Terms Starting with "N"

819 terms

n

n 1. symbol for the number of scores or observations obtained from a particular experimental condition or subgroup. 2. symbol for fractive index N abbreviation for numerical ability. N symbol for the total number of cases (participants) in an experiment or study.

N

N -methyl-D-aspartate

N -methyl-D-aspartate n. see NMDA.

N =1 design

N =1 design see single-case design.

n-Ach

n-Ach abbreviation for need for achievement.

n-Aff

n-Aff abbreviation for need for affiliation.

n-Int

n-Int abbreviation for need for intimacy.

N-of-1 design

N-of-1 design see single-case design.

n-Pow

n-Pow abbreviation for need for power.

N/OFQ

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N1 component

N1 component the first negative component of an event-related potential, occurring approximately 100 ms after stimulus onset. The N1 component is usually larger for attended stimuli than for unattended stimuli, a phenomenon known as the N1 attention effect. Hence, it is thought to reflect the initial sensory and attentional processing of a stimulus by specific areas of the cerebral cortex.

NA

NA 1. abbreviation for Narcotics Anonymous. 2. abbreviation for Negative Affect within the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

NAB

NAB abbreviation for Neuropsychological Assessment Battery.

nabilone

nabilone n. a synthetic cannabinoid, closely related to tetrahydrocannabinol, that is used clinically to manage nausea and vomiting in patients recovering from surgical anesthesia or undergoing chemotherapy. U.S. and Canadian trade name: Cesamet.

nAchR

nAchR abbreviation for nicotinic receptor.

nadle

nadle n. see two-spirit.

NAEP

NAEP abbreviation for National Assessment of Educational Progress.

Nafe pattern theory

Nafe pattern theory a theory claiming that the pattern of firing of neurons is responsible for the quality of cutaneous sensations. [John Paul Nafe (1886–1970), U.S. psychologist]

Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT)

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naikan

naikan n. a Japanese therapy that emphasizes character building through rigorous self-reflection upon (a) what the client has received from others, (b) what the client has returned to others, and (c) how the client’s actions may have hurt others. Through this process of self-reflection, guided by the therapist, the client acquires a sense of responsibility for his or her actions and an appreciation of the positive influences in his or her life. [introduced by Japanese Buddhist of the Jodo Shinshu sect Yoshimoto Ishin (1916–1988)]

nail biting

nail biting the compulsive habit of chewing on one’s fingernails, usually thought to be a means of releasing tension.

naive analysis of action

naive analysis of action in attribution theory, a process of reasoning or intuiting by which laypersons determine whether another person (an “actor”) caused a certain action. Also called lay psychology; naive psychology. See correspondent inference theory. [postulated in 1958 by Fritz Heider]

naive hedonism

naive hedonism see preconventional level.

naive observer

naive observer 1. an observer who has little or no prior information about the events that he or she is observing or the people involved in them. In psychology experiments, the reactions of a naive observer may be highly revealing when contrasted with those of other observers who have been given selected pieces of information (or misinformation) about the observed situation or the actors in it (e.g., that a particular individual has a criminal conviction). 2. in philosophy, an observer who adopts a position of naive realism.

naive participant

naive participant a participant who has not previously taken part in a particular research study and has not been made aware of the experimenter’s hypothesis.

naive personality theories

naive personality theories a set of ideas that laypeople tend to hold about how specific personality traits cluster together within a person. Such theories, which are often held implicitly rather than explicitly, are a major concern of attribution theory. Also called implicit personality theories; layperson personality theories. See naive analysis of action. See also implicit self theory.

naive psychology

naive psychology see naive analysis of action.

naive realism

naive realism 1. the belief or assumption that one’s sense perceptions provide direct knowledge of external reality, unconditioned by one’s perceptual apparatus or individual perspective. Since the advent of Cartesianism, most philosophy has assumed that such a position is untenable. The cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget stresses the child’s progress away from naive realism and toward conceptualization and logical reasoning. As conceptualization and reasoning develop, naive realism is presumed to diminish. Also called direct realism; phenomenal absolutism. 2. in social psychology, the tendency to assume that one’s perspective of events is a natural, unbiased reflection of objective reality and to infer bias on the part of anyone who disagrees with one’s views. See false-consensus effect.

Nalline test

Nalline test a test to determine abstinence from opiates, in which the subject is given an injection of the opioid antagonist nalorphine (Nalline). This precipitates withdrawal symptoms if opiates have been used recently. It is not currently in general use.

nalmefene

nalmefene n. see opioid antagonist.

nalorphine

nalorphine n. see opioid antagonist.

naloxone

naloxone n. a morphine-derived opioid antagonist that prevents the binding of opioids to opioid receptors, having primary activity at the mu opioid receptor. Like other opioid antagonists, it can quickly reverse the effects of opioid overdose and is useful in emergency settings to reverse respiratory depression. It has poor oral and sublingual bioavailability and must be dosed parenterally. U.S. trade name: Narcan. In combination with buprenorphine, it is used as an alternative to methadone maintenance therapy (U.S. trade name: Suboxone).

naltrexone

naltrexone n. an opioid antagonist that, like the shorter-acting naloxone (but with better enteral bioavailability), prevents the binding of opioid agonists to opioid receptors. Accordingly, both drugs may precipitate a rapid withdrawal syndrome. If naltrexone is taken prior to use of opiate drugs, it will prevent their reinforcing effects and can therefore be used for the management of opioid dependence in individuals desiring abstinence. Naltrexone is also appropriate as an adjunctive treatment in the management of alcoholism, either in oral or in long-term injectable formulations. The long-term injectable is also approved for opioid dependence. U.S. trade name: ReVia; Vivitrol.

name-of-the-father

name-of-the-father adj. in the theory of French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981), denoting the stage at which the infant first enters the realm of the Symbolic. The child’s ability to “name the father” as a symbol for the absence of the mother represents his or her first use of symbolization and the first recognition that the father is a rival. See Oedipus complex. See also mirror phase.

NAMI

NAMI abbreviation for National Alliance on Mental Illness.

naming

naming n. an association disturbance observed in schizophrenia, in which the individual relates to the external world solely by naming objects and actions (e.g., naming furniture or other objects in an examining room).

naming explosion

naming explosion a stage in language development, usually occurring during a child’s 2nd year, when a marked increase occurs in the rate at which new words are added to the child’s productive vocabulary. This stage marks a change in the cognitive and linguistic underpinnings of children’s language use: It indicates their increased understanding that words are symbols that refer to actual things in the world, and it is thought to explain why nouns in particular are acquired at a rapid rate. Also called vocabulary spurt; word spurt.

naming task

naming task a task in which an individual is required to name an object from its picture or its description or simply to produce names from a certain category (e.g., birds). Naming tasks are used to assess language impairments and difficulties recalling general knowledge from semantic memory.

nanometer

nanometer (symbol: nm) n. 10–9 m (i.e., one billionth of a meter). The wavelengths in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum extend from approximately 400 to 700 nm.

nanosomia body type

nanosomia body type see pygmyism.

Narcan

Narcan n. a trade name for naloxone.

narcissism

narcissism n. 1. excessive self-love or egocentrism. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, the taking of one’s own ego or body as a sexual object or focus of the libido or the seeking or choice of another for relational purposes on the basis of his or her similarity to the self. See body narcissism; primary narcissism; secondary narcissism. —narcissist n. —narcissistic adj.

narcissistic character

narcissistic character see narcissistic personality.

narcissistic object choice

narcissistic object choice in psychoanalytic theory, selection of a mate or other love object similar to oneself. Compare anaclitic object choice.

narcissistic personality

narcissistic personality a pattern of traits and behaviors characterized by excessive self-concern and overvaluation of the self. Also called narcissistic character.

narcissistic personality disorder

narcissistic personality disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a personality disorder with the following characteristics: (a) a long-standing pattern of grandiose self-importance and an exaggerated sense of talent and achievements; (b) fantasies of unlimited sex, power, brilliance, or beauty; (c) an exhibitionistic need for attention and admiration; (d) either cool indifference or feelings of rage, humiliation, or emptiness as a response to criticism, indifference, or defeat; and (e) various interpersonal disturbances, such as feeling entitled to special favors, taking advantage of others, and inability to empathize with the feelings of others. [originally formulated by psychoanalysts Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957), Otto Kernberg (1928– ), and Heinz Kohut (1913–1981) and psychologist Theodore Millon]

Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)

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narcissistic transference

narcissistic transference in self psychology, any one of a set of transferences that involve, and are used in treatment to activate, the narcissistic needs of the patient in relation to significant others; this contrasts with the classical psychoanalytic concept of transference as a transposition of one’s needs (from various stages of psychosexual development earlier in life) to a person who can fulfill them. Narcissistic transferences include idealizing transference, mirror transference, and twinship transference. Also called self-object (or selfobject) transference. [first described by Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)]

narcissistic type

narcissistic type see libidinal types.

narcoanalysis

narcoanalysis n. a form of psychoanalysis in which injections of drugs (often opioids) are used to induce a semihypnotic state in order to facilitate exploration and ventilation of feelings, uncover repressed traumatic memories, and, through the analyst’s review and interpretation with the patient afterward, promote the patient’s insight into the unconscious forces that underlie his or her symptoms. The technique was developed initially to treat combat stress reactions in the 1940s and is rarely if ever used now.

narcolepsy

narcolepsy n. a disorder consisting of excessive daytime sleepiness accompanied by brief “attacks” of sleep during waking hours. These sleep attacks may occur at any time or during any activity, including in potentially dangerous situations such as while driving an automobile. The attacks are often associated with hypnagogic hallucinations, sleep paralysis, and cataplexy and are marked by immediate entry into REM sleep without going through the usual initial stages of sleep. Also called paroxysmal sleep. —narcoleptic adj.

narcolepsy–cataplexy syndrome

narcolepsy–cataplexy syndrome a symptom pattern consisting of sudden, repeated loss of muscle tone (see cataplexy) and recurrent sleep attacks (see narcolepsy).

narcomania

narcomania n. 1. a pathological desire for narcotic drugs to relieve pain or discomfort. 2. an obsolete name for psychosis resulting from long-term abuse of narcotic drugs.

narcosynthesis

narcosynthesis n. a treatment technique that involves the administration of narcotic drugs to stimulate recall of emotional traumas, followed by “synthesis” of these experiences with the patient’s emotional life through therapeutic discussions in the waking state. [developed during World War II by U.S. psychiatrists Roy Richard Grinker (1901–1993) and John P. Spiegel (1911–1991)]

narcotherapy

narcotherapy n. psychotherapy conducted while the patient is in a semiconscious state induced by narcotic drugs, such as amobarbital (Amytal) or thiopental. For example, narcotherapy was used with individuals experiencing combat stress reactions during and after World War II. See also narcoanalysis; narcosynthesis.

narcotic

narcotic 1. n. originally, any drug that induces a state of stupor or insensibility (narcosis). More recently, the term referred to strong opioids used clinically for pain relief, but this usage is now considered imprecise and pejorative; the term is still sometimes used in legal contexts to refer to a wide variety of abused substances. 2. adj. of or relating to narcotics or narcosis.

narcotic agonist

narcotic agonist see opioid agonist.

narcotic analgesic

narcotic analgesic see opioid analgesic.

narcotic antagonist

narcotic antagonist see opioid antagonist.

narcotic dependence

narcotic dependence see opioid dependence.

narcotic stupor

narcotic stupor a state of lethargy or limited mobility and decreased responsiveness to stimulation due to the effects of an opioid drug. This state may border on loss of consciousness and may be followed by coma in extreme cases.

Narcotics Anonymous (NA)

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Nardil

Nardil n. a trade name for phenelzine.

NARHC

NARHC abbreviation for National Association of Rural Health Clinics.

narrative analysis

narrative analysis a type of qualitative analysis in which a researcher collects and examines stories from individuals about a variety of concrete life situations, ranging from first romantic involvements to divorce, aging, and life satisfaction. The goal is to understand how individuals experience certain events, structure them into coherent sequences, and give them subjective meaning. Also called narrative inquiry; narrative research.

narrative method

narrative method 1. a method of questioning eyewitnesses to an event that reconstructs the event using both the known facts and personal accounts of the experience. 2. a method of presenting either opening or closing arguments to the jury in a way that tells a story, with events placed in chronological order and including vivid details. See also story model.

narrative psychology

narrative psychology a field in psychology that investigates the value of stories and storytelling in giving meaning to individuals’ experiences—shaping their memory of past events, their understanding of the present, and their projections of future events—and in defining themselves and their lives. The term was introduced by Theodore R. Sarbin, whose edited volume Narrative Psychology: The Storied Nature of Human Conduct (1986) defined narrative as an integral feature in the scientific enterprise; he referred to narrative as a “root metaphor” for psychology—that is, a metaphor for examining and interpreting human behavior. Numerous other people in personality and social psychology, memory research, and other areas of inquiry have subsequently contributed to this field.

narrative theory

narrative theory a theoretical approach to the study of narratives and their structures. Narrative theory emerged as a branch of literary studies but has since been extended to various questions in psychology, notably the ways in which established narratives can shape our social and subjective experiences. See also discourse analysis.

narrative therapy

narrative therapy treatment for individuals, couples, or families that helps them reinterpret and rewrite their life events into true but more life-enhancing narratives or stories. Narrative therapy posits that individuals are primarily meaning-making beings who are the linguistic authors of their lives and who can reauthor their life stories by learning to deconstruct them, by seeing patterns in their ways of interpreting life events or problems, and by reconstruing problems or events in a more helpful light. See also constructivism; constructivist psychotherapy; deconstruction.

narrotophilia

narrotophilia n. sexual interest and arousal obtained from speaking or hearing sexually explicit words during sexual activity. It most commonly occurs in telephone or online computer sex, in which partners talk or write while masturbating. There are commercial services that employ people to engage in narratophilia with clients for a fee. In some cases of narratophilia, however, people prefer to make obscene phone calls to strangers or randomly selected numbers, as the involvement of a nonconsenting person adds to their pleasure. —narratophile n.

NAS

NAS abbreviation for National Academy of Sciences.

NASA Task Load Index (NASA TLX)

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nasal

nasal 1. adj. of or relating to the nose. 2. adj. denoting a speech sound produced by letting all or most of the airstream pass through the nasal (rather than the oral) cavity, for example, [ng] in sing, or the sound of -on in the French word bon. 3. n. a nasal speech sound.

nasal cavity

nasal cavity the space within the nose, divided into two halves by the nasal septum, that communicates with the exterior via the two nostrils and leads to the nasopharynx. Separated from the oral cavity by the hard palate, it is lined with mucous membrane containing olfactory epithelium and also forms part of the vocal tract.

nasopharynx

nasopharynx n. the portion of the pharynx that lies above the level of the soft palate. The nasopharynx is closed off from other parts of the pharynx during swallowing and speaking by reflex raising of the soft palate.

NASPSPA

NASPSPA abbreviation for North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity.

NASW

NASW abbreviation for National Association of Social Workers.

natality

natality n. see birth rate.

National Academy of Sciences (NAS)

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National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)

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National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

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National Association of Rural Health Clinics (NARHC)

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National Association of Social Workers (NASW)

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national character

national character the general personality characteristics attributed to the people of a nation. Although culture has a recognized effect on character formation, the idea of a national character is not generally considered a useful construct, as it invariably consists of an unexamined stereotype. See also cultural determinism.

National Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Association (NCFSFA)

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National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA)

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National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA)

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National Health Interview Survey (NHIS)

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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National Labor Relations Act

National Labor Relations Act legislation passed by the U.S. Congress in 1935 that legalized the rights of employees to form and operate unions, engage in collective bargaining, and strike. It also identified and prohibited certain unfair labor practices of employers and created the National Labor Relations Board to administer and enforce the provisions of the act. Sponsored by German-born U.S. politician Robert F. Wagner (1877–1953), it is also known as the Wagner Act. See also Labor Management Relations Act.

National Mental Health Association (NMHA)

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National Parent Teachers Association (NPTA)

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National Practitioner Data Bank (NPDB)

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National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology

National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology a national, nonprofit credentialing organization for professional psychologists, founded in 1974 to advance psychology as a profession and improve the delivery of health services to the public.

National Research Council

National Research Council see National Academy of Sciences.

National Science Foundation (NSF)

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nationalism

nationalism n. 1. strong, often excessive, feelings of pride in and allegiance to one’s nation (usually the nation in which one is a citizen, although sometimes a nation with which one has ties via ethnicity or heritage) and its culture or belief in its superiority. 2. a goal or policy of national independence, especially in relation to a dominant colonial or occupying power. —nationalist n., adj. —nationalistic adj.

native

native adj. see innate.

Native American

Native American a member of any of various indigenous peoples of the western hemisphere whose ancestors populated that territory prior to European colonization. When referring to the indigenous peoples of North America, the term American Indian is also used.

native speaker

native speaker a person who speaks a particular language as a mother tongue rather than as a second or foreign language.

nativism

nativism n. 1. the doctrine that the mind has certain innate structures and that experience plays a limited role in the creation of knowledge. See also innate ideas; nativistic theory. Compare constructivism; empiricism. 2. the doctrine that mental and behavioral traits are largely determined by hereditary, rather than environmental, factors. See nature–nurture. 3. the theory that individuals are born with all perceptual capabilities intact, although some capabilities may depend on the biological maturation of perceptual systems to reach adult levels. —nativist adj., n. —nativistic adj.

nativistic theory

nativistic theory in linguistics, the theory that human beings are born with an innate knowledge of language that enables them to structure and interpret the data they encounter as language learners. Although certain theories about the origins of human language in prehistory have been termed nativistic (see language-origin theory), the term is now mainly associated with Noam Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition in young children. See language acquisition device; language universal.

natural category

natural category see basic-level category.

natural child

natural child 1. a biological offspring of a parent, in contrast to an adopted child. 2. one of the child ego states in transactional analysis, characterized as carefree, fun-loving, creative, impulsive, and impatient. Compare adapted child.

natural childbirth

natural childbirth a method of labor and child delivery that does not include (or is designed to eliminate) the need for medical interventions, such as anesthetics. The mother receives preparatory education in areas such as breathing and relaxation coordination, exercise of the muscles involved in labor and delivery, and postural positions that make labor more comfortable and allow for conscious participation in delivery. See also Lamaze method.

natural consequences

natural consequences a form of discipline in which parents do not intervene in their children’s actions but let the results of the actions serve as a punishment or lesson. For example, a lesson is learned by children when a toy they have failed to bring indoors during a rainstorm is ruined.

natural experiment

natural experiment the study of a naturally occurring situation as it unfolds in the real world. The researcher does not exert any influence over the situation but rather simply observes individuals and circumstances, comparing the current condition to some other condition. For example, an investigator might evaluate the influence of a new community policing program by observing neighborhood activities after it has been implemented and comparing the outcome to that for neighborhoods in which the policy has not been implemented. Since such real-life events cannot be manipulated or prearranged, natural experiments are quasi-experimental designs rather than true experiments. Also called naturalistic design; naturalistic research.

natural family planning

natural family planning avoiding pregnancy by the use of natural techniques of birth control, such as the rhythm method, as opposed to the use of oral contraceptives, intrauterine devices, diaphragms, and similar methods.

natural fertility

natural fertility in physiology, the reproductive capacity of animals; in humans specifically, the reproductive capacity when unaffected by contraception or induced abortion.

natural group

natural group 1. any group formed through natural social processes, particularly when compared to ad hoc laboratory groups created by researchers in their studies of group processes. Examples include an audience, board of directors, clique, club, committee, crowd, dance troupe, family, gang, jury, orchestra, sorority, and support group. Also called bona fide group. 2. a group whose members are united through common descent or custom, such as a family or tribe.

natural high

natural high a state of well-being and happiness that is often associated with ordinary physical or mental exertion, in contrast to similar mood states artificially induced by drugs.

natural killer cell (NK cell)

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natural language

natural language a language that has evolved naturally among humans, as opposed to an artificial language, such as that used in computer programming.

natural language category

natural language category a class of things, people, or the like that is defined as a category distinct from other categories by the semantic structure of a particular natural language, rather than by an extralinguistic (scientific or logical) system of classification. Systems of categorization can vary widely from one language to another (see linguistic determinism; linguistic relativity). Some researchers believe that each natural language category is defined by a prototype and that membership in the category is determined by an entity’s degree of resemblance to this prototype. For example, the category “birds” is defined by a prototype consisting of a set of features (has a beak, has feathers, can fly, etc.) representing the ideal or typical bird; an entity that has all or most of these features will be accepted as belonging to this category.

natural law

natural law 1. in science and natural philosophy, a fundamental truth about the observed regularities of the natural world, such as the law of gravity. See law. See also causal law. 2. in ethics and political philosophy, an ethical principle reflecting a presumed natural or divine truth that is not derived from human reason or experience and that is universal in its application. A natural law is thus seen to provide a norm that should be reflected in human ethical and legal systems.

natural law theory

natural law theory in ethics and political philosophy, the position that there are certain ethical principles that are true and universal, originating in the very nature of reality itself or in the decrees of a divine law giver. In the dominant strain of natural law theory, it is assumed that these principles can be discerned by reason and apply only to beings capable of rational thought. Natural law theory can be traced back to the ancient Greek Stoic philosophers; it strongly influenced Roman law and was subsequently developed by Christian philosophers of the Middle Ages (see Scholasticism) and later periods. Compare relativism.

natural monism

natural monism the position that there is a single reality underlying both mental and physical phenomena and that this reality is material. Such a position implies that all sciences, including psychology, are ultimately reducible to physics and chemistry (and that even chemistry obeys the laws of physics). Compare idealistic monism; neutral monism. See also mind–body problem.

natural reinforcer

natural reinforcer a stimulus or circumstance, such as food or water, that is inherently reinforcing and does not depend on learning to become desirable. Natural reinforcers are more precisely known as unconditioned or primary reinforcers (see primary reinforcement), in contrast to conditioned or secondary reinforcers, which are initially neutral stimuli (e.g., tones, lights) that become desirable through training (see secondary reinforcement).

natural selection

natural selection the process by which such forces as competition, disease, and climate tend to eliminate individuals who are less well adapted to a particular environment and favor the survival and reproduction of better adapted individuals, thereby changing the nature of the population over successive generations. This is the fundamental mechanism driving the evolution of living organisms and the emergence of new species, as originally proposed independently by British naturalists Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913). See Darwinism; evolutionary theory; selection; survival of the fittest. Compare artificial selection.

natural work module

natural work module a unit of work in which an employee or team of employees produces a whole item or otherwise completes a meaningful sequence of tasks from start to finish. Such an approach has been found to yield greater task identity and therefore greater motivation than one in which employees perform their tasks with little or no sense of context.

natural work team

natural work team a group of employees who perform related or complementary tasks working together as a cooperative unit. It has been found that creating such teams has a positive effect on work motivation.

naturalism

naturalism n. 1. in philosophy, the doctrine that reality consists solely of natural objects and that therefore the methods of natural science offer the only reliable means to knowledge and understanding of reality. Naturalism is closely related to physicalism and materialism and explicitly opposes any form of supernaturalism or mysticism that posits the existence of realities beyond the natural and material world. 2. in literature and the other arts, a movement that developed in the late 19th century, often seen as arising out of realism, the literary movement and style that generally preceded it. Naturalistic writers aimed to depict life without idealistic illusions or literary artifice and often chose challenging or taboo subjects, such as divorce or prostitution. The plays and novels often show a strong leaning toward psychological determinism, with the behavior of the characters being explained in terms of their heredity or environment. Leading exponents of naturalism included French writers Émile Zola (1840–1902), Alphonse Daudet (1840–1897), and Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893), Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906), and German dramatist Gerhart Hauptmann (1862–1946). See also positivism. —naturalistic adj.

naturalist intelligence

naturalist intelligence in the multiple-intelligences theory, the intelligence involved in detecting patterns and regularities in natural phenomena, which is used, for example, in identifying varieties of plants or birds.

naturalistic environment

naturalistic environment a type of laboratory environment that attempts to include many of the features found in natural environments. Examples are underground burrows for fossorial animals, flight cages for birds, and trees or other climbing structures for arboreal animals. Naturalistic environments allow the study of more species-typical behavior in captive animals while maintaining control over many other variables.

naturalistic fallacy

naturalistic fallacy 1. a putative logical error that occurs when an attempt is made to define values in terms of natural properties. Values such as goodness and truth are held to be human perceptions and to have no ontological status, or independent existence, as properties of things. 2. more specifically, the fallacy of basing a moral conclusion (i.e., a conclusion about what ought to be) on ontological premises (i.e., premises about what is or is not the case). An example would be arguing that war is morally acceptable because wars have occurred throughout history. Not all philosophers would agree that all such arguments are necessarily fallacious. [identified by British philosopher George Edward Moore (1873–1958)]

naturalistic observation

naturalistic observation data collection in a field setting, without laboratory controls or manipulation of variables. These procedures are usually carried out by a trained observer, who watches and records the everyday behavior of participants in their natural environments. Examples of naturalistic observation include an ethologist’s study of the behavior of chimpanzees and a developmental psychologist’s observation of playing children. Compare analogue observation; self-monitoring observation; structured observation.

nature

nature n. 1. the entirety of physical reality. 2. the phenomena of the natural world, including plants, nonhuman animals, and physical features, as opposed to human beings and their creations. 3. the fundamental or inherent qualities of something. See essence. 4. the innate, presumably genetically determined, characteristics and behaviors of an individual. In psychology, the characteristics most often and traditionally associated with nature are temperament, body type, and personality. Compare nurture. —natural adj.

nature–nurture

nature–nurture the dispute over the relative contributions of hereditary and constitutional factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to the development of an individual. Nativists emphasize the role of heredity, whereas environmentalists emphasize sociocultural and ecological factors, including family attitudes, child-rearing practices, and economic status. Most scientists now accept that there is a close interaction between hereditary and environmental factors in the ontogeny of behavior (see epigenesis). Also called heredity–environment controversy; nature–nurture issue; nature–nurture problem.

naturopathy

naturopathy n. an alternative health care system that aims to prevent disease and promote physical and mental health by using natural and physiologically based therapies (e.g., dietary measures, acupuncture, massage) to address underlying disease processes. See also complementary and alternative medicine.

Naturwissenschaftliche Psychologie

Naturwissenschaftliche Psychologie one of two approaches to the study of psychological problems and issues identified by German psychologists in the late 19th century. This approach (translated literally as “natural science psychology”) adopted the experimental method and laboratory techniques as appropriate and useful for certain classes of phenomena, such as perceptual phenomena. These techniques were regarded as inappropriate for studying higher mental processes, language, and social phenomena, for which a different approach (see Geisteswissenschaftliche Psychologie) was required.

nausea gravidarum

nausea gravidarum see morning sickness.

nauseous

nauseous adj. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality that is smelled in feces and carrion flowers.

nautilus eye

nautilus eye the eye of the nautilus mollusk, which is of particular value in studies of vision. It consists mainly of a spherical cavity lined with photosensitive cells that respond to light entering through a small hole at the top. This eye is thus virtually a pinhole camera made of living tissue.

Navane

Navane n. a trade name for thiothixene. See thioxanthene.

navigation

navigation n. the mechanisms used by an organism to find its way through the environment, such as to a migration site or its home site. A variety of navigational cues have been documented in nonhuman animals, including using the sun or stars as a compass (see sun compass) and responding to magnetic lines, olfactory cues, visual cues (e.g., rivers or coastlines), and wind-sheer effects from air masses crossing mountain ranges.

nay-saying

nay-saying n. answering questions negatively regardless of their content, which can distort the results of surveys, questionnaires, and similar instruments. Compare yea-saying.

NBAS

NBAS abbreviation for Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. See Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale.

NCFSFA

NCFSFA abbreviation for National Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Association.

NCLB

NCLB abbreviation for No Child Left Behind Act.

NCQA

NCQA abbreviation for National Committee for Quality Assurance.

NE

NE abbreviation for norepinephrine.

near miss

near miss in hearing studies, a small deviation from Weber’s law in which the Weber fraction for intensity discrimination decreases over a wide range of intensities of the standard. The near miss is observed for sounds with a restricted bandwidth and is thought to result from nonlinear growth of excitation in the cochlea.

near point

near point the shortest distance at which an object is in focus for a single eye. Also called near point of accommodation. Compare far point.

near point of convergence

near point of convergence the shortest distance at which an object is in focus when viewed by both eyes without appearing as a double image.

near-death experience (NDE)

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nearsightedness

nearsightedness n. see myopia.

necessary condition

necessary condition see condition.

neck–eye reflex

neck–eye reflex a reflex involving compensatory movements of the eyes to maintain fixation on a target while the head moves. It is important for maintaining image stability.

Necker cube

Necker cube a line drawing of a cube in which all angles and sides can be seen, as if it were transparent. It is an ambiguous figure whose three-dimensionality fluctuates when viewed for a prolonged period of time. [Louis Albert Necker (1730–1804), Swiss crystallographer]

necro- (necr-)

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necromancy

necromancy n. 1. a form of divination in which a person supposedly conjures up the spirits of the dead to gain knowledge of future events. 2. more generally, black magic or sorcery. —necromancer n. —necromantic adj.

necromania

necromania n. a morbid preoccupation with corpses, usually including sexual desire for dead bodies, and a morbid interest in funerals, morgues, autopsies, and cemeteries.

necrophilia

necrophilia n. 1. sexual interest in or sexual contact with dead bodies. It is a rare paraphilia seen almost exclusively in men. In some cases, they kill the victim themselves, but most frequently they gain access to corpses via funeral parlors, mortuaries, morgues, or graves. Numerous explanations have been offered for the behavior since it was first described by German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) in his 1886 book Psychopathia Sexualis, many of which were psychoanalytically oriented and have now generally been abandoned. More recent explanations have received some empirical support and suggest that necrophilia involves desire for a partner who is incapable of resistance or rejection, desire to exercise power over others as a means of enhancing self-esteem, and desire to counteract feelings of isolation. 2. as described in 1964 by Erich Fromm, an attraction to death, decay, and sickness. He considered this attraction to be a fundamental yet pathological orientation within certain individuals’ characters that reveals itself through increasing tendencies toward greed, narcissism, destruction, cruelty, and murder and a growing attachment to mechanical (i.e., nonliving) artifacts. According to Fromm, necrophilia stems from a person’s desire to compensate for a lack of authenticity and self-identity. —necrophile n. —necrophilic adj.

necrophilic fantasies

necrophilic fantasies male (and occasionally female) fantasies about viewing or having heterosexual or same-sex intercourse with a corpse as a means of achieving sexual excitement. Such fantasies are sometimes acted out with the aid of prostitutes who satisfy necrophilic clients by simulating lifelessness.

necrophobia

necrophobia n. a persistent and irrational fear of corpses. See also thanatophobia.

necrosis

necrosis n. the death of cells (e.g., neurons, muscle cells) from any of a variety of causes, including disease, injury, toxins, and obstruction of blood supply to an affected body part. —necrotic adj.

NEDA

NEDA abbreviation for National Eating Disorders Association.

need

need n. 1. a condition of tension in an organism resulting from deprivation of something required for survival, well-being, or personal fulfillment. 2. a substance, state, or any other thing (e.g., food, water, security) whose absence generates this condition.

need arousal

need arousal a motivational technique, used primarily by advertisers, in which a consumer is induced to feel that he or she needs a particular product because it represents some sought-after quality such as status, health, beauty, or security. Perception of a need for a product is the first stage of buying behavior.

need for achievement (n-Ach)

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need for affect

need for affect an individual difference reflecting variation in the motivation to approach or avoid emotion-inducing situations. According to one study, people with a strong need for affect tend to be extreme in their attitudes about various concerns and to be highly attentive to emotional events, such as the death of a public figure. See also need for cognition. [proposed by Canadian psychologists Gregory R. Maio and Victoria M. Esses]

need for affection

need for affection the degree to which a person wants to be close or distant in a relationship with another. In intimate relationships, need for affection is often expressed concretely as a desire to be touched or held or to be commended verbally.

need for affiliation (n-Aff)

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need for closure

need for closure 1. the motivation to achieve finality and absoluteness in decisions, judgments, and choices, often prematurely. A person with a high need for closure will often have a low tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty and may be attracted to dogmatic political or religious views. In 1994, psychologists Donna M. Webster and Arie W. Kruglanski (1939– ) developed the Need for Closure Scale, a 42-item self-report inventory, to assess stable individual differences in the desire for closure. 2. the need to achieve a sense of finality at the close of a painful or difficult episode in one’s life. Some estranged couples, for example, feel a need to obtain a formal divorce for emotional as well as practical reasons.

need for cognition

need for cognition a personality trait reflecting a person’s tendency to enjoy engaging in extensive cognitive activity. This trait primarily reflects a person’s motivation to engage in cognitive activity rather than his or her actual ability to do so. Individuals high in need for cognition tend to develop attitudes or take action based on thoughtful evaluation of information. [originally investigated by U.S. psychologists John T. Cacioppo (1951– ) and Richard E. Petty (1951– )]

need for control

need for control see control.

need for intimacy (n-Int)

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need for power (n-Pow)

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need reduction

need reduction the decrease of a need, often achieved through a consummatory response. Also called need gratification. See drive-reduction theory.

need to belong

need to belong the motivation, rooted in both biology and social norms, to be part of relationships, to belong to groups, and to be accepted by others. See also love need.

need to evaluate

need to evaluate a personality trait reflecting a person’s tendency to engage in extensive evaluative thinking when encountering people, issues, or objects. People who are high in need to evaluate tend to form attitudes and categorize objects spontaneously along a positive–negative scale. People who are low in need to evaluate tend to think of objects in evaluative terms only when the context encourages such categorization. [originally investigated by U.S. psychologists William Blair Gage Jarvis and Richard E. Petty (1951– )]

need-hierarchy theory

need-hierarchy theory see Maslow’s motivational hierarchy.

need–fear dilemma

need–fear dilemma 1. a simultaneous need for and fear of close relationships with others. 2. a conflicting set of conditions facing those who need structured control but have an aversion to external control or influence. In its marked form, it is a characteristic condition in schizophrenia, particularly in terms of both greatly needing and greatly fearing other people.

need–press theory

need–press theory in the personology of Henry Alexander Murray, an explanation of behavior in terms of the influence, or press, of both the present environment and past experiences on the expression and activation of a need.

needle exchange program

needle exchange program a program to reduce the sharing and reuse of needles by people who take illegal drugs intravenously. Drug users are given the opportunity to trade their used needles and syringes for new, unused equipment without fear of arrest; in some cases, users can receive the clean equipment without trading anything in. These programs often provide drug counseling, HIV testing, and other services as well. They have been shown to reduce the transmission of HIV and hepatitis, but they are criticized by people who believe that they tacitly condone drug abuse. Also called syringe exchange program.

needs assessment

needs assessment 1. the identification of currently unmet service needs in a community or other group, done prior to implementing a new service program or modifying an existing one. The perceived needs are generally assessed from multiple perspectives, including those of community or group leaders and each individual in the community or group. 2. the identification of areas that should be the focus of a personnel training program. Needs assessment involves analyses in three key areas: (a) the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of employees; (b) the requirements of the tasks performed by employees; and (c) the requirements of the organization. See also person-needs analysis.

nefazodone

nefazodone n. a multifunctional antidepressant chemically related to trazodone but with some important pharmacological distinctions. It is an antagonist at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors and an inhibitor of both serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. This combination of actions is thought to be related to the lack of SSRI-like side effects associated with its antidepressant properties. Its sedative effects may be useful in the treatment of depression-related anxiety and insomnia; however, due to the risk of serious hepatic injury associated with nefazodone, it is now rarely used.

negation

negation n. in Piagetian theory, a mental process—a form of reversibility—in which one realizes that any operation can always be negated or inverted. Also called inversion. See identity, negation, reciprocal, and correlative operations. —negate vb.

negative

negative n. in linguistics, the form of a sentence used to make a negative assertion about something rather than an affirmative statement or a question (see interrogative). In modern English, negatives are nearly always formed using not or no and an auxiliary verb (usually be, have, or do). The structural relationship between positive and negative forms of a statement (e.g., between I went and I did not go) is of major interest in generative grammar and psycholinguistics.

negative acceleration

negative acceleration a situation in which the rate of increase in a given activity or function slows down as a result of practice or training. For example, successive practice trials may produce smaller and smaller gains in learning or performance. See learning curve. Compare positive acceleration.

negative adaptation

negative adaptation a gradual loss of sensitivity or weakening of response due to prolonged stimulation.

negative affect

negative affect the internal feeling state (affect) that occurs when one has failed to achieve a goal or to avoid a threat or when one is not satisfied with the current state of affairs. The tendency to experience such states is known as negative affectivity.

Negative Affect Scale

Negative Affect Scale see Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.

negative affect syndrome

negative affect syndrome see general neurotic syndrome.

negative afterimage

negative afterimage see afterimage.

negative afterpotential

negative afterpotential the small additional negative membrane potential (hyperpolarization) shown by nerve and muscle cells during recovery from an action potential. The nerve or muscle is less excitable during the negative afterpotential.

negative attitude

negative attitude in psychotherapy and counseling, the client’s feeling of rejection or disapproval of the therapist or counselor, of the therapeutic or counseling process, of another person, or of himself or herself. Compare positive attitude.

negative conditioned stimulus

negative conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning, a stimulus that, when presented in the context of conditioned stimulus–unconditioned stimulus pairings, is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus.

negative contingency

negative contingency see contingency.

negative contrast

negative contrast see behavioral contrast.

negative correlation

negative correlation a relationship between two variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases. For example, in a study about babies crying and being held, the discovery that those who are held more tend to cry less is a negative correlation. Also called inverse correlation. Compare positive correlation.

negative discriminative stimulus

negative discriminative stimulus (symbol: SΔ or S–) in operant conditioning, a stimulus signifying that a given response will not be reinforced, implying that there is at least one other stimulus circumstance in which the response will be reinforced. Compare discriminative stimulus.

negative emotion

negative emotion an unpleasant, often disruptive, emotional reaction designed to express a negative affect. Negative emotion is not conducive to progress toward obtaining one’s goals. Examples are anger, envy, sadness, and fear. Compare positive emotion.

negative eugenics

negative eugenics see eugenics.

negative exercise addiction

negative exercise addiction an inordinate attraction to habitual physical exercise that has a detrimental effect on physical, psychological, or social well-being. Also called exercise obsession. Compare positive exercise addiction.

negative feedback

negative feedback 1. an arrangement whereby some of the output of a system, whether mechanical or biological, is fed back to reduce the effect of input signals. Such systems, which measure the deviation from a desired state and apply a correction, are important in achieving homeostasis, whereas systems employing positive feedback tend to amplify small deviations and become highly unstable. See feedback system. 2. nonconstructive criticism, disapproval, and other negative information received by a person in response to his or her performance.

negative hallucination

negative hallucination a false perceptual experience characterized by failure to see something while looking directly at it, as in failing to perceive a certain person in a group in response to hypnotic suggestion. Compare positive hallucination.

negative imagery

negative imagery mental images that incorporate sensations of performance errors, unwanted outcomes, demotivation, or self-degradation.

negative incentive

negative incentive an object or condition that constitutes an aversive stimulus and therefore facilitates avoidance behavior. Compare positive incentive.

negative induction

negative induction a reduction in the response to one stimulus, in circumstances in which conditions remain fixed, as a result of a reduction of response brought about in another experiment in which stimuli were alternated. See also behavioral contrast.

negative priming

negative priming the ability of a preceding stimulus to inhibit the response to a subsequent stimulus. This is measured by the detectability of the second stimulus or the time taken to make a response to the second stimulus. The most striking examples occur when the participant is instructed to ignore a feature of the first stimulus (e.g., its color) and then to attend to that same feature in the second stimulus. Priming effects are usually facilitative.

negative punishment

negative punishment punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is removed as a consequence of a response. For example, if a response results in a subtraction of money from an accumulating account, and the response becomes less likely as a result of this experience, then negative punishment has occurred. Compare positive punishment.

negative recency

negative recency in recalling a list of items, the tendency to recall fewer of the final items of the list than the middle and early items. Negative recency contrasts with the enhanced recall of final items seen in the recency effect. Also called negative recency effect

negative reference group

negative reference group a group with which a person does not want to be identified and whose norms and standards he or she consciously rejects.

negative reinforcement

negative reinforcement the removal, prevention, or postponement of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a response, which, in turn, increases the probability of that response. Compare positive reinforcement.

negative relationship

negative relationship an association in which one variable decreases as the other variable increases, or vice versa. Also called inverse relationship. See also indirect relationship. Compare direct relationship.

negative response

negative response a response that involves avoidance of or withdrawal from a stimulus.

negative schizophrenia

negative schizophrenia a form of schizophrenia characterized by a predominance of negative symptoms, suggesting deficiency or absence of behavior normally present in a person’s repertoire, as shown in apathy, blunted affect, emotional withdrawal, poor rapport, and lack of spontaneity. Compare positive schizophrenia. [defined in 1982 by U.S. psychiatrists Nancy C. Andreasen and Scott A. Olsen]

negative self-talk

negative self-talk see self-talk.

negative skew

negative skew see skewness.

negative stereotype

negative stereotype a stereotype that purports to describe the undesirable, objectionable, or unacceptable qualities and characteristics of the members of a particular group or social category. Compare positive stereotype.

negative suggestion

negative suggestion a statement intended to deter or suppress a feeling, thought, or action on the part of another person.

negative symptom

negative symptom a deficit in the ability to perform the normal functions of living—for example, logical thinking, self-care, social interaction, and planning, initiating, and carrying out constructive actions—as shown in apathy, blunted affect, emotional withdrawal, poor rapport, and lack of spontaneity. In schizophrenia, a predominance of negative symptoms is often associated with a poor prognosis. Compare positive symptom. See negative schizophrenia.

negative transfer

negative transfer 1. a process in which previous learning obstructs or interferes with present learning. For instance, tennis players who learn racquetball must often unlearn their tendency to take huge, muscular swings with the shoulder and upper arm. See also transfer of training. Compare positive transfer. 2. see language transfer.

negative transference

negative transference in psychoanalysis, a patient’s transfer onto the analyst or therapist of feelings of anger or hostility that the patient originally felt toward parents or other significant individuals during childhood. Compare positive transference.

negative triad

negative triad see cognitive triad.

negative tropism

negative tropism the orientation of an organism away from a particular source of stimulation. See tropism.

negative-state-relief model

negative-state-relief model the hypothesis that helping behavior is used by some people in stressful situations and periods of boredom and inactivity to avoid or escape negative moods.

negativism

negativism n. 1. an attitude characterized by persistent resistance to the suggestions of others (passive negativism) or the tendency to act in ways that are contrary to the expectations, requests, or commands of others (active negativism), typically without any identifiable reason for opposition. In young children and adolescents, such reactions may be considered a healthy expression of self-assertion. Negativism may also be associated with a number of disorders (extreme negativism is a feature of catatonic schizophrenia), and it can be an expression of opposition, withdrawal, or anger or a method of gaining attention. Also called negativistic response. See also oppositional defiant disorder; passive-aggressive personality disorder. 2. any philosophy or doctrine based on negation, such as nihilism or skepticism. —negativistic adj.

negativistic personality disorder

negativistic personality disorder see passive-aggressive personality disorder.

negativistic response

negativistic response see negativism.

negativity bias

negativity bias see trait negativity bias.

neglect

neglect n. 1. failure to provide for the basic needs of a person in one’s care. The neglect may be emotional (e.g., rejection or apathy), material (e.g., withholding food or clothing), or service-oriented (e.g., depriving of education or medical attention). See child neglect; elder neglect. See also maltreatment. 2. a neurological syndrome characterized by lack of awareness of a specific area of the visual field (visual neglect) or side of the body (unilateral neglect). This is most often associated with an injury to the right cerebral hemisphere with corresponding left-sided neglect. Neglect has also been found in auditory, tactile, and proprioceptive tasks. See also motor neglect; sensory neglect.

neglect dyslexia

neglect dyslexia a type of visual word-form dyslexia associated with visual neglect, a condition in which a person is unaware of half of the visual field as a result of neurological damage. Either the initial parts of words are misread (left neglect) or the terminal parts of words are misread (right neglect), and the errors are not simple deletions but typically guesses of real though incorrect words with approximately the right number of letters.

neglected child

neglected child 1. see child neglect. 2. see sociometric status.

negligence

negligence n. failure to fulfill a duty or to provide some response, action, or level of care that is appropriate or reasonable to expect. In ergonomics, for example, negligence involves the failure to take reasonable care to protect human safety or equipment in the design, development, or evaluation of a system. A variety of different types of negligence exist in law. See also malpractice. —negligent adj.

negligent hiring

negligent hiring a basis for a civil lawsuit against an employer in which a person claims that he or she suffered injury, loss, or harm as a result of actions by an incompetent employee who would not have been hired had the organization followed responsible hiring practices.

negotiation

negotiation n. a reciprocal communication process in which two or more parties to a dispute examine specific issues, explain their positions, and exchange offers and counteroffers in an attempt to identify a solution or outcome that is acceptable to all parties. Compare bargaining. —negotiate vb.

neighborhood control

neighborhood control a group of individuals selected from the same region or area as that of a targeted study group in order to serve as a comparison group. The assumption is that such a group will share similar experiences, risk exposure, and other relevant characteristics with the study group, given their geographical proximity. Used in epidemiological or clinical research, neighborhood controls generally are chosen according to some rule-based procedure and matched to members of the target group on certain attributes, such as age or sex. For example, a researcher investigating cancer might go to every second house on the same city block as that of each person in the study group to identify similar individuals who do not have the disease to become part of a neighborhood control. Also called community control.

Neil v. Biggers

Neil v. Biggers a case resulting in an influential 1972 U.S. Supreme Court decision in which the court identified factors that should be considered when assessing the validity of eyewitness identification. These factors are (a) certainty as to the identification, (b) delay between the witnessed event and identification, (c) ability to clearly view the witnessed event, (d) level of attention paid to the witnessed event, and (e) the accuracy of the witness’s initial description of the individual involved in the event.

Nelson–Denny Reading Test

Nelson–Denny Reading Test a multiple-choice test of vocabulary, reading rate, and reading comprehension for high school and college students as well as adults. The vocabulary section consists of 80 one-sentence statements requiring participants to choose the proper meaning of a specific word used in that sentence from among four options. The reading rate and reading comprehension sections are combined; the former requires participants to read as much of a given narrative passage as possible within 1 minute, while the latter requires participants to answer questions about that same passage and six others. Originally developed in 1929, the Nelson–Denny Reading Test is in its fifth edition (published in 1993). [M. J. Nelson (1894–1970) and E. C. Denny (1887–1984), U.S. educators]

Nembutal

Nembutal n. a trade name for pentobarbital.

NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)

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neo-Darwinism

neo-Darwinism n. see Darwinism.

neo-Freudian

neo-Freudian 1. adj. denoting an approach that derives from the classical psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud but with modifications and revisions that typically emphasize social and interpersonal elements over biological instincts. The term is not usually applied to the approaches of Freud’s contemporaries, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, who broke away from his school quite early. Erik Erikson, Erich Fromm, Karen D. Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, and ego psychologists such as Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Hartman (1894–1970) are considered to be among the most influential neo-Freudian theorists and practitioners. 2. n. an analyst or theoretician who adopts such an approach.

neo-Malthusian

neo-Malthusian adj. denoting the contemporary doctrine or movement that supports population control, especially by the use of family planning and contraception, to ensure adequate resources and protect the environment. See Malthusian theory.

neobehaviorism

neobehaviorism n. an approach to psychology influenced by logical positivism that emphasized the development of comprehensive theories and frameworks of behavior, such as those of Clark L. Hull and Edward C. Tolman, through empirical observation of behavior and the use of consciousness and mental events as explanatory devices. It thus contrasted with classical behaviorism, which was concerned with freeing psychology of mentalistic concepts and explanations. According to Sigmund Koch, neobehaviorism replaced classical behaviorism as the dominant 20th-century program for experimental psychology around 1930; its influence began to wane in the 1950s. See also radical behaviorism. —neobehaviorist adj., n.

neocerebellum

neocerebellum n. the dorsal and most recently evolved part of the cerebellum, which appears only in mammals. It contains fibers that communicate with nuclei of the pons. Compare archicerebellum; paleocerebellum.

neocortex

neocortex n. regions of the cerebral cortex that are the most recently evolved and contain six main layers of cells. Neocortex, which comprises the majority of human cerebral cortex, includes the primary sensory and motor cortex and association cortex. Also called neopallium. Compare allocortex. —neocortical adj.

neodissociation theory

neodissociation theory a theory that explains the dissociative phenomena of hypnosis as a result of divided consciousness. For example, hypnotic analgesia can produce subjective relief from pain while physiological measures indicate that some pain response is still being registered. See also hidden observer. [proposed by Ernest R. Hilgard]

neolalia

neolalia n. the abnormal tendency to use neologisms when speaking. Also called neolallism.

neolocal

neolocal adj. denoting a living arrangement in which a newly married couple begin a new household separate from their kin, or a culture in which this is the norm. Compare matrilocal; patrilocal.

neologism

neologism n. a newly coined word or expression. In a neurological or psychopathological context, neologisms, whose origins and meanings are usually nonsensical and unrecognizable (e.g., klipno for watch), are typically associated with aphasia or schizophrenia. See also portmanteau neologism. —neologistic adj.

neologistic jargon

neologistic jargon unintelligible speech containing a mixture of inappropriately combined words and bizarre expressions coined by the speaker. Also called neologistic paraphasia. See jargon aphasia; word salad.

neomammalian brain

neomammalian brain see triune brain.

neonatal

neonatal adj. referring to a newborn child or to the period shortly after childbirth.

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

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neonatal drug dependency syndrome

neonatal drug dependency syndrome a syndrome in which a baby is born with drug dependence due to the mother’s drug abuse (most often opioid abuse) during the latter part of pregnancy. Such babies are often of low birth weight. Other severe problems that accompany drug abuse by pregnant women include increased risk of intrauterine death, premature delivery, and increased neonatal mortality.

neonatal imitation

neonatal imitation the ability of newborn babies to reproduce some behavior, such as a facial expression, that they see in others. See also active intermodal mapping.

neonatal period

neonatal period in human development, the period from birth to approximately 1 month of age for infants born after a full-term pregnancy (for infants born prematurely, the period is longer). Among nonhuman species, the neonatal period varies depending on the species. For example, in dogs the period extends from birth to approximately 12 to 14 days of age; for some rats it lasts approximately 21 days. See also developmental levels.

neonate

neonate n. a newborn human or nonhuman animal. Human infants born after the normal gestational period of 36 weeks are known as full-term neonates; infants born before the end of this period are known as preterm neonates (or, colloquially, as “preemies”).

neonaticide

neonaticide n. the killing of an infant who is less than 24 hours old. See also filicide; infanticide.

neonativism

neonativism n. the belief that much cognitive knowledge, such as object permanence and certain aspects of language, is innate, requiring little in the way of specific experiences to be expressed. Neonativists hold that cognitive development is influenced by biological constraints and that individuals are predisposed to process certain types of information. Also called structural constraint theory. —neonativist adj., n.

neopallium

neopallium n. see neocortex.

neophasia

neophasia n. a complex language system created by and idiosyncratic to a person, with its own vocabulary and rules of grammar.

neophenomenology

neophenomenology n. an approach to psychology that emphasizes the role of the individual’s phenomenological (immediate and conscious) experience in the determination of action. See personalistic psychology; phenomenology. [attributed to U.S. psychologists Donald Snygg (1904–1967) and Arthur W. Combs (1912–1999)]

neophilia

neophilia n. a strong desire for anything new or different, such as new foods. The term is increasingly used as a synonym for novelty seeking.

neophobia

neophobia n. 1. a persistent and irrational fear of change or of anything new, unfamiliar, or strange. 2. the avoidance of new stimuli, especially foods. —neophobic adj.

neoplasm

neoplasm n. a new, abnormal growth; that is, a benign or malignant tumor, although the term is generally used to specify a malignancy (see cancer). A neoplasm usually grows rapidly by cellular proliferation but generally lacks structural organization. A malignant neoplasm is usually invasive, destroying or damaging neighboring normal tissues, and can spread to distant sites by the process of metastasis; benign neoplasms are usually encapsulated and do not spread but may damage neighboring tissues by compression. —neoplastic adj.

Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism n. a school of philosophy based on a particular understanding of the teachings of Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), especially as interpreted by Alexandrian philosopher Plotinus (204–270 ce). Neoplatonism retains Plato’s view that there is another perfect and eternal world that accounts for the things of the physical world (see Platonic idealism). In the strain developed by Plotinus, however, there is greater emphasis on an ultimate unity of the universe and a new sense that mysticism, as opposed to reason, is the way through which the other world is experienced. Neoplatonism was influential in the reconciliation of Christianity with classical philosophy in the Middle Ages (see Scholasticism) and the Renaissance. —Neoplatonist n., adj.

neostigmine

neostigmine n. an anticholinesterase (see cholinergic drug) used in the diagnosis and treatment of myasthenia gravis and glaucoma. U.S. trade name: Prostigmin.

neostriatum

neostriatum n. a portion of the basal ganglia that has evolved relatively recently. It includes the putamen and the caudate nucleus. It is contrasted with the phylogenetically older paleostriatum (globus pallidus). —neostriatal adj.

neoteny

neoteny n. 1. in zoology, sexual maturation in the larval state. 2. in evolution, the retention into adulthood of juvenile characteristics of an ancestral species, such as the large ratio of brain size to body size in humans. —neotenous adj.

nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

nephrogenic diabetes insipidus a form of diabetes in which the kidneys are unable to produce a normal concentration of urine because the kidney tubules do not respond to vasopressin produced by the pituitary gland. Individuals with this disorder drink enormous amounts of water and excrete large volumes of dilute urine. The disorder can be critical in infants, who cannot communicate their thirst and therefore suffer water depletion, which may lead to brain damage and intellectual disability before the cause can be diagnosed.

nepiophilia

nepiophilia n. sexual interest in and arousal by infants: a type of pedophilia. The person with nepiophilia generally does not find adults, or sometimes even older children, sexually arousing. Nepiophilia is rarely seen in females.

Nernst equation

Nernst equation an equation used to calculate the equilibrium potential at a membrane. [Walther Hermann Nernst (1864–1941), German chemist]

nerve

nerve n. a bundle of axons outside the central nervous system (CNS), enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue to form a cordlike structure. Nerves connect the CNS with the tissues and organs of the body. They may be motor, sensory, or mixed (containing axons of both motor and sensory neurons). See cranial nerve; spinal nerve. Compare tract.

nerve block

nerve block the blocking of nerve impulses by drugs (e.g., anesthetics) or by mechanical means.

nerve cell

nerve cell see neuron.

nerve deafness

nerve deafness see sensorineural deafness.

nerve ending

nerve ending the terminus of an axon. There are various types of nerve endings including annulospiral endings and flower-spray endings in muscle spindles and basket endings, Krause end bulbs, Meissner’s corpuscles, and free nerve endings.

nerve fiber

nerve fiber 1. the axon of a neuron, extending from the cell body. 2. loosely, the neuron itself.

nerve growth factor (NGF)

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nerve impulse

nerve impulse a wave of depolarization, in the form of an action potential, that is propagated along a neuron or chain of neurons as the means of transmitting signals in the nervous system. Also called nervous impulse; neural impulse. See also synapse.

nerve of Wrisberg

nerve of Wrisberg see greater superficial petrosal nerve. [Heinrich A. Wrisberg (1739–1808), German anatomist]

nerve pathway

nerve pathway see neural pathway.

nerve root

nerve root the part of a nerve that connects directly to the brain or spinal cord. Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord via a dorsal root and a ventral root, which then combine to form the spinal nerve. Certain cranial nerves also are formed by the combination of two nerve roots.

nerve tissue

nerve tissue the cell bodies and fibrous processes of neurons that make up the functional components of the nervous system. Supporting tissues, such as glia, are sometimes also included. Also called nervous tissue.

nerve tract

nerve tract see tract.

nerve trunk

nerve trunk the main body of a nerve, in which all the axons run together. The trunk of a typical spinal nerve is formed by the combination of the two spinal roots and distributes to peripheral organs and tissues via its branches.

nerve–muscle preparation

nerve–muscle preparation a muscle and its motor nerve, both at least partially dissected from the body, used for physiological experiments.

nervios

nervios n. a wide range of symptoms affecting Latino groups in the United States and Latin America (the word literally means “nerves”) and attributed to stressful and difficult life experiences and circumstances. Symptoms include headache, dizziness, concentration difficulties, sleep disturbances, stomach upsets, and tingling sensations; mental disorder may or may not be present. See also ataque de nervios.

nervous

nervous adj. 1. in a transient emotional state of anxious apprehension. 2. of an excitable, highly strung, or easily agitated disposition. 3. referring to the structures or functions of the nervous system. See also neural.

nervous breakdown

nervous breakdown a lay term for an emotional illness or other mental disorder that has a sudden onset, produces acute distress, and significantly interferes with one’s functioning. Also called nervous prostration.

nervous exhaustion

nervous exhaustion a lay term for a state of severe fatigue due to emotional strain. See also neurasthenia.

nervous habit

nervous habit stereotyped behavior, such as nail biting or tics, presumed to be caused by anxiety and performed to reduce tension.

nervous impulse

nervous impulse see nerve impulse.

nervous prostration

nervous prostration see nervous breakdown.

nervous system

nervous system the system of neurons, nerves, tracts, and associated tissues that, together with the endocrine system, coordinates activities of the organism in response to signals received from the internal and external environments. The nervous system of higher vertebrates is often considered in terms of its divisions, principally the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. See also conceptual nervous system.

nervous tissue

nervous tissue see nerve tissue.

nervousness

nervousness n. a state of restless tension and emotionality characterized by trembling, feelings of apprehensiveness, or other signs of anxiety or fear.

nervus terminalis

nervus terminalis a collection of unmyelinated nerve fibers that emanates from ganglia and terminates in the nasal mucosa. It has been demonstrated to be involved in the release of luteinizing hormone and is therefore thought to play a role in reproduction.

NES

NES 1. abbreviation for Neurological Evaluation Scale. 2. abbreviation for nonepileptic seizure.

nest building

nest building a form of parental behavior, observed mainly in fish, birds, and nonhuman mammals, that involves finding and preparing a site for laying eggs or giving birth to young. The forms of nest building vary widely, but generally all are associated with hormonal activity induced in the female by changes in day length, temperature, courtship with a male, or the presence of offspring. In species with biparental care, such as many monogamous birds and rodents, nest building may be done by both sexes. In some fish, males are the exclusive nest builders. Nest building in nonpregnant female mammals can be induced by exposure to young animals (see concaveation).

nested design

nested design see hierarchically nested design.

nested model

nested model see hierarchical model.

nesting

nesting n. in an experimental design, the appearance of the levels of one factor (the nested factor) only within a single level of another factor. For example, classrooms are nested within a school because each specific classroom is found only within a single school; similarly, schools are nested within school districts. See hierarchically nested design.

network

network n. any system of interconnected units or elements. The term is applied broadly in psychology, referring, for example, to participants in social relationships or interactions (as in social network, communication networks), to neural processes (as in neural network), or to entities of linguistic meaning (see semantic network).

network analysis

network analysis the study of the relationships among sampling units (e.g., individuals) within an interconnected group of such units (e.g., a friendship network) and the implications of these networks for the system in which they occur. In organizational contexts, for example, network analysis involves identifying patterns of communication, influence, liking, and other interpersonal behaviors and attitudes among employees and quantifying them in statistical and graphical models. Properties of systems are assumed to be emergent, that is, not immediately predictable from a knowledge of networks among individuals. See also sociometry.

network effect

network effect the impact that the system or network of interpersonal interactions and relationships in an individual’s environment has on the development of psychopathology in that individual. [defined by German-born psychoanalyst Sigmund Heinrich Foulkes (1898–1976)]

network sampling

network sampling a sampling technique in which members of a study group recruit their peers to participate in the research. It is similar in process, benefits, and drawbacks to snowball sampling but distinct in that new participants are acquired directly by existing ones according to certain rules (e.g., no more than four recruits per person) and that various incentives are provided for participation and recruitment.

network therapy

network therapy individual psychotherapy or family therapy in which an attempt is made to involve not only immediate family members but also other relatives, friends, and neighbors as sources of emotional support and possible vocational opportunity. See also social-network therapy.

network-analysis evaluation

network-analysis evaluation a method of studying networks of services from the vantage point of either agencies within a system or the flow of service recipients through the system.

network-memory model

network-memory model the concept that long-term memory is made up of a series of knowledge representations that are connected or linked together. The strength of the connections is determined by experience factors, such as repetition and associations. See also connectionist model; spreading activation.

networking

networking n. 1. establishing contacts and relationships inside and outside one’s place of work with the intent of advancing one’s career. 2. forming networks of computing resources by connecting computers via communication systems. See computer network.

Neudexta

Neudexta n. a trade name for dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine.

neur-

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neural

neural adj. pertaining to the nervous system, its parts, and its functions.

neural arc

neural arc the pathway followed by nerve impulses from a receptor to an effector. In a reflex arc, a sensory neuron (or bundle of neurons) is connected either directly or via one or more interneurons to one or more motor neurons; in more complex behaviors, the pathways are longer and the connections are more complicated.

neural axis

neural axis 1. the central nervous system as a whole. 2. the structures of the central nervous system that lie along the midline, including the spinal cord and brainstem but excluding the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellar hemispheres. Also called neuraxis.

neural chain

neural chain a simple type of neural circuit in which neurons are attached end to end.

neural circuit

neural circuit an arrangement of neurons and their interconnections. Neural circuits, such as negative feedback circuits, positive feedback circuits, and oscillator circuits, often perform particular limited functions. In a local circuit, the neurons are all contained within a level of brain organization of a particular region.

neural coding

neural coding the rules and mechanisms by which neurons communicate: specifically, the unique pattern, temporal relationship, amplitude, and other characteristics of pulses (i.e., action potentials) or other signals that carry out a particular sensory or other function in the nervous system. Researchers can utilize a variety of theoretical models to analyze and understand the neural coding that underlies, for example, how birds sing or how humans perceive color. See also neural representation.

neural conduction

neural conduction the passage of a nerve impulse along a nerve fiber. See conduction. Compare neurotransmission.

neural constructivism

neural constructivism the theory that brain development, and thus cognitive development, proceeds as a dynamic interaction between the development of the neural substrate and the environment.

neural correlate

neural correlate an association between a physical occurrence in the nervous system and a mental state or event. In the cerebellum, for example, the neural correlate of fear memory is provided by a long-term potentiation of the excitatory synapses between the parallel fibers and the Purkinje cells. The existence of neural correlates suggests potential biological bases for a variety of complex cognitive, emotional, and behavioral phenomena, including consciousness (awareness), perception, learning and memory, judgments and decisions, attitudes, and motivation.

neural crest

neural crest an embryonic structure consisting of a ridgelike area of ectodermal tissue on either side of the neural tube that develops into the spinal ganglia and various structures within the sympathetic and peripheral nervous systems.

neural Darwinism

neural Darwinism a neurobiological theory that uses Darwinian natural selection to account for brain development and functioning in terms of selectionist amplification, pruning, and strengthening of neurons, synapses, and dynamic signaling. During brain development, billions of neurons emerge and send axonal cones to target other neurons and make connective synapses. Both neurons and their synapses are then pruned so that only the most functional cells and connections survive. When neuronal pathways are established, a similar amplification and pruning process occurs among active connections. Critics of the theory have argued that natural selection cannot apply without reproduction. To this, its supporters argue that the dynamic reentry of signaling (functional mapping) among neural connections established during earlier selection is equivalent to reproduction. Also called neuronal group selection; selectionist brain theory. [proposed by U.S. neuroscientist Gerald M. Edelman (1929–2014) in 1987]

neural facilitation

neural facilitation see facilitation.

neural fibril

neural fibril see neurofibril.

neural folds

neural folds in the developing embryo, ridges of ectoderm on the neural plate that form around the neural groove and fuse to form the neural tube.

neural groove

neural groove see neural folds.

neural impulse

neural impulse see nerve impulse.

neural induction

neural induction the influence of a neuron or group of neurons on the development of other cells, particularly other neurons.

neural integration

neural integration a process during which the electrochemical weighing of competing and canceling membrane potentials is resolved, leading to a neuron firing (excitatory) or not firing (inhibitory or subthreshold).

neural irritability

neural irritability a property of nerve tissue that makes it sensitive to stimulation and capable of responding by transmitting action potentials. It is dependent on rapid, transient movement of ions through ion channels in the plasma membrane, causing a reversible depolarization of the membrane.

neural network

neural network 1. a technique for modeling the neural changes in the brain that underlie cognition and perception in which a large number of simple hypothetical neural units are connected to one another. 2. an artificial intelligence system used for learning and classifying data and applied in research on pattern recognition, speech recognition, machine translation of languages, and financial prediction, among other areas. Neural networks are usually abstract structures modeled on a computer and consist of a number of interconnected processing elements (nodes), each with a finite number of inputs and outputs. The elements in a network can have a “weight” determining how they process data, which can be adjusted according to experience. In this way, the network can be trained to recognize patterns in input data by optimizing the output of the network. The analogy is with the supposed action of neurons in the brain. In addition, neural networks are often structured into layers, including an input layer (in which properties of input parameters are encoded), possibly multiple hidden layers (in which generalizations of the input parameters are reflected), and an output layer (in which the response of the neural network system is reported to the environment). The connectivity of these layers often differs, usually reflecting the algorithms the neural network uses for learning. There are multiple families of algorithms used for learning patterns in data, including Hebbian learning and back-propagation learning. See also perceptron.

neural parenchyma

neural parenchyma the essential functioning tissue of the nervous system, as distinguished from the structural or supporting elements.

neural pathway

neural pathway any route followed by a nerve impulse through central or peripheral nerve fibers of the nervous system. A neural pathway may consist of a simple reflex arc or a complex but specific route, such as that followed by impulses transmitting a specific wavelength of sound from the cochlea to the auditory cortex. Also called nerve pathway. See also afferent pathway; efferent pathway; motor pathway.

neural plasticity

neural plasticity the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or environmental stimulation. For example, following an injury remaining neurons may adopt certain functions previously performed by those that were damaged, or a change in reactivity of the nervous system and its components may result from constant, successive activations. Also called neuroplasticity.

neural plate

neural plate a specific region of the outer primary cell layer (ectoderm) on the dorsal surface of an embryo that develops ultimately into the central nervous system. As development proceeds, the neural plate folds into the neural tube. See also neurulation.

neural progenitor cell (NPC)

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neural quantum theory

neural quantum theory a theory to explain linear psychophysical functions, which are sometimes obtained instead of the ogival (S-shaped) form, whereby changes in sensation are assumed to occur in discrete steps and not along a continuum, based on the all-or-none law of neural activity. In this context, quantum refers to a functionally distinct unit in the neural mechanisms that mediate sensory experience—that is, a perceptual rather than a physical unit. Also called quantal hypothesis; quantal theory.

neural receptor

neural receptor see neuroreceptor.

neural regeneration

neural regeneration regrowth of injured neurons, which occurs at a very slow rate. Complete replacement of injured neurons is rare in mammals but common in some fish and amphibians. Even in mammals, severed axons in the peripheral nervous system regrow readily. Sprouts of the growing axons are guided by cell adhesion molecules. Also called neuronal regeneration; regeneration of nerves.

neural reinforcement

neural reinforcement the strengthening of a neuron’s response by the simultaneous or contingent activity of a second neuronal response.

neural representation

neural representation the brain’s model of the outside world, based on the overall neural coding that occurs in the brain and on which parts of the brain are activated during a particular mental experience. This representation includes content (what is being seen, felt, heard, remembered, thought, etc.) and function (the role of the neural signals in the organism’s response to a stimulus). Research is ongoing to plot the neural representations of odor memories, semantic processing in bilingual people, and various emotions, for example,.

neural reserve

neural reserve see brain reserve.

neural retina

neural retina see retina.

neural satiation

neural satiation a period of lessened reactivity or the inhibition of a neuronal response following strong stimulation of an area or adjacent regions.

neural set

neural set a disposition, often temporary, of a neural pathway to respond in a certain way.

neural stem cell

neural stem cell see neural progenitor cell.

neural substrate

neural substrate the part of the nervous system that mediates a particular behavior.

neural synchrony

neural synchrony the simultaneous firing or activation of neurons in multiple areas of the brain, particularly in response to the same stimulus. Many motor and higher level cognitive processes (see executive functions) appear to be based on the coordinated interactions of large numbers of neurons distributed within and across different specialized brain areas. Additionally, recent research suggests dysfunctions in neural synchrony may be associated with several psychological disorders, including autism spectrum disorders.

neural transmission

neural transmission see neurotransmission.

neural tube

neural tube a structure formed during early development of an embryo, when folds of the neural plate curl over and fuse. Cells of the neural tube differentiate along its length on the anterior–posterior axis to form swellings that correspond to the future forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain; the posterior part of the tube develops into the spinal cord. The cavity of the tube ultimately becomes the interconnected cerebral ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. In neural tube defects, which are a group of congenital defects caused by faulty development of the neural tube from the neural plate, portions of the brain or spinal cord or their covering membranes (the meninges) protrude through a gap in the skull or spinal column, giving rise to neurological disorders, intellectual disability, or physical disability of varying severity. Anencephaly and spina bifida are examples of such defects. See also neurulation.

neuralgia

neuralgia n. pain, typically recurrent, sharp, and spasmodic, that occurs along the course of a nerve or a group of nerves. See trigeminal neuralgia. —neuralgic adj.

neurasthenia

neurasthenia n. a condition marked by fatigue, weakness, insomnia, aches, and pains. The term (from Greek neurastheneia, “nerve weakness”) originated in the 19th century, when the symptoms were believed to be due to exhaustion, primarily from overwork. It is rarely used today. The condition is now attributed primarily to emotional conflicts, tensions, frustrations, and other psychological factors, and in DSM–IV–TR it is classified as undifferentiated somatoform disorder. [coined in 1869 by U.S. neurologist George Miller Beard (1839–1883)] —neurasthenic adj.

neuraxis

neuraxis n. see neural axis.

neurite

neurite n. a projection from the neuronal cell body: an axon or a dendrite. This general term is used especially in relation to developing neurons whose axons and dendrites often are difficult to distinguish from one another.

neuritic plaque

neuritic plaque see amyloid plaque.

neuritis

neuritis n. inflammation of a nerve, especially resulting from infection or autoimmune factors. See also neuropathy.

neuro- (neur-)

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neuroanatomy

neuroanatomy n. the study of the structures and relationships among the various parts of the nervous system. —neuroanatomist n.

neurobiofeedback

neurobiofeedback n. see neurofeedback.

neurobiology

neurobiology n. a branch of biology that studies the structures and processes of the nervous system. —neurobiological adj.

neurobiotaxis

neurobiotaxis n. the growth of a nerve fiber toward the tissue it will innervate, which occurs during embryological development. The factors that influence neurobiotaxis are currently the subject of research on nerve growth in adult organisms, which may contribute to nerve regeneration or replacement after injury or disease.

neuroblast

neuroblast n. an undifferentiated cell that is capable of developing into a neuron.

neuroblastoma

neuroblastoma n. a type of tumor that develops from nerve cells that resemble the primitive neural cells of the embryo. The cells of a neuroblastoma are very small with very large nuclei, often arranged in sheets, clumps, or cords. Most such tumors develop in the adrenal medulla or autonomic nervous system.

neurochemistry

neurochemistry n. the branch of neuroscience that deals with the roles of atoms, molecules, and ions in the functioning of nervous systems. Because chemical substances in a physiological system obey the laws of nature that apply in other environments, the activities of neurotransmitters, drugs, and other molecules in the nervous system can be explained in terms of basic chemical concepts.

neurocognition

neurocognition n. 1. cognitive processes or functioning understood in relation to the specific neural mechanisms by which they occur in the brain and any impairment of these mechanisms. 2. see cognitive neuroscience. —neurocognitive adj.

neurocontrol

neurocontrol n. 1. the control of electronic devices by energy transformed from neural output. Such devices have been developed for the use of people with paralysis or other severe impairments of bodily function. See bioengineering. 2. more generally, any method of controlling an automated system or device that is modeled on the neuronal architecture in human beings. Such methods have been developed in advanced robotics and in such high-tech applications as spacecraft navigation.

neurocrine

neurocrine adj. referring to neurons that secrete agonists, especially neurotransmitters, at synapses, or to those agonists themselves.

neurodegenerative disease

neurodegenerative disease any disease characterized by progressive nervous system dysfunction and loss of neural tissue. Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Parkinson’s disease are all examples of neurodegenerative diseases. Also called neurodegenerative disorder.

neurodermatitis

neurodermatitis n. an eczematous skin lesion that may be associated with psychological stress and is exacerbated by rubbing or scratching the skin.

neurodevelopmental hypothesis

neurodevelopmental hypothesis a prominent theory stating that schizophrenia results from an early brain lesion, either fetal or neonatal, that disrupts normal neurological development and leads to abnormalities and later psychotic symptoms. Consequences of this early disruption appear in childhood and adolescence, prior to the actual onset of schizophrenic symptoms, as subtle differences in motor coordination, cognitive and social functioning, and temperament. There is evidence that supports this hypothesis, and risk factors operating in early life (e.g., obstetric complications) have been shown to be associated with the later development of schizophrenia. [originally proposed in 1987 by U.S. neuropsychiatrist Daniel Roy Weinberger]

neurodidactics

neurodidactics n. see neuroeducation.

neuroeconomics

neuroeconomics n. a rapidly emerging field that focuses on understanding how the brain assesses the costs and benefits of the possible outcomes of specific actions and then uses this information to make choices. Combining perspectives and techniques from neuroscience, psychology, and economics, the field addresses the physiological basis of strategic thinking and decision making under uncertainty and examines brain function when individuals perform such choice-behavior tasks as formulating or expressing preferences and beliefs, evaluating decisions, categorizing risks and rewards, computing value, and delaying gratification. Neuroeconomics challenges the assumption that decision making is a logical, analytical process—a simple matter of utility maximization—suggesting instead that it often involves emotion and other psychological variables. For example, individuals making buying decisions tend to show overactivation in the “wanting” or reward area of the brain, while individuals making decisions about money during times of economic volatility show strong activation in the areas of the brain associated with fear.

neuroeducation

neuroeducation n. the study of the activities that occur in the brain when individuals learn and the application of this knowledge to improve classroom instructional practices and optimize curriculum design. This emerging field represents the intersection of the broader areas of neuroscience, psychology, and education, integrating research on neuronal functioning with educational improvement to understand how the brain enables learning, working memory, intelligence, and creative thinking. For example, a neuroeducational investigation of the relationship between young children’s insight into spatial structures and the development of spatial and number sense might result in a series of classroom activities to stimulate children’s acquisition of spatial and number skills. However, such investigations are not without their critics. Many researchers point to the gap separating microscopic neural processes from macroscopic classroom behaviors as a major obstacle to establishing the neuroscience–education bridge. Prominent among these critics is U.S. philosopher and cognitive scientist John T. Bruer, who argues that the study of brain–behavior relationships is too far removed from the development of learning strategies and teaching methods to offer any useful benefits. Also called brain-based learning; educational neuroscience; mind–brain–education (MBE); neurodidactics; neuropedagogy.

neuroeffector junction

neuroeffector junction the functional connection between a neuron and a muscle or a gland. See also neuromuscular junction.

neuroeffector transmission

neuroeffector transmission the transmission of nerve impulses from neurons through neuroeffector junctions to the two general types of effectors, muscles and glands.

neuroendocrinology

neuroendocrinology n. the study of the relationships between the nervous system—especially the brain—and the endocrine system. Some cells within the nervous system release hormones into the local or systemic circulation; these are called neuroendocrine (or neurosecretory) cells. The hypothalamus, for example, produces releasing hormones that regulate secretion of pituitary hormones. Certain substances, such as norepinephrine, act both as hormones and as neurotransmitters. See also psychoneuroendocrinology. —neuroendocrinological adj. —neuroendocrinologist n.

neuroethics

neuroethics n. a rapidly growing subdiscipline of bioethics that focuses on the moral, social, and public policy implications of conducting neuroscience research and of translating the findings into clinical practice. The explosive increase in knowledge about the biology of human behavior, cognition, and emotion and the growing ability to monitor and even intervene in their functioning—through the use of brain imaging, psychopharmacology, neurosurgery, and other advanced techniques—have led not only to new diagnostic capabilities and therapeutic innovations but also to numerous concerns. These include issues relating to informed consent; personal responsibility; free will; conceptions of health and well-being; and predictions of disease, behavior, and other factors. For example, transcranial magnetic stimulation shows promise for treating certain movement and psychological disorders but could also potentially be used for nontherapeutic purposes, such as cognitive enhancement to directly manipulate attention, memory, mood, or other psychological capacities to make a “better” brain. See also neurolaw.

neuroethology

neuroethology n. a branch of biology that studies nonhuman animal behavior in relation to neural processes and structures. See ethology.

neurofeedback

neurofeedback n. a type of biofeedback training intended to enable people to alter their brain waves by using information from a video display or auditory signal of electroencephalograph (EEG) recordings of their brain-wave characteristics. Neurofeedback has been used with mixed results in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy and is being investigated as a possible intervention for other conditions as well (e.g., headaches, insomnia, anxiety). Also called EEG biofeedback; neurobiofeedback; neurotherapy. See alpha-wave training.

neurofibril

neurofibril n. a fine fiber found in the cytoplasm of a neuron. It is composed of microscopic protein filaments and microtubules. Abnormal formation of neurofibrils leads to the development of neurofibrillary tangles, which are characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease. Also called neural fibril.

neurofibrillary tangles

neurofibrillary tangles twisted strands of abnormal filaments within neurons that are associated with Alzheimer’s disease. The filaments form microscopically visible knots or tangles consisting of tau protein, which normally is associated with microtubules. If the structure of tau is rendered abnormal, the microtubule structure collapses, and the tau protein collects in neurofibrillary tangles.

neurofibroma

neurofibroma n. a tumor of peripheral nerves caused by abnormal proliferation of Schwann cells. A neurofibroma is very similar to a schwannoma but is distinguished by its lack of a capsule.

neurofibromatosis

neurofibromatosis n. an autosomal dominant neurological disorder that is characterized by tumors of the peripheral nervous system (neurofibromas). The tumors may be firm subcutaneous nodules or soft cutaneous lumps that form a pocket when pressed. Three subtypes have been identified: Type 1 (also called von Recklinghausen’s disease) is present at birth with pigmented (pale brown) patches on the skin and deformed bones; Type 2 begins in adolescence with ringing in the ears, poor balance, and eventual hearing loss; and schwannomatosis, the rarest form, causes intense, chronic pain and other neurological symptoms such as tingling, numbness, and weakness in the fingers and toes. Neurofibromatosis can be either an inherited disorder or the product of a gene mutation.

neurofilament

neurofilament n. a small, rodlike structure found in the axons of neurons. Neurofilaments are involved in the transport of materials along the axon. See axonal transport.

neurogenesis

neurogenesis n. the production of new neurons during early nervous system development and throughout the lifespan. The failure or interruption of neurogenesis is implicated in neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, as well as in psychiatric disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.

neurogenic

neurogenic adj. pertaining to a condition or event caused or produced by a component of the nervous system.

neurogenic communication disorder

neurogenic communication disorder any speech or language problem due to nervous system impairment that causes some difficulty or inability in exchanging information with others.

neuroglia

neuroglia n. see glia. —neuroglial adj.

neuroglioma

neuroglioma n. see glioma.

neurogram

neurogram n. 1. see engram. 2. a wavelike tracing, either printed or displayed on a monitor, that represents the electrical impulses of neurons. 3. a three-dimensional image of nerves in the brain provided by a specialized magnetic resonance imaging technique.

neurohormone

neurohormone n. a hormone produced by neural tissue and released into the general circulation. See neuroendocrinology.

neurohypophysis

neurohypophysis n. see pituitary gland; posterior pituitary.

neuroimaging

neuroimaging n. the use of various technologies to noninvasively study the structures and functions of the brain. These technologies include magnetic resonance imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography.

neurokinin

neurokinin n. a neurotransmitter family comprising three related neuropeptides: substance P, neurokinin A, and neurokinin B. They appear to play roles in emotion and in pain perception.

neurolaw

neurolaw n. a rapidly growing field representing the intersection of neuroscience and the legal system. It encompasses not only the study of the neural workings of the human brain as they relate to issues of crime, guilt, and punishment but also the emerging applications of imaging technologies within courtroom proceedings. For example, in a murder trial a defense attorney might use a brain scan showing a tumor pressing on the defendant’s amygdala to argue that he or she couldn’t control his or her behavior and should be absolved of any criminal responsibility for the act. Similarly, in civil litigation a lawyer might introduce a scan as evidence that his or her client has a traumatic brain injury. Despite its increasing popularity and prevalence, neurolaw remains controversial. Many argue that using neuroimaging—originally developed as a diagnostic tool for medical professionals—to “prove” unobservable psychological attributes (e.g., thoughts, feelings, intentions) through brain activity is an invasion of privacy and infringement of freedom of thought that is devoid of scientifically demonstrated accuracy and validity. Others question the implications of neurolaw for such traditional notions as free will, rational choice, and voluntary conduct (actus reus). Proponents, however, point out potential benefits of applying neuroscience findings and techniques to law, such as developing more accurate methods for lie detection and criminal behavior prediction, developing more effective means of criminal rehabilitation, improving sentencing procedures, and detecting stereotypes or biases unconsciously held by potential jurors. See also neuroethics.

neuroleptic

neuroleptic n. see antipsychotic.

neuroleptic malignant syndrome

neuroleptic malignant syndrome a rare complication of therapy with conventional (typical or first-generation) antipsychotics, characterized by fever, inability to regulate blood pressure, difficulty in breathing, and changes in consciousness (including coma); mortality rates approaching 25% have been observed. It occurs primarily at the start of treatment or with a sudden increase in dose. The incidence of the syndrome, which was never high, has declined further with the abandonment of megadose pharmacotherapy with conventional antipsychotics and the advent of second-generation atypical antipsychotics.

neuroleptic syndrome

neuroleptic syndrome the series of effects observed in individuals who have taken antipsychotics. It is characterized by reduced motor activity and emotionality, an indifference to external stimuli, and a decreased ability to perform tasks that require good motor coordination. With high doses, patients may become cataleptic.

neurolinguistic programming (NLP)

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neurolinguistics

neurolinguistics n. the branch of linguistics that investigates how language organization and language processing are encoded in the brain.

neurological amnesia

neurological amnesia a loss or impairment of memory due to disease or injury of the nervous system.

neurological evaluation

neurological evaluation analysis of the data gathered by an examining physician of an individual’s mental status and sensory and motor functioning. The examination typically includes assessment of cognition, speech and behavior, orientation and level of alertness, muscular strength and tone, muscle coordination and movement, tendon reflexes, cranial nerves, pain and temperature sensitivity, and discriminative senses.

Neurological Evaluation Scale (NES)

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neurological impairment

neurological impairment any condition marked by disruption of the nervous system as a result of disease, injury, or the effects of a drug or other chemical.

neurology

neurology n. a branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system in both healthy and diseased states. The diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the nervous system is called clinical neurology; neurologists diagnose and treat patients with stroke, dementia, headaches, and back pain, among other disorders. —neurological adj.

neuromarketing

neuromarketing n. a subdiscipline of market research that examines changes in brain activity as they relate to product liking and purchasing and other consumer behavior. Measures commonly used in neuromarketing to reveal the frequency, location, and timing of neuronal activity include electroencephalography, electromyography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, magnetoencephalography, and skin conductance monitoring. For example, researchers may analyze blood flow to different regions of the brain or record the brain’s electrical activity as volunteers watch television advertisements or shop in supermarkets to help determine why those individuals prefer certain brands or how they make decisions to buy specific items. Some people criticize neuromarketing as an invasion of privacy—a peering into the mind to examine neurophysiological responses and emotional reactions that may not consciously be registered—with potentially exploitative applications. Practitioners, however, note that the purpose of neuromarketing is only to provide insight and that their research complements already extant techniques (e.g., focus groups, surveys, interviews) that are used to create more effective products, services, and advertising campaigns. Also called consumer neuroscience. [coined in 2002 by Dutch cognitive neuroscientist Ale Smidts]

neuromatrix theory

neuromatrix theory the theory that pain is produced by patterns of nerve impulses, or neurosignatures, that can be triggered not only by painful stimuli but also by other means, such as chronic stress. The theory attempts to account for such phenomena as phantom limb pain and chronic pain syndromes. See also gate-control theory. [proposed by Canadian psychologist Ronald Melzack (1929– )]

neuromodulator

neuromodulator n. a substance that modulates the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter by influencing its release or receptor response to it. See taurine.

neuromuscular disorder

neuromuscular disorder any pathological condition that involves the nerves and muscles. Common symptoms include weakness, cramps, and paralysis. Examples of such disorders include muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis, and the myopathies.

neuromuscular junction

neuromuscular junction the junction between a motor neuron and the muscle fiber it innervates. In skeletal muscle, the muscle-cell plasma membrane (sarcolemma) is greatly folded in the region opposite the terminus of a motor axon, forming a motor end plate. When impulses arrive at the axon terminus, a neurotransmitter diffuses across the gap separating the axon and motor end plate. The neurotransmitter binds to receptors in the sarcolemma and causes an end-plate potential, which can trigger muscle contraction. Also called myoneural junction; neuromuscular synapse.

neuromuscular system

neuromuscular system see motor system.

neuromyopathy

neuromyopathy n. see myopathy.

neuron (neurone)

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neuron doctrine

neuron doctrine the principle that the nervous system is composed of individual cells (neurons) that make contact with each other but do not interpenetrate. Before this doctrine was accepted, many assumed that the nervous system consisted of continuous tubelike networks. Also called neuron theory. [presented in 1891 by German physician Heinrich Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz (1836–1921)]

neuronal cell death

neuronal cell death the selective, genetically programmed death of nerve cells that occurs during development of the nervous system. See also programmed cell death.

neuronal differentiation

neuronal differentiation the final stage in the development of neurons, during which they increase in size, produce more dendrites, extend their axons farther away from the cell body, and form new connections with other cells. In humans, neuronal development begins when the fetus is about 20 weeks old and continues after birth and throughout the lifespan.

neuronal group selection

neuronal group selection see neural Darwinism.

neuronal regeneration

neuronal regeneration see neural regeneration.

neuronal transmission

neuronal transmission see neurotransmission.

neurone

neurone n. see neuron.

Neurontin

Neurontin n. a trade name for gabapentin.

neuroparalytic ophthalmia

neuroparalytic ophthalmia see ophthalmia.

neuropathic pain

neuropathic pain pain caused by damage to peripheral nerves.

neuropathology

neuropathology n. the study of diseases of the nervous system. —neuropathological adj. —neuropathologist n.

neuropathy

neuropathy n. disease of the nervous system, particularly the peripheral nerves. See peripheral neuropathy. —neuropathic adj.

neuropedagogy

neuropedagogy n. see neuroeducation.

neuropeptide

neuropeptide n. any of several peptides that are released by neurons as neurotransmitters or neurohormones. They include the endogenous opioids (e.g., enkephalin, endorphin); peptides found in both the brain and the peripheral nervous system (e.g., substance P, neurotensin); hypothalamic releasing hormones (e.g., thyrotropin-releasing hormone); pituitary hormones (e.g., growth hormone, prolactin); and other circulating peptides (e.g., atrial natriuretic peptide, bradykinin).

neuropeptide Y

neuropeptide Y a neuropeptide transmitter found in the brain, heart, and adrenal glands that stimulates vasoconstriction and regulates feeding behavior. Some research suggests that it may have a role in Alzheimer’s disease.

neuropharmacology

neuropharmacology n. the scientific study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system. —neuropharmacological adj. —neuropharmacologist n.

neurophysiology

neurophysiology n. a branch of neuroscience that is concerned with the normal and abnormal functioning of the nervous system, including the chemical and electrical activities of individual neurons. —neurophysiological adj. —neurophysiologist n.

neuropil

neuropil n. a weblike network of axon and dendrite filaments that forms the bulk of the gray matter of the central nervous system. The cell bodies of neurons are embedded in the network of fibers.

neuroplasticity

neuroplasticity n. see neural plasticity.

neuroprotective

neuroprotective adj. denoting agents, such as drugs and hormones, that are believed to prevent damage to the brain or spinal cord.

neuropsychological assessment

neuropsychological assessment an evaluation of the presence, nature, and extent of brain damage or dysfunction derived from the results of various neuropsychological tests.

Neuropsychological Assessment Battery (NAB)

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neuropsychological test

neuropsychological test any of various clinical instruments for assessing cognitive impairment, including those measuring memory, language, learning, attention, and visuospatial and visuoconstructive functioning. Examples are the Trail Making Test, Stroop Color–Word Interference Test, and Complex Figure Test.

neuropsychology

neuropsychology n. the branch of science that studies the physiological processes of the nervous system and relates them to behavior and cognition, in terms both of their normal function and of the dysfunctional processes associated with brain damage. See also clinical neuropsychology; cognitive neuropsychology; comparative neuropsychology; experimental neuropsychology; pediatric neuropsychology; rehabilitation neuropsychology; school neuropsychology. —neuropsychological adj. —neuropsychologist n.

neuroreceptor

neuroreceptor n. a molecule located in a neuron cell membrane that binds molecules of a particular neurotransmitter, hormone, drug, or the like and initiates a particular response within the neuron. Also called neural receptor; neurotransmitter receptor; receptor molecule.

neuroregulator

neuroregulator n. any of various chemical substances that act on neurons and that are generally classified as neurohormones, neuromodulators, and neurotransmitters.

neuroscience

neuroscience n. the scientific study of the nervous system, including neuroanatomy, neurobiology, neurochemistry, neurophysiology, and neuropharmacology, and its applications in psychology, psychiatry, and neurology. See also behavioral neuroscience; clinical neuroscience; cognitive neuroscience.

neurosecretion

neurosecretion n. 1. the secretion of substances, such as hormones or neurotransmitters, by neural tissue. 2. a substance secreted in this way.

neurosecretory cell

neurosecretory cell see neuroendocrinology.

neurosignature

neurosignature n. see neuromatrix theory.

neurosis

neurosis n. any one of a variety of mental disorders characterized by significant anxiety or other distressing emotional symptoms, such as persistent and irrational fears, obsessive thoughts, compulsive acts, dissociative states, and somatic and depressive reactions. The symptoms do not involve gross personality disorganization, total lack of insight, or loss of contact with reality (compare psychosis). In psychoanalysis, neuroses are generally viewed as exaggerated, unconscious methods of coping with internal conflicts and the anxiety they produce. Most of the disorders that used to be called neuroses are now classified as anxiety disorders. Also called psychoneurosis. —neurotic adj., n.

neurosurgery

neurosurgery n. surgical procedures performed on the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves for the purpose of restoring functioning or preventing further impairment. See also psychosurgery. —neurosurgeon n. —neurosurgical adj.

neurosyphilis

neurosyphilis n. a late manifestation of untreated or inadequately treated syphilis, usually occurring years after the initial infection, in which the causative bacterium, Treponema pallidum, damages and destroys the brain and spinal cord. This results in blindness and severe neurological deficits, including memory impairment, inability to concentrate, and behavioral deterioration. See asymptomatic neurosyphilis; general paresis; locomotor ataxia.

neurotensin (NT)

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neurotherapy

neurotherapy n. see neurofeedback.

neurotic anxiety

neurotic anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety that originates in unconscious conflict and is maladaptive in nature: It has a disturbing effect on emotion and behavior and also intensifies resistance to treatment. Neurotic anxiety contrasts with realistic anxiety about an external danger or threat and with moral anxiety, which is guilt posited to originate in the superego.

neurotic character

neurotic character see character neurosis.

neurotic conflict

neurotic conflict 1. in psychoanalytic theory, an intrapsychic conflict that leads to persistent maladjustment and emotional disturbance. 2. in the approach of Karen D. Horney, the clash that occurs between opposing neurotic needs, such as an excessive need for power and independence and an excessive need for love and dependence. See also neurotic trend.

neurotic depression

neurotic depression a less common name for reactive depression or dysthymic disorder.

neurotic inventory

neurotic inventory a questionnaire designed to reveal a person’s tendency toward neuroticism. Statements are taken from case histories and related material, and the participant indicates agreement or disagreement with each statement. Theoretically, the more statements with which a participant agrees, the greater the tendency toward neuroticism.

neurotic need

neurotic need in psychoanalytic theory, an excessive drive or demand that may arise out of the strategies individuals use to defend themselves against basic anxiety. Karen D. Horney enumerated 10 neurotic needs: for affection and approval, for a partner to take over one’s life, for restriction of one’s life, for power, for exploitation of others, for prestige, for admiration, for achievement, for self-sufficiency and independence, and for perfection. When an individual’s personality is dominated by a few neurotic needs, he or she may exhibit a neurotic trend.

neurotic solution

neurotic solution a method of resolving a neurotic conflict by removing it from awareness. [proposed by Karen D. Horney]

neurotic trend

neurotic trend in the theory of Karen D. Horney, any one of three basic tendencies stemming from an individual’s choice of strategies to counteract basic anxiety. These strategies generate insatiable neurotic needs and include (a) moving toward people, or clinging to others (see compliant character); (b) moving away from people, or insisting on independence and self-dependence (see detached character); and (c) moving against people, or seeking power, prestige, and possessions (see aggressive character).

neuroticism

neuroticism n. 1. the state of being neurotic or a proneness to neurosis. 2. a mild condition of neurosis. 3. one of the dimensions of the five-factor personality model and the Big Five personality model, characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and proneness to psychological distress. 4. in Eysenck’s dimensions, one of three major dimensions, the others being extraversion and psychoticism. See also factor theory of personality.

neurotoxicology

neurotoxicology n. the study of the effects of toxins and poisons on the nervous system. —neurotoxicological adj.

neurotoxin

neurotoxin n. any substance that is destructive to the central or peripheral nervous system, causing temporary or permanent damage. Heavy metals such as lead and mercury, some pesticides and industrial or cleaning solvents, some drugs (e.g., those used in chemotherapy), and snake venom are examples of substances with the capacity (neurotoxicity) to produce this effect. —neurotoxic adj.

neurotransmission

neurotransmission n. the process by which a signal or other activity in a neuron is transferred to an adjacent neuron or other cell. Synaptic transmission, which occurs between two neurons via a synapse, is largely chemical, occurring through the release and binding of neurotransmitter, but it may also be electrical (see electrical synapse). Neurotransmission also occurs between a neuron and an effector organ or gland and between a neuron and a skeletal muscle cell (see neuromuscular junction). Also called neural transmission; neuronal transmission.

neurotransmitter

neurotransmitter n. any of a large number of chemicals that can be released by neurons to mediate transmission of nerve signals across the junctions (synapses) between neurons. When triggered by a nerve impulse, the neurotransmitter is released from the terminal button (see axon), travels across the synaptic cleft, and binds to and reacts with receptor molecules in the postsynaptic membrane. Neurotransmitters include amines (e.g., norepinephrine, serotonin) and amino acids (e.g., glutamate, glycine). Some neurotransmitters can be categorized as generally excitatory (e.g., glutamate, glysine) or generally inhibitory (e.g. gamma-aminobutyric acid). Excitatory neurotransmitters exert a facilitatory or activating downstream effect on postsynaptic neurons. That is, they depolarize the postsynaptic neurons, resulting in a greater likelihood of an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neurons—thereby making the intracellular space more negative, and hence, requiring a greater positive charge to overcome—resulting in a smaller likelihood of an action potential. However, some neurotransmitters have both excitatory and inhibitory receptors; these include acetylcholine and dopamine. Also called chemical transmitter; synaptic transmitter.

neurotransmitter receptor

neurotransmitter receptor see neuroreceptor.

neurotrophin

neurotrophin n. any of various proteins that promote the development and survival of specific populations of neurons. Neurotrophins include nerve growth factor, deficits in the axonal transport of which have been linked to Alzheimer’s disease, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which plays a crucial role in cognition, learning, and memory formation by modulating synaptic plasticity. Also called neurotrophic factor.

neurulation

neurulation n. the process of development of the rudimentary nervous system in early embryonic life, including formation of the neural tube from the neural plate.

neutral color

neutral color a less common name for an achromatic color.

neutral monism

neutral monism a position holding that there is a single substance to reality, but that this is neither physical (body) nor mental (mind). It seeks to avoid both idealism and materialism and the philosophical problems that attend them. William James advocated such a position (see radical empiricism), as did British philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970). However, it has been difficult to convey satisfactorily what the nature of such a substance might be. Compare idealistic monism; natural monism. See also mind–body problem.

neutral point

neutral point the single wavelength of visible light that appears uncolored (white or gray) to a person with dichromatism (someone with only two cone photopigments, rather than three). The specific wavelength of the neutral point varies according to which photopigment is missing. Those with normal color vision (trichromatism) and three cone photopigments have no neutral point.

neutral stimulus

neutral stimulus in classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not elicit a response of the sort to be measured as an index of conditioning. For example, the sound of a bell has no effect on salivation, therefore it is a neutral stimulus with respect to salivation and a good candidate for conditioning of that response.

neutrality

neutrality n. an approach that is nonjudgmental, as exhibited, for example, by a therapist who refrains from expressing judgments of right and wrong or suggesting what is proper behavior on the part of the client.

neutralization

neutralization n. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the use of sexual or aggressive energy in the service of the ego—that is, in functions such as problem solving, creative imagination, scientific inquiry, and decision making—rather than for gratification of the instincts. Sublimation uses neutralized energy. Also called taming of the instinct. See also desexualization. —neutralize vb.

neutralizer

neutralizer n. a member of a therapy group who plays a role of modifying and controlling impulsive, aggressive, or destructive behaviors of other members of the group. [first described by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

Nevo syndrome

Nevo syndrome see Sotos syndrome.

New Age therapy

New Age therapy any of a number of popular treatments that lack a sound scientific basis and are generally not accepted by health professionals as valid, effective therapeutic practice. Support for such therapies does not come from independent scientific studies but typically is derived primarily from the “insights” and observations of their founders or from participant feedback. An example of a New Age therapy is rebirthing.

new-look theory

new-look theory a version of cognitive dissonance theory postulating that cognitive dissonance is a result of behavior that causes aversive consequences. The dissonance occurs when a person assumes responsibility for these consequences and experiences physiological arousal that he or she perceives to be negative and a result of the consequences. [originally proposed by U.S. psychologists Joel Cooper (1943– ) and Russell H. Fazio (1952– )]

Newman–Keuls multiple comparison test

Newman–Keuls multiple comparison test a statistical procedure in which sets of means are compared following a significant result from an analysis of variance. The mean values of all experimental groups are arranged in order of size and formed into pairs, and the differences between members of each pair are evaluated against a critical value known as the Studentized range statistic. Also called Newman–Keuls multiple range test; Newman–Keuls test. [D. Newman, British statistician; M. Keuls, Dutch horticulturalist]

Newton’s law of color mixture

Newton’s law of color mixture the principle that color mixtures appearing identical to one another will produce the same perceived color when they are mixed with one another. [Isaac Newton]

Newtonian view

Newtonian view see Maxwellian view. [Isaac Newton]

nexus

nexus n. 1. a bond or connection, especially between members of a group or series. 2. a connection of mutual dependence or causality between variables.

Neyman–Pearson theory

Neyman–Pearson theory an approach to formulating two competing hypotheses (the null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis) and identifying appropriate statistical procedures for choosing between them. It focuses on identifying critical regions, minimizing errors in estimation, and obtaining an appropriate balance in the probability of committing Type I errors and Type II errors. [Jerzy Neyman (1894–1981), Russian-born U.S. statistician; Egon S. Pearson (1895–1980), British statistician]

NGF

NGF abbreviation for nerve growth factor.

NGRI

NGRI abbreviation for not guilty by reason of insanity.

NGT

NGT abbreviation for nominal group technique.

NGU

NGU abbreviation for nongonococcal urethritis.

NH

NH abbreviation for null hypothesis.

NHIS

NHIS abbreviation for National Health Interview Survey.

NHST

NHST abbreviation for null hypothesis significance testing.

niacin

niacin n. see nicotinic acid.

nicotine

nicotine n. an alkaloid obtained primarily from the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum). Today nicotine is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs; it is the primary active ingredient in tobacco and accounts for both the acute pharmacological effects of smoking or chewing tobacco (e.g., a discharge of epinephrine; a sudden release of glucose; an increase in blood pressure, respiration, heart rate, and cutaneous vasoconstriction) and the dependence that develops (see nicotine dependence; nicotine withdrawal). The behavioral effects of the drug include enhanced alertness, decreased reaction time, improved attention, and feelings of calm. Nicotine produces multiple pharmacological effects on the central nervous system by activating nicotinic receptors as well as cannabinoid and other receptors, thus facilitating the release of several neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine (a reaction similar to that seen with such drugs as cocaine and heroin). In large doses, it is highly poisonous, producing effects such as dizziness, diarrhea, vomiting, tremors, spasms, unconsciousness, heart attack, and potentially death via paralysis of the muscles of respiration. Nicotine was isolated from the tobacco plant in 1828 and was named for the French diplomat Jean Nicot, who introduced tobacco in France in 1560. —nicotinic adj.

nicotine dependence

nicotine dependence in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of repeated or compulsive use of nicotine despite significant nicotine-related behavioral, physiological, and psychosocial problems, with tolerance and characteristic withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended (see nicotine withdrawal). The equivalent term in DSM–5 is tobacco use disorder. See also substance dependence.

nicotine withdrawal

nicotine withdrawal a characteristic withdrawal syndrome that develops after cessation of (or reduction in) prolonged, heavy nicotine consumption. Two or more of the following are required for a DSM–IV–TR diagnosis of nicotine withdrawal: dysphoria or depressed mood; insomnia; irritability, frustration, or anger; anxiety; difficulty in concentrating; restlessness; decreased heart rate; and increased appetite or weight gain. The equivalent term in DSM–5 is tobacco withdrawal.

nicotinic acid

nicotinic acid a vitamin of the B complex that serves as an essential precursor of the coenzyme NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and related coenzymes, which are vital for energy metabolism. In 1937 U.S. biochemist Conrad Arnold Elvehjem (1901–1962) discovered that nicotinic acid can prevent or cure pellagra. Also called niacin.

nicotinic acid deficiency

nicotinic acid deficiency see pellagra.

nicotinic receptor (nAchR)

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nictitating membrane

nictitating membrane a fold of transparent or semitransparent membrane, present in many vertebrates, that can be drawn laterally over the eye like a third eyelid, independently of the other eyelids. This “blink” (the nictitating-membrane response) can be conditioned in a nonhuman animal (e.g., a rabbit) by pairing a puff of air (the unconditioned stimulus) with a light or tone (the conditioned stimulus).

NIDDM

NIDDM abbreviation for noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

Niemann–Pick disease

Niemann–Pick disease an inherited group of lipid-storage disorders generally marked by a deficiency of the enzyme acid sphingomyelinase and accumulation of lipids in brain tissue and visceral organs. Massive liver and spleen enlargement (hepatomegaly and splenomegaly) may occur. In Type A, progressive deterioration of the nervous system, blindness, and death before adulthood are common. In Type B, the nervous system is not affected and individuals may live into adulthood. Types C1 and C2 usually appear in childhood but can appear in infancy or adulthood. They are characterized by severe liver disease, jaundice, breathing difficulties, developmental delay, seizures, poor muscle tone, lack of coordination, problems with feeding, and an inability to move the eyes vertically. Type A occurs more frequently among individuals of Ashkenazi (eastern and central European) Jewish descent and is caused by mutations in the SMPD1 gene, whereas Type C1 occurs more frequently in people of French-Acadian descent in Nova Scotia and is caused by mutations in the NPC1 gene. Also called sphingomyelin lipidosis. See also lipid-metabolism disorders. [Albert Niemann (1880–1921) and Ludwig Pick (1868–1944), German physicians]

night blindness

night blindness a visual impairment marked by partial or complete inability to see objects in a dimly lighted environment. Night blindness can be inherited or due to defective dark adaptation or a dietary deficiency of vitamin A. Also called nyctalopia.

night hospital

night hospital a unit within a hospital in which patients receive psychiatric care at night but spend the day in the community. See also partial hospitalization.

night terror

night terror see sleep terror disorder.

night-eating syndrome

night-eating syndrome an eating disorder characterized by insomnia, nocturnal hyperphagia, and morning anorexia that persist for at least 3 months. Recent research suggests night-eating syndrome is related to hormonal irregularities and a disturbed circadian rhythm of food intake, although chronic stress may also be a contributing factor. This type of eating disorder is estimated to affect 1.5% of the global population and is thought to occur in 10–25% of obese individuals. [first described in 1955 by U.S. psychiatrist Albert J. Stunkard (1922–2014)]

nightmare

nightmare n. a frightening or otherwise disturbing dream in which fear, sadness, despair, disgust, or some combination thereof forms the emotional content. Nightmares contain visual imagery and some degree of narrative structure and typically occur during REM sleep. The dreamer tends to waken suddenly from a nightmare and is immediately alert and aware of his or her surroundings. See nightmare disorder; sleep terror disorder. —nightmarish adj.

nightmare disorder

nightmare disorder in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a sleep disorder characterized by the repeated occurrence of frightening dreams that lead to awakenings from sleep. It was formerly known as dream anxiety disorder. See parasomnia.

nightmare-death syndrome

nightmare-death syndrome the unexpected and mysterious nocturnal death of an apparently healthy individual that occurs among southeast Asian refugees, especially Hmong, in the United States. It is attributed by some Hmong to a nocturnal spirit encounter and is similar to the Filipino concept of bangungut. Also called sudden unexpected nocturnal-death syndrome.

nigrostriatal tract

nigrostriatal tract the neural pathway that extends from the substantia nigra to the striatum of the basal ganglia. It contains dopaminergic neurons and is associated with the production of voluntary movement.

nihilism

nihilism n. 1. the delusion of nonexistence: a fixed belief that the mind, body, or the world at large—or parts thereof—no longer exists. Also called delusion of negation; nihilistic delusion. 2. the belief that existence is without meaning or value. —nihilistic adj.

nilutamide

nilutamide n. see antiandrogen.

NIMH

NIMH abbreviation for National Institute of Mental Health.

ninth cranial nerve

ninth cranial nerve see glossopharyngeal nerve.

nirvana

nirvana n. 1. in Hinduism, a state of liberation or illumination, characterized by the extinction of individual consciousness as it merges into brahman, the eternal Absolute. Nirvana frees one from suffering, death and rebirth, and all other worldly bonds. 2. in Buddhism, the state of perfect blessedness that is the goal of all spiritual practice. 3. in general use, any place or condition of great peace or bliss. [Sanskrit, literally: “extinction”]

nirvana principle

nirvana principle in classical psychoanalytic theory, the tendency of all instincts and life processes to remove tension and seek the stability and equilibrium of the inorganic state—that is, death. This is the trend of the death instinct, which Sigmund Freud believed to be universal.

Nissl bodies

Nissl bodies microscopic particles, consisting of granular endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes, found in large numbers in the cell bodies of neurons. Nissl bodies can be stained by toluidine blue (Nissl stain), which allows measurement of cell-body size and the density of neurons in different regions of the nervous system. Also called Nissl granules; Nissl substance; tigroid bodies. [Franz Nissl (1860–1919), German neuropathologist]

Nissl method

Nissl method any one of certain techniques used to stain neurons for microscopic examination, especially the use of Nissl stain to reveal Nissl bodies. [Franz Nissl]

nisus

nisus n. in the system of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the inherent tendency in all monads to strive toward the perfect realization of their innate and appropriate ends. See also entelechy. [Latin, literally: “effort”]

Nitoman

Nitoman n. a Canadian trade name for tetrabenazine.

nitrazepam

nitrazepam n. a long-acting benzodiazepine with a half-life of more than 24 hours, used as a hypnotic. Though nitrazepam has no active metabolic products, its lengthy half-life may cause unwanted accumulation with daily dosing. It is not currently marketed in the United States. Canadian trade name: Mogadon.

nitric oxide

nitric oxide a compound present in numerous body tissues, where it has a variety of functions. It is synthesized in the body by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase from arginine, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), and oxygen. In the brain and other parts of the central nervous system, nitric oxide functions as a neurotransmitter, or as an agent that influences neurotransmitters. In peripheral tissues, it is involved in the relaxation of smooth muscle and thus acts as a vasodilator, as a bronchodilator, and as a relaxant of smooth muscle in the penis and clitoris, being involved in erection and other components of the sexual response.

nitrous oxide

nitrous oxide an analgesic gas that is commonly used in outpatient dental procedures and as an adjunct in surgical anesthesia. It is also used as a propellant in aerosolized foods (e.g., whipped cream). In low doses, nitrous oxide produces sensations of giddiness, elation, and euphoria. This property was apparent when it was initially synthesized in 1772 by British chemist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), and nitrous oxide has long been known colloquially as laughing gas. Its euphoriant effects make nitrous oxide a popular inhalant in social settings. Also called dinitrogen monoxide.

Nizoral

Nizoral n. a trade name for ketoconazole.

NK cell

NK cell abbreviation for natural killer cell.

NLD

NLD abbreviation for nonverbal learning disorder.

NLP

NLP abbreviation for neurolinguistic programming.

nm

nm symbol for nanometer.

NMDA

NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate: an agonist that binds to a class of glutamate receptors that are both ligand-gated and voltage-sensitive (see NMDA receptor).

NMDA receptor

NMDA receptor a type of glutamate receptor that binds NMDA as well as glutamate. NMDA receptors are coupled to ligand-gated ion channels and are also voltage-sensitive, which enables them to participate in a variety of information-processing operations at synapses where glutamate is the neurotransmitter. The drugs of abuse ketamine and PCP are antagonists at NMDA receptors, preventing the influx of calcium ions at calcium channels, which may cause the hallucinogenic effects of these drugs. Excessive flow of calcium ions into the presynaptic neuron via the NMDA receptor is thought to contribute to glutamate toxicity. A hypothesis on the etiology of schizophrenia involves dysfunction of the NMDA glutamate receptor (see glutamate hypothesis). Compare AMPA receptor.

NMHA

NMHA abbreviation for National Mental Health Association. See Mental Health America.

NMR

NMR abbreviation for nuclear magnetic resonance.

NNAT

NNAT abbreviation for Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test.

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

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no excuse

no excuse in reality therapy, the concept that there are no acceptable reasons to condone irresponsible behavior or attribute it to another source. According to this concept, all behavior stems directly from the client and the client is therefore completely and solely responsible for his or her behavior. [devised by U.S. psychiatrist William Glasser (1925–2013)]

no-suicide contract

no-suicide contract a specific agreement made between a therapist and a client who is a suicide risk that the client will not take his or her own life. The therapist often establishes this agreement as an intermediary measure (e.g., until the next therapy session). See also contract.

no-treatment control group

no-treatment control group a control group whose members are not exposed to any experimental manipulation or intervention, thus serving as a neutral comparison for study groups receiving the treatment under investigation. For example, a researcher investigating the effectiveness of a new antidepressant might divide participants into a treatment group that receives the new medication and a separate no-treatment control group that receives no medication whatsoever, and then compare the outcomes of each group to identify any significant differences. In contrast, an ordinary control group may be administered some standard treatment instead of the experimental one.

noble savage

noble savage a conceit positing that people from nonindustrial or nontechnological societies were the most noble of human beings because they were untouched by civilization, which was viewed as a degrading influence on human thought and behavior. Historically, the conceit is associated with Romanticism. [proposed by French philosopher and author Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)]

nocebo

nocebo n. an adverse or otherwise unwanted physical or emotional symptom caused by the administration of a placebo.

nociceptin

nociceptin n. see endogenous opioid; opioid receptor.

nociception

nociception n. see pain perception. —nociceptive adj.

nociceptive reflex

nociceptive reflex a defensive reflex evoked by a painful stimulus or a stimulus that threatens damage to the organism.

nociceptor

nociceptor n. a sensory receptor that responds to stimuli that are generally painful or detrimental to the organism. Also called pain receptor.

noctambulation

noctambulation n. see sleepwalking disorder.

nocti- (noct-)

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noctiphilia (noctophilia)

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nocturia

nocturia n. the need to urinate during the night. The condition may simply be the result of excessive fluid intake before going to sleep, but it can also be a sign of a disease of the heart, liver, or reproductive or urinary systems.

nocturnal

nocturnal adj. active or occurring during the dark period of the daily cycle. Compare diurnal.

nocturnal emission

nocturnal emission an involuntary ejaculation that occurs during a nocturnal dream, known popularly as a wet dream. Studies show that the majority of males experience a nocturnal emission before the age of 21. Orgasm as part of nocturnal dreams is rare among adolescent females but increases among mature females.

nocturnal enuresis

nocturnal enuresis see enuresis.

nocturnal myoclonus

nocturnal myoclonus involuntary jerking of the limbs (myoclonus) that occurs when a person is falling asleep. The involuntary spasms may occur repeatedly and with sufficient activity to awaken the person. Nocturnal myoclonus is not necessarily a sign of a neurological disorder.

nodal behavior

nodal behavior in group psychotherapy, a period of increased activity, which may be interpersonally challenging, aggressive, or disorderly, followed by a relatively quiet period of antinodal behavior.

nodal point

nodal point the point in the optical axis of the eye that connects locations in the visual field with their projections on the retina.

node

node n. 1. a point in a graph, tree diagram, or the like at which lines intersect or branch. 2. a single point or unit in an associative model of memory. Nodes typically represent a single concept or feature, are connected to other nodes (usually representing semantically related concepts and features) by links in an associative network, and may be activated or inhibited to varying degrees depending on the conditions. 3. in artificial intelligence, see neural network. —nodal adj.

node of Ranvier

node of Ranvier any of successive regularly spaced gaps in the myelin sheath surrounding an axon. The gaps permit the exchange of ions across the plasma membrane at those points, allowing the nerve impulse to leap from one node to the next in so-called saltatory conduction along the axon. [Louis A. Ranvier (1835–1922), French pathologist]

noëgenesis

noëgenesis n. the production of new knowledge from sensory or cognitive experience. There are three laws of noëgenesis: (a) the apprehension of experience (by which new stimuli are encoded), (b) the eduction of relations (by which the nature of relations between stimuli is inferred), and (c) the eduction of correlates (by which a relation previously inferred is applied in a new context). [proposed in 1923 by Charles Spearman] —noëgenetic adj.

noesis

noesis n. 1. in philosophy, the exercise of the higher reason or nous, especially in its role of apprehending truths that cannot be derived from experience. Compare dianoia. 2. in psychology, the functioning of the intellectual or cognitive processes.

noetic

noetic adj. describing a state of knowledge or memory in which there is awareness of the known or remembered thing but not of one’s personal experience in relation to that thing. Noetic consciousness is a kind of consciousness in which one is aware of facts, concepts, words, and meanings but not of any connection to one’s own experience. Compare anoetic; autonoetic. [defined by Endel Tulving]

noise

noise n. 1. any unwanted sound or, more generally, any unwanted disturbance (e.g., electrical noise). 2. a random or aperiodic waveform whose properties are described statistically. There are many types of noise, which are distinguished by their spectral or statistical properties. White noise has equal energy at all frequencies; broadband noise has energy over a relatively wide frequency range (e.g., 50 Hz to 10 kHz for audition); pink noise has energy that is inversely proportional to frequency; and Gaussian noise has instantaneous values that are determined according to a normal probability density function. 3. anything that interferes with, obscures, reduces, or otherwise adversely affects the clarity or precision of an ongoing process, such as the communication of a message or signal.

noise abatement

noise abatement the application of legislation or technology to reduce the level of noise pollution. Noise abatement may require the redesign of automobile or aircraft engines, ordinances that prohibit use of airports at night, or the routing of traffic away from residential areas. See also noise effects.

noise dose

noise dose a percentage indicating the amount of noise to which a person is exposed in his or her working environment relative to permissible levels of noise exposure. It is used to determine points at which the employer must apply engineering controls or administrative controls.

noise effects

noise effects physiological stress responses to noise, especially if it is prolonged or occurs during demanding cognitive or physical tasks. Noise interferes with the performance of complex tasks and can produce learned helplessness, prevent or disturb sleep, and—with provocation—heighten aggression. See also environmental stress.

noise pollution

noise pollution any environmental noise (e.g., traffic sounds) that is unwanted or detrimental to one’s health or welfare.

noise-induced hearing loss

noise-induced hearing loss hearing loss that develops over time due to continuous exposure to noise. See exposure deafness.

nomadism

nomadism n. 1. a pathological tendency to wander from place to place and repeatedly change one’s residence and occupation, often giving rise to instability and social maladjustment. In milder form, this tendency may be an attempt to escape from a distressing situation or from responsibility, but in extreme form, it may be associated with brain damage, epilepsy, intellectual disability, or psychosis. See also dromomania; poriomania. 2. the lifestyle of a group of people with no fixed residence, characterized by frequent movement from place to place, often in search of resources or in accordance with seasonal changes.

nomifensine

nomifensine n. an antidepressant that is structurally different from any in current use. It blocks the synaptic reuptake of norepinephine and dopamine but not of serotonin. Due to severe, sometimes fatal, drug reactions, including acute hemolytic anemia, it was withdrawn worldwide in 1986. However, it is still used in research in laboratory animals. Former U.S. trade name: Merital.

nominal

nominal adj. denoting a number that indicates membership in a category, such as coding political party affiliations with a 0 for Democrat, a 1 for Republican, and a 2 for Independent. A nominal value is not an indication of rank order or magnitude. Compare cardinal; ordinal.

nominal aphasia

nominal aphasia see anomic aphasia.

nominal classification

nominal classification see conceptual classification.

nominal data

nominal data numerical values that represent membership in specific categories. For example, the category male could be labeled 0 and the category female labeled 1, with each person in the population of interest (e.g., a particular town) assigned the number corresponding to their sex. Nominal data are similar to categorical data, and the two terms are often used interchangeably.

nominal group

nominal group a presumptive, “in name only,” group lacking the usual features of a group, such as interaction among members, shared goals, and group structure. Such groups are used in experimental studies of group productivity as controls for determining the influence of group interaction on performance.

nominal group technique (NGT)

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nominal leader

nominal leader an individual who is named to direct and guide a group but does not perform the activities associated with that role. Compare functional leader.

nominal realism

nominal realism a young child’s conviction that the name of an object is not just a symbol but an intrinsic part of the object. The tendency toward this conviction also occurs in adults, as shown, for example, in one study in which adult participants refused food that was identified as toxic with a label they knew to be false. Also called word realism. See also magical thinking. [first described by Jean Piaget]

nominal scale

nominal scale a sequence of numbers that do not indicate order, magnitude, or a true zero point but rather identify items as belonging to mutually exclusive categories. For example, a nominal scale for the performance of a specific group of people on a particular test might arbitrarily use the number 1 to denote pass and the number 2 to denote fail. Since the numbers represent category labels, they cannot be manipulated mathematically or otherwise quantitatively compared. A nominal scale is one of four types of measurement scale, the others being an ordinal scale, an interval scale, and a ratio scale. See also categorical scale.

nominal stimulus

nominal stimulus in stimulus–response experiments, the stimulus as defined and presented by the experimenter. This may be different from the functional stimulus experienced by the organism.

nominal variable

nominal variable a variable whose possible values are unordered categories or labels. For example, choice of college major is a nominal variable.

nominalism

nominalism n. in medieval philosophy (see Scholasticism), the position that only concrete particulars have real substantial existence, while universals (i.e., general qualities, such as “redness” or “beauty”) are mere names with at most a mental existence. Compare Platonic idealism; realism. —nominalist n., adj.

nominative

nominative n. the case of a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that forms the subject of a clause or sentence. Compare accusative; dative; genitive.

nominative self

nominative self the self as knower of the self, rather than the self so known. In the psychology of William James, the nominative self, or “I,” is contrasted with the empirical self, or “me.”

nomological network

nomological network a conceptual network: a broadly integrative theoretical framework that identifies the key constructs associated with a phenomenon of interest and the associations among those constructs. For example, psychopathy is a complex notion involving a significant nomological network of knowledge and speculations about components, causes, correlates, and consequences as well as their interrelationships and means of measurement or evaluation.

nomological validity

nomological validity the degree to which a measure assesses the specific construct it is designed to assess, as formulated from the nomological network for the construct being measured. See construct validity.

nomology

nomology n. 1. the science or study of law and lawfulness. 2. the branch of science concerned with the formulation of natural laws, especially causal laws. A nomological approach is one that strives for causal explanations of phenomena, rather than merely classifying them. See deductive-nomological model. —nomological adj.

nomothetic

nomothetic adj. relating to the formulation of general laws as opposed to the study of an individual case. A nomothetic approach involves the study of groups of people or cases for the purpose of discovering those general and universally valid laws or principles that characterize the average person or case. Compare idiographic.

nomothetic score

nomothetic score a score on a dimension that is common to all people tested (e.g., general intelligence), which implicitly or explicitly compares the individual receiving the score with other individuals receiving a score.

non compos mentis

non compos mentis in law, mentally deficient or legally insane and therefore not responsible for one’s conduct. See incompetence; insanity. Compare compos mentis.

non sequitur

non sequitur 1. in logic, a conclusion that does not follow from the premises of an argument; this conclusion may be either true or false. 2. in general usage, any statement that appears puzzlingly unrelated to previous statements. [Latin, literally: “it does not follow”]

non-Duchenne smile

non-Duchenne smile see Duchenne smile.

non-REM sleep

non-REM sleep see NREM sleep.

non-Western therapies

non-Western therapies alternatives or complements to traditional Western forms of and approaches to treatment that emphasize the body (e.g., acupuncture, yoga) and the interdependency of all beings and de-emphasize individualism and rigid autonomy. These therapies have typically developed outside of Europe and North America. See also complementary and alternative medicine.

non-zero-sum game

non-zero-sum game in game theory, a situation in which the rewards and costs experienced by all players do not balance (i.e., they add up to less than or more than zero). In such a situation, unlike a zero-sum game, one player’s gain is not necessarily another player’s loss.

nonaccidental properties

nonaccidental properties visual characteristics of objects that are unaffected by the viewpoint of the observer and therefore provide useful cues for object recognition.

nonactional verb

nonactional verb see actional verb.

nonadaptive trait

nonadaptive trait a trait that has no specific value with respect to natural selection, being neither useful nor harmful for reproductive success. In human beings, eye color, earlobe size, and the ability to curl one’s tongue are nonadaptive traits.

nonadditive

nonadditive adj. describing values or measurements that cannot be meaningfully summarized through addition because the resulting total does not correctly reflect the underlying properties of and associations between the component values. For example, if two variables a and b interact to influence another variable y, the addition of the separate effects of a and b will not equal the total effect since the contribution of the interaction needs to be included. Compare additive.

nonadherence

nonadherence n. failure of an individual to follow a prescribed therapeutic regimen. Although nonadherence has traditionally been ascribed to oppositional behavior, it is more likely due to inadequate communication between the practitioner and the individual, physical or cognitive limitations that prevent the patient from following therapeutic recommendations (e.g., physical disabilities), or adverse effects that are not being adequately addressed. A primary aspect of health psychology involves methods of reducing nonadherence and increasing adherence. Also called noncompliance.

nonaggressive society

nonaggressive society a culture or subculture whose goal is one of peaceful isolation from or coexistence with its neighbors. Socialization in such societies is marked by de-emphasis of achievement or power needs, disapproval of aggression, and affirmation of basic pleasures.

nonassociative learning

nonassociative learning a process in which an organism’s behavior toward a specific stimulus changes over time in the absence of any evident link to (association with) consequences or other stimuli that would induce such change. Nonassociative learning is thus based on frequency. There are two major forms of nonassociative learning: habituation and sensitization. Compare associative learning.

nonattitude

nonattitude n. an extremely weak attitude that has little persistence over time and minimal resistance to persuasion. Such attitudes have little impact on information processing and behavior. In extreme cases, nonattitudes may be reports of attitudes that reflect no meaningful evaluation of the attitude object. See also attitude strength. [originally proposed by U.S. political scientist Philip E. Converse (1928– )]

noncardiac chest pain

noncardiac chest pain recurrent chest pain that cannot be attributed to heart disease. It is commonly caused by problems with the esophagus, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease or esophageal spasm, or by musculoskeletal disorders, especially fibromyositis (muscle inflammation). Anxiety and panic attacks can also produce pain that resembles cardiac chest pain. See also pseudoangina.

noncentral distribution

noncentral distribution a distribution in which the noncentrality parameter is not equal to zero: In statistical significance testing, such a distribution is obtained when the null hypothesis under test is false. The noncentral version of a distribution has a different mean, skewness, and variance (among other properties) than its corresponding central distribution, as well as a larger proportion of numbers beyond the critical values. For example, the chi-square distribution, F distribution, and t distribution all have corresponding noncentral versions signified by a noncentrality parameter that is not equal to zero.

noncentrality parameter

noncentrality parameter in many probability distributions used in significance testing, a parameter that has a value different from zero when the null hypothesis under test is false. This parameter is important in determining the power of a statistical procedure. See noncentral distribution.

noncommunicating hydrocephalus

noncommunicating hydrocephalus hydrocephalus associated with blockage of the ventricular system, which interferes with normal flow and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid. It is typically caused by a tumor. Also called obstructive hydrocephalus. Compare communicating hydrocephalus.

noncompetitive

noncompetitive adj. in pharmacology, referring to a drug that affects a neurotransmitter receptor while binding at a site other than that bound by the endogenous ligand.

noncompliance

noncompliance n. see nonadherence.

nonconformity

nonconformity n. expressing opinions, making judgments, or performing actions that are inconsistent with those of other people or of the normative standards of a social group or situation. Nonconformity can reflect individuals’ ignorance of the group’s standards, an inability to reach those standards, independence (as when individuals retain their preferred position despite group pressure to change it), or the anticonformity of individuals who deliberately disagree with others or act in atypical ways. Compare conformity.

nonconscious

nonconscious adj. 1. describing that which is not explicitly in the contents of conscious experience. 2. describing any cognitive process or event that is not available to introspection or report. 3. a synonym for unconscious. Compare preconscious; subconscious.

nonconscious processes

nonconscious processes cognitive processes that do not themselves reach consciousness, although they may have consciously experienced outcomes. Highly practiced automatisms (habit components) are an example.

noncontingent reinforcement

noncontingent reinforcement the process or circumstances in which a stimulus known to be effective as a reinforcer is presented independently of any particular behavior. Because contingencies may arise by accident (see accidental reinforcement), behavior-independent presentation of stimuli cannot guarantee that no contingency exists between a response and the stimuli. See reinforcement.

nondeclarative memory

nondeclarative memory a collection of various forms of memory that operate automatically and accumulate information that is not accessible to conscious recollection. For instance, one can do something faster if one has done it before, even if one cannot recall the earlier performance. Nondeclarative memory includes procedural learning and priming. It does not depend on the medial temporal lobes and is preserved in individuals with medial temporal amnesia. Compare declarative memory.

nondecremental conduction

nondecremental conduction the propagation of a nerve impulse along an axon in which the amplitude of the impulse is maintained as it progresses. Compare decremental conduction. See also all-or-none law.

nondemand pleasuring

nondemand pleasuring caressing a partner’s body for the sensual pleasure involved, with no expectation of sexual arousal. In sex therapy, this practice, which excludes any touching of breasts or genitals, is often prescribed to eliminate performance anxiety: It allows a couple with a sexual dysfunction to begin to enjoy physical relations with each other without the risk of experiencing another coital failure. Also called nondemanding pleasuring.

nondirected discussion method

nondirected discussion method a discussion between two or more people about a specific topic without guidelines or restrictions or the intervention of a leader, whose only role is to assign the topic. The goal is to generate participant-directed discussion.

nondirectional hypothesis

nondirectional hypothesis a hypothesis that one experimental group will differ from another without specification of the expected direction of the difference. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that college students will perform differently from elementary school students on a memory task without predicting which group of students will perform better. Also called nondirectional alternative hypothesis; two-tailed (alternative) hypothesis. Compare directional hypothesis.

nondirectional test

nondirectional test a statistical test of an experimental hypothesis that does not specify the expected direction of an effect or a relationship. Also called nondirectional alternative hypothesis test; nondirectional hypothesis test; two-tailed test. See nondirectional hypothesis. Compare directional test.

nondirective approach

nondirective approach an approach to psychotherapy and counseling in which the therapist or counselor establishes an encouraging atmosphere and clarifies the client’s ideas rather than directing the process. The client leads the way by expressing his or her own feelings, defining his or her own problems, and interpreting his or her own behavior. This approach is a cornerstone of client-centered therapy. [originally advocated by Carl Rogers]

nondirective counseling

nondirective counseling see client-centered therapy.

nondirective interview

nondirective interview see unstructured interview.

nondirective play therapy

nondirective play therapy a form of play therapy based on the principle that a child has the capacity to revise his or her own attitudes and behavior. The therapist provides a variety of play materials and either assumes a friendly, interested role without giving direct suggestions or interpretations or engages the child in conversation that focuses on the child’s present feelings and present life situations. The therapist’s accepting attitude encourages the child to try new and more appropriate ways of dealing with problems.

nondirective teaching model

nondirective teaching model a person-oriented teaching model, associated with Carl Rogers’s approach, that is primarily concerned with helping a student develop the capacity for self-instruction while emphasizing self-discovery, self-understanding, and the realization of the student’s innate potential.

nondirective therapy

nondirective therapy see client-centered therapy.

nondiscriminated avoidance

nondiscriminated avoidance see discriminated avoidance.

nondisjunction

nondisjunction n. the failure of pairs of chromosomes to separate during cell division, with the result that both chromosomes move to the nucleus of one daughter cell.

nonepileptic seizure (NES)

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nonequivalent-groups design

nonequivalent-groups design a quasi-experimental design in which the responses of a treatment group and a control group are compared on measures collected at the beginning and end of the research. In psychology and other social sciences, these designs often involve self-selection, in which the members of the treatment group are those who volunteer or otherwise seek the treatment whereas the comparison group members do not. Since participants are not assigned to conditions at random, the two groups are likely to exhibit preexisting differences on both measured and unmeasured factors that must be taken into account during statistical analyses. Also called nonequivalent comparison-group design; nonequivalent control-group design.

nonexperimental

nonexperimental adj. denoting a research project that is lacking manipulation of independent variables by a researcher or random assignment of participants to treatment conditions, as in observational studies and quasi-experimental designs.

nonexperimental research

nonexperimental research see quasi-experimental research.

nonfluency

nonfluency n. a type of speech that involves disturbances such as dysprosody (altered speech rhythms or intonation), dysarthria (impaired articulation), and often agrammatism (deviation from grammatical rules).

nonfluent aphasia

nonfluent aphasia see aphasia.

nongenetic inheritance

nongenetic inheritance the transmission of behavioral or physiological functions between generations without any direct genetic basis. For example, because dominant female macaques intervene more frequently and successfully on behalf of their offspring than do subordinate females, the offspring inherit the status of their female parents. The type of maternal care a young rodent or monkey receives can lead to permanent physiological and neurological changes that affect its own parental behavior.

nongonococcal urethritis (NGU)

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nongraded school

nongraded school 1. a school that groups students by academic achievement, mental and physical ability, or emotional development rather than by age or grade level. 2. a place of learning that does not use letter or number grades to reflect the quality of a student’s work.

noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)

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nonintentional learning

nonintentional learning see incidental learning.

noninvasive

noninvasive adj. 1. denoting procedures or tests that do not require puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or device into the body for diagnosis or treatment. 2. not capable of spreading from one tissue to another, as in the case of a benign tumor. Compare invasive.

nonjudgmental approach

nonjudgmental approach in psychotherapy, the presentation or display of a neutral, noncritical attitude on the part of the therapist to encourage the client to give free expression to ideas and feelings. See also neutrality.

nonlanguage test

nonlanguage test see nonverbal test.

nonlinear

nonlinear adj. describing any relationship between two variables (x and y) that cannot be expressed in the form y = a + bx, where a and b are numerical constants. The relationship therefore does not appear as a straight line when depicted graphically. Compare linear.

nonlinear model

nonlinear model any model that attempts to relate the values of an outcome or dependent variable to the explanatory or independent variables using an equation that involves exponents. Compare linear model.

nonlinear regression

nonlinear regression a procedure for analyzing the relationship between an independent variable (x) and a dependent variable (y) where the regression equation involves exponential forms of x. That is, the changes in y are not consistent for unit changes in the x variable(s) but are a function of the particular values of x. For example, a nonlinear regression model is given by y = a + b1x1 + b2x12 + e, where a indicates the place where the line of best fit crosses the y-axis, b1 indicates the number of units that y changes when x is changed by 1 point, and e is error. Also called curvilinear regression. Compare linear regression. See regression analysis.

nonlinear relationship

nonlinear relationship an association between two variables in which the direction and rate of change fluctuate. That is, the amount of change in a dependent variable (y) varies as a function of the particular value or level of the independent variable (x). Compare linear relationship.

nonlinear transformation

nonlinear transformation a transformation of a data set that uses a function to change the linear relationship between variables. For example, a normalizing transformation creates a new set of scores that approximate a normal distribution from the original nonnormal data set, and a logarithmic transformation may be used to convert raw data into a form that more closely matches the assumptions required in particular statistical analyses. Compare linear transformation.

nonliterate

nonliterate adj. 1. denoting a culture or social group that has not developed a written language. 2. see preliterate.

nonmetric

nonmetric adj. describing data that are nominal or ordinal, as opposed to interval data or ratio data. Such data cannot be precisely quantified. Examples include yes/no answers or a list ranking individuals on some attribute.

nonmonotonic logic

nonmonotonic logic a mathematical reasoning system in which information previously considered correct can be revised and removed in the light of new information. This means that any other information believed to be correct on the basis of the removed information must also be reconsidered. The system is said to be “nonmonotonic” because information considered correct does not remain the same or grow larger with further reasoning. These nonmonotonic systems are often controlled by “belief revision” or “truth maintenance” algorithms.

nonnormative

nonnormative adj. not conforming to not or reflecting an established norm deviating from a specific standard of comparison for a person or group of people, particularly a standard determined by cultural ideals of how things ought to be. This general term is used in a variety of contexts, referring, for example, to socially deviant or otherwise distinct behavior, ordinary life events happening at unusual times (e.g., a 78-year-old man earning his bachelor’s degree), or statistical results that do not reflect the standard of a measured group (i.e., values well above or below the mean or other measure of central tendency). Compare normative.

nonnutritive sucking

nonnutritive sucking the sucking by infants of objects that do not provide milk (e.g., a thumb, pacifier), in order, for example, to induce calm or aid sleep. The sucking reflex thus plays a part in the development of emotional control and self-regulation. Nonnutritive sucking has been used in research studies as a way of inferring infant preferences, by observing differences in sucking rate as infants are presented with different stimuli.

nonoffspring nursing

nonoffspring nursing see allonursing.

nonovert appeal

nonovert appeal in marketing and advertising, a technique in which the advertising message is presented by apparently ordinary people who make no obvious attempt to persuade. In nonovert appeals, consumers may be given the impression that they are “overhearing” an independent endorsement of a product. Nonovert appeals are commonly used in television slice-of-life commercials.

nonparametric

nonparametric adj. describing any analytic method that does not involve making assumptions about the data of interest. Compare parametric.

nonparametric regression

nonparametric regression a form of regression analysis in which the relationship between an outcome or dependent variable and one or more predictors or independent variables is analyzed without the assistance of a preexisting model. In contrast to traditional regression, in which the structure of the regression equation is known and only the regression coefficients are estimated from the data set, nonparametric regression requires that both the equation and coefficients be determined from the data.

nonparametric statistics

nonparametric statistics statistical procedures in which the nature of the data being analyzed is such that certain common assumptions about the distribution of the attribute(s) in the population being tested (e.g., normality, homogeneity of variance) are not necessary or applicable. Compare parametric statistics.

nonparametric test

nonparametric test a type of hypothesis test that does not make any assumptions (e.g., of normality or homogeneity of variance) about the population of interest. Nonparametric tests generally are used in situations involving nominal or ordinal data. Also called distribution-free test; nonparametric hypothesis test. Compare parametric test.

nonprescription drug

nonprescription drug see over-the-counter.

nonprimary motor cortex

nonprimary motor cortex see motor cortex.

nonprimary sensory area

nonprimary sensory area see secondary sensory area.

nonprobability sampling

nonprobability sampling nonrandom selection: any process of choosing a subset of participants or cases from a larger population in which it is impossible to precisely determine each unit’s likelihood of being selected. Examples include convenience sampling and quota sampling. Nonprobability sampling makes it difficult to determine how well the target population is represented by the subset, thus limiting the generalizability of findings. Compare probability sampling.

nonrandomized clinical trial

nonrandomized clinical trial a type of clinical trial in which the participants are not assigned by chance to the different treatment groups or interventions. For example, if participants choose whether to receive a new treatment or an existing standard of care, then the trial would be nonrandomized. Compare randomized clinical trial.

nonrandomized design

nonrandomized design any of a large number of research designs in which participants or cases are not assigned to experimental conditions via a chance process. For example, field experiments often are nonrandomized. Compare randomized design.

nonrapid-eye-movement sleep

nonrapid-eye-movement sleep see NREM sleep.

nonrational

nonrational adj. 1. incapable of being validated by reason. For example, in the opinion of most modern philosophers, it is impossible to confirm the proposition that God exists. A nonrational belief is not necessarily irrational. 2. describing actions or behaviors that cannot easily be explained in terms of the rational self-interest of the actor.

nonreactive measure

nonreactive measure see unobtrusive measure.

nonreassuring fetal status

nonreassuring fetal status see fetal distress.

nonrecursive model

nonrecursive model a set of relationships in which a particular variable is sometimes a cause and sometimes an effect, thus suggesting there is a reciprocal relationship between that variable and others in the model. For example, high job satisfaction may lead to increased pay and job responsibility, which in turn may further enhance job satisfaction. Compare recursive model.

nonregulatory drive

nonregulatory drive any generalized state of arousal or motivation that serves functions that are related to preserving physiological homeostasis and thus are not necessary for the survival of the individual organism (e.g., sex, achievement). Also called general drive. Compare regulatory drive.

nonresponse

nonresponse n. a participant’s failure to answer one or more survey, questionnaire, or test items or to provide a measurement on some study variable. If data values are missing completely at random, then nonresponse does not distort results. In most research situations, however, nonresponse is not a purely random phenomenon; participants who do not answer questions differ in some important, systematic way from those who do answer. The basic method for compensating for such nonresponse (or nonresponder) bias involves estimating the probability that each sample case will become a respondent.

nonresponse rate

nonresponse rate see refusal rate.

nonreversal shift

nonreversal shift in discriminations involving two alternatives, a change in contingencies such that stimuli that were irrelevant in the initial phase of training become the relevant stimuli in a later phase. For example, in initial training involving the presentation of squares, circles, and other shapes, white shapes might be designated correct and black ones incorrect. In a following condition, squares might be designated correct and circles incorrect. Compare reversal shift.

nonsedating antihistamine

nonsedating antihistamine see antihistamine.

nonsense figure

nonsense figure a figure that appears to have no meaning since it does not correspond to any common or familiar object and is not a recognizable geometric form, such as a circle or triangle.

nonsense syllable

nonsense syllable any three-letter nonword used in learning and memory research to study learning of items that do not already have meaning or associations with other information in memory. See also consonant trigram. [introduced in 1885 by Hermann Ebbinghaus]

nonshared environment

nonshared environment in behavior genetic analyses, aspects of an environment that individuals living together (e.g., in a family household) do not share and that therefore cause them to become dissimilar to each other. Examples of nonshared environmental factors include different friends or teachers that siblings in the same household might have at school or elsewhere outside of the home. Also called unshared environment. Compare shared environment.

nonsignificant

nonsignificant adj. see not significant.

nonspecific effect

nonspecific effect a result or consequence whose specific cause or precipitating factors are unknown. An example would be the effect on a patient of the belief that he or she has received medication or some other intervention when no true treatment has been given (see placebo effect).

nonspecific urethritis (NSU)

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nonspecificity theory

nonspecificity theory see pattern theory.

nonspectral hue

nonspectral hue see extraspectral hue.

nonstate theories of hypnosis

nonstate theories of hypnosis explanations of hypnosis in terms of psychological, physiological, and behavioral aspects of ordinary waking consciousness, rather than as a distinctive, altered state of consciousness. Compare state theories of hypnosis.

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug see NSAID.

nonstriate visual cortex

nonstriate visual cortex the many regions of cortex that surround the striate cortex and participate in the processing of visual stimuli beyond the simple analysis of features that occurs in striate cortex. The nonstriate visual cortex includes parietal regions associated with visuospatial functions, temporal regions important for object recognition, and cortical areas that contribute to eye movements. It is thus somewhat more extensive than prestriate cortex.

nonsyphilitic interstitial keratitis

nonsyphilitic interstitial keratitis see Cogan’s syndrome.

nontraditional education

nontraditional education 1. an educational plan that does not conform to the accepted or customary ideas of an ordinary educational system and that may include innovative approaches to teaching, curriculum, grading, or degree requirements. 2. an educational plan that allows an individual to gain credentials without going through the usual channels.

nontraditional marriage

nontraditional marriage a marriage that deviates from the traditional patterns of marriage in a society. In the United States and western Europe, such marriages may include those that permit the partners to have sexual relations with other people. Compare traditional marriage.

nonulcer dyspepsia

nonulcer dyspepsia see dyspepsia.

nonverbal ability

nonverbal ability the ability to understand and manipulate nonverbal stimuli, such as colors, patterns, and shapes.

nonverbal auditory agnosia

nonverbal auditory agnosia see auditory agnosia.

nonverbal auditory perception test

nonverbal auditory perception test a test that evaluates nonverbal auditory skills, such as the analysis of rhythm and tone and the recognition of nonverbal sounds (e.g., bell, train, mooing cow).

nonverbal behavior

nonverbal behavior actions that can indicate an individual’s attitudes or feelings without speech. Nonverbal behavior can be apparent in facial expressions, gaze direction, interpersonal distance, posture and postural changes, and gestures. It serves a number of functions, including providing information to other people (if they can detect and understand the signals), regulating interactions among people, and revealing the degree of intimacy between those present. Nonverbal behavior is often used synonymously with nonverbal communication, despite the fact that nonverbal actions are not always intended for, or understood by, other people.

nonverbal communication (NVC)

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nonverbal intelligence

nonverbal intelligence an expression of intelligence that does not require language. Nonverbal intelligence can be measured with tests such as Raven’s Progressive Matrices and the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence.

nonverbal leakage

nonverbal leakage see verbal leakage.

nonverbal learning

nonverbal learning the process of learning about nonverbal materials, such as pictures or drawings, odors, or nonlanguage sounds. Compare verbal learning.

nonverbal learning disorder (NLD)

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nonverbal reinforcement

nonverbal reinforcement any form of nonverbal communication, such as a gesture, facial expression, or body movement, that increases the frequency of the behavior that immediately precedes it. For example, a parent’s smile following a desired response from a child, such as saying “thank you,” reinforces the child’s behavior. See also social reinforcement.

nonverbal test

nonverbal test a test in which the questions or problems as well as the answers or solutions are not conveyed in words. Mazes and performance tests are examples. Also called nonlanguage test.

nonverbal vocabulary test

nonverbal vocabulary test a test of vocabulary that does not require a verbal response, such as a test in which the participant is required to point to a picture associated with a printed word. An example is the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.

noology

noology n. the science of the human mind (from Greek nous, “mind, reason”). See nous. [coined by Viktor E. Frankl]

Noonan syndrome

Noonan syndrome a genetic disorder that involves the skin, heart, gonads, and skeleton and is transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait. Affected individuals often have short stature, cardiovascular defects, and deafness. Intellectual development varies: Some have above-average intelligence, and most have normal intelligence, but a small percentage have special educational needs or intellectual disability. Male patients are seldom fertile. Also called familial Turner syndrome; Ullrich–Noonan syndrome. [reported in 1963 by Jacqueline Noonan (1928– ), U.S. pediatrician]

nootropic

nootropic n. an obsolete name for cognitive enhancer.

noradrenergic

noradrenergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving norepinephrine (noradrenaline). For example, a noradrenergic neuron is one that employs norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter.

noradrenergic receptor

noradrenergic receptor any of certain receptors in the central nervous system and sympathetic nervous system that bind and respond to norepinephrine (noradrenaline) or substances that mimic its action. See adrenergic receptor.

norepinephrine (NE)

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Norflex

Norflex n. a trade name for orphenadrine.

norm

norm n. 1. a standard or range of values that represents the typical performance of a group or of an individual (of a certain age, for example) against which comparisons can be made. 2. a conversion of a raw score into a scaled score that is more easily interpretable, such as a percentile or an IQ score. —normative adj.

norm group

norm group see standardization group.

norm of reaction

norm of reaction all possible phenotypic outcomes, or observable characteristics of an individual, that could theoretically result from a given genotype in relation to its environment. See gene–environment interaction.

norm-referenced test

norm-referenced test any assessment in which scores are interpreted by comparison with a norm, generally the average score obtained by members of a specified group. For example, a teacher might administer a norm-referenced reading test to the students in his or her classroom, with each person’s score indicating how well that test taker reads relative to other examinees of that age. Thus, if a student obtains a score of 70% but the standard test score (norm) for those of the same age is 90%, then the student has done relatively poorly. See also criterion-referenced test; domain-referenced test.

normal

normal adj. relating to what is considered standard, average, typical, or healthy. This general meaning is applied in a variety of different contexts, including statistics (referring to scores that are within the usual or expected range), biology (referring to the absence of malformation or other pathology), and development (referring to progression and growth that are comparable to those seen in others of similar ages). However, the term is most often applied to behavior that conforms to a culturally accepted norm, especially as an indication that a person is mentally healthy and does not have a psychological disorder.

normal distribution

normal distribution a theoretical distribution in which values pile up in the center at the mean and fall off into tails at either end. When plotted, it gives the familiar bell-shaped curve expected when variation about the mean value is random. The normal distribution has several primary characteristics: It is symmetrical, it has both upper and lower asymptotes, and its mean, median, and mode are the same value. Perhaps most important, however, fixed proportions of values fall within defined sections of the distribution. For example, 34.13% of values fall between the mean and one standard deviation above the mean, and a corresponding 34.13% of values fall between the mean of the distribution and one standard deviation below the mean. Many statistical models are based on the assumption that data follow a normal distribution. For example, it is reasonable to expect that human height follows a normal distribution with a mean of 5 feet and several inches, such that very few adults are less than 3 feet or greater than 7 feet tall. Also called Gaussian distribution; normal curve.

normal random variable

normal random variable any random variable whose values are theoretically infinite but follow a normal distribution that is centered around the mean for the population and that has a standard deviation matching that of the population. A standard normal variable is similar but has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

normal saline

normal saline see physiological saline.

normal science

normal science a science at the stage of development when it is characterized by a paradigm consisting of universal agreement about the nature of the science, its practices, assumptions, and methods and satisfaction with its empirical progress. Compare immature science; preparadigmatic science. See paradigm shift; scientific revolution. [proposed by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996)]

normal score

normal score see standardized score.

normal variable

normal variable see normal random variable.

normal-pressure hydrocephalus (NPH)

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normality

normality n. 1. a broad concept that is roughly the equivalent of mental health. Although there are no absolutes and there is considerable cultural variation, some flexible psychological and behavioral criteria can be suggested: (a) freedom from incapacitating internal conflicts; (b) the capacity to think and act in an organized and reasonably effective manner; (c) the ability to cope with the ordinary demands and problems of life; (d) freedom from extreme emotional distress, such as anxiety, despondency, and persistent upset; and (e) the absence of clear-cut symptoms of mental disorder, such as obsessions, phobias, confusion, and disorientation. 2. in statistics, the condition in which a data set presents a normal distribution of values.

normalization principle

normalization principle the concept that people with mental or physical disability should not be denied social and sexual relationships and participation in community life merely because of their disability. Social and sexual relationships can include a wide range of emotional and physical contacts, from simple friendship to sexual stimulation and satisfaction. Participation in community life includes engaging in typical everyday activities, such as work and recreation. See also social role valorization. [introduced in 1969 by Swedish psychologist Bengt Nirje (1924–2006)]

normalize

normalize vb. to apply a transformation to data to produce a new set of scores that approximately follow the normal distribution.

Norman and Shallice model

Norman and Shallice model see control of action model. [Donald A. Norman (1935– ), U.S. cognitive scientist; Timothy Shallice (1940– ), British neuropsychologist]

normative

normative adj. relating to a norm: pertaining to a particular standard of comparison for a person or group of people, often as determined by cultural ideals regarding behavior, achievements or abilities, and other concerns. For example, a normative life event such as marriage or the birth of a child is expected to occur during a similar period within the lifespans of many individuals, and normative data reflect group averages with regard to particular variables or factors, such as the scores of females on a specific test or the language skills of 10-year-olds. Compare nonnormative.

normative crisis

normative crisis see maturational crisis.

normative ethics

normative ethics see ethics.

normative influence

normative influence the personal and interpersonal processes that cause individuals to feel, think, and act in ways that are consistent with social norms, standards, and conventions. Normative influence is partly personal, because individuals who have internalized their group’s norms will strive to act in ways that are consistent with those norms. It is also interpersonal, because groups place direct and indirect pressure on members to comply with their norms. Those who consistently violate the group’s norms are often subjected to negative interpersonal consequences (e.g., ostracism, ridicule, punishment), whereas those who conform are typically rewarded. Also called normative social influence. Compare informational influence; interpersonal influence.

normative male alexithymia

normative male alexithymia a subclinical form of alexithymia found in boys and men reared to conform to traditional masculine norms that emphasize toughness, teamwork, stoicism, and competition and that discourage the expression of vulnerable emotions. [proposed in 1992 by U.S. clinical psychologist Ronald F. Levant (1942– )]

normative research

normative research research conducted for the purpose of ascertaining norms.

normative scale

normative scale any evaluative instrument on which the respondent provides ratings for a series of items or chooses scores to indicate his or her agreement with a series of statements. Unlike an ipsative scale, there is no requirement for these scores to sum to a particular total (e.g., 100%). For example, a supervisor using a normative scale to assess an employee’s job performance might be asked to choose a number from 1 to 5 to indicate how well the employee performed in each of several areas, such as communication, timekeeping, and quality of work. The scores given in any area would not be affected by those given in any of the others (e.g., the supervisor could award all 5s or all 1s if he or she thought this was merited).

normative science

normative science a scientific approach concerned with establishing norms or typical or desirable values for behavior, education, health, or other cultural or societal factors. In contrast to descriptive science, which attempts to characterize behavior and other phenomena as they actually exist, normative science attempts to determine what they should be in order to satisfy various criteria.

normative social influence

normative social influence see normative influence.

normative-reeducative strategy

normative-reeducative strategy in social psychology, the idea that societal change should be based on active reeducation of people within the framework of their cultural milieu. Normative-reeducative strategy holds that a program for social change based only on rational appeal is inadequate because behavioral patterns are largely determined by traditional attitudes and cultural norms. See also empirical-rational strategy; power-coercive strategy.

normosplanchnic type

normosplanchnic type a constitutional body type that corresponds roughly to the athletic type in Kretschmer typology. [described by Italian physician Giacinto Viola (1870–1943)]

normotensive

normotensive adj. describing individuals whose blood pressure is within the normal range for their age.

normotype

normotype n. a constitutional body type that is morphologically average (eumorphic).

Norpramin

Norpramin n. a trade name for desipramine.

Norrie disease

Norrie disease a type of congenital blindness that is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern or, rarely, is caused by a spontaneous genetic mutation and almost always affects males. Progressive hearing loss is seen in about one third of cases, and more than half of affected individuals experience developmental delays in motor skills such as sitting up and walking. Additional problems associated with this disease are mild to moderate intellectual disability; psychosis; and abnormalities that interfere with breathing, circulation, excretion, or reproduction. [reported in 1927 by Gordon Norrie (1855–1941), Danish ophthalmologist]

North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA)

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Northern blot

Northern blot a method of detecting a particular RNA fragment in a mixture, such as one derived from a tissue extract. It involves separating the various RNA molecules using gel electrophoresis, blotting the separated RNAs onto nitrocellulose, and then using a nucleotide probe to hybridize with, and highlight, the RNA fragment of interest. [named by analogy with Southern blot]

nortriptyline

nortriptyline n. a tricyclic antidepressant, a so-called secondary tricyclic, that is the principal metabolic product of amitriptyline. Although its clinical efficacy is the same as other tricyclics, nortriptyline and the other secondary tricyclic agent, desipramine, were often preferred because they are less sedating and have fewer anticholinergic effects. A therapeutic window is thought to exist for nortriptyline: Although plasma levels do not always correlate with clinical effectiveness, optimum responses are thought to occur when serum levels of the drug are between 50 and 150 ng/ml. Plasma levels over 500 ng/ml are toxic. The availability of newer antidepressants that do not require therapeutic monitoring has led to a decline in its use. U.S. trade names: Aventyl; Pamelor.

NOS

NOS abbreviation for not otherwise specified.

nose

nose n. the organ that contains the sensory tissue (about 600 mm2) that underlies olfactory sensitivity (see olfactory epithelium). The major functions of the nose are to modulate the temperature and adjust the humidity of inspired air and to direct that air toward the sensory tissue in the nasal cavity.

noso- (nos-)

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nosocomial

nosocomial adj. denoting or relating to a hospital-acquired infection that is unrelated to the patient’s primary illness.

nosogenesis

nosogenesis n. see pathogenesis.

nosological approach

nosological approach a method or procedure that focuses on the naming and classifying of disorders, the identification of pathognomonic signs and symptoms, and the grouping into syndromes for diagnostic purposes. In psychology and psychiatry, the nosological approach contrasts with the psychodynamic approach, which emphasizes causal factors.

nosology

nosology n. the scientific study and classification of diseases and disorders, both mental and physical. See also psychiatric classification. —nosological adj.

nosomania

nosomania n. a rarely used term for an unfounded, abnormal belief that one is suffering from a particular disease. See hypochondriasis.

nostalgia

nostalgia n. 1. a longing to return to an earlier period or condition of life recalled as being better than the present in some way. 2. a longing to return to a place to which one feels emotionally bound (e.g., home or a native land). See also homesickness. —nostalgic adj.

not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)

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not me

not me in the self-system theory of Harry Stack Sullivan, the part of the personified self that is based on past interpersonal experiences evoking overwhelming anxiety, dread, and horror and that may lead to nightmares, emotional crises, and schizophrenic reactions. Compare bad me; good me.

not otherwise specified (NOS)

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not significant

not significant (NS) denoting a result from a statistical hypothesis-testing procedure that does not allow the researcher to conclude that differences in the data obtained for different samples are meaningful and legitimate. In other words, a result that is not significant does not permit the rejection of the null hypothesis; any observed differences are considered to be due to chance or random factors. Also called nonsignificant.

nothingness

nothingness n. in existentialism, the void associated with the belief that nothing structures existence. Within this theoretical framework, the nothingness or meaninglessness of human existence is thought to be the primary cause of existential anxiety or anguish.

Nothnagel’s acroparesthesia

Nothnagel’s acroparesthesia see acroparesthesia. [Carl Wilhelm Hermann Nothnagel (1841–1905), German neurologist]

noumenon

noumenon n. (pl. noumena) in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a thing in itself as contrasted with a thing known through the senses and human understanding (see phenomenon). Although the noumena are the causes of one’s experience, they can never themselves be experienced, as they lie outside time and space; nor can they be apprehended by speculative reason, because the general concepts of quantity, quality, relation, and so forth apply only to phenomena. The ideas of God, freedom, and immortality belong to the noumenal realm but are accessible to human beings through their experience as moral agents. —noumenal adj.

nous

nous n. in classical Greek philosophy, reason or intellect. For Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), nous was the highest form of reason, permitting the apprehension of the fundamental and unchanging principles of reality. Aristotle likewise distinguished between nous, which enables understanding of the essential and nonaccidental, and the knowledge gained from experience, which enables understanding of the temporary and contingent. In later Platonic and Neoplatonic thought, nous was sometimes identified with the rational principle governing the universe itself (see Neoplatonism).

novel antipsychotic

novel antipsychotic see antipsychotic; atypical antipsychotic.

novelty

novelty n. the quality of being new and unusual. It is one of the major determining factors directing attention. The attraction to novelty has been shown to begin as early as 1 year of age; for example, when infants are shown pictures of visual patterns, they will stare longer at a new pattern than at a pattern they have already seen. In consumer behavior, the attraction to novelty is manifested as a desire for a change, even in the absence of dissatisfaction with the present situation. For example, despite satisfaction with a particular product, many consumers will switch to a different brand just because it is new.

novelty preference task

novelty preference task a task in which an infant is shown a new object simultaneously with a familiar one. It is used in studies of infant cognition, based on the fact that infants will visually inspect a new object in preference to looking at a familiar object. The duration of the infant’s visual gaze is used to quantify attention, surprise, and novelty versus familiarity. This preference has also been called the discrepancy principle.

novelty seeking

novelty seeking 1. a personality trait characterized by a strong interest in having new experiences; it is often associated with risk-taking behavior, and hence the term may be used synonymously with sensation seeking. It is also increasingly the preferred term for neophilia. 2. see Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality; Temperament and Character Inventory.

noxious stimulus

noxious stimulus an aversive stimulus that can serve as a negative reinforcer of behavior, in severe cases because it causes pain or damage to the experiencing organism and in lesser cases because it is unpleasant.

NPC

NPC abbreviation for neural progenitor cell.

NPDB

NPDB abbreviation for National Practitioner Data Bank.

NPH

NPH abbreviation for normal-pressure hydrocephalus.

NPI

NPI abbreviation for Narcissistic Personality Inventory.

NPTA

NPTA abbreviation for National Parent Teachers Association. See parent teachers association.

NREM sleep

NREM sleep nonrapid-eye-movement sleep: four sleep stages in which there is an absence of rapid eye movement (REM) and dreams are relatively uncommon (and usually cannot be recalled upon awakening). The increasing appearance of delta waves, particularly in stages 3 and 4, is another prominent index of NREM sleep. Also called non-REM sleep; synchronized sleep. Compare REM sleep.

NSAID

NSAID nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug: any of a large class of analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents that includes aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and many others. They achieve their effects by blocking the synthesis of prostaglandins involved in inflammation and the pain response. Concurrent administration of NSAIDs and lithium may result in increased serum levels of lithium.

NSF

NSF abbreviation for National Science Foundation.

NST

NST abbreviation for nucleus of the solitary tract. See solitary nucleus.

NSU

NSU abbreviation for nonspecific urethritis. See nongonococcal urethritis.

nubile

nubile adj. 1. describing a girl or young woman who is of marriageable age, ready for marriage, or going through puberty. 2. describing a sexually attractive young woman. —nubility n.

nuchal rigidity

nuchal rigidity rigidity along the back of the neck, which can be associated with injury or brain disease.

nuclear complex

nuclear complex 1. a set of interconnected nuclei in parts of the brain, as in the ventroposterior nuclear complex of the thalamus (see ventroposterior nucleus). 2. a central conflict or problem that is rooted in infancy, such as feelings of inferiority (according to Alfred Adler) or the Oedipus complex (according to Sigmund Freud).

nuclear envelope

nuclear envelope see nucleoplasm.

nuclear family

nuclear family a family unit consisting of two parents and their dependent children (whether biological or adopted). With various modifications, the nuclear family has been and remains the norm in developed Western societies. Compare extended family; permeable family.

nuclear imaging

nuclear imaging imaging that involves scanning for emissions from radioactive isotopes injected into the body. Techniques include positron emission tomography and single photon emission computed tomography. These forms of scanning yield information not only about the anatomy of an organ but also about its functions; they are therefore valuable for medical diagnosis and research. See also brain imaging.

nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

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nuclear schizophrenia

nuclear schizophrenia a type of schizophrenia in which the defining features, including social inadequacy and withdrawal, blunted affect, and feelings of depersonalization and derealization, are highly similar to those described by Emil Kraepelin for dementia praecox. It is of early, insidious onset and is associated with a degenerative, irreversible course and poor prognosis. This term is often used interchangeably with process schizophrenia. Also called true schizophrenia; typical schizophrenia. Compare schizophreniform psychosis. [proposed in the late 1930s by Norwegian psychiatrist Gabriel Langfeldt (1895–1983)]

Nuclear Surety Personnel Reliability Program

Nuclear Surety Personnel Reliability Program a special assessment program to achieve safety consistent with operational readiness and to minimize the effects of accidents, incidents, and deficiencies in handling nuclear weapons. At least two authorized people must be present whenever a task is performed with a nuclear weapon. Individuals qualified under the program are trained to perform these duties and to make the appropriate judgments.

nuclear warfare

nuclear warfare the use of nuclear weapons in combat, which causes enormous destruction with potentially both physical and psychological effects on the survivors.

nuclei

nuclei pl. n. see nucleus.

nucleic acid

nucleic acid a large molecule that consists of a chain of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are of two types, DNA and RNA, and are important constituents of living cells.

nucleolus

nucleolus n. (pl. nucleoli) a structure within a cell’s nucleus that is the site of assembly of ribosomes. —nucleolar adj.

nucleoplasm

nucleoplasm n. the material contained within the nucleus of a cell. It is bound by the nuclear envelope, which separates it from the cytoplasm.

nucleotide

nucleotide n. a compound consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. Nucleotides such as ATP are important in metabolism. The nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) comprise long chains of nucleotides (i.e., polynucleotides).

nucleus

nucleus n. (pl. nuclei) 1. a large membrane-bound compartment, found in the cells of nonbacterial organisms, that contains the bulk of the cell’s genetic material in the form of chromosomes. 2. in the central nervous system, a mass of cell bodies belonging to neurons with the same or related functions. Examples are the amygdaloid nuclei (see amygdala), the basal nuclei (see basal ganglia), the thalamic nuclei (see thalamus), and the nucleus accumbens. Compare ganglion.

nucleus accumbens

nucleus accumbens one of the largest of the septal nuclei (see septal area), which receives dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area. Dopamine release in this region may mediate the reinforcing qualities of many activities, including drug abuse.

nucleus basalis magnocellularis

nucleus basalis magnocellularis see basal nucleus of Meynert.

nucleus cuneatus

nucleus cuneatus the nucleus in the medulla oblongata that is the termination of the cuneate fasciculus in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. Also called cuneate nucleus.

nucleus gracilis

nucleus gracilis the nucleus in the medulla oblongata that is the termination of the gracile fasciculus in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. Also called gracile nucleus.

nucleus of the raphe

nucleus of the raphe see raphe nucleus.

nucleus of the solitary tract (NST)

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nuisance parameter

nuisance parameter in statistical hypothesis testing, a population parameter of secondary interest that must be accounted for in order to obtain an estimated value for a parameter of primary interest. For example, assume a researcher wishes to determine whether male and female schoolchildren differ in their mathematics ability. He or she might administer a math test to a sample of children at a particular school and use that data to estimate male and female means for all children. If, however, the researcher needed to calculate the variance of the scores before attempting to determine the means, the former would be a nuisance parameter.

nuisance variable

nuisance variable a type of extraneous variable that does not differ systematically across levels or conditions of the independent variable under investigation but whose variation nonetheless may contribute to an increase in experimental error. Participant characteristics and environmental conditions often are nuisance variables. For example, individuals in a learning study who are distracted by noise in a nearby room may not perform as well as they would otherwise.

null distribution

null distribution in statistical testing, the probability distribution of values for a particular test statistic that is obtained when the null hypothesis is true. For example, the F ratio from an analysis of variance follows the F distribution if the null hypothesis is correct. Also called null hypothesis distribution. Compare alternative hypothesis distribution.

null finding

null finding the situation in which the outcome of a statistical hypothesis-testing procedure indicates that there is no relationship, or no significant relationship, between experimental variables. Also called null result.

null hypothesis

null hypothesis (NH; symbol: H0) a statement that a study will find no meaningful differences between the groups or conditions under investigation, such that there is no relationship among the variables of interest and that any variation in observed data is the result of chance or random processes. For example, if a researcher is investigating a new technique to improve the skills of children who have difficulty reading, the null hypothesis would predict no difference between the average reading performances of those children who receive the intervention and those who do not. The NH is contrasted with the alternative hypothesis, which is a prediction of a significant finding (e.g., a significant difference between sample means, a correlation that is significantly different from zero). Statistical procedures are applied to research data in an attempt to disprove or reject the NH at a predetermined significance level. See hypothesis testing.

null hypothesis significance testing (NHST)

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null result

null result see null finding.

null set

null set see empty set.

number

number n. in linguistics, a grammatical classification of nouns, pronouns, and any words in agreement with them according to whether they are singular or plural (or in some languages, dual). In English, number is most commonly expressed by the plural noun ending -s (e.g., boy, boys) and in the inflection of the verb to agree with the number of the subject (e.g., The boy runs; The boys run).

number factor

number factor an intelligence factor that is measured by tests of ability to handle numerical problems. See factor theory of intelligence; primary ability.

number-completion test

number-completion test an intelligence test, or a component of one, in which the subject is required to supply a missing item in a series of numbers or to continue the series. A component of such a test might be: 6, 9, 13, 18, ___ (the next number is 24).

numbsense

numbsense n. the ability of some people who have lost feeling in part or all of their body to respond to tactile stimuli in the insensible area. Such individuals insist that they are not aware of any tactile sensations but can nevertheless discriminate between stimuli and point to where they have been presented. See also blindsight; deaf hearing.

numerical ability (N)

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numerical competence

numerical competence the ability of some nonhuman animals to identify the cardinal numbers associated with differing quantities of objects and to arrange these numbers in correct order. Some parrots and chimpanzees can count the number of items presented to them, and some can rank numbers, as in the ascending sequence 1, 5, 8.

numerical variable

numerical variable see quantitative variable.

numerology

numerology n. the study of the significance of numbers beyond their numeric value; that is, the mystical or occult meaning of numbers. For example, the date of someone’s birth or a figure derived from the letters of his or her name may be interpreted in terms of its supposed influence on that person’s character and future. See also gematria. —numerological adj. —numerologist n.

numerosity perception

numerosity perception the perception of number (i.e., of constituent elements or of separate objects) by means of visual, auditory, or other sensory systems. See subitize.

Nuremberg code

Nuremberg code a set of 10 guidelines for conducting research with human participants that was established in 1949 following public discovery of the atrocities committed by Nazi scientists during World War II. The Nuremberg code introduced several important principles, including informed consent and the right of individuals to withdraw participation at any time. See institutional review board; research ethics.

nurse practitioner

nurse practitioner a registered nurse who has undergone extensive postgraduate training (often in a specialty area, such as internal medicine or pediatrics) and is licensed to perform some of the activities of a physician, including the prescription of medicine. Nurse practitioners generally function under the supervision of physicians but not in their presence.

nurse’s aide

nurse’s aide a person who works in a hospital or nursing home, has completed at least a brief course of health care training, and assists nursing staff in providing care for patients. Also called nurse’s assistant.

nursery school

nursery school see school readiness.

nursing

nursing n. 1. a health care profession that focuses on the protection and promotion of health through the alleviation and treatment of illness, injury, disease, and physical suffering. Nurses practice in a variety of contexts, including hospitals, nursing and independent-living homes, schools, workplaces, and community centers, among others. In the United States, nurses must graduate from a state-approved school of nursing (a 4-year university program, a 2-year associate degree program, or a 3-year diploma program) and pass a state licensing examination. See also licensed practical nurse; registered nurse. 2. the provision of nourishment by a female for her young offspring until they are capable of obtaining their own food. Nursing in mammals (including humans, in whom it is called breast-feeding) primarily involves the secretion of milk from the mammary glands, as stimulated by the hormones prolactin and oxytocin. Other vertebrates exhibit different forms of nursing behavior. For example, some birds produce a milklike substance (crop milk) within their digestive system that is regurgitated to feed young chicks. The length of the nursing period varies across animals, ranging from mere days (e.g., Sprague–Dawley rats) to several years (e.g., bottlenose dolphins). Regardless of its form or duration, however, successful nursing is critical to survival and often depends on maternally emitted odorants (mammary pheromones) to enable the young to locate the nipple and initiate suckling.

nursing home

nursing home a long-term care facility that provides 24-hour nursing care and supportive services for people with chronic disability or illness, particularly older people who have mobility, eating, and other self-care problems.

nurturance

nurturance n. 1. the provision of affectionate attention, protection, and encouragement to others. 2. the need or tendency to provide such nurturance.

nurture

nurture 1. n. the totality of environmental factors that influence the development and behavior of a person, particularly sociocultural and ecological factors such as family attributes, parental child-rearing practices, and economic status. Compare nature. See also nature–nurture. 2. vb. to provide nurturance.

nutmeg

nutmeg n. the seed of the trees Myristica acuminata and M. fragrans, which are indigenous to the Moluccas (Indonesia) and cultivated in South America, the Philippines, and the West Indies. It has a history of folk use as a remedy for stomach and gastrointestinal complaints. Nutmeg has volatile oils containing elemecin, myristicin, and other active ingredients that in sufficient doses produce intoxicating effects, some of which have been compared to those produced by cannabis. In larger doses, nutmeg is poisonous; signs of toxicity include abnormally dilated or contracted pupils, hallucinations, severe nausea and vomiting, and rapid heartbeat. See also mace.

nutrient

nutrient n. any substance required as part of the diet for growth, maintenance, and repair of the body’s tissues or as a source of energy. Nutrients include carbohydrates, fats (see fatty acid), proteins (see also amino acid), vitamins, and some minerals (e.g., calcium, sodium, potassium).

nutritional disorder

nutritional disorder any medical or psychological condition that results from malnutrition. Such disorders include obesity and vitamin deficiency disorders. See also eating disorder.

Nuvigil

Nuvigil n. a trade name for armodafinil. See modafinil.

nux vomica

nux vomica the seed of a plant, Strychnos nux vomica, that grows in tropical Asia and has been used as an emetic (the name means literally “a nut that causes vomiting”). Nux vomica contains two substances, strychnine and brucine, which are CNS stimulants and highly poisonous, causing powerful, painful convulsions and eventually death from paralysis of respiratory muscles. In low doses, nux vomica increases glandular secretion in the gastrointestinal tract, and it has been used as a homeopathic remedy to stimulate digestion and treat a variety of gastrointestinal conditions.

NVC

NVC abbreviation for nonverbal communication.

NVD

NVD abbreviation for nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

nyakwana

nyakwana n. see epena.

nyctalopia

nyctalopia n. see night blindness.

nyctophilia

nyctophilia n. a strong preference for darkness or night. Also called noctiphilia; noctophilia; scotophilia.

nympholepsy

nympholepsy n. 1. a type of pedophilia in which the individual has a strong preference or obsessive desire for young girls who are sexually precocious (nymphets: a word coined by Vladimir Nabokov in his 1955 novel Lolita). Also called Lolita complex. 2. a mania or frenzy, especially of an erotic nature, characterized by a desire for some unattainable ideal. The name is derived from myths in which an individual glimpses a nymph and becomes possessed by a demonic frenzy in pursuit of her.

nymphomania

nymphomania n. in females, excessive or uncontrollable desire for sexual stimulation and gratification. The word is often used loosely to denote a high degree of sexuality in a woman, reflecting negative cultural attitudes toward female sexuality. —nymphomaniac n., adj.

nystagmus

nystagmus n. involuntary, rapid movement of the eyeballs. The eyeball motion may be rotatory, horizontal, vertical, or a mixture. See also physiological nystagmus; vestibular nystagmus.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'N'