment, thus creating a structure and establishing a goal for the sessions. Rather than allowing the client to associate freely and discuss seemingly unconnected issues, the brief psychodynamic therapist is expected to be fairly active in keeping the session focused on the main issue. The number of sessions varies from one approach to another, but the therapy is typically considered to involve no more than 25 sessions. Also called short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy. [originally developed by Hungarian psychoanalyst Franz Alexander (1891–1964) and U.S. physician Thomas Morton French (b. 1892)]

brief psychotherapy

brief psychotherapy any form of psychotherapy intended to achieve positive change during a short period (generally 10–20 sessions). Brief psychotherapies rely on active techniques of inquiry, focus, and goal setting and tend to be symptom specific. They may be applied on an individual or group level and are used in the treatment of a variety of behavioral and emotional problems. There are numerous different types, such as brief cognitive behavior therapy, brief play therapy, brief psychodynamic psychotherapy, focal psychotherapy, and interpersonal psychotherapy. Also called short-term psychotherapy. Compare intensive psychotherapy.

brief psychotic disorder

brief psychotic disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a disturbance involving the sudden onset of at least one psychotic symptom (e.g., incoherence, delusions, hallucinations, or grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior). The condition is often accompanied by emotional turmoil and lasts from 1 day to 1 month, with complete remission of all symptoms and a full return to previous levels of functioning. It may develop following a period of extreme stress, such as the loss of a loved one. Formerly called brief reactive psychosis.

brief stimulus therapy (BST)

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Brief Visuospatial Memory Test

Brief Visuospatial Memory Test a measure designed to assess learning, storage, and retention of repeated visual information. In three successive learning trials, the examinee is shown the same six geometric figures and then asked to draw them from memory. In a 25-minute delayed recall trial that follows, the examinee is again asked to draw the figures from memory. There are six different forms to enable repeat testing.

bright light therapy

bright light therapy see phototherapy.

brightness

brightness n. the perceptual correlate of light intensity. The brightness of a stimulus depends on its amplitude (energy), wavelength, the adaptation state of the observer, and the nature of any surrounding or intervening stimuli. See luminance; brightness contrast.

brightness adaptation

brightness adaptation an apparent decrease in the intensity of a stimulus after exposure to a high level of incident illumination. For example, the inside of a house appears very dim to someone coming in from a snow-covered garden.

brightness constancy

brightness constancy the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under different conditions of illumination. For example, a piece of white paper has a similar brightness in daylight as it does at dusk, even though the energy it reflects may be quite different. Brightness constancy is one of the perceptual constancies. Also called lightness constancy. See also color constancy; object constancy.

brightness contrast

brightness contrast the apparent enhanced difference in brightness resulting from simultaneous stimulation by two stimuli of differing brightness. For example, a gray disk looks darker on a white background than on a black background. Also called lightness contrast.

brightness discrimination

brightness discrimination the ability to distinguish differences in brightness. This appears to vary according to the wavelength of light.

brightness perception

brightness perception the ability to form impressions about the light intensity of a stimulus. See brightness; brightness adaptation; brightness contrast.

brightness threshold

brightness threshold the minimum light intensity of a designated wavelength that can be detected against a surrounding field.

bril scale

bril scale a decibel (dB) scale used to measure the perceived brightness of stimuli, developed from direct scaling methods, in which 0 dB approximates the absolute threshold. A bril is a unit of luminance representing the brightness perceived by a typical observer when the brightness is 40 dB above the 0 dB reference level; it is equivalent to one hundredth of a millilambert.

brilliance

brilliance n. a visual quality related to brightness but with an added dimension of salience (see salient). Brilliant stimuli are not just bright, they seem to radiate brightness. —brilliant adj.

Briquet’s syndrome

Briquet’s syndrome a former name for somatization disorder. [Paul Briquet (1796–1881), French physician, who provided the first systematic description of its characteristics in 1859]

Brissaud’s infantilism

Brissaud’s infantilism a developmental anomaly in which infantile mental and physical characteristics continue past puberty. The condition is due to the result of faulty functioning of the thyroid gland. Also called infantile myxedema; Brissaud–Meige syndrome. [Edouard Brissaud (1852–1909) and Henry Meige (1866–1940), French physicians]

British associationism

British associationism see associationism.

British Manual Alphabet

British Manual Alphabet see fingerspelling.

British Museum algorithm

British Museum algorithm a problem-solving strategy in which all possible solutions are tried one by one, beginning with those involving the fewest steps. It is so named from the facetious idea that, given enough time, an army of monkeys banging on typewriters would eventually write all the books in the British Museum. See algorithm. See also brute force; exhaustive search.

British Psychological Society (BPS)

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broadband

broadband n. any of a number of transmission media with very high bit-rate capacity, including fiber optics, cable modems, and wireless networks, that enable the transmission of multiple signals to computers at rates of tens of millions of bits per second.

broadband noise

broadband noise see noise.

Broca’s aphasia

Broca’s aphasia one of eight classically identified aphasias, characterized by nonfluent conversational speech and slow, halting speech production. Auditory comprehension is relatively good for everyday conversation, but there is considerable difficulty with complex syntax or multistep commands. The ability to write is impaired as well. It is associated with injury to the frontal lobe of the brain (see Broca’s area). Also called expressive aphasia. [Paul Broca]

Broca’s area

Broca’s area a region of the posterior portion of the inferior frontal convolution of a cerebral hemisphere that is associated with the production of speech. It is located on the left hemisphere of right-handed and of most left-handed individuals. [discovered in the 1860s and studied and researched by Paul Broca]

Brodmann’s area

Brodmann’s area an area of cerebral cortex characterized by variation in the occurrence and arrangement of cells (see cytoarchitecture) from that of neighboring areas. These areas are identified by numbers and in many cases have been associated with specific brain functions, such as area 17 (striate cortex, or primary visual cortex), areas 18 and 19 (prestriate cortex), area 4 (motor area), and area 6 (premotor area). Brodmann’s original map of 1909 identified 47 different cortical areas, but investigators have refined the mapping to identify more than 200 distinctive cortical areas. Also called Brodmann’s cytoarchitectonic area. [Korbinian Brodmann (1868–1918), German neurologist]

brofaromine

brofaromine n. an antidepressant drug that is a reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor and relatively selective for monoamine oxidase A. It therefore lacks many of the food interactions that limit the use of irreversible, nonselective MAO inhibitors. Brofaromine is not currently available in the United States. European trade name: Consonar.

broken home

broken home a single-parent household resulting from the divorce or separation of the parents. The term is now generally avoided by social scientists as it seems to imply that there is a single standard for families and that those families that do not fit this standard are in some way inadequate or dysfunctional (i.e., broken).

broken sleep

broken sleep see middle insomnia.

bromazepam

bromazepam n. a benzodiazepine used for the treatment of anxiety. It has a short to intermediate duration of action (serum half-life up to 30 hours) and a slow onset of action due to its low lipid solubility (see blood–brain barrier). Bromazepam is not currently available in the United States. Canadian trade name: Lectopam.

bromide

bromide n. a class of drugs formerly used as anticonvulsants and as sedatives in the treatment of anxiety. Because of their toxicity and the frequency of adverse side effects, bromides were largely supplanted by phenobarbital in the early 20th century. Bromide intoxication (bromism) was a recognized complication, manifested in early stages by cognitive impairment and emotional disturbances and in later stages by psychosis, coma, and death.

bromocriptine

bromocriptine n. a dopamine-receptor agonist used to relieve the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and, due to its ability to inhibit release of the pituitary hormone prolactin, to treat galactorrhea. It is also used to treat amenorrhea, infertility, prolactin-secreting adenomas, and parkinsonism, including the extrapyramidal symptoms induced by conventional antipsychotic agents. U.S. trade name: Parlodel.

bromosis

bromosis n. see olfactory reference syndrome.

bronchodilator

bronchodilator n. a drug administered to widen the airways in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, and related respiratory disorders. Bronchodilators include methylxanthines and sympathomimetic drugs.

bronchus

bronchus n. (pl. bronchi) either one of the two main branches of the windpipe (trachea). —bronchial adj.

brood parasitism

brood parasitism a practice in which a female bird lays its eggs in the nest of another species, leaving the other parents to rear its chicks. Both cowbirds and cuckoos display brood parasitism. The parasitic species may eject some of the eggs of the host species, and the young of the parasitic species often hatch earlier and beg more intensively than the surviving host brood, successfully competing for food against the foster parents’ own offspring.

brooding compulsion

brooding compulsion an irresistible drive to mentally review trivial details or ponder abstract concepts as a means of reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation.

Brooklands experiment

Brooklands experiment an experiment in England that studied the benefits of homelike and family living environments for children with severe intellectual disability, at a time when many such children lived in residential facilities. Sixteen children (average age 7 years; average IQ 25) moved from a residential institution to a large house called Brooklands, together with a staff of nurses, a supervisor, and an educator. A similar group of children stayed at the institution. At follow-up, the children who had moved showed improvement in their ability to use and understand language and in other skills, but the institutional group did not. [reported in 1964 by New Zealand psychologist Jack Tizard (1919–1989), working in England]

brotherliness

brotherliness n. the feeling of human unity or solidarity, as expressed in productive involvement with others, care for their well-being, and concern for society as a whole. According to Erich Fromm, brotherliness represents the ideal resolution of the search for rootedness.

brown fat

brown fat tissue made up of fat cells (see adipocyte) that is found especially around vital organs in the trunk and around the spinal column in the neck and chest. It is capable of intense metabolic activity to generate heat. See also adipose tissue.

Brown-Séquard’s syndrome

Brown-Séquard’s syndrome a condition resulting from damage along one side of the spinal cord. It is characterized by a set of symptoms that include loss of the sense of pain and temperature along the opposite side of the body as well as spastic paralysis and loss of vibratory, joint, and tendon sensations on the same side as the lesion. [Charles Brown-Séquard (1817–1894), French neurophysiologist]

Brown–Forsythe test

Brown–Forsythe test a statistical method for determining whether there is homogeneity of variance across two or more populations. The test, which uses the absolute values of the deviations of scores from the median to calculate variance, is a helpful preliminary step in determining whether the required assumptions have been met for certain statistical procedures, such as analysis of variance. [Morton B. Brown, Canadian-born U.S. statistician; Alan B. Forsythe, U.S. statistician]

Brown–Peterson distractor technique

Brown–Peterson distractor technique a technique used in memory studies that allows participants a brief period for remembering during which rehearsal is minimized. Typically, three items (e.g., words) are presented, after which the participant is asked to count backward for a time (as a distractor) before attempting to recall the presented items. It measures forgetting or interference in working memory. [John A. Brown; Lloyd R. Peterson (1922– ) and Margaret Jean Peterson (1930– ), U.S. psychologists]

Brown–Spearman formula

Brown–Spearman formula see Spearman–Brown prophecy formula.

Bruce effect

Bruce effect the effect of chemical communication in inducing miscarriage in pregnant females. Exposure to odors from an unfamiliar male within a few days of initial mating can disrupt pregnancy in female rodents. See also Whitten effect. [described in 1959 by Hilda M. Bruce, 20th-century British endocrinologist]

brucine

brucine n. an alkaloid obtained from the Brucea genus of shrubs that is an antagonist at receptor sites for the inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine. Brucine is also found (with strychnine) in nux vomica; it resembles strychnine but is less potent.

Brugsch’s index

Brugsch’s index a system of measuring the chest circumference in anthropometric studies. The procedure involves multiplying the chest circumference by 100 and dividing the result by the height of the individual. [Theodor Brugsch (1827–1894), German physician]

Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT)

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brujeria

brujeria n. see rootwork.

Brunswik faces

Brunswik faces simple line drawings of faces in which such parameters as eye separation and height, nose length, and mouth height can be varied. The drawings are used in perceptual research for studies of discrimination and categorization. [Egon Brunswik]

Brunswik ratio

Brunswik ratio a mathematical expression of perceptual constancy as environmental factors vary: (P – R)/(O – R), where (in the case of size constancy, for example) P = perceived size, R = image size on retina, and O = objective (i.e., actual) size. [Egon Brunswik]

Brushfield–Wyatt syndrome

Brushfield–Wyatt syndrome a familial disorder characterized by intellectual disability and several other anomalies, including an extensive port-wine birthmark, paralysis on the side opposite to the causal lesion, and cerebral tumor. [Thomas Brushfield (1858–1937), British physician]

brute force

brute force a problem-solving strategy in which every possible solution to a problem is generated and tested (often by a computer). See algorithm; exhaustive search.

bruxism

bruxism n. persistent grinding, clenching, or gnashing of teeth, usually during sleep. It can be associated with feelings of tension, anger, frustration, or fear. Also called bruxomania; stridor dentium.

BSM

BSM abbreviation for behavioral sleep medicine.

BSRI

BSRI abbreviation for Bem Sex Role Inventory.

BSS

BSS abbreviation for Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation.

BST

BST abbreviation for brief stimulus therapy.

BT

BT abbreviation for basic technique.

bubble concept of personal space

bubble concept of personal space the theory that an imaginary, private region surrounds a person, serving as a buffer against potential emotional or physical threats and determining the distance to be maintained in communicating with others. The size of the “bubble” varies with different individuals and situations, being smaller, for example, for lovemaking than when conducting business. For most people, it extends from about 0.5 to 1.2 m (18 in to 4 ft) for contact with close friends, from 1.2 to 3.6 m (4 to 12 ft) for business acquaintances, and beyond 3.6 m (12 ft) for strangers. The distance also may vary in different cultures: For example, Americans may back away from Europeans who are perceived as standing too close during conversations. See also body buffer zone; proxemics; territoriality.

bubble plot

bubble plot a graphical representation of data that is similar to a scatterplot but includes an additional third variable whose values are represented by differently sized circles. For example, a researcher might use a bubble plot to show the relationship between income, years of education, and age within a particular profession. The first two variables would be arrayed along the horizontal x-axis and vertical y-axis, respectively, with circles placed in the graph to indicate points of intersecting values; the radius of each circle would correspond to values of age, with larger circles indicating greater age.

buccal

buccal adj. relating to the cheeks or the mouth cavity.

buccal intercourse

buccal intercourse see orogenital activity.

buccal speech

buccal speech a type of phonation that does not depend on laryngeal voice generation but rather is produced by shaping an air pocket in the buccal (i.e., oral) cavity. While the cheeks and upper jaw form a neoglottis (substitute vibrating agent), the tongue remains free to serve as an articulator to shape the sound. Compare esophageal speech.

buccinator

buccinator n. a muscle that compresses the cheek and retracts the angle of the mouth for eating, speaking, and smiling. During mastication, the buccinator helps hold the food between the teeth. In speech, the buccinator compresses air in the mouth and forces it out between the lips.

buccofacial apraxia

buccofacial apraxia see apraxia.

buccolingual masticatory syndrome (BLM; BLMS)

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BuChE

BuChE abbreviation for butyrylcholinesterase. See cholinesterase.

Buddhism

Buddhism n. the nontheistic religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563–c. 483 bce), known as the Buddha (Sanskrit, Pali, literally: “awakened one”). Buddhism holds that the end toward which one ought to strive is enlightenment, a transformation of consciousness that offers the only escape from the cycle of rebirth. Enlightenment involves the overcoming of desire or craving and is achieved by following an eightfold path: right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, right views, and right intentions. The escape from the cycle of rebirth involves the dissolution of individual consciousness into a larger whole, a state referred to as nirvana, which represents an end of striving. Sigmund Freud attempted to capture this sense of quiescence in his nirvana principle. See also Zen Buddhism. —Buddhist adj., n.

buffer

buffer 1. n. an irrelevant item interspersed between others in a test or experiment. For example, a buffer may be a question that is not scored and is introduced only to separate or disguise other items. 2. n. a temporary store in memory. For example, short-term memory is a buffer. 3. vb. see buffering.

buffering

buffering n. 1. the protection against stressful experiences that is afforded by an individual’s social support. 2. in industrial and organizational theory, any practice by which an organization protects its operations from environmental uncertainty, for example, by accruing excess inventory to provide a safety margin. —buffer vb.

bufotenin

bufotenin n. a naturally occurring, mildly hallucinogenic substance found on the skin of a species of toad (genus Bufo) and in plants of the genus Anadenanthera; it is also reported to be a component of the urine of certain patients with schizophrenia. Bufotenin is related chemically to LSD, psilocin, and DMT. See also hallucinogen.

buggery

buggery n. sodomy or anal intercourse.

bulb

bulb n. 1. a globe-shaped structure, such as the olfactory bulb. 2. an obsolete name for the medulla oblongata.

bulbar

bulbar adj. pertaining to a bulb or bulblike structure, such as the eyeball (as in bulbar retraction reflex), but especially the medulla oblongata, as in bulbar paralysis.

bulbar paralysis

bulbar paralysis a condition arising usually from a defect in the motor portions of the medulla oblongata and involving paralysis of the muscles of the lips, tongue, mouth, pharynx, and larynx, resulting in difficulties in chewing, swallowing, and talking. Causes may include myasthenia gravis, motor neuron disease, or tumor. Also called bulbar palsy; progressive bulbar palsy.

bulbar retraction reflex

bulbar retraction reflex the reflex retraction of the eyeball and closing of the nictitating membrane in animals when the conjunctiva or cornea is touched.

bulbi xanthomatosis

bulbi xanthomatosis see xanthomatosis.

bulbocavernosus muscle

bulbocavernosus muscle a muscle of the perineum in men and women, which constricts the urethra. It therefore accelerates the passage of urine in both sexes and aids ejaculation in men; in women, it also serves as a weak vaginal sphincter. Also called bulbospongiosus muscle.

bulbocavernous reflex

bulbocavernous reflex contraction of the bulbocavernosus muscle of the penis in response to stimulation of the head of the penis. Absence of this reflex can indicate spinal shock or impairment of the nerves connecting the penis to the spinal cord.

bulbopontine region

bulbopontine region the part of the brain consisting of the pons and the portion of the medulla oblongata adjacent to the pons.

bulbospongiosus muscle

bulbospongiosus muscle see bulbocavernosus muscle.

bulbotegmental reticular formation

bulbotegmental reticular formation the portion of the reticular formation that passes through the medulla oblongata.

bulbourethral glands

bulbourethral glands a pair of glands in males whose ducts open into the urethra, near the base of the penis. Their secretion contributes to semen. Also called Cowper’s glands.

bulimia

bulimia n. insatiable hunger for food. It may have physiological causes, such as a brain lesion or endocrine disturbance, or be primarily a psychological disorder (see binge-eating disorder; bulimia nervosa). See also hyperbulimia; hyperphagia. —bulimic adj., n.

bulimia nervosa

bulimia nervosa an eating disorder involving recurrent episodes of binge eating (i.e., discrete periods of uncontrolled consumption of abnormally large quantities of food) followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors (e.g., self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, fasting, excessive exercise). Compare binge-eating disorder.

bulky color

bulky color the attribute of color when color is a property throughout the volume of the stimulus, as in a colored liquid. Also called volume color. Compare film color; surface color.

bullying

bullying n. persistent threatening and aggressive physical behavior or verbal abuse directed toward other people, especially those who are younger, smaller, weaker, or in some other situation of relative disadvantage. Cyberbullying is verbally threatening or harassing behavior conducted through such electronic technology as cell phones, e-mail, and text messaging.

bundle hypothesis

bundle hypothesis the notion that sensory features are “bundled,” or bound together, in conscious experience. [proposed by Max Wertheimer]

bundling

bundling n. 1. a strategy, often used in marketing and politics, of combining several products or policies in a way that maximizes their appeal. 2. more generally, binding a number of individual items together to form a unit. 3. a former custom, found in various parts of Europe and North America, in which courting couples were permitted to sleep together fully clothed as long as various physical impediments to sexual intercourse were in place.

Bunsen–Roscoe law

Bunsen–Roscoe law see Bloch’s law. [Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen (1811–1899), German chemist; Henry Enfield Roscoe (1833–1915), British chemist]

buphthalmos

buphthalmos n. see congenital glaucoma.

buprenorphine

buprenorphine n. an opioid analgesic that is a partial agonist at mu opioid receptors. It is used for the treatment of moderate to severe pain (U.S. trade name: Buprenex) and also for the management of opioid dependence, for which it is used either alone (U.S. trade name: Subutex) or in combination with naloxone (U.S. trade name: Suboxone).

bupropion

bupropion n. an aminoketone that inhibits reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin and is commonly prescribed for the treatment of depression. In contrast to SSRIs and SNRIs, bupropion affects dopamine and norepinephrine more than serotonin and is sometimes used in combination with other antidepressants to augment the antidepressant response (see augmentation strategy). It has also been used in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and as an adjuvant to behavioral treatment for smoking cessation. U.S. trade names: Wellbutrin; Zyban.

bureaucracy

bureaucracy n. 1. a system of administration or organizational structure, often in a government body, that is characterized by standardized rule-bound procedures, specialization of skills, and an elaborate hierarchy. 2. unnecessarily lengthy or complex official procedures resulting in delay, inaction, or inflexibility. —bureaucrat n. —bureaucratic adj.

bureaucratic leader

bureaucratic leader 1. the type of leader whose responsibilities and leadership style are largely determined by the routine procedures required by his or her position in a hierarchical organization, such as a government department. 2. a leader who rigidly adheres to prescribed routine and makes no allowance for extenuating circumstances.

Buridan’s ass

Buridan’s ass an example used to illustrate the difficulty of making decisions based solely on the relative desirability of alternatives. The unfortunate ass in the example starves to death while standing equidistant between two equally appealing haystacks. This image is named for French philosopher Jean Buridan (c. 1300–c. 1358), although he was not the originator of the example. The term may have reference to Buridan’s attempt to find a philosophical middle ground in action theory between strict voluntarism and strict rationalism.

burn injuries

burn injuries tissue damage caused by exposure to flame, intense heat without flame (e.g., contact with high-voltage electricity, red-hot metal, or scalding liquids), or ultraviolet radiation. Superficial (or first-degree) burns are characterized by redness, swelling, and peeling of the skin; partial-thickness (or second-degree) burns are marked by penetration of damage beyond the skin layer, which can be blistered and dull white to cherry red and streaked with coagulated capillaries; full-thickness (or third-degree) burns damage tissues that are subcutaneous or deeper, including epithelial tissue, nerve endings, and blood vessels; and fourth-degree burns are usually identified by a distinct odor and the appearance of charred flesh. Because of sometimes excruciating pain and cosmetic damage, severe burn injuries are often mentally traumatic, and psychological help is recommended along with medical treatment.

burned out

burned out 1. describing an individual who is mentally, emotionally, or physically exhausted or overwhelmed. See burnout. 2. historically, describing individuals with chronic schizophrenia who are apathetic and withdrawn, and show progressive deterioration, with little hope of significant improvement, personal growth, or adaptive functioning. In this pejorative sense, the term is rarely used today, especially in light of research indicating that individuals with schizophrenia can improve functioning.

burnout

burnout n. physical, emotional, or mental exhaustion accompanied by decreased motivation, lowered performance, and negative attitudes toward oneself and others. It results from performing at a high level until stress and tension, especially from extreme and prolonged physical or mental exertion or an overburdening workload, take their toll. The word was first used in this sense in 1975 by U.S. psychologist Herbert J. Freudenberger (1926–1999) in referring to workers in clinics with heavy caseloads. Burnout is most often observed in professionals who work in service-oriented vocations (e.g., social workers, teachers, correctional officers) and experience chronic high levels of stress. It can be particularly acute in therapists or counselors doing trauma work, who feel overwhelmed by the cumulative secondary trauma of witnessing the effects. Burnout is also experienced by athletes when continually exposed to stress associated with performance without commensurate rewards or rest. See also overtraining syndrome; vital exhaustion.

burnt

burnt adj. denoting one of the primary odor qualities in Henning’s odor prism and in the Crocker–Henderson odor system.

burst

burst n. a series of responses elicited at a relatively high rate, for example, in a neuron or at the onset of extinction (an extinction burst) when conditioned responses are no longer rewarded.

burst–pause firing

burst–pause firing an oscillating pattern in which neurons in the thalamocortical system fire in unison, 1 to 4 per second, followed by pauses in which they do not fire. This pattern becomes synchronized throughout much of the brain, producing the large-amplitude electroencephalogram waves characteristic of slow-wave sleep.

Buschke–Fuld Selective Reminding Test

Buschke–Fuld Selective Reminding Test see selective reminding test. [Herman Buschke, U.S. physician, and Paula A. Fuld, U.S. psychologist]

business game

business game a teaching method employed in business schools and management or executive training in which individuals or teams compete against one another in solving typical but simulated management, financial, or operational problems. Games are usually played in an online environment that offers the opportunity for feedback on the results of decisions as the game is played. Also called business-simulation game; management-simulation game. See also case method; conference method; multiple-role playing; scenario analysis.

business psychology

business psychology see industrial and organizational psychology.

business-simulation game

business-simulation game see business game.

buspirone

buspirone n. a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic of the azapirone class that acts as a partial serotonin agonist at 5-HT1A receptors. Both it and its primary metabolic product, 6-hydroxybuspirone, produce some relief of subjective symptoms of anxiety without the sedation, behavioral disinhibition, and risk of dependence associated with the benzodiazepines. Its use has been limited, however, due to its relative lack of efficacy compared with benzodiazepines. U.S. trade name: BuSpar.

bust-to-waist ratio

bust-to-waist ratio a ratio of curvaceousness determined by dividing bust circumference by waist circumference.

butabarbital

butabarbital n. an intermediate-acting barbiturate used in the treatment of insomnia and for daytime and preoperative sedation. Like other barbiturates, it is a nonselective CNS depressant and therefore quite toxic in overdose. Because tolerance to its sedative and hypnotic effects accrues much more rapidly than tolerance to its CNS depressant effects, its therapeutic index drops and its potential lethality increases as the dose is increased. These factors, plus its potential for abuse, have caused a decline in its clinical use. U.S. trade name: Butisol Sodium.

butorphanol

butorphanol n. a synthetic opioid that is an agonist at kappa opioid receptors and a partial agonist–antagonist at mu opioid receptors. It is used clinically for the management of moderate to severe pain, including migraine headaches, and as a preoperative medication. It is available in an injectable preparation and an intranasal spray, but the ease of use of the latter has made it a common drug of abuse. As with other opioid agents, butorphanol may cause respiratory depression, nausea, and dependence. U.S. trade name: Stadol.

butterfly effect

butterfly effect the tendency of a complex, dynamic system to be sensitive to initial conditions, so that over time a small cause may have large, unpredictable effects (see sensitive dependence). The term refers to an example in which the fluttering of the wings of a butterfly in one part of the world is seen to contribute to the causation of a tornado in another. The term is used in chaos theory and more generally to describe nonlinear causal connections.

butyrophenone

butyrophenone n. any of a class of high-potency antipsychotics used primarily in the treatment of schizophrenia, mania, and severe agitation. They are associated with numerous extrapyramidal symptoms, as well as neuroleptic malignant syndrome and tardive dyskinesia. The prototype is haloperidol.

butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE)

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buying behavior

buying behavior the sum total of the mental processes and physical activities associated with the purchase of products or services. The decision to buy a particular product can occur in a number of stages. Recognition of a need for the product is followed by searching for information about it, evaluating alternative products, and finally making a choice. Experience of using the product after purchase will become a factor in deciding whether or not to purchase it (or a similar product) in the future.

BVRT

BVRT abbreviation for Benton Visual Retention Test.

BWAS

BWAS abbreviation for Barron–Welsh Art Scale.

BWS

BWS abbreviation for battered-woman syndrome.

bystander effect

bystander effect a phenomenon in which people fail to offer needed help in emergencies, especially when other people are present in the same setting. Studies of this tendency, initially described in response to well-publicized failures of bystanders to render aid in emergencies, have identified a number of psychological and interpersonal processes that inhibit helping, including misinterpreting other people’s lack of response as an indication that help is not needed, confusion of responsibility, and diffusion of responsibility.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'B'