Terms Starting with "C"

2783 terms

C fiber

C fiber an unmyelinated peripheral nerve fiber (axon) that conducts pain information slowly. C fibers vary from approximately 0.4 to 1.2 μm in diameter. See also A fiber; B fiber.

C-section

C-section n. abbreviation for cesarean section.

C-suite

C-suite the highest ranking executives in a corporation, collectively. The term is derived from the tendency to give the most important senior-level executives titles beginning with chief, as in chief executive officer, chief operating officer, and so forth. Also called C-level executives.

CA

CA 1. abbreviation for Cocaine Anonymous. 2. abbreviation for chronological age.

CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4

CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4 see hippocampus.

caapi

caapi n. see ayahuasca.

CAB

CAB abbreviation for Coolidge Assessment Battery.

CABG

CABG abbreviation for coronary artery bypass graft.

cable properties

cable properties the physical properties of an axon such that a small, nonpropagated electrical disturbance spreads and diminishes exponentially with distance, as along a nonorganic cable. The resistance properties of the conductor determine the rate at which the signal degrades.

cable tensiometry

cable tensiometry a method of measuring muscular strength in which the participant pulls on a cable and the change in the tension of the cable is measured with a tensiometer. See also ergograph.

cachexia

cachexia n. an extreme state of poor health, physical wasting, and malnutrition, usually associated with chronic illnesses, such as cancer and pulmonary tuberculosis.

caco- (cac-)

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cacoethes

cacoethes n. an irresistible, and sometimes irrational, desire or compulsion.

caesarean section

caesarean section see cesarean section.

cafard

cafard n. a culture-bound syndrome found in Polynesia, with symptoms similar to those of amok. Also called cathard.

Cafergot

Cafergot n. a trade name for ergotamine.

cafeteria feeding

cafeteria feeding a technique for studying the hunger drive in children and nonhuman animals by offering a variety of foods and observing the extent to which the participants choose those providing balanced, life-sustaining nutrition.

caffeine

caffeine n. a CNS stimulant found in coffee, tea, cola, cocoa, chocolate, and certain prescribed and over-the-counter medications. It is an antagonist of the neuromodulator adenosine. Caffeine belongs to the methylxanthine group of alkaloids, and its effects include rapid breathing, increased pulse rate and blood pressure, and diminished fatigue. Precise effects vary with the amount ingested and the tolerance of the individual. Moderate doses produce an improved flow of thought and clearness of ideas, together with increased respiratory and vasomotor activity; large doses may cause caffeine intoxication and substance-induced anxiety disorder. Because of its stimulant effects, caffeine is used in wake-promoting agents and in certain analgesics and cold remedies containing ingredients that usually cause drowsiness. See also aspirin combinations.

caffeine intoxication

caffeine intoxication in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, intoxication due to recent consumption of large amounts of caffeine (typically over 250 mg), in the form of coffee, tea, cola, or medications, and involving at least five of the following symptoms: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis (increased urination), gastrointestinal complaints, muscle twitching, rambling thought and speech, rapid or irregular heart rhythm, periods of inexhaustibility, or psychomotor agitation. Also called caffeinism.

CAGE

CAGE n. a widely used, simple screening instrument to detect alcohol dependence. It consists of the following four questions: (a) Have you ever felt you should Cut down on your drinking? (b) Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? (c) Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about your drinking? (d) Have you ever used a drink as an Eye-opener?

CAH

CAH abbreviation for congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

CAI

CAI abbreviation for computer-assisted instruction.

CAL

CAL abbreviation for computer-assisted learning (see computer-assisted instruction).

calamus scriptorius

calamus scriptorius the caudal end of the floor of the fourth ventricle on the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata.

calcarine area

calcarine area the region on the medial surface of the occipital lobe of the brain that surrounds the calcarine fissure. It includes parts of the striate cortex and the prestriate cortex.

calcarine fissure

calcarine fissure a fissure (groove) on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere, extending from the most posterior prominence of the occipital lobe to the parieto-occipital sulcus. Also called calcarine sulcus. See also calcarine area.

calcitonin

calcitonin n. a hormone produced by the parafollicular (or C) cells of the thyroid gland. It controls calcium and phosphate levels in the blood by promoting the resorption of calcium and phosphate by bone tissue, thus lowering their concentrations in the blood. See calcium regulation.

calcium channel

calcium channel a voltage-gated ion channel in the presynaptic membrane of a neuron that is involved in the release of neurotransmitter (and, therefore, passage of a neural signal) at a synapse. The arrival of an action potential at the terminal buttons (see axon) of the neuron is accompanied by depolarization of the presynaptic membrane, which results in opening of the calcium channels and influx of calcium ions into the terminal buttons. This triggers fusion of the synaptic vesicles (which contain neurotransmitter) with the presynaptic membrane and the release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

calcium regulation

calcium regulation the maintenance of calcium levels in the blood and other extracellular fluids. Secretion of parathyroid hormone by the parathyroid glands causes release of ionic calcium from the bones, whereas calcitonin, produced by the thyroid gland, promotes calcium resorption.

calcium-channel blocker

calcium-channel blocker any of a class of drugs, the prototype of which is verapamil, used in the treatment of hypertension and abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). Calcium-channel blockers inhibit the flow of calcium ions into the smooth-muscle cells of blood vessels and the cells of heart muscle, which need calcium to contract. They act by binding to calcium channels on the surface of depolarized muscle-cell membranes, causing a decrease in transmembrane calcium transmission and prolonged relaxation of the muscles. Verapamil has been studied as a potential mood stabilizer, with equivocal results in the treatment of mania.

calcium-deficiency disorders

calcium-deficiency disorders conditions caused by insufficient levels of calcium in the tissues. Absorption of calcium from food and its deposition in bone is facilitated by vitamin D, and deficiency of this vitamin is the usual cause of rickets, a disease of childhood marked by deformed bones and teeth and lax muscles, and osteomalacia, the adult form of rickets. Osteoporosis, in which the bones become brittle and break easily, is caused by resorption (loss) of calcified bone due to disease or aging (it is common in postmenopausal women). Tetany (muscle spasms) is due to a deficiency of calcium in the blood.

calendar age

calendar age see chronological age.

calendar calculation

calendar calculation the rare ability to identify the day of the week for any given date, such as February 19, 1878, in a matter of seconds. Calendar calculators are frequently savants who usually have no evident mathematical ability but may be able to perform other feats with the calendar, such as correctly answering the question, “In what years did April 16 fall on a Sunday?” No satisfactory explanation has been found for this skill. See also idiot savant.

calibration

calibration n. the process of assigning values to a measuring device (instrument, test, or scale) relative to a reference standard. For example, it would be useful to compare the scores on a new test of intelligence with those from an older, well-accepted test to ensure that the new test scores provide comparable ratings or values. To do so, a researcher might select a group of people (the calibration sample), administer each individual both the old and new tests, and then assess the results.

California Achievement Tests (CAT)

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California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

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California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT)

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call boy

call boy see male homosexual prostitution.

call girl

call girl a female prostitute who does not work out of a brothel or by soliciting in the street. Instead, her services are ordered by telephone, and she may then be collected by the client or come to the client’s home or hotel. Call girls typically charge higher prices than other types of prostitutes.

callback

callback n. in consumer psychology, a follow-up interview usually undertaken with a consumer after an initial interview about a product or service. Callbacks are carried out to assess continued satisfaction or possible changes in opinion.

calling card

calling card see signature.

callosal

callosal adj. referring to the corpus callosum.

callosal apraxia

callosal apraxia an inability to perform learned, purposeful movements (see apraxia) due to lesions of the corpus callosum.

callosal gyrus

callosal gyrus see cingulate cortex.

callosal sulcus

callosal sulcus a fissure or groove that separates the corpus callosum from the cingulate cortex along the medial side of each cerebral hemisphere.

callosectomy

callosectomy n. see commissurotomy.

callosotomy

callosotomy n. see commissurotomy.

callosum

callosum n. see corpus callosum.

calmodulin

calmodulin n. a protein that binds calcium ions in many calcium-regulated processes in living cells. For example, calmodulin is involved in muscle contraction and in the cascade of neurochemical events that underlies memory formation.

caloric intake

caloric intake the consumption of food as measured in calories.

caloric nystagmus

caloric nystagmus a test that involves pouring water, either above or below body temperature, into the ear and measuring nystagmus.

caloric restriction

caloric restriction a reduction of total energy intake that does not cause nutrient deficiencies or pathological metabolic extremes, such as hypoglycemia. Although caloric restriction has been shown to have a positive effect on health and longevity in animal models in research, long-term maintenance has proven difficult to achieve among humans.

calorie

calorie (symbol: cal) n. the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C. For most purposes, the calorie (a c.g.s. unit) has been replaced by the SI unit of work and energy, the joule: 1 cal = 4.1868 J. However, the energy values of foods are sometimes still expressed in kilocalories (or Calories [Cal]: 1 Cal = 1,000 cal).

Calvinism

Calvinism n. a form of Protestant Christianity based on the teachings of French-born reformer John Calvin (1509–1564, also known as Jean Cauvin). He taught that God will grant salvation only to those who are predestined to receive it as an unmerited gift, the rest of humanity being predestined to damnation. Humans therefore can do nothing to save themselves and have no free will. See predestination.

CAM

CAM 1. abbreviation for cell adhesion molecule. 2. abbreviation for complementary and alternative medicine.

camaraderie

camaraderie n. comradeship: goodwill and light-hearted rapport between friends or members of a social group, especially of a military unit. Camaraderie is an important component of the morale, unit cohesion, and esprit de corps required in forming and sustaining unit dynamics. It can also serve as a buffer in protecting members of a unit.

camisole

camisole n. see straitjacket.

camouflage

camouflage n. the use of cryptic coloration and vocal signals that are difficult to localize in order to conceal one’s location (see crypsis). Many nonhuman animal species use camouflage to escape the notice of predators or to avoid detection by prey. For example, a stick insect looks like an actual stick in its environment, allowing it to blend in. Camouflage alarm calls have acoustic features that make it difficult to determine the caller’s location. See also countershading. Compare advertisement.

cAMP

cAMP abbreviation for cyclic AMP.

camphoraceous

camphoraceous adj. denoting one of the seven classes of odorants in the stereochemical smell theory.

camphorated tincture of opium

camphorated tincture of opium see paregoric.

Campral

Campral n. a trade name for acamprosate.

camptocormia

camptocormia n. a condition in which the back is bent forward at a sharp angle (30°–90°). In some cases, it may be a rare manifestation of conversion disorder and may be accompanied by back pain, tremors, or both. It is also occasionally seen in Parkinson’s disease.

campus crisis center

campus crisis center a campus organization created to provide support and advice for students experiencing personal difficulty or trauma in their school, college, or university. Substance abuse, rape, depression, academic failure, and suicidal tendencies are typical of the problems or traumas encountered by students. A campus crisis center may offer such services as counseling, a hotline, or an escort service for students returning to housing late at night.

can-do factors

can-do factors see will-do factors.

Canadian Psychological Association (CPA)

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canalization

canalization n. 1. in evolutionary genetics, the containment of variation of certain characters within narrow bounds so that expression of underlying genetic variation is repressed. It is a developmental mechanism that maintains a constant phenotype over a range of different environments in which the organism might normally occur. 2. in neuroscience, the hypothetical process by which repeated use of a neural pathway leads to greater ease of transmission of impulses and hence its establishment as permanent. 3. in psychology, the channeling by an organism of its needs into fixed patterns of gratification, for example, food or recreational preferences.

cancellation test

cancellation test a test of perceptual and motor speed requiring the participant to cancel out randomly scattered symbols on a page or screen.

cancer

cancer n. any one of a group of diseases characterized by the unregulated, abnormal growth of cells to form malignant tumors (see neoplasm), which invade neighboring tissues; the abnormal cells are generally capable of spreading via the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other body areas or organs by the process of metastasis. Causes of cancer are numerous but commonly include viruses, environmental toxins, diet, and inherited genetic variations. Cancers are generally classified as carcinomas if they involve the epithelium (e.g., cancers of the lungs, stomach, or skin) and sarcomas if the affected tissues are connective (e.g., bone, muscle, or fat). More than 150 different kinds of cancer have been identified in humans, based on cell types, rate of growth, and other factors. Because cancers can be disfiguring and life-threatening, psychological counseling is often helpful for patients. —cancerous adj.

cancer phobia

cancer phobia a persistent and irrational fear of cancer, which may be a symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder; it may also be classified as a specific phobia, other type. The belief that one actually has cancer based on a misinterpretation of bodily symptoms is classified as hypochondriasis.

candidiasis

candidiasis n. infection caused by yeastlike fungi of the genus Candida, especially the species Candida albicans. These fungi are part of the normal flora of the mouth, skin, intestinal tract, and vagina but under certain circumstances can cause a variety of infections. Candidiasis commonly affects the mouth, skin folds, and vagina. Less commonly, but more seriously, Candida can cause systemic infection leading to septicemia, endocarditis, meningitis, or osteomyelitis. Such serious infections are more common in individuals who are weakened or immunocompromised, such as those with AIDS. Candidiasis was formerly called moniliasis.

cane

cane n. an aid for sitting, standing, or mobility for people with visual impairment or other disabilities. Canes for individuals with neuromuscular disabilities, often called orthopedic canes, are usually sturdy shafts of solid wood or metal designed for weight bearing, with a curved or horizontal handle at the top, a rubber tip at the bottom, and sometimes three or four feet. Canes for individuals with visual impairment generally are slimmer, lighter, longer, made of metal, and used for orientation. See orientation and mobility training.

cannabidiol (CBD)

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cannabinoid

cannabinoid n. any of a class of about 60 substances in the cannabis plant that includes those responsible for the psychoactive properties of the plant. The most important cannabinoid is tetrahydrocannabinol.

cannabinoid receptor

cannabinoid receptor any of a family of specialized molecules in cell membranes that bind with cannabis-based compounds and similar bodily created substances (i.e., with cannabinoids and endogenous cannabinoids, respectively). There are two known types: CB1 receptors, first identified in 1988 by U.S. pharmacologists Allyn C. Howlett and William A. Devane and located primarily within the brain and spinal cord; and CB2 receptors, located primarily within the spleen and other tissues of the immune system. Findings from recent research indicate the existence of other types of cannabinoid receptors (e.g., GPR55), but their characteristics have yet to be completely elaborated. Both CB1 and CB2 receptors are coupled to G proteins, which affect levels of second messengers that act to open or close certain ion channels. CB1 receptors are the most prolific G-protein-coupled receptors in the central nervous system and are concentrated particularly within the hippocampus, cerebellum, and basal ganglia, areas of the brain related to motor control, learning and memory, emotional responses, motivated behavior, and homeostasis. Their activation by endogenous cannabinoids causes short- or long-term suppression of neurotransmitter release by neighboring neurons, leading to pain reduction, smooth muscle relaxation, suppression of nausea and vomiting, enhanced appetite, reduced intraocular pressure, and a variety of other physiological and behavioral effects. Additionally, the CB1 receptor is responsible for the psychoactive and psychomotor effects of plant-based cannabinoids, and it has been implicated in the rewarding aspects associated with the use of such drugs as alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin. In contrast, activation of CB2 receptors produces immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, and antiallergenic effects. Given this wide range of activity, efforts are ongoing to develop synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists for therapeutic purposes.

cannabis

cannabis n. any of three related plant species (Cannabis sativa, C. indica, or C. ruderalis) whose dried flowering or fruiting tops or leaves are widely used as a recreational drug, known as marijuana. The principal psychoactive agent in these plants, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is concentrated in the resin, most of which is in the plants’ flowering tops. When smoked, THC is rapidly absorbed into the blood and almost immediately distributed to the brain, causing the rapid onset of subjective effects that last 2 to 3 hours. These effects include a sense of euphoria or well-being, easy laughter, perceptual distortions, impairment of concentration and short-term memory, and craving for food. Adverse effects of anxiety or panic are not uncommon, and hallucinations may occur with high doses (see also cannabis-induced psychotic disorder; cannabis intoxication). Tolerance to the effects of THC develops with repeated use, and a withdrawal syndrome has been identified. The most potent marijuana preparation is hashish, which consists of pure resin. A less potent preparation is sinsemilla, also called ganja; it is made from the plants’ flowering tops. The weakest preparation is bhang. Also called hemp.

cannabis abuse

cannabis abuse in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of cannabis use marked by recurrent significant adverse consequences related to its repeated ingestion. This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of cannabis dependence: If the criteria for cannabis abuse and cannabis dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given. In DSM–5, both have been subsumed into a category labeled cannabis use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance abuse.

cannabis dependence

cannabis dependence in DSM–IV–TR, continued use of cannabis despite significant cannabis-related cognitive, behavioral, and physiological problems and tolerance or withdrawal symptoms (chiefly motor agitation) if use is suspended. The diagnosis, along with that for cannabis abuse, has been subsumed in DSM–5 under cannabis use disorder, and neither is considered a distinct entity any longer. See also substance dependence.

cannabis intoxication

cannabis intoxication in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that occurs during or shortly after the ingestion or smoking of cannabis. It consists of clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., enhanced sense of well-being, intensification of perceptions, a sense of slowed time), as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement (e.g., increased pulse rate, conjunctivitis, dry mouth and throat). See also substance intoxication.

cannabis psychosis

cannabis psychosis see cannabis-induced psychotic disorder.

cannabis-induced psychotic disorder

cannabis-induced psychotic disorder a rare disorder marked by persecutory delusions associated with cannabis intoxication, sometimes accompanied by marked anxiety, emotional lability, depersonalization, and subsequent amnesia for the episode. The disorder usually remits within a day, although it may persist for a few days. Hallucinations occur rarely. Also called cannabis psychosis.

cannibalism

cannibalism n. 1. the consumption of human flesh by humans. See also kuru. 2. a pathological urge to devour human flesh, occasionally observed in schizophrenia and similar mental disturbances, such as windigo psychosis. In classical psychoanalytic theory, cannibalistic impulses are associated with fixation at the oral-biting phase of psychosexual development. 3. the ingestion by a nonhuman animal of a member of its own species. Some female insects kill their mate at the time of copulation and eat it as a source of protein for developing eggs. In some animal species, offspring are eaten, often in times of nutritional stress or when offspring are malformed and unlikely to survive. —cannibalistic adj.

Cannon–Bard theory

Cannon–Bard theory the theory that emotional states result from the influence of lower brain centers (the hypothalamus and thalamus) on higher ones (the cortex), rather than from sensory feedback to the brain produced by peripheral internal organs and voluntary musculature. According to this theory, the thalamus controls the experience of emotion, and the hypothalamus controls the expression of emotion, both of which occur simultaneously. Also called Bard–Cannon theory; Cannon’s theory; hypothalamic theory of Cannon; thalamic theory of Cannon. See also fight-or-flight response. [proposed in the 1920s and early 1930s by Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard (1898–1977), U.S. physiologist]

cannula

cannula n. a tube that can be inserted into a body cavity to provide a channel for the escape of fluid from the cavity. It can also be inserted into a blood vessel to introduce substances into the body to avoid repeated injections by a hypodermic needle or to take blood samples.

canon

canon n. a fundamental working principle or rule believed to increase the likelihood of making accurate inferences and meaningful discoveries. —canonical adj.

canonical analysis

canonical analysis any of a class of statistical procedures that assess the degree of relationship between sets of variables via interpretation of a limited number of linear combinations of specific values of those variables. The overall objective of such procedures is to reduce the dimensionality of the data under investigation. Examples include canonical correlation analysis, discriminant analysis, multiple regression, and multivariate analysis of variance, among others.

canonical correlation analysis

canonical correlation analysis a method of data analysis that provides a measure of the strength of the relationship between a linear combination of predictor variables and a linear combination of outcome measures. Essentially, it extends a basic correlation analysis, which relates only one variable with another variable, and it extends multiple regression, which relates several independent variables with only one dependent variable. For example, a researcher might use a canonical correlation analysis to investigate whether several measures of attitude toward learning (e.g., confidence, anxiety, interest, enjoyment) are related to several measures of achievement (e.g., grade point average, the number of math classes taken, the number of memberships in honor societies).

canonical correlation coefficient

canonical correlation coefficient (symbol: Rc) an index of the magnitude of the linear relationship between a linear combination of one set of variables and a linear combination of a different set of variables, with each linear combination made in such a way as to maximize the strength of the relationship between the two variable sets. It ranges in value from −1 to +1.

capability

capability n. 1. the possession of able qualities. 2. an ability, talent, or facility that a person can put to constructive use. For example, a child may have great musical capability. 3. a characteristic that can be developed for functional use.

capacity

capacity n. 1. the maximum ability of an individual to receive or retain information and knowledge or to function in mental or physical tasks. 2. the potential of an individual for intellectual or creative development or accomplishment. 3. inborn potential, as contrasted with developed potential (see ability).

capacity model

capacity model one of a number of models that characterize attention as a finite resource with limited processing power. Attentional deficits occur when the demands on this resource exceed the supply.

capacity sharing

capacity sharing in dual-task performance, the dividing of attentional resources between the tasks such that they are processed in parallel (see parallel processing), although the processing efficiency varies with the amount of resources required.

CAPD

CAPD abbreviation for central auditory processing disorder.

Capgras syndrome

Capgras syndrome a condition characterized by an individual’s delusional belief that loved ones (e.g., spouse, children, parents) have been replaced by doubles or impostors. This type of misidentification syndrome may be associated with paranoid schizophrenia, a neurological disorder, or a mood disorder. Also called illusion of doubles. [first described in 1923 by Jean Marie Joseph Capgras (1873–1950), French psychiatrist]

capitalism

capitalism n. an economic system emphasizing individual enterprise, free-market principles, profit taking, and private or corporate ownership of capital, rather than state control of the economy as in socialism or communism. —capitalist n., adj.

capitalization

capitalization n. the process by which people take advantage of and build on positive events in their lives. Capitalization is most often studied in social contexts, in which people share news of their personal good fortune with others for various social purposes, such as to heighten enjoyment of the experience, to create a positive impression in others’ eyes, or to enhance the memorability of the event. It is often contrasted with social support as a means of coping with negative events.

capitalization on chance

capitalization on chance drawing a conclusion from data wholly or partly biased in a particular direction by chance. A common example of capitalization on chance is the presentation of all the significant results in a study without considering the number of results examined.

capitation

capitation n. a method of payment for health care services in which a provider or health care facility is paid a fixed amount for each person served under a risk contract. Capitation is the characteristic payment method of HMOs. —capitated adj.

caprylic

caprylic adj. denoting one of the four primary odor qualities in the Crocker–Henderson odor system. This quality is called hircine in the Zwaardemaker smell system.

capsaicin

capsaicin n. a compound, synthesized by various plants to deter predators, that elicits the sensation of burning. Capsaicin is responsible for the “hot” taste of chili peppers. It is used medicinally in topical ointments to relieve peripheral neuropathy.

captioning

captioning n. the display of the text of spoken words, typically used in theaters, on television (see closed-captioned television), and in films, to allow those with hearing loss to follow verbal presentations or dramatic dialogue and action.

captivity

captivity n. 1. the state or period of being confined, detained, incarcerated, imprisoned, or enslaved. See also postcaptivity health problems; prisoner of war. 2. the state of a nonhuman animal that is housed in an environment different from its natural environment and is prevented from returning to its natural environment. Much research is done on animals in captivity in order to have careful experimental control over environmental and social variables. Compare field research.

capture–tag–recapture sampling

capture–tag–recapture sampling a method of sampling that is used to estimate population size. For example, to estimate the number of fish in a lake, a random sample of fish (e.g., 100) would be drawn and tagged, then returned to the lake. The lake would be resampled, and the results (i.e., the fraction of tagged fish in the new sample) would be used to estimate the total number of fish in the lake. Also called capture–recapture sampling; mark-and-recapture sampling.

CAR

CAR abbreviation for conditioned avoidance response.

carbamate

carbamate n. any of a class of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (see cholinesterase) used in the treatment of dementia. Carbamates can delay the progression of certain dementias, slowing declines in cognitive function and in activities of daily living. They are preferred to earlier generations of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors because of their relatively benign side effects, relative lack of liver toxicity, and improved dosing schedule (they need to be administered only once or twice a day). An example is rivastigmine.

carbamazepine (CBZ)

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carbidopa

carbidopa n. see Sinemet.

carbohydrate

carbohydrate n. any of a group of organic compounds that have the general formula Cx(H2O)y. They range from relatively small molecules, such as simple sugars (e.g., glucose), to macromolecular substances, such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Carbohydrates of plant origin form a major source of energy in the diet of animals.

carbohydrate metabolism

carbohydrate metabolism the utilization by the body of starches, sugars, and other carbohydrates, which are broken down by various enzymes to glucose molecules. Glucose is the ultimate source of cellular energy for the brain and other organs.

carbon dioxide

carbon dioxide (formula: CO2) a colorless, odorless, incombustible gas formed during respiration, decomposition of organic substances, and combustion. All life on earth is carbon based. The increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is considered to be a main cause of global warming.

carbon dioxide therapy

carbon dioxide therapy a form of inhalation therapy, now no longer in use, that was occasionally applied (in conjunction with psychotherapy) to patients with anxiety, conversion, or psychophysiological symptoms. [first used in the 1920s by Hungarian-born U.S. psychiatrist Ladislaus Joseph Meduna (1896–1964) to induce unconsciousness as a means of interrupting pathological brain circuits]

carbon monoxide poisoning

carbon monoxide poisoning a toxic disorder resulting from inhalation of carbon monoxide, a colorless, odorless gas. Depending on the severity of the exposure, symptoms, which are produced by lack of oxygen, range from headache and light-headedness to an acute, transient state of confusion and delirium to deep coma followed by permanent brain damage and death by asphyxiation. Also called carbon monoxide intoxication.

carbon tetrachloride

carbon tetrachloride a volatile industrial solvent that, when inhaled, can produce euphoria, disorientation and depersonalization, and other behavioral effects similar to those produced by the major sedatives. Continued use can lead to the rapid development of persisting dementia, as well as severe physical problems and death. Due to its adverse health effects and because it is known to deplete the ozone layer, carbon tetrachloride is no longer in common use. See also inhalant.

carbonic anhydrase inhibitor

carbonic anhydrase inhibitor any of a group of drugs that interfere with the action of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the body. Although their primary role was originally as diuretics, via their ability to block reabsorption of sodium bicarbonate from the proximal renal tubule, thus improving urine excretion and electrolyte balance, their use has been supplanted by less toxic diuretics. At present, acetazolamide (the prototype; U.S. trade name: Diamox) and other carbonic anhydrase inhibitors are used primarily for the management of glaucoma and acute mountain sickness. The drugs are also used as adjunctive agents in the management of epilepsy. Acetazolamide inhibits epileptic seizures and decreases the rate of cerebrospinal fluid formation.

carcinogen

carcinogen n. any substance that initiates the development of cancer (carcinogenesis) when exposed to living tissue. Tobacco smoke, which induces lung cancer, is an example. —carcinogenic adj.

carcinoma

carcinoma n. see cancer.

card-sorting test

card-sorting test a test in which the participant is asked to sort randomly mixed cards into specific categories. Such tests may be used to determine frontal lobe functioning, learning ability, discriminatory powers, or clerical aptitude. See Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.

card-stacking

card-stacking n. a technique of persuasion that attempts to influence opinion through deliberate distortions, as in suppressing information, overemphasizing selected facts, manipulating statistics, and quoting rigged or questionable research.

cardi-

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cardiac death

cardiac death see brain death.

cardiac index

cardiac index a measure of the cardiac output (i.e., the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute) per square meter of body surface.

cardiac muscle

cardiac muscle the specialized muscle tissue of the heart. It consists of striated fibers that branch and interlock and are in electrical continuity with each other. This arrangement permits action potentials to spread rapidly from cell to cell, allowing large groups of cells to contract in unison. Compare skeletal muscle; smooth muscle.

cardiac neurosis

cardiac neurosis an anxiety reaction precipitated by a heart condition, the suspicion of having a heart condition, or the fear of developing coronary disease. In some cases, a cardiac neurosis develops when the patient detects a harmless heart murmur, palpitations, or a chest pain due to emotional stress. In other cases, it may be caused or aggravated by a physician’s examination (see iatrogenic). Cardiac anxiety is a common symptom of panic disorder; it may also be a focus in hypochondriasis.

cardiac pacemaker

cardiac pacemaker an electrical device that is surgically implanted into the chest to regulate an abnormal heart rhythm. Electrical leads from the device are placed in specific areas of the heart, and transducers can monitor the heart’s rate of contraction and deliver an electric charge only when the organ is not functioning as desired.

cardiac psychology

cardiac psychology an emerging subspecialty of behavioral medicine that studies how behavioral, emotional, and social factors influence the development, progression, and treatment of coronary heart disease (CHD). Among the psychosocial factors that have been linked to the onset and exacerbation of CHD are anger, hostility (see Type A personality), anxiety, depression, psychological stress, job stress, and social isolation or lack of social support. Contextual factors, including socioeconomic status and ethnicity, may contribute to CHD as well. These variables influence the disease’s development both directly by damaging the cardiovascular system through alterations of physiological functioning (e.g., high levels of stress hormones, exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity) and indirectly by facilitating unhealthy practices such as cigarette smoking, lack of exercise, and poor diet. In addition to researching the causal relationships between psychosocial factors and cardiovascular disease, cardiac psychologists design interventions to prevent the disease or improve the prognosis and quality of life of those who already have it. These interventions focus on the nonphysical aspects of adopting and maintaining healthier lifestyles. For example, cardiac psychologists often provide information about CHD, teach constructive coping strategies (e.g., relaxation skills, time management skills, stress management skills), and conduct individual and group therapy to address illness-related and mental health issues. Also called behavioral cardiology; psychocardiology.

cardinal

cardinal adj. describing a number that indicates a count of a set of items, such as two dogs or three circles, but does not indicate order within the set. A child’s understanding of the concept of cardinal numbers is an area of study in developmental psychology. Compare nominal; ordinal.

cardinal disposition

cardinal disposition see personal disposition.

cardinal humors

cardinal humors see humoral theory.

cardinal virtues

cardinal virtues in medieval philosophy, the four virtues on which all other virtues were thought to hinge, namely, prudence, courage, temperance, and justice. The cardinal or “natural” virtues were seen as available to all humans without the aid of divine grace; as such they were often contrasted with the “theological” virtues of faith, hope, and charity.

cardinality

cardinality n. the number of items in a set. In children, the ability to understand that the last number counted in a set represents the set’s overall cardinal value is evident by the age of 2 or 3.

cardio- (cardi-)

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cardiogram

cardiogram n. a graphic tracing of some aspect of heart activity, usually electrical activity (see electrocardiogram). The tracing is produced by the stylet of a recording instrument called a cardiograph, and the procedure itself is called cardiography.

cardiomyopathy

cardiomyopathy n. any disease involving the heart muscle, particularly when the specific cause is uncertain.

cardiophobia

cardiophobia n. an excessive and irrational fear of the heart or, more commonly, of having or developing heart disease. See cardiac neurosis.

cardiopulmonary bypass machine

cardiopulmonary bypass machine a mechanical device that carries out the functions of the heart and lungs for short periods during surgery involving these organs. The machine collects blood from the veins before it reaches the heart and circulates it through a plastic chamber in which it is freshly oxygenated before being pumped back into the patient’s arteries.

cardiovascular (CV)

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cardiovascular disease

cardiovascular disease any disease, congenital or acquired, that affects the heart and blood vessels. Cardiovascular diseases include hypertension, congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, arteriosclerosis, and coronary heart disease.

cardiovascular reactivity

cardiovascular reactivity the degree of change of cardiovascular responses (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate) to a psychological or physiological challenge or stressor. Exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity may indicate risk for development of cardiovascular conditions, such as hypertension or coronary heart disease.

cardiovascular system

cardiovascular system the heart and blood vessels, which are responsible for the circulation of blood around the body. Also called circulatory system.

CARE

CARE acronym for communicated authenticity, regard, empathy.

care of young

care of young a manifestation of parental behavior or alloparenting in animals, usually stimulated by hormonal and other physiological changes when in the presence of offspring. These include the secretion of prolactin, which induces broodiness and parental feeding of young in birds and milk production in mammals.

care-and-protection proceedings

care-and-protection proceedings court intervention on behalf of a child when the parents or caregivers do not adequately provide for the child’s welfare.

career anchor

career anchor a pattern of self-perceived work skills, interests, abilities, and values that are developed in the early stages of a person’s career and that guide subsequent career decisions. The nine anchors are technical or functional competence, managerial competence, creativity, security, autonomy, entrepreneurship, challenge, lifestyle, and service or dedication to the cause. [proposed by Swiss-born U.S. psychologist Edgar H. Schein (1928– )]

career choice

career choice the selection of a vocation, usually on the basis of such factors as parental guidance, vocational guidance, identification with admired figures, trial or part-time jobs, training opportunities, personal interests, and ability tests.

career conference

career conference a vocational meeting provided by many schools in which representatives of a given occupational field meet interested students to provide information and answer questions related to the requirements for, and opportunities available in, that field.

career counseling

career counseling consultation, advice, or guidance specifically focused on a person’s career opportunities, most often provided in educational, work, and some community settings. It also may have the specific goal of enabling a person to change the direction of his or her career. The counseling will take account of an individual’s preferences, intelligence, skill sets, work values, and experience. Such counseling is offered to groups as well as individuals. Also called career guidance.

career development

career development 1. the manner in which a person manages the progress of his or her career, both within and between organizations. The issues that individuals must confront in their career development differ as a function of whether they are in the early, middle, or late stage of their careers. See also professional development. 2. the ways in which an organization structures the career progress of its employees, typically so that they are rewarded with higher levels of pay, status, responsibility, and satisfaction as they gain skills and experience.

career guidance

career guidance see career counseling.

career planning

career planning a vocational guidance program designed to assist a client in choosing an occupation. A realistic appraisal of the individual’s desires and abilities is formulated in relation to existing occupational opportunities. Various tests may be administered to aid a counselor in assessing a client’s skills and aptitudes.

career workshop

career workshop a vocational guidance intervention consisting of a study group in which occupational opportunities and requirements are discussed and explored.

caregiver

caregiver n. 1. a person who attends to the needs of and provides assistance to someone else who is not fully independent, such as an infant or an ill adult. A person who does the majority of the work is called the primary caregiver. 2. in health care, any individual involved in the process of identifying, preventing, or treating an illness or disability. —caregiving adj.

caregiver burden

caregiver burden the stress and other psychological symptoms experienced by family members and other nonprofessional caregivers in response to looking after individuals with mental or physical disabilities, disorders, or diseases. See also burnout; compassion fatigue.

caretaking behavior

caretaking behavior the behavior of parents or alloparents (caretakers) in attending to the needs of infants, responding to them when they approach or vocalize and protecting them from the aggression of others. See alloparenting; care of young; parental behavior.

carezza (karezza)

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cargo cult

cargo cult 1. a system of beliefs found in the South Pacific islands, based on the notion that ritual worship will result in the attainment of modern material goods through supernatural means. It originated in indigenous religious practices in the 19th century and was altered, stimulated, and broadened from contact with Western cultures during World War II, when military forces stationed in the islands received regular deliveries of goods by air. 2. the naive assumption that a superficial imitation of the manners, behavior, or style of influential or prosperous groups in society will bring one comparable wealth or status.

carisoprodol

carisoprodol n. a drug belonging to the propanediols, a group originally developed as anxiolytics. Carisoprodol is now used as a muscle relaxant and is increasingly seen as an intoxicant drug of abuse. U.S. trade name: Soma.

carnal

carnal adj. relating to the physical desires and appetites of the body, particularly sexual ones. Carnal knowledge is a mainly legal term for sexual intercourse.

carotid artery

carotid artery either of the two major arteries that ascend the right and left sides of the neck to the head and brain. The branch that enters the brain is the internal carotid artery, whereas the external carotid artery supplies the face and scalp. Both branches arise from the common carotid artery on each side of the lower neck.

carotid sinus

carotid sinus a small dilation in the common carotid artery at its bifurcation into the external and internal carotids. It contains baroreceptors that, when stimulated, cause slowing of the heart rate, vasodilation, and a fall in blood pressure. It is innervated primarily by the glossopharyngeal nerve.

carotid stenosis

carotid stenosis see stenosis.

carotid-sinus syndrome

carotid-sinus syndrome see aortic arch syndrome.

carotodynia

carotodynia n. pain in the cheek, neck, and region of the eyes resulting from pressure on the common carotid artery.

carpal age

carpal age an individual’s anatomical age as estimated from the degree of ossification of the carpal (wrist) bones.

carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)

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Carpenter’s syndrome

Carpenter’s syndrome an autosomal recessive hereditary disorder marked by a pointed skull, webbing of the fingers and toes, subaverage intelligence, and usually obesity. Also called acrocephalopolysyndactyly. [George Alfred Carpenter (1859–1910), British physician]

carpentered environment

carpentered environment an environment consisting of built structures in which rectangles are predominant. Some hypotheses about depth perception and optical illusions have suggested that people in carpentered environments interpret parallelograms (or parts of parallelograms) in two-dimensional drawings in ways that are consistent with perception of three-dimensional objects, such as doors, windows, and corners.

carphology

carphology n. see floccillation.

carrier

carrier n.1. an individual with a gene for a recessive trait that is unexpressed in that individual but that may be expressed in offspring if the individual reproduces with another carrier of the same gene. 2. an individual who is infected with a pathogen for a disease and is capable of infecting others but does not develop the disease. 3. an individual who has a mutation in a gene that conveys either increased susceptibility to a disease or other condition or the certainty that the condition will develop. A BRCA1 mutation carrier, for example, is a person who carries an altered BRCA1 gene (see BRCA1 and BRCA2). This alteration is responsible for significantly raising the likelihood that the person, if female, will develop breast or ovarian cancer. See also obligate carrier.

carrier wave

carrier wave see modulation.

carryover effect

carryover effect the effect on the current performance of a research participant of the experimental conditions that preceded the current conditions; where such an effect is significant, it may be difficult to determine the specific influence of the variable under study. For example, in a crossover design in which a particular drug is administered to nonhuman animals in the first experimental condition, a carryover effect would be evident if the drug continued to exert an influence on the animals’ performance during a subsequent experimental condition. Also called holdover effect. See wash-out period.

CART analysis

CART analysis classification and regression tree analysis: a method of classifying data into successively smaller and more homogeneous subgroups according to a set of predictor variables. CART analysis is similar to but distinct from regression analysis in its homogeneity of case subsets. The results of a CART analysis may be displayed in a diagram resembling a tree—subsets of data, based on values of the outcome variable, are shown to branch off from higher level subsets of data.

Cartesian coordinate system

Cartesian coordinate system a system for locating a point in an n-dimensional space on a graph by indicating the distance of the point from a common origin along each of n axes. The most common application of the Cartesian system is one based on two dimensions, represented by two perpendicular lines that intersect at a specific spot called the origin. In such a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the horizontal line is often referred to as the x-axis and the vertical line as the y-axis. For example, the coordinate (3, 4) represents an x value of 3 and a y value of 4 on the graph; thus, from the origin one would count three units over on the x-axis and four units up on the y-axis to locate the coordinate point. [René Descartes]

Cartesian dualism

Cartesian dualism the position taken by René Descartes that the world comprises two distinct and incompatible classes of substance: res extensa, or extended substance, which extends through space; and res cogitans, or thinking substance, which has no extension in space. The body (including the brain) is composed of extended and divisible substance, whereas the mind is not. For Descartes, this means that the mind would continue to exist even if the material body did not. He accepted that there is interaction between mind and body, holding that in some activities the mind operates independently of bodily influences, whereas in others the body exerts an influence. Similarly, in some bodily activities there is influence from the mind, whereas in others there is not. Descartes proposed that the locus for the interaction of the mind and body is the point in the pineal gland in the brain termed the conarium. However, to the question of how such incompatible substances can interact at all, Descartes had no answer. See dualism; ghost in the machine; mind–body problem.

Cartesian self

Cartesian self in the system of René Descartes, the knowing subject or ego. The Cartesian self is capable of one fundamental certainty because, even if all else is subject to doubt, one cannot seriously doubt that one is thinking, as to doubt is to think. Thus, Descartes concludes, cogito ergo sum (“I am thinking, therefore I exist”). From this position, Descartes argues that all ideas intuited by the self with the same clarity and distinctness as the cogito must be equally true; this enables the intuition of further indubitable truths, such as the existence of God and the external world. However, since the ideas clearest to the self are the contents of the mind, the notion of the Cartesian self has led to a radical dualism between the inner life of the mind (subjectivity) and the outer world of things (objectivity). It has also led to the idea that knowledge is necessarily subjective and has opened the question as to how the outer world, including other human beings, can be known except as an idea. See Cartesian dualism; egocentric predicament; solipsism.

Cartesian theater

Cartesian theater a metaphorical conception of consciousness identified as the traditional view by U.S. philosopher Daniel C. Dennett (1942– ), who has challenged its adequacy. Based on the idea of the knowing subject or ego defined by René Descartes, the Cartesian theater is envisioned as a place where all aspects of experience come together to provide a unified phenomenal world. See Cartesian dualism; Cartesian self.

Cartesianism

Cartesianism n. the system of philosophy developed by René Descartes. The three fundamental tenets of the system are (a) that all knowledge forms a unity; (b) that the purpose of knowledge is to provide humankind with the means of mastery over the natural world; and (c) that all knowledge must be built up from a foundation of indubitable first principles, the truth of which can be known intuitively (see innate ideas). Many ideas and assumptions influential in psychology can be traced back to Descartes, including the notion of a rational self capable of knowing truth, the contention that the most trustworthy knowledge is of the contents of one’s own mind, and the idea that the deductive methods that have been successful in producing certainty in mathematics can be applied to produce equally valid knowledge in other fields of human endeavor. Of particular importance to the development of psychology are Descartes’ understanding of the ego (see Cartesian self) and his attempt to explain the relation of the mind to the body (see Cartesian dualism). See also modernism; rationalism. —Cartesian adj.

Carus typology

Carus typology a classification of individuals into five body types: athletic type, phlegmatic type, phthisic type, cerebral type, and sterile type. [Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1868), German physiologist and psychologist]

carve out

carve out to eliminate coverage for specific health care services (e.g., mental health or substance abuse) from a health care plan and contract for those services from a separate provider. —carve-out n.

Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales

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CAS

CAS abbreviation for Cognitive Assessment System.

Casanova complex

Casanova complex a man’s desire to have a large number of lovers, leading to very active pursuit of women and attempts to seduce or entice women into having sexual intercourse without any emotional relationship or commitment. The complex is named for Giovanni Jacopo Casanova (1725–1798), an Italian memorist and adventurer noted for his sexual conquests.

case

case n. 1. an instance of a disease or disorder, usually at the level of the individual patient. In a borderline case, the symptoms resemble those of a disease or disorder but do not fully meet the criteria. See also proband. 2. a person who is the recipient of assistance (e.g., from a health care professional or lawyer). 3. a unit or observation to be analyzed, such as a nonhuman animal, a person, a group, an institution, an object, or any other entity from which a researcher gathers data. 4. a feature of certain languages in which the forms of nouns, pronouns, and (sometimes) adjectives are altered to indicate their syntactic relations with other words in a sentence. The role of case is most significant in highly inflected languages, such as German or Latin. In English, case endings are now restricted to the personal and possessive pronouns (I, me, mine, etc.) and to plural and possessive nouns (e.g., dogs, children, girl’s, girls’). See accusative; dative; genitive; nominative. 5. one of various categories used in case grammar to classify the elements of a sentence in terms of their semantic relations with the main verb. See agent; experiencer; instrumental; patient.

case advocate

case advocate see advocacy.

case alternation

case alternation in reading research, a procedure for stimulus presentation in which the characters of stimulus words switch between upper and lower case. The change is usually made in one of six ways: (a) to the complete word (APPLE/apple), (b) to alternate letters (ApPlE), (c) after the second letter (APple), (d) after the third letter (APPle), (e) after the fourth letter (APPLe), or (f) after each pair of letters (APplE).

case grammar

case grammar in linguistics, an analysis of sentences that gives primacy to the semantic relations between words (e.g., whether they are the agent or the patient of the action described) rather than to their syntactic relations (e.g., whether they are the subject or the object of the sentence). In the two sentences The boy hit the ball and The ball was hit by the boy, a case-grammar analysis would focus on the fact that boy is the agent of the action in both sentences, rather than the fact that it is the subject of the first sentence and the object in the second. Psychologists have shown a strong interest in case grammar because of its affinity to psychological categories of meaning. See also experiencer; instrumental.

case history

case history a record of information relating to a person’s psychological or medical condition. Used as an aid to diagnosis and treatment, a case history usually contains test results, interviews, professional evaluations, and sociological, occupational, and educational data. Also called patient history.

case law

case law a body of law established by a series of court decisions. Case law is distinguished from laws that arise from legislation. See also common law.

case load

case load the amount of work required of a psychotherapist, psychiatrist, doctor, social worker, or counselor during a particular period, as computed by the number of clients assigned to him or her and the comparative difficulty of their cases.

case management

case management a system of managing and coordinating the delivery of health care in order to improve the continuity and quality of care and to reduce costs. Case management is usually a function of a hospital’s utilization review department.

case manager

case manager a health care professional, usually a nurse or social worker, who works with patients, providers, and health insurance plans to coordinate the continuity and cost-effectiveness of services.

case method

case method in industrial and organizational psychology, a personnel training technique in which a group of managers or supervisors are presented with an actual or hypothetical business problem, through written materials, audiovisual media, or live role play, and are required to generate solutions. See also business game; conference method; multiple-role playing; scenario analysis.

case report

case report a collection of data relating to a person’s psychological or medical condition.

case study

case study an in-depth investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity. Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual’s background, relationships, and behavior. Although case studies allow for intensive analysis of an issue, they are limited in the extent to which their findings may be generalized.

case-based reasoning

case-based reasoning 1. an approach in which information about or obtained from previous similar situations (cases) is applied to the current situation, typically to make a decision or prediction or to solve a problem. See also analogical thinking. 2. in ergonomics, the use of detailed scenarios or cases to elicit users’ knowledge, reasoning patterns, motivations, or assumptions regarding a product or system. See knowledge elicitation.

case-control study

case-control study a type of study in which a group of individuals diagnosed with a disease or other condition is compared to a group of individuals without the disease diagnosis, specifically with regard to the proportion of people in each group who were exposed to a certain risk factor. Also called case-control design; case-referent study.

case-finding

case-finding n. the process of identifying individuals who need treatment for mental disorders by administering screening tests, locating individuals who have contacted social agencies or mental health facilities, obtaining referrals from general practitioners, or via triage after a disaster.

casewise deletion

casewise deletion see listwise deletion.

casework

casework n. the tasks carried out by a professional, usually a social worker known as a caseworker, that include identifying and assessing the needs of an individual and his or her family and providing or coordinating and monitoring the provision of such services as private counseling, treatment in a hospital or other institution, or arranging for public assistance, housing, and other aid. Also called social casework.

Caspar Hauser experiment

Caspar Hauser experiment any procedure in which an animal is deprived of its natural environment or sensory stimulation from birth onward. The experiment is named for an early 19th-century German child (c. 1812–1833) who allegedly was raised in this manner.

cassina

cassina n. a perennial evergreen shrub, Ilex vomitoria, that grows wild in eastern North America, particularly Virginia and the Carolinas. The leaves contain caffeine and have been used by Native Americans to prepare a tealike beverage known as the “black drink” for medicinal, ceremonial, and social purposes. Also called yaupon; youpon.

caste

caste n. 1. any of the fixed hereditary classes of the Hindu caste system, which are held to be distinguished by different levels of essential purity. The main classes are (in order of status) brahmins or priests, warriors, merchants, and laborers; outcastes or untouchables are people of no caste. Until recently, mobility or intermarriage between castes was exceptional. See also fixed class society; Hinduism; social immobility. 2. any system of social stratification regarded as being comparably rigid. 3. any class of society distinguished by inherited privilege and exclusivity.

castration

castration n. surgical removal of the testes (see orchidectomy); less commonly, it can indicate removal of the ovaries (see ovariectomy). In either men or women, inactivation of these glands can also occur from radiation, illness, or drugs (see chemical castration).

castration anxiety

castration anxiety fear of injury to or loss of the genitals. In the pregenital phase posited by Freudian psychoanalytic theory, the various losses and deprivations experienced by the infant boy may give rise to the fear that he will also lose his penis.

castration complex

castration complex in Freudian psychoanalytic theory, the whole combination of the child’s unconscious feelings and fantasies associated with being deprived of the phallus, which in boys means the loss of the penis and in girls the belief that it has already been removed. It derives from the discovery that girls have no penis and is closely tied to the Oedipus complex.

casual crowd

casual crowd a group that forms, usually in a public place, when circumstances cause those present to share a temporary focus. Examples include passersby pausing to watch two people arguing loudly and spectators gathered behind police barricades around a burning building.

CAT

CAT 1. abbreviation for California Achievement Tests. 2. abbreviation for Children’s Apperception Test. 3. abbreviation for the British version of the Cognitive Abilities Test. 4. abbreviation for computer adaptive testing. 5. acronym for computerized axial tomography (see computed tomography).

cat-cry syndrome

cat-cry syndrome see cri du chat syndrome.

cat’s-eye syndrome

cat’s-eye syndrome a rare genetic disorder caused when an individual inherits extra genetic material from chromosome 22 (see acrocentric chromosome), with widely variable features that include structural defects of the iris of the eye that produce a cat’s-eye appearance, skin tags near the ear, narrowing or closure of the anus, defects of the heart or kidneys, and intellectual disability. Also called Schmid–Fraccaro syndrome.

cata- (cat-; kata-; kat-)

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catabolism

catabolism n. see metabolism. —catabolic adj.

catabolite

catabolite n. a product of catabolism (see metabolism).

catalepsy

catalepsy n. a state of sustained unresponsiveness in which a fixed body posture or physical attitude is maintained over a long period of time. It is seen in cases of catatonic schizophrenia, epilepsy, and other disorders. Also called catatonic rigidity; flexibilitas cerea; waxy flexibility. See also epidemic catalepsy. —cataleptic adj.

catalogia

catalogia n. see verbigeration.

catalysis

catalysis n. the speeding of a chemical reaction by a catalyst.

catalyst

catalyst n. a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being used up. An enzyme is an organic catalyst.

catamite

catamite n. a boy who participates in sex with an adult male. See pederasty.

catamnesis

catamnesis n. the medical history of a patient following the onset of a mental or physical disorder, either after the initial examination or after discharge from treatment (in the latter case, it is also known as follow-up history). Compare anamnesis. See also posttreatment follow-up.

cataphasia

cataphasia n. 1. a language disorder characterized by repetition of a single word. 2. see verbigeration.

cataphora

cataphora n. a type of coma that may be interrupted by intervals of partial consciousness.

cataplexy

cataplexy n. a sudden loss of muscle tone that may be localized, causing (for example) loss of grasp or head nodding, or generalized, resulting in collapse of the entire body. It is a temporary condition usually precipitated by an extreme emotional stimulus (e.g., an uncontrollable fit of laughter; overwhelming anxiety, excitement, or anger). See narcolepsy; narcolepsy–cataplexy syndrome. —cataplectic adj.

Catapres

Catapres n. a trade name for clonidine.

cataract

cataract n. a progressive clouding (opacification) of the lens of the eye that eventually results in severe visual impairment if untreated. Central vision in particular is impaired, with symptoms including dim or fuzzy vision, sensitivity to glare, and difficulty seeing at night. Cataract is frequently associated with the degenerative processes of aging, but it may also be congenital or due to disease or injury.

catarrhal ophthalmia

catarrhal ophthalmia see ophthalmia.

catastrophe theory

catastrophe theory a mathematical theory regarding discontinuous (discrete) changes in one variable as a function of continuous change in some other variable or variables. It proposes that a small change in one factor may cause an abrupt and large change in another, for example, the dramatic change in the physical properties of water as the temperature reaches 0 °C or 100 °C (32 °F or 212 °F). Catastrophe theory models are classified according to the number of control parameters, the most common being the cusp catastrophe model, in which two control parameters are varied simultaneously. This model has been used in various areas of investigation, such as figure perception, cognitive development, industrial accidents, and task performance. The cusp catastrophe model of anxiety and task performance, for example, proposes that under conditions of high anxiety, as physiological arousal increases, performance will increase to a certain point but that past this point a catastrophic drop in performance will occur. To regain an optimal level of performance, a substantial lowering of physiological arousal is necessary. [originated by French mathematician René Frédéric Thom (1923–2002)]

catastrophic illness

catastrophic illness a severe illness, acute or chronic, that is likely to result in serious disability or death. Treatment is typically prolonged, intense, and costly.

catastrophic reaction

catastrophic reaction 1. a breakdown in the ability to cope with a threatening or traumatic situation. The individual experiences acute feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, frustration, and helplessness. 2. highly emotional behavior (extreme anxiety, sudden crying, aggressive or hostile behavior, etc.) sometimes observed in individuals who have brain damage, including those with aphasia. The origin of this behavior remains unclear, although U.S. neurologist D. Frank Benson (1928–1996) ascribed such reactions to individuals’ frustration, embarrassment, or agitation at their struggle to communicate or perform tasks they had previously performed with ease. Also called catastrophic behavior. [first described by Kurt Goldstein]

catastrophic stress

catastrophic stress an overwhelming reaction to a traumatic event that is beyond the limits of normal life, such as rape, torture, genocide, or severe war-zone experiences.

catastrophize

catastrophize vb. to exaggerate the negative consequences of events or decisions. People are said to be catastrophizing when they think that the worst possible outcome will occur from a particular action or in a particular situation or when they feel as if they are in the midst of a catastrophe in situations that may be serious and upsetting but are not necessarily disastrous. The tendency to catastrophize can unnecessarily increase levels of anxiety and lead to maladaptive behavior. The verb, as well as its synonym awfulize, was coined by Albert Ellis. —catastrophizing n.

catathymic crisis

catathymic crisis see isolated explosive disorder.

catatonia

catatonia n. a state of muscular rigidity or other disturbance of motor behavior, such as catalepsy, extreme overactivity, or adoption of bizarre postures. It is most frequently observed in catatonic schizophrenia, but it can also occur with other disorders, such as bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and neurological conditions such as encephalitis, among others. Also called catatonic state. —catatonic adj.

catatonic excitement

catatonic excitement periods of extreme restlessness and excessive and apparently purposeless motor activity, often as a symptom of catatonic schizophrenia.

catatonic rigidity

catatonic rigidity see catalepsy.

catatonic schizophrenia

catatonic schizophrenia in DSM–IV–TR, a relatively rare subtype of schizophrenia characterized by abnormal motor activity, specifically motor immobility (see catalepsy; catatonic stupor) or excessive motor activity (see catatonic excitement). Other common features include extreme negativism (apparently motiveless resistance to all instructions or maintenance of a rigid posture against attempts to be moved) or mutism; peculiarities of voluntary movement, such as posturing or stereotyped movements; and echolalia or echopraxia. This subtype has been eliminated from DSM–5.

catatonic state

catatonic state see catatonia.

catatonic stupor

catatonic stupor a state of significantly decreased reactivity to environmental stimuli and events and reduced spontaneous movement, often as a symptom of catatonic schizophrenia.

catch trial

catch trial a trial within an experiment in which a stimulus is not present but the participants’ responses nonetheless are recorded. For example, in an experiment in which participants identify auditory signals, catch trials are those in which no signal is given. The use of a catch trial may help to estimate the level at which a participant is guessing when no stimulus is present. See also blank trial.

catchment area

catchment area the geographic area served by a health care program (e.g., a community mental health center).

catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)

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catecholamine

catecholamine n. any of a class of biogenic amines formed by a catechol molecule and an amine group. Derived from tyrosine, catecholamines include dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, which are the predominant neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system.

catecholamine hypothesis

catecholamine hypothesis the hypothesis that deficiencies in the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine at receptor sites in the brain lead to a state of physiological and psychological depression, and that an excess of such neurotransmitters at these sites is responsible for the production of mania. The catecholamine hypothesis underlay the development of the early tricyclic antidepressants in the late 1950s, as it had been known that these compounds inhibited the reuptake of norepinephrine into presynaptic neurons. Despite numerous shortcomings, the catecholamine hypothesis, and the related monoamine hypothesis, became the dominant hypotheses in the biological treatment of depression in the last half of the 20th century.

catecholaminergic

catecholaminergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving catecholamines. For example, a catecholaminergic neuron is one that releases norepinephrine or another catecholamine as a neurotransmitter.

categorical

categorical adj. referring to a characteristic that is used to classify units, usually individuals or experimental conditions, for the purposes of study. For example, participants may be classified as males or females in a particular study; in this case, sex is categorical.

categorical attitude

categorical attitude see abstract attitude.

categorical classification

categorical classification see conceptual classification.

categorical data

categorical data information that consists of counts or observations in specific categories rather than measurements. Categorical data that have a meaningful order are referred to more specifically as ordinal data, whereas categorical data without a meaningful order are known as nominal data.

categorical data analysis

categorical data analysis any of several statistical procedures used to model variables that indicate counts or observations in specific categories, often as a function of one or more predictor variables. For example, counts of survival status (e.g., life vs. death) may be compared by treatment condition (e.g., treatment vs. no treatment). Techniques commonly used in categorical data analysis include the chi-square test, logistic regression, and probit analysis.

categorical imperative

categorical imperative the moral directive articulated by Immanuel Kant that one’s behavior should be guided by maxims that one would be comfortable to hold as universal laws governing the actions of all people in the same circumstances. Because it is absolute and unconditional, the categorical imperative contrasts with a hypothetical imperative of the type “If you would achieve end Y, take action Z.” The categorical imperative has been extremely influential in moral philosophy and in theories of moral behavior in psychology. See also universalizability.

categorical intrusion

categorical intrusion in a memory recall test, the recall by the participant of one or more items that were not presented for memorization but are from the same semantic category (e.g., names, animals, foods) as the presented items. See categorized list; Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm.

categorical perception

categorical perception in speech perception, the phenomenon in which a continuous acoustic dimension, such as voice-onset time, is perceived as having distinct categories with sharp discontinuities at certain points. Whereas discrimination is much more accurate between categories, individuals tested are often unable to discriminate between acoustically different stimuli that fall within the same categorical boundaries. Categorical perception is crucial in the identification of phonemes.

categorical scale

categorical scale a sequence of numbers that identifies items as belonging to mutually exclusive categories. For example, a categorical scale for the political party affiliation of a group of Americans might use 1 to denote Republican, 2 to denote Democrat, and 3 to denote Independent. When the number sequence has a meaningful order a categorical scale is more precisely called an ordinal scale; when it is devoid of such meaningful order it is known as a nominal scale.

categorical thought

categorical thought in Piagetian theory, thinking that involves the use of general concepts and classifications (i.e., abstract thinking). It is particularly lacking in young children, who tend to think concretely (see concrete thinking).

categorical variable

categorical variable a variable that is defined by a set of two or more categories. Examples include a person’s sex, marital status, or rankings of particular stimuli (such as the relative loudness of different sounds). Specialized methods of categorical data analysis are available for assessing information obtained from the measurement of categorical variables.

categories of thought

categories of thought in the thought of Immanuel Kant, 12 basic concepts of human understanding that are essential to the interpretation of empirical experience. These include such fundamental ideas as unity, plurality, reality, negation, causality, and so on. Although they are necessary to the understanding of sense experience, the categories are themselves a priori rather than empirically given. Time and space play a similar role in ordering one’s sense impressions but are classed by Kant as immediate intuitions rather than categories of thought. The categories are applicable only to the world of appearances or phenomena; there is no reason to suppose that they apply to things-in-themselves (see noumenon).

categorization

categorization n. the process by which objects, events, people, or experiences are grouped into classes on the basis of (a) characteristics shared by members of the same class and (b) features distinguishing the members of one class from those of another. Theories of categorization include the prototype model, exemplar theory, and the family resemblance hypothesis. Also called classification. See also abstraction; conceptualization. —categorize vb.

categorized list

categorized list a list used in memory experiments in which the items come from one or more semantic categories (e.g., names, animals, foods). Categorized lists are often used to test free recall; the category labels (animals, foods, etc.) may be used to prompt recall.

category fluency

category fluency see semantic fluency.

category production test

category production test a test in which participants are given a category (e.g., types of birds) and asked to list examples of it (e.g., robin, blue jay, ostrich). It is often classified as a verbal conceptual test of implicit memory. See implicit memory test.

Category Test

Category Test a nonverbal problem-solving task that requires abstract reasoning, concept formation, and mental flexibility. The participant is presented with six subtests each comprising a different set of stimuli organized according to a specific principle and each stimulus within each set being associated with a particular number. The participant must respond by choosing a number and, using feedback about response accuracy, determine the principle of organization underlying the set of stimuli within a particular subtest. Once the principle is correctly identified, the participant can solve each item correctly within the subtest. A final subtest contains items from the previous six. The Category Test is part of the Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery. Also called Halstead Category Test. [designed in 1947 by U.S. psychologist Ward C. Halstead (1908–1969)]

category-system method

category-system method any method of measurement or classification assessment that involves sorting data elements into categories according to a set of rules. See also interaction process analysis; SYMLOG.

cathard

cathard n. see cafard.

catharsis

catharsis n. 1. in psychoanalytic theory, the discharge of previously repressed affects connected to traumatic events that occurs when these events are brought back into consciousness and reexperienced. See also abreaction. 2. more generally, the release of strong, pent-up emotions. [from Greek, literally: “purgation,” “purification”] —cathartic adj.

cathected

cathected adj. see cathexis.

cathectic discharge

cathectic discharge see affective discharge.

catheter

catheter n. any flexible tubular instrument inserted into a body cavity to introduce or remove fluids or to keep a body passage open. A catheter may be indwelling, if required for a long period of time, or temporary.

cathexis

cathexis n. in psychoanalytic theory, the investment of psychic energy in an object of any kind, such as a wish, fantasy, person, goal, idea, social group, or the self. Such objects are said to be cathected when an individual attaches emotional significance (positive or negative affect) to them. See also anticathexis; decathexis; hypercathexis; object cathexis.

cathinone

cathinone n. see khat.

cation

cation n. a positively charged ion, such as a potassium ion (K+) or sodium ion (Na+). Compare anion. —cationic adj.

catoptrics

catoptrics n. the field of optics concerned with the reflection of light. Compare dioptrics.

Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence

Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence a theory proposing that there are two main kinds of intellectual abilities nested under general intelligence: g-c, or crystallized intelligence (or ability), which is the sum of one’s knowledge and is measured by tests of vocabulary, general information, and so forth; and g-f, or fluid intelligence (or ability), which is the set of mental processes that is used in dealing with relatively novel tasks and is used in the acquisition of g-c. In later versions of the theory, other abilities were added, such as g-v, or visual intelligence (or ability), which is the set of mental processes used in handling visual-spatial tasks (e.g., mentally rotating a geometric figure or visualizing what pieces of paper would look like if folded). [originated by Raymond B. Cattell in the 1940s; subsequently developed by U.S. psychologist John L. Horn (1928–2006) beginning in the 1960s]

Cattell’s personality trait theory

Cattell’s personality trait theory an approach to personality description based on the identification of traits through factor analysis and their classification into surface traits and the 16 source traits that underlie them. [Raymond B. Cattell]

cauda equina

cauda equina the bundle of nerve roots at the base of the spinal cord, so called because of its resemblance to a horse’s tail.

caudal

caudal adj. 1. pertaining to a tail. 2. situated at or toward the tail end of an organism. Compare rostral.

caudate nucleus

caudate nucleus one of the basal ganglia, so named because it has a long extension, or tail.

causal ambiguity

causal ambiguity a situation in which it is not known which one (or which set) of several phenomena is the cause of a particular effect. Sometimes the ambiguity attaches to the more complex question of which phenomena are causes and which are effects (see reverse causality). Controlled empirical research is often used to resolve issues of causal ambiguity.

causal analysis

causal analysis an attempt to draw dependable inferences about cause-and-effect relationships from research data. Encompassing a variety of methods (e.g., path analysis, structural equation modeling), such analyses differ in the degree to which they are statistically complex and the degree to which causal inferences from them are, in fact, justified.

causal attribution

causal attribution see attribution.

causal chain

causal chain a sequence of conditions or events, either hypothetical or empirically derived, that results in a particular effect. Explanation in terms of causal chains presumes that causation is transitive (see transitivity). Also called causal path.

causal inference

causal inference the reasoned process of concluding that change in one variable produced change in another variable. See causal analysis.

causal latency

causal latency 1. the temporal separation of a cause from its effect. Not all causes need have immediate effects; indeed, there may be a lengthy interval between a cause and the effect it produces. Causal latency may be expected to increase when there are other factors in a situation that may influence the cause-and-effect relationship. Some causes studied in psychology and the other social sciences are remote causes, in that they require the presence or activity of other factors or conditions before their effects become manifest. Remote causes may be expected to have large causal latencies. See delayed effect. 2. in the statistical procedure known as path analysis, the quality of a variable that has a measurable statistical effect on prediction only when other predictor variables are also included in the prediction model. Although the statistical relationships identified in such analyses are not, strictly speaking, causal, the language of causality is commonly employed. See causal path.

causal law

causal law a statement of a consistent or invariant relationship between phenomena in which the relationship is one of causation. A causal law is thus distinguished from other statements of invariant regularity, such as “In temperate climates, when the seasons change, the leaves turn color.” Causal laws may reflect different types of causality, ranging from strict determinism, through probabilism, to teleology. Sometimes, in superficial usage, causal laws are understood not as mere statements of consistent relationships but as metaphysical entities or forces that produce the effects that consistently accrue. In such usage, a causal law becomes indistinguishable from a cause.

causal mechanism

causal mechanism the most immediate and physical means by which something is accomplished. For example, the causal mechanism for opening a door is the turning of the knob and the exertion of pressure on the door. The discovery of a causal mechanism does not resolve questions of causation, as there may well be other latent or remote causes. Nor does the recognition of a causal mechanism imply that the world is inherently mechanical. For example, although a mechanism is required for opening a door, the ultimate cause may be a nonmechanical intention to leave the room. See also mechanical causality; proximate cause.

causal modeling

causal modeling any procedure used to test for cause-and-effect relationships (as opposed to mere correlation) between multiple variables. Structural equation modeling is the best known example. For a causal model to be a useful evaluative tool, strict conditions concerning the measurement of the variables must be met.

causal nexus

causal nexus a nexus or connection between phenomena that is one of causation. See causal chain.

causal ordering

causal ordering 1. the principle that causes must temporally precede their effects, and never vice versa. See also false cause; reverse causality. 2. in path analysis and similar statistical procedures, the categorizing of causal variables as either more or less direct.

causal path

causal path 1. see causal chain. 2. in path analysis and similar statistical procedures, a relatively probable causal sequence among a complex set of potential causes and effects. The analysis is based on first-order and partial correlations among variables indicating possible relations of cause and effect. From the pattern of correlations, conclusions are drawn regarding which set of variables, in which order, represents the most likely path from some presumed cause of interest to some presumed effect of interest.

causal texture

causal texture the very large number of mutually dependent events that make up the fabric of reality. Those philosophers and psychologists who use this term conceive of the interdependencies among events in terms of probability rather than certainty, in part because such interdependencies change and develop over time. [introduced into psychology by Edward C. Tolman and Egon Brunswik]

causal variable

causal variable see independent variable.

causalgia

causalgia n. a sensation of intense, burning pain resulting from injury to the peripheral nerves. The condition is most often due to a penetrating wound inflicted by a bullet or knife and involves swelling, redness, and sweating in addition to almost unbearable pain.

causality

causality n. in philosophy, the position that all events have causes, that is, that they are consequences of antecedent events. Traditionally, causality has been seen as an essential assumption of naturalism and all scientific explanation, although some have questioned whether causality is a necessary assumption of science. Others have suggested that, although causality must be assumed, there are different types of causality, each of which makes different metaphysical assumptions about the nature of the world and adopts different criteria about what types of relationships between phenomena can be considered as legitimately causal. See also causation; determinism. —causal adj.

causation

causation n. 1. the empirical relation between two events, states, or variables such that change in one (the cause) brings about change in the other (the effect). See also causality. 2. in Aristotelian and rationalist philosophy, the hypothetical relation between two phenomena (entities or events), such that one (the cause) either constitutes the necessary and sufficient grounds for the existence of the other (the effect), or the one possesses the capacity to bring about the other. —causal adj.

causative verb

causative verb a verb that expresses the notion of something being caused, such as convince, harmonize, or enliven. Children’s acquisition of causative concepts is a lively area of developmental research at the intersection of linguistic, cognitive, and social development. See also actional verb.

cause

cause n. 1. an event or state that brings about another (its effect). 2. in Aristotelian and rationalist philosophy, an entity or event that is a requirement for another entity or event’s coming to be. Aristotle proposed that there were four types of cause—material, formal, efficient, and final. In the case of a sculpture, for example, the material cause is the stone or metal from which it is made, the formal cause is the form or structure that it takes, the efficient cause is the sculptor, and the final cause is the sculptor’s aim or purpose in making it. —causal adj.

cause-and-effect test

cause-and-effect test an intelligence test to measure causal reasoning that offers alternative causes for different effects and alternative effects for different causes, requiring the examinee to choose the most logical explanations.

cautious shift

cautious shift a choice shift in which an individual making a decision as part of a group adopts a more cautious approach than the same individual would have adopted had he or she made the decision alone. Studies suggest that such shifts are (a) rarer than the opposite risky shift and (b) most likely to occur when the majority of the members of the group, prior to discussion, favor a cautious rather than a risky choice. See also group polarization.

CAVLT

CAVLT abbreviation for Children’s Auditory Verbal Learning Test.

CBAS

CBAS abbreviation for Coaching Behavior Assessment System.

CBCA

CBCA abbreviation for criterion-based content analysis.

CBCL

CBCL abbreviation for Child Behavior Checklist.

CBD

CBD abbreviation for cannabidiol.

CBGD

CBGD abbreviation for corticobasal ganglionic degeneration.

CBT

CBT abbreviation for cognitive behavior therapy.

CBZ

CBZ abbreviation for carbamazepine.

CCC theory

CCC theory abbreviation for cognitive complexity and control theory.

CCK

CCK abbreviation for cholecystokinin.

CCRC

CCRC abbreviation for continuing care retirement community.

CCRT

CCRT abbreviation for core conflictual relationship theme.

CCTV system

CCTV system abbreviation for closed-circuit television system.

CCU

CCU 1. abbreviation for continuing care unit. 2. abbreviation for critical care unit (see intensive care unit).

CD

CD 1. abbreviation for communication deviance. 2. abbreviation for conduct disorder.

CDC

CDC abbreviation for Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

CDF

CDF abbreviation for cumulative distribution function.

CDI

CDI abbreviation for Children’s Depression Inventory.

CDQ

CDQ abbreviation for Choice Dilemma Questionnaire.

cebocephaly

cebocephaly n. a type of congenital defect in which the eyes are abnormally close to each other, the nose may be missing or not fully formed, and the facial features resemble those of a monkey. In some cases, the defect pattern may include cyclopia. Cebocephaly is associated with chromosomal abnormalities, such as trisomy 13.

CEFT

CEFT abbreviation for Children’s Embedded Figures Test.

ceiling age

ceiling age the lowest mental age level at which a participant on a standardized test answers all the items incorrectly. The concept of mental ages is used relatively rarely in current testing. Compare basal age.

ceiling effect

ceiling effect a situation in which the majority of values obtained for a variable approach the upper limit of the scale used in its measurement. For example, a test whose items are too easy for those taking it would show a ceiling effect because most people would achieve or be close to the highest possible score. In other words, the test scores would exhibit skewness and have little variance, thus prohibiting meaningful analysis of the results. Compare floor effect.

Celexa

Celexa n. a trade name for citalopram.

celiac plexus

celiac plexus 1. in the nervous system, a network of fibers lying anterior to the aorta at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra. Most autonomic and visceral afferent nerves pass through this plexus. Also called celiac nervous plexus. 2. in the lymphatic system, a network of afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels in the abdomen. Also called celiac lymphatic plexus.

celibacy

celibacy n. 1. the state of being unmarried, especially as the result of a religious vow. 2. abstinence from sexual activity. See also chastity. —celibate adj., n.

cell

cell n. 1. in biology, the basic unit of organized tissue, consisting of an outer plasma membrane, the nucleus, and various organelles in a watery fluid together comprising the cytoplasm. Bacteria lack a nucleus and most organelles. The term was first applied to biological structure by English physicist Robert Hooke (1635–1703) when describing the microscopic appearance of cork. See also cell theory. 2. a combination of two or more characteristics represented by the intersection of a row and a column in a statistical table. A tabular display resulting from a study of handedness in men and women, for instance, might consist of four cells: left-handed females, left-handed males, right-handed females, and right-handed males.

cell adhesion molecule (CAM)

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cell assembly

cell assembly a group of neurons that are repeatedly active at the same time and develop as a single functional unit, which may become active when any of its constituent neurons is stimulated. This enables, for example, a person to form a complete mental image of an object when only a portion is visible or to recall a memory from a partial cue. Cell assembly is influential in biological theories of learning and memory. [proposed in 1949 by Donald O. Hebb]

cell body

cell body the part of a neuron (nerve cell) that contains the nucleus and most organelles. Also called perikaryon; soma. See also axon.

cell death

cell death see programmed cell death.

cell differentiation

cell differentiation see differentiation.

cell division

cell division the division of a cell to form daughter cells. It usually involves division of the nucleus (see mitosis; meiosis) followed by partitioning of the cytoplasm.

cell interactions

cell interactions see cell–cell interactions.

cell migration

cell migration the movement of cells during development from their site of origin to their final location.

cell nucleus

cell nucleus see nucleus.

cell proliferation

cell proliferation the multiplication of cells by mitosis.

cell theory

cell theory the principle that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. [proposed in 1839 for animals by German physiologist Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) and for plants by German botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881)]

cell-mediated immunity

cell-mediated immunity see immune response.

cell–cell interactions

cell–cell interactions the general processes during embryological development in which one cell affects the differentiation of other, usually neighboring, cells. Also called cell interactions.

cellular automata

cellular automata computer programs used in the study of artificial life. Typically, a display is used on a computer screen, split into an array of cells, with an initial pattern of occupied cells. The pattern evolves through a sequence of steps according to certain rules (e.g., whether or not certain numbers of neighboring cells are occupied). Programs of this type have been used in investigations of such phenomena as social behavior and evolutionary development. [developed in the 1940s by Austrian-born U.S. mathematician John von Neumann (1903–1957)]

cellular fluid

cellular fluid see intracellular fluid.

cellular respiration

cellular respiration see respiration.

CEM

CEM abbreviation for collective effort model.

cenesthesia (coenesthesia)

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cenesthopathy

cenesthopathy n. a general feeling of illness or lack of well-being that is not identified with any particular part of the body.

ceno-

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censor

censor n. in psychoanalytic theory, the mental agency, located in the preconscious, that is responsible for repression. The censor is posited to determine which wishes, thoughts, and ideas may enter consciousness and which must be kept unconscious because they violate one’s conscience or society’s standards or are in conflict with other wishes or perceptions, or because the affect associated with them is disturbing or overwhelming. The censor is also posited to be responsible for the distortion of wishes that occurs in dreams (see dream censorship). The idea was introduced in the early writings of Sigmund Freud, who later developed it into the concept of the superego. —censorship n.

censored data

censored data a set of data in which some values are unknown because they are not observed or because they fall below the minimum or above the maximum value that can be measured by the scale used. For example, in a study of survival rates of a group of people with a particular disease, censored data would be obtained if the deaths of some participants occurred after the study ended.

censored observation

censored observation a score that is missing from a data set, either because the event of interest has not occurred by the end of the study period or because the response falls into an unmeasurable portion of the scale. A response measured by a meter, for instance, may not be recorded because it is too small to be detected or is so large that it exceeds the meter’s capability to record. In such a situation, the minimum value is assigned to an undetectable observation, and the maximum value is assigned to an excessive observation.

censored regression

censored regression see Tobit analysis.

censoring

censoring n. the situation in which some observations are missing from a set of data (see censored data). Censoring is common in studies of survival time, in which the research often ends before the event of interest occurs for all study units. See also left censoring; right censoring.

census

census n. the complete count of an entire population. A census differs from most experimental studies, which use a sample from a population in hopes of generalizing from that observed subset to the larger group.

census tract

census tract a small, generally homogeneous geographic area with boundaries established to facilitate the collection and reporting of census data. Community demographic data are frequently used in the assessment of the area’s characteristics and needs, including mental health needs. See also catchment area.

cent

cent n. in acoustics, a logarithmic unit used to express frequency ratios. There are 1200 cents in an octave, and successive notes or intervals on the equally tempered musical scale are separated by 100 cents, or one semitone.

center

center n. in neurophysiology, a structure or region that controls a particular function, for example, the respiratory center of the brain.

Center for Deployment Psychology

Center for Deployment Psychology an organization established by the U.S. Department of Defense in 2006 to meet the mental health needs of service members and their families. The center’s primary goal is to make mental health care in the military more relevant, available, and effective by educating behavioral health professionals on the psychological issues associated with military deployments and teaching them the latest evidence-based treatment protocols for service members and their families.

Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)

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Center for Independent Living (CIL)

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center median

center median the largest of the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus in the brain. Unlike other thalamic nuclei, it has no connections with the cerebral cortex and communicates only with the basal ganglia. Also called centromedian nucleus.

center of gravity

center of gravity a balance point, that is, the location about which the mass of an object is evenly distributed. The position of the center of gravity of the body relative to the legs determines whether, for example, a standing posture is stable.

center–surround antagonism

center–surround antagonism a characteristic of the receptive fields of many visual and somatosensory neurons in which stimulation in the center of the receptive field evokes opposite responses to stimulation in the periphery. Thus, some neurons depolarize with center stimulation and hyperpolarize when the same stimulus appears in the surrounding region of the receptive field, whereas other neurons have the opposite pattern of responses. Center–surround antagonism greatly increases the sensitivity of the nervous system to contrast. See also off response; on response; simple cell.

center–surround receptive field

center–surround receptive field a type of receptive field, common in the visual and somatosensory systems, that exhibits center–surround antagonism. Most center–surround receptive fields consist of a circular center area and an annular (i.e., ringlike) surrounding area.

centered

centered adj. 1. describing the state of an organism that is perfectly integrated with its environment. [defined by Kurt Goldstein] 2. denoting a state of mind characterized by having a firm grip on reality, knowing who one is and what one wants out of life, and being prepared to meet most eventualities in an efficient manner. 3. in a posture for defense or attack, with body balanced and crouching forward.

centering

centering n. a technique whose aim is to increase and focus attention and energy, to provide relief from stress and anxiety, or both. Various practices (e.g., meditation, yoga) emphasize centering as a way of focusing attention on the process of breathing in order to slow it down or regularize it. Sometimes this state of concentration is an end in itself. In other instances, at the point of concentration, negative thoughts and emotions are released and positive thoughts and emotions are encouraged. In sport psychology, the technique is used by athletes to assist them in achieving an ideal performance state.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS)

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centile

centile n. a shortened name for percentile.

central

central adj. of or relating to the central nervous system (CNS), especially to disorders that occur as a result of injury to or dysfunction of the CNS. Compare peripheral.

central anticholinergic syndrome

central anticholinergic syndrome see anticholinergic syndrome.

central aphasia

central aphasia loss of the ability to understand or express language resulting from brain lesions. This term is no longer in common use and was never specifically defined: It has been identified with conduction aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia, among other types.

central auditory abilities

central auditory abilities see auditory skills.

central auditory processing disorder (CAPD)

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central auditory system

central auditory system see auditory system.

central canal

central canal the channel in the center of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid.

central coherence theory

central coherence theory a theory proposing that human beings have an inherent drive to form coherent wholes by integrating pieces of relevant information. Most people tend to process incoming stimuli in context in order to derive a meaningful gist of the situation, often at the expense of surface details. By contrast, individuals with autism spectrum disorder exhibit a tendency toward weak central coherence, which results in an overreliance on local or piecemeal processing and a failure to integrate information in order to process stimuli in context. Also called weak central coherence theory. [proposed in 1989 by German-born British psychologist Uta Frith (1941– )]

central conceptual structure

central conceptual structure a theoretical integrated repository of mental operations and network of concepts and relationships relevant to a particular domain of experience (e.g., the domain of numbers) and important to task performance. Central conceptual structures are one of two mechanisms proposed by Canadian developmental psychologist Robbie Case (1944–2000) as guiding learning and thinking processes in children, the other being the executive control structure.

central conflict

central conflict the intrapsychic struggle between the healthy constructive forces of the real self and the obstructive, neurotic forces of the idealized self-image. [first described by Karen D. Horney]

central deafness

central deafness loss or absence of hearing caused by damage to or abnormality of the auditory structures of the brain (i.e., the central auditory system), rather than the auditory nerve or the ear itself. Compare conduction deafness; sensorineural deafness.

central disposition

central disposition see personal disposition.

central distribution

central distribution see noncentral distribution.

central dyslexia

central dyslexia an acquired dyslexia characterized by difficulties with the pronunciation and comprehension of written words. Unlike in visual word-form dyslexia, the visual analysis system of the brain is intact, and the damage is to other, higher level brain pathways and systems involved in reading (e.g., the semantic system). The major types of central dyslexia include deep dyslexia and surface dyslexia.

central executive

central executive in the model of working memory proposed in 1974 by British cognitive psychologists Alan D. Baddeley (1934– ) and Graham J. Hitch (1946– ), a component that manages the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. In coordinating the numerous processes of working memory, the central executive thus performs such varied functions as manipulating material held within the loop and sketchpad, focusing attention on and switching attention between different tasks, dividing attention between simultaneous tasks, and initiating long-term memory encoding and retrieval. Despite its crucial role, however, the central executive is of limited capacity and does not have any storage ability of its own. Its exact structure and operation have yet to be established and remain the focus of much current research.

central fissure

central fissure see central sulcus.

central gray

central gray see periaqueductal gray.

central inhibition

central inhibition a process within the central nervous system that prevents or interrupts the flow of neural impulses that control behavior.

central limit theorem (CLT)

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central limited capacity

central limited capacity the observed constraint on the processing capacity of the cognitive system—that is, the limited number of items or tasks that one can process (e.g., attend to, be aware of) at a given moment. Cognition is particularly subject to narrow capacity limits when items are novel or arbitrarily presented and when a primary task is highly paced or is assessed under an additional task load (see dual-task competition). This limited capacity affects voluntary decision making, working memory, effortful cognition, and choice reaction time, among other functions. However, capacity limits can be increased dramatically by way of chunking (organization), long-term memory, or automaticity after habituation.

central lobe

central lobe see insula.

central moment

central moment a moment that describes the shape of a set of scores with regard to its deviation about the mean. Four common central moments that describe a random variable are the mean (the first central moment), the variance (the second central moment), the skewness (the third central moment), and the kurtosis (the fourth central moment). Also called moment about the mean.

central nervous system (CNS)

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central nervous system disorder

central nervous system disorder any neurological disorder of the central nervous system (i.e., brain and spinal cord).

central neuron

central neuron a neuron contained entirely within the central nervous system.

central nucleus

central nucleus a nucleus forming part of the corticomedial group in the amygdala within the brain. It receives input from other amygdaloid nuclei and projects to the hypothalamus and many brainstem structures, including the periaqueductal gray. It is involved (among other things) in fear behavior.

central pain

central pain pain that is caused by a disorder of the central nervous system, such as a brain tumor or infection or injury of the spinal cord.

central pattern generator

central pattern generator any of the sets of neurons in the spinal cord capable of producing oscillatory behavior and thought to be involved in the control of locomotion and other tasks. A central pattern generator is the neural substrate responsible for repetitive coordinated movements that can be modeled using coupled oscillators.

central processes

central processes see executive functions.

central processing dysfunction

central processing dysfunction impairment in the analysis, storage, synthesis, and symbolic use of information. Because these processes involve memory tasks, the dysfunction is believed to be related to difficulties in learning.

central processor

central processor 1. the part of a computer that controls and executes operations on data. 2. in models of cognition based on analogies to information processing in a computer, that part of the system that carries out operations on stored representations. The idea of a single central processor in the human cognitive system has been challenged by models based on distributed processing, parallel distributed processing, and parallel processing.

central reflex time

central reflex time the portion of reflex latency that is occupied by activity within the central nervous system; it excludes the latency of muscular or endocrine response.

central route to persuasion

central route to persuasion the process by which attitudes are formed or changed as a result of carefully scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information. See also elaboration; elaboration-likelihood model. Compare peripheral route to persuasion.

central scotoma

central scotoma depressed vision in the central part of the visual field, which may be either absolute (total loss of vision) or relative (partial loss of vision). When caused by unilateral injury to or disease of the peripheral visual system (e.g., the retina or optic nerve), the central visual field of only one eye is affected. When associated with injury to the central visual system (i.e., beyond the optic nerve, in the brain), the central visual fields of both eyes are affected, and patients have great difficulty in guiding their fixation, localizing objects, reading, and recognizing faces.

central sleep apnea

central sleep apnea see breathing-related sleep disorder; sleep apnea.

central state theory

central state theory see identity theory.

central stimulation

central stimulation electrical or chemical stimulation of the brain. See intracranial stimulation.

central sulcus

central sulcus a major cleft (see sulcus) that passes roughly vertically along the lateral surface of each cerebral hemisphere from a point beginning near the top of the cerebrum. It marks the border between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe. Also called central fissure; fissure of Rolando; Rolandic fissure; Rolandic sulcus; sulcus centralis.

central tendency

central tendency the middle or center point of a set of scores. The central tendency of a sample data set, for instance, may be estimated by a number of different statistics (e.g., mean, median, mode).

central vision

central vision the ability to see stimuli in the middle of the visual field, surrounding and including the point of fixation. Central vision is provided by the fovea centralis. Also called foveal vision. Compare paracentral vision; peripheral vision.

central-tendency bias

central-tendency bias see end-aversion bias.

centralism

centralism n. the concept that behavior is a function of the central nervous system mediated by the brain. Compare peripheralism.

centralist psychology

centralist psychology 1. a psychological approach that focuses on behavior as a function of the higher brain centers, as opposed to peripheralist psychology (see peripheralism), which focuses on the effects of the receptors, glands, and muscles on behavior. Centralist psychology is essentially equivalent to centralism. 2. more generally, the idea that mental activity or mind occurs in or is a function of the brain alone.

centrality of an attitude

centrality of an attitude 1. the extent to which an attitude object is thought about, reflected in the amount of time devoted to this thinking over an extended period. 2. the extent to which an attitude is linked to other attitudes in memory. Increased centrality is associated with enhanced attitude strength.

centralized organization

centralized organization an organizational structure in which those holding positions of authority at the upper levels of the hierarchy retain control over decision making. Compare decentralized organization.

centration

centration n. in Piagetian theory, the tendency of children in the preoperational stage to attend to one aspect of a problem, object, or situation at a time, to the exclusion of others. Compare decentration.

centrencephalic

centrencephalic adj. located in or near the center of the brain.

centrencephalic epilepsy

centrencephalic epilepsy a form of epilepsy marked by generalized seizures (absence seizures and some tonic–clonic seizures) that appear to originate near the center of the brain. It is not associated with any particular local anatomical or functional system but instead radiates outward through both cerebral hemispheres. The term was coined in the 1940s by U.S.-born Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield (1891–1976) and U.S.-born Canadian neuroscientist Herbert Jasper (1906–1999), and its use is restricted primarily to historic contexts.

centrencephalic system

centrencephalic system the concept of a central anatomical brain region (the centrencephalon) whose activities provide a coherent unity for mental processes and the seat of free will. [proposed by U.S.-born Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield (1891–1976)]

centrifugal

centrifugal adj. directed away from the center. For example, a centrifugal nerve carries impulses from the central nervous system to a peripheral region of the body. Compare centripetal.

centripetal

centripetal adj. 1. directed toward the center. For example, a centripetal nerve carries nerve impulses from the periphery to the central nervous system. Compare centrifugal. 2. characterizing treatment approaches that focus inward on minute changes in feelings and impulses, as in psychoanalysis.

centripetal impulse

centripetal impulse a nerve impulse that travels from the periphery toward the central nervous system, that is, a sensory or afferent impulse.

centroid

centroid n. 1. in geometry, the center point of an object or area in multidimensional space. It may be determined by calculating the intersection of all straight lines or planes that divide the area into two equal parts. 2. the mean of multivariate data. It may be obtained by calculating the average of the vectors for the set of variables.

centromedian nucleus

centromedian nucleus see center median.

centromere

centromere n. the part of a chromosome at which the chromatids are joined and that is attached to the equatorial plane of the spindle during cell division. The centromere occasionally becomes a separate body of genetic material, accounting for certain types of anomalies.

cephalalgia

cephalalgia n. pain in the head (see headache).

cephalic

cephalic adj. pertaining to or located in the head.

cephalic index

cephalic index the ratio of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length, multiplied by 100. The average, or medium, cephalic index for humans is between 75 and 81 (mesocephalic). A measure below 75 indicates a narrow head that is long in proportion to its width (dolichocephalic); a measure above 81 indicates a head that is wide in proportion to its length (brachycephalic). Also called cranial index. [defined by Swedish anatomist Anders Retzius (1796–1860)]

cephalization

cephalization n. 1. the evolutionary tendency for important structures (brain, major sense organs, etc.) to develop at the anterior (front) end of organisms. 2. the evolutionary tendency for the brain to increase in size. See encephalization; evolution of the brain.

cephalo- (cephal-)

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cephalocaudal

cephalocaudal adj. from head to tail, as in the long axis of the body. The term typically refers to the maturation of an embryo or infant, wherein the greatest development takes place at the top of the body (i.e., the head) before the lower parts (i.e., the arms, trunk, legs). Compare proximodistal.

cephalocaudal axis

cephalocaudal axis see axis.

cephalogenesis

cephalogenesis n. formation of the head in embryonic development.

cephalometry

cephalometry n. the scientific measurement of the dimensions of the head. Cephalometry is used in orthodontics to predict and evaluate craniofacial development. Fetal cephalometry is the in utero measurement of the skull of the fetus, using ultrasound or X-ray techniques.

CER

CER abbreviation for conditioned emotional response.

cereb-

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cerebellar

cerebellar adj. of or relating to the cerebellum.

cerebellar ataxia

cerebellar ataxia poor muscular coordination (see ataxia) due to damage in the cerebellum. Individuals cannot integrate voluntary movements and therefore find it difficult to stand or walk, feed themselves, and perform complex activities (e.g., playing the piano).

cerebellar cortex

cerebellar cortex the gray matter, or unmyelinated nerve cells, covering the surface of the cerebellum.

cerebellar folia

cerebellar folia the pattern of thin folds that subdivide the cerebellar cortex.

cerebellar gait

cerebellar gait an unsteady, wobbly, wide-based gait, resembling that of an intoxicated individual and associated with cerebellar lesions or dysfunction.

cerebellar hemisphere

cerebellar hemisphere either of the two main lobes of the cerebellum.

cerebellar nucleus

cerebellar nucleus any of the small masses of neurons that lie within the white matter of the cerebellum.

cerebellar peduncle

cerebellar peduncle any of the three bundles of nerve fibers that connect each main lobe (hemisphere) of the cerebellum with other parts of the brain. The superior cerebellar peduncle, or brachium conjunctivum, connects the cerebellum with the midbrain; the middle peduncle connects the cerebellum with the pons; and the inferior peduncle connects the cerebellum with the medulla oblongata.

cerebellar rigidity

cerebellar rigidity see extensor rigidity.

cerebellar speech

cerebellar speech a type of speech that is jerky, irregular, and poorly coordinated due to a lesion of the cerebellum. Also called asynergic speech.

cerebellopontine angle

cerebellopontine angle a region of the human brain where the cerebellum touches the pons. The facial nerve and the vestibulocochlear nerve enter the brainstem in this region, and tumors frequently occur in either of these nerves in this region.

cerebellum

cerebellum n. (pl. cerebella) a portion of the hindbrain dorsal to the rest of the brainstem, to which it is connected by the cerebellar peduncles. The cerebellum modulates muscular contractions to produce smooth, accurately timed ballistic movements; it helps maintain equilibrium by predicting body positions ahead of actual body movements, and it is required for some kinds of motor conditioning. [Latin, literally: “little brain,” diminutive of cerebrum]

cerebral

cerebral adj. referring to the cerebrum of the brain.

cerebral achromatopsia

cerebral achromatopsia see achromatism.

cerebral amblyopia

cerebral amblyopia a depression of light vision and complete loss of form and color vision in either the left or right half of the visual field (unilateral hemiamblyopia) or in both the left and right halves (bilateral hemiamblyopia). Movement vision is typically not affected. See also Riddoch’s phenomenon.

cerebral anemia

cerebral anemia a condition of abnormally low levels of hemoglobin or red blood cells in the blood reaching brain tissues, which may cause cerebral infarction.

cerebral angiography

cerebral angiography a noninvasive technique for examining brain structure by taking X-rays after special dyes have been injected into cerebral blood vessels. Inferences about adjacent tissue can be made from examination of the principal blood vessels. It has been largely superseded by techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging, such as magnetic resonance angiography. Also called cerebral arteriography.

cerebral angiomatosis

cerebral angiomatosis a disease characterized by the formation of multiple tumors in the blood vessels that supply brain tissue. A congenital form of the disorder is marked by frequent seizures and muscular weakness on one side of the body as a result of impaired blood flow to the brain.

cerebral aqueduct

cerebral aqueduct a passage containing cerebrospinal fluid that extends through the midbrain to link the third and fourth cerebral ventricles of the brain. Also called aqueduct of Sylvius; Sylvian aqueduct.

cerebral arteriography

cerebral arteriography see cerebral angiography.

cerebral arteriosclerosis

cerebral arteriosclerosis a hardening of the arteries that supply the brain.

cerebral atrophy

cerebral atrophy degeneration and shrinkage of the brain, usually due to aging, disease, or injury. It is marked by enlargement of the surface clefts (sulci) and inner cavities (ventricles) of the brain. In normal aging there may be few or no cognitive effects, but cerebral atrophy may be secondary to more serious disorders, such as cerebrovascular disease, encephalitis, Alzheimer’s disease, or head injury. Also called brain atrophy.

cerebral beriberi

cerebral beriberi see Wernicke’s encephalopathy.

cerebral blindness

cerebral blindness see cortical blindness.

cerebral contusion

cerebral contusion bruising of the brain, in which blood vessels are damaged but not ruptured, resulting from head injury. The effects vary with the severity of the injury, ranging from temporary neurological symptoms to permanent disability. Also called brain contusion.

cerebral cortex

cerebral cortex the layer of gray matter that covers the outside of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain and is associated with higher cognitive functions, such as language, learning, perception, and planning. It consists mostly of neocortex, which has six main layers of cells (see cortical layers); regions of cerebral cortex that do not have six layers are known as allocortex. Differences in the cytoarchitecture of the layers led to the recognition of distinct areas, called Brodmann’s areas, many of which are known to serve different functions.

cerebral death

cerebral death see brain death.

cerebral diplopia

cerebral diplopia see diplopia.

cerebral dominance

cerebral dominance 1. the control of lower brain centers by the cerebrum or cerebral cortex. 2. the controlling or disproportionate influence on certain aspects of behavior by one cerebral hemisphere (e.g., language is typically left lateralized in right-handed people). See hemispheric lateralization.

cerebral dyschromatopsia

cerebral dyschromatopsia 1. incomplete cerebral achromatism. 2. a distortion of color vision, as if the individual is seeing through a color filter. See also visual illusion.

cerebral dysfunction

cerebral dysfunction any impairment in cerebral processes, including disturbances of memory, language, attention, or executive functioning.

cerebral dysplasia

cerebral dysplasia any abnormality in the development of the brain. There are various types of cerebral dysplasia, including anencephaly, marked by failure of the cerebral hemispheres to develop; porencephaly, characterized by development of a hemisphere containing abnormal cavities; and callosal agenesis.

cerebral dysrhythmia

cerebral dysrhythmia a condition of abnormal brain-wave rhythms associated with neurological disease or other pathological conditions, such as a drug overdose.

cerebral edema

cerebral edema an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the intercellular or intracellular spaces of brain tissues, which may be caused by injury, disease, cerebrovascular accident, or tumor (see also acute mountain sickness). The condition results in swelling and a rise in intracranial pressure; if uncorrected, this may be followed by herniation of cerebral tissue through weakened areas. It may be reversible unless the damage extends to the brainstem, where the effects can be fatal. The increase in intracranial pressure may result in headaches and visual disorders. Cerebral edema can also cause cognitive dysfunction that recedes when the defect is corrected.

cerebral electrotherapy (CET)

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cerebral embolism

cerebral embolism the presence of a small mass of material in the blood vessels of the brain (see embolism), which blocks or impedes the flow of blood to a part of the brain, resulting in an acute or chronic neurological deficit. See embolic stroke.

cerebral gigantism

cerebral gigantism see Sotos syndrome.

cerebral hemisphere

cerebral hemisphere either half (left or right) of the cerebrum. The hemispheres are separated by a deep longitudinal fissure, but they are connected by commissural, projection, and association fibers so that each side of the brain normally is linked to functions of tissues on either side of the body. See also hemispheric lateralization.

cerebral hemorrhage

cerebral hemorrhage any bleeding into the brain tissue due to a damaged blood vessel. The cause may be cerebrovascular disease, a ruptured aneurysm, a penetrating injury or blow to the head, or other factors. The neurological effects vary with the extent of the hemorrhage. Also called intracerebral hemorrhage. See hemorrhagic stroke.

cerebral hyperplasia

cerebral hyperplasia an abnormal increase in the volume of brain tissue, usually due to a proliferation of new, normal cells. Although neurons do not proliferate after the central nervous system has reached maturity, cells of the glia do continue to multiply into adulthood; in some cases neuroglial cell growth is associated with hydrocephalus.

cerebral hypoplasia

cerebral hypoplasia the incomplete development of the cerebral hemispheres. It may be due to a congenital defect or malnutrition during early childhood.

cerebral infarction

cerebral infarction the death of brain tissue due to an interruption of blood flow caused by rupture of a blood vessel, blockage of a blood vessel by a clot (see embolism), or a narrowing (stenosis) of a blood vessel.

cerebral infection

cerebral infection the invasion of brain tissues by a pathogenic organism, such as a virus or bacterium. Most cases occur as a complication of a viral infection (see encephalitis); the most common bacterial infection is meningitis.

cerebral ischemia

cerebral ischemia a condition in which brain tissue is deprived of an adequate blood supply and thus lacks oxygen and nutrients. It is usually marked by loss of normal function of the affected area and may be accompanied by cerebral edema. A brief interruption in blood supply—a transient ischemic attack (TIA)—usually causes no serious damage. An interruption lasting more than several minutes may result in cerebral infarction. See cerebrovascular accident; stroke.

cerebral lateralization

cerebral lateralization see hemispheric lateralization.

cerebral lesion

cerebral lesion see brain lesion.

cerebral pacemaker

cerebral pacemaker a hypothetical group of nerve cells in the brain that are believed to regulate the rhythms of brain waves in the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral pacemaker is believed to be located at the base of the brain, in the region of the hypothalamus or in the reticular formation.

cerebral palsy (CP)

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cerebral peduncle

cerebral peduncle either of two cylindrical bundles of nerve fibers that pass through the pons to form the main connection between the cerebral hemispheres and the spinal cord. Also called crus cerebri.

cerebral specialization

cerebral specialization the differential contribution of the two cerebral hemispheres to many functions. See hemispheric lateralization.

cerebral stimulation

cerebral stimulation see brain stimulation.

cerebral syphilis

cerebral syphilis a condition that results when untreated syphilis involves the cerebral cortex and surrounding meningeal membranes, causing general paresis. The condition, which usually develops about 10 years after the initial infection, is marked by irritability, memory impairment, inability to concentrate, headaches, insomnia, and behavioral deterioration. See neurosyphilis.

cerebral thrombosis

cerebral thrombosis see thrombosis.

cerebral trauma

cerebral trauma any damage to the brain, which may be temporary or permanent, following a blow to the head of sufficient severity to produce a concussion, contusion, or laceration.

cerebral type

cerebral type a body type in which the central nervous system is thought to have a dominant role, resulting in pronounced intellectual and cognitive abilities. See Carus typology; Rostan types.

cerebral vascular accident

cerebral vascular accident see cerebrovascular accident.

cerebral vascular disease

cerebral vascular disease see cerebrovascular disease.

cerebral vascular insufficiency

cerebral vascular insufficiency see cerebrovascular insufficiency.

cerebral ventricle

cerebral ventricle see ventricle.

cerebral vesicle

cerebral vesicle an outgrowth of the embryonic neural tube that develops into one of the three main regions of the brain: namely, the forebrain, midbrain, or hindbrain.

cerebration

cerebration n. any kind of conscious thinking, such as pondering or problem solving. —cerebrate vb.

cerebritis

cerebritis n. an infection of the brain. See cerebral infection.

cerebro- (cereb-)

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cerebrocranial defect

cerebrocranial defect a deformity or dysfunction involving the cerebrum and the eight bones of the skull that form a protective layer around it. An example is the premature closing of the sutures of the skull, resulting in a displacement of cerebral tissues.

cerebromacular

cerebromacular adj. referring to diseases, such as Tay–Sachs disease, that are characterized by impairment of the brain and sometimes also by degeneration of the retina.

cerebroside

cerebroside n. a type of lipid present in the myelin sheath of nerve fibers.

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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cerebrotonia

cerebrotonia n. the personality type that, according to Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality, is associated with an ectomorphic (linear, fragile) physique (see ectomorph). Cerebrotonia is characterized by a tendency toward introversion, restraint, inhibition, love of privacy and solitude, and sensitivity. —cerebrotonic adj.

cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

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cerebrovascular disease

cerebrovascular disease a pathological condition of the blood vessels of the brain. It may manifest itself as symptoms of stroke or a transient ischemic attack. Also called cerebral vascular disease. See also cerebrovascular accident.

cerebrovascular insufficiency

cerebrovascular insufficiency failure of the cardiovascular system to supply adequate levels of oxygenated blood to the brain tissues. The condition usually arises when one of the four main arteries supplying the brain—namely, the two carotid and two vertebral arteries—is interrupted. It may also result from generalized arteriosclerosis or the inability of the heart to maintain adequate blood flow to the brain. Also called cerebral vascular insufficiency.

cerebrum

cerebrum n. the largest part of the brain, forming most of the forebrain and lying in front of and above the cerebellum. It consists of two cerebral hemispheres bridged by the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, and temporal lobe. The outer layer of the cerebrum—the cerebral cortex—is intricately folded and composed of gray matter. Also called telencephalon. [Latin, literally: “brain”]

CERQ

CERQ abbreviation for Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire.

certainty of an attitude

certainty of an attitude the level of subjective confidence that a person has regarding (a) the extent to which he or she has a clear notion of his or her attitude and (b) the degree to which that attitude is a valid evaluation of the attitude object. It is related to attitude strength.

certainty of paternity

certainty of paternity the degree to which a putative parent can be certain that he, she, or it is the parent of an offspring. Because of internal fertilization and gestation, all female mammals are certain of maternity, but no male mammal can be 100% certain of paternity. In birds, brood parasitism can trick parents of both sexes into caring for chicks unrelated to either parent.

certifiable

certifiable adj. 1. describing people who, because of mental illness, may be a danger to themselves or others and are therefore eligible to be institutionalized. See certification laws; commitment laws. 2. having met the requirements to be formally recognized by the relevant licensing or sanctioning body.

certificate of need (CON)

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certification

certification n. 1. the formal process by which an external agency affirms that a person has met predetermined standards and has the requisite knowledge and skills to be considered competent in a particular area. Certification applies to individuals and accreditation applies to institutions. See also credentialing. 2. the legal proceedings in which appropriate mental health care professionals formally confirm that a person has a mental disorder, which may result in commitment of that person. —certificated adj.

certification laws

certification laws 1. legislation governing the admission of individuals to mental institutions, including commitment proceedings as well as a review of case records to determine whether health care is necessary and whether the institution and type of care are appropriate. 2. state laws governing the right of an individual to describe himself or herself as a psychologist.

certiorari

certiorari n. a writ issued by a superior court demanding review of the action of a lower court. For example, if the U.S. Supreme Court issues a writ of certiorari (Latin, literally: “to be informed”), it has agreed to review a case that was decided by a lower court and subsequently appealed.

cerumen

cerumen n. the waxlike secretion normally present in the external auditory meatus of the ear. Also called earwax.

cerveau isolé

cerveau isolé a nonhuman animal whose midbrain has been transected between the inferior and superior colliculi (see colliculus) for experimental purposes. See also encéphale isolé. [French, “isolated brain”]

cervical

cervical adj. 1. relating to, occurring in, or affecting the neck, for example, the cervical nerves. 2. pertaining to a necklike structure, especially the cervix of the uterus.

cervical angina

cervical angina see pseudoangina.

cervical ganglion

cervical ganglion any of the collections of neural cell bodies (ganglia) of the sympathetic nervous system that occur in the neck region. They innervate the pupils, sweat glands of the head, salivary glands, and heart.

cervical nerve

cervical nerve any of the eight spinal nerves in the neck area. Each has a dorsal root that is sensory in function and a ventral root that has motor function.

cervical plexus

cervical plexus a nerve network formed from the ventral roots of the upper four cervical nerves. This plexus is anesthetized for surgical operations in the region between the jaw and the collarbone.

cervical sprain syndrome

cervical sprain syndrome see whiplash.

cervix

cervix n. in anatomy, any necklike part, especially the neck of the uterus, which is the portion of the uterus that projects into the vagina. The cervix of a tooth is the slightly constricted part between the crown and the root.

CES

CES abbreviation for cranial electrical stimulation. See electrosleep therapy.

CES-D

CES-D abbreviation for Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale.

Cesamet

Cesamet n. a trade name for nabilone.

cesarean section (caesarean section; C-section)

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CET

CET abbreviation for cerebral electrotherapy.

CF

CF 1. abbreviation for characteristic frequency. See tuning curve. 2. abbreviation for cumulative frequency.

CFA

CFA abbreviation for confirmatory factor analysis.

CFF

CFF abbreviation for critical flicker frequency.

CFS

CFS abbreviation for chronic fatigue syndrome.

cGMP

cGMP abbreviation for cyclic GMP.

chain of behavior

chain of behavior see behavior pattern.

chain reproduction

chain reproduction in social and cultural psychology, the process by which material (e.g., ideas or stories) is relayed from person to person or group to group and altered slightly at each stage of transmission. In group exercises based on this process, the ultimate product can be compared with the original in order to show, for example, that a description of a cat has gradually become that of a lion. The same type of distortion occurs in the passing on of rumors and gossip through the processes of leveling (simplification), sharpening (emphasis on selected details), and assimilation (altering the accounts to suit attitudes, expectations, and prejudices).

chained schedule

chained schedule a schedule of reinforcement for a single response in which a sequence of at least two schedules, each accompanied by a distinctive stimulus, must be completed before primary reinforcement occurs. For example, in a chained fixed-ratio 10, fixed-ratio 50 schedule, 10 responses change the stimulus situation and then 50 more result in primary reinforcement. Chained schedules are often used to study conditioned reinforcement. Also called chained reinforcement. Compare tandem reinforcement.

chaining

chaining n. an operant conditioning technique in which a complex behavioral sequence is learned. Animals, both human and nonhuman, can be taught to perform relatively elaborate sequences of activities by this method, which makes primary reinforcement contingent on the final response in the series. In backward chaining, the final response is taught first. Once established, the stimulus for that response becomes a conditioned reinforcer that is used to reinforce the next-to-last response in the chain; this stimulus is then used to reinforce another response. The chain is thus taught backward, one response at a time. In forward chaining, the chain is taught by reinforcing the first step in the sequence, then the second, and so on until the entire sequence is learned. Also called behavior chaining.

chakra

chakra n. in Eastern philosophy, one of the seven energy centers in the body. The chakras roughly correspond with the endocrine system. Each chakra symbolizes different, ascending human needs and has a sound (mantra) and color associated with it. Focused awareness and contemplation of the chakras may be practiced in yoga and in other therapeutic approaches and traditions.

challenge

challenge 1. n. an obstacle appraised as an opportunity rather than a threat. A threat becomes a challenge when the individual judges that his or her coping resources are adequate not only to overcome the stress associated with the obstacle but also to improve the situation in a measurable way. 2. vb. to pose or face with an obstacle or threat.

challenge for cause

challenge for cause a request made to the judge during voir dire that a prospective juror be removed for some specific reason. For example, a juror with some relationship to either the prosecution or the defense may be removed as a result of a challenge for cause. Compare peremptory challenge.

challenge suggestion

challenge suggestion a suggestion designed to test for and deepen an individual’s hypnotic susceptibility. It usually consists of a simple physical command. For example, the hypnotist may say, “You want to close your eyes”: If the individual immediately does so, the hypnotist may conclude that this person is highly suggestible and has entered a state of hypnosis. Compliance with the challenge suggestion may also increase the individual’s sense of being without volitional power and reduce his or her ability to reject subsequent suggestions. Also called challenge test. See also hypnotic rigidity; ideomotor suggestion.

challenged

challenged adj. describing an individual with a disability. The word is often considered to be euphemistic.

challenging behavior

challenging behavior behavior that is dangerous or that interferes in participation in preschool, educational, or adult services and often necessitates the design and use of special interventions. The term is used principally in human services in the United Kingdom and within educational services in the United States and most typically refers to behaviors of people with intellectual or developmental disabilities.

CHAMPUS

CHAMPUS acronym for Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services.

chance difference

chance difference a difference between two samples that arises from the nature of sampling itself, rather than from any intervention by a researcher. For example, scores obtained from two groups of research participants might vary because of personal factors affecting some individuals (e.g., financial worries) and not because of the conditions of the study.

chance variation

chance variation 1. any change in hereditary traits due to unknown factors. 2. see random variation.

change agent

change agent 1. a specific causative factor or element or an entire process that results in change, particularly in the sense of improvement. In psychotherapy research, a change agent may be a component or process in therapy that results in improvement in the behavior or psychological adaptation of a patient or client. 2. an individual who instigates or implements change within a social unit or situation (e.g., a family or group) or within an organization by communicating to, managing, and encouraging others in the change.

change blindness

change blindness a failure to notice changes in the visual array appearing in two successive scenes. This is surprisingly common whenever the brief movement (the transient) that usually accompanies a change is somehow masked or interrupted. In experimental investigations, the transient is often blocked by inserting a blank screen between the original image (e.g., a picture of an airplane) and the changed image (e.g., a second picture of the same airplane with an engine missing), or by scattering a few small, high-contrast shapes across the picture simultaneously with the change. Detection failures also occur when changes are made during blinks, saccades, and other natural occlusions, or when changes happen gradually and thus have no transients. Such failures have also been documented in such real-world situations as automobile accidents, eyewitness identifications, military operations, and everyday interpersonal interactions. Attention-based explanations for the phenomenon attribute it to diversion of an individual’s focus from the changing object. Other theories postulate that failure to notice changes represents a failure to encode the visual information in working memory, generally because it was not relevant to task demands. Still other theories emphasize a failure to compare prechange and postchange mental representations of the visual environment. See also attentional blindness; inattentional blindness; mindsight; repetition blindness. [term coined in 1997 by Canadian psychologist and computer scientist Ronald A. Rensink and colleagues]

change effect

change effect in parapsychology, a phenomenon in which the physical structure of an object appears to have been altered by paranormal means, as in the alleged structural changes to metal in “spoon-bending” demonstrations. See psychokinesis.

change management

change management the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating change within organizations or communities, with the goal of realizing the benefits of change while implementing it as efficiently, smoothly, and cost-effectively as possible. Change management practices include effective communication regarding the change, such as the identification of intended consequences, and the prediction of and preparation for unintended consequences.

change of life

change of life see climacteric.

change of venue

change of venue the transfer of a trial to another location if there is evidence that obtaining a fair and unbiased jury may be difficult in the original location, often owing to extensive pretrial publicity.

change score

change score see difference score.

change therapy

change therapy see conversion therapy.

change-over delay (COD)

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changing-criterion design

changing-criterion design an experimental approach in which an initial baseline phase is followed by implementation of a treatment program delivered in a series of phases. Each phase has its own criterion rate for the target behavior, and once responding becomes stable an incremental shift in the criterion occurs to implement another phase. For example, a researcher studying the effectiveness of money in reducing caffeine consumption may use a changing-criterion design with four treatment phases, each gradually decreasing the amount below which participants must maintain their caffeine intake. The changing-criterion design is distinguished from other approaches (e.g., the A-B-A design) in that it does not require the withdrawal of an intervention, an extended baseline, or treatment implementation across multiple behaviors or treatments.

channel

channel n. an information transmission system. For example, the nervous system transmits coded messages from sense receptors (input) to effectors (output).

channel capacity

channel capacity in information theory, the maximum capacity of information or messages that a given channel can accommodate.

channel factors

channel factors characteristics of the mode by which a persuasive message is communicated. For example, presentation of a message via written text (vs. an audio recording) is a channel factor. See also message-learning approach.

channels of communication

channels of communication 1. in the social psychology of groups, the paths that are usually available for the transmission of information from one person to one or more other people in the group or organization. For example, in a highly centralized communication structure, all information passes through the individual at the center of the network, who then routes it to other members of the organization. 2. the sensory means by which information is conveyed in face-to-face communication between people, comprising speech (source: vocal track; destination: ear), kinesics (body movement; eye), odor (chemical processes; nose), touch (body surface; skin), observation (body surface; eye), and proxemics (body placement; eye).

chaos theory

chaos theory an area of mathematical theory that deals with nonlinear systems that are profoundly affected by their initial conditions, tiny variations in which can produce complex, unpredictable, and erratic effects. It has been applied by some psychological researchers to the study of human behavior. See butterfly effect; complexity theory; dynamic systems theory; sensitive dependence.

character

character n. the totality of an individual’s attributes and personality traits, particularly his or her characteristic moral, social, and religious attitudes. Character is often used synonymously with personality. See character type.

character analysis

character analysis 1. the form of psychoanalytic treatment advocated by Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957) in 1933 as focusing less on symptoms and more on restructuring patients’ disordered character to enable them to overcome their self-protective armoring (i.e., resistance) against facing their neuroses. 2. see characterology.

character development

character development the gradual development of moral concepts, conscience, religious values or views, and social attitudes as an essential aspect of personality development.

character disorder

character disorder formerly, in psychoanalysis, an alternative name for personality disorder.

character displacement

character displacement a divergence in a physical, physiological, or behavioral trait within two or more populations of a species that reduces competition between those populations and, over time, leads to the development of separate species. Charles Darwin found several types of finches in the Galápagos Islands with different forms of bills for eating seeds of different sizes or capturing insects of different sizes. This differentiation of bill size and shape from a founder species is a classic example of character displacement.

character neurosis

character neurosis in psychoanalysis, a former name, used interchangeably with neurotic character, for personality disorder.

character strength

character strength a positive trait, such as kindness, teamwork, or hope, that is morally valued in its own right and contributes to the fulfillment of the self and others. Also called human strength. See positive psychology.

character structure

character structure the organization of the enduring traits and attributes that make up a person’s character.

character traits

character traits in trait conceptions of personality functioning, dispositional tendencies having to do with values, motives, and the regulation of behavior in accord with moral and ethical standards.

character type

character type 1. see personality type. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a personality type defined by the kinds of defense mechanism used (e.g., a phobic character) or by fixation at a particular stage in psychosexual development (e.g., an oral personality).

characteristic

characteristic n. 1. a particular feature or quality of a person, animal, or other unit of interest, especially any of the enduring qualities or traits that define an individual’s nature or personality in relation to others. 2. a parameter that describes a population distribution, such as its mean or standard deviation.

characteristic frequency (CF)

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characterology

characterology n. 1. formerly, the branch of psychology concerned with character and personality. Also called character analysis. 2. a pseudoscience in which character is “read” by external signs, such as hair color or facial type.

Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease

Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease a slowly progressive neuromuscular disorder characterized by muscle wasting (atrophy) and weakness in the arms (from the elbows down) and legs (from the knees down); feeling and movement in these areas may be lost. The disease, which results from degeneration of peripheral motor and sensory nerves, typically does not affect life expectancy. Usually autosomal dominant (see dominant allele), it occasionally has recessive forms resulting in more severe symptoms. Also called peroneal muscular atrophy. [Jean-Martin Charcot and Pierre Marie (1853–1940), French neurologists; Howard Tooth (1856–1925), British physician]

charisma

charisma n. the special quality of personality that enables an individual to attract and gain the confidence of large numbers of people. It is exemplified in outstanding political, social, and religious leaders. —charismatic adj.

charismatic authority

charismatic authority see authority.

charismatic leader

charismatic leader the type of political or social leader who commands high levels of devotion, enthusiasm, and commitment from his or her followers. German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) defined charismatic leaders as those who are widely admired and respected by their followers (e.g., Napoleon, Churchill), but the term is more popularly used to mean leaders who owe their success to personal charm or magnetism.

charity

charity n. any act that benefits other people who lack essential resources or otherwise are in need of assistance. Unlike altruism, charitable behavior may be carried out with the expectation of benefits in return. For example, a person who volunteers time at an organization that provides food and shelter to those who are homeless may do so primarily to be recognized in the local newspaper.

charlatan

charlatan n. 1. a person who makes a pretense of having knowledge or skills that he or she does not in fact possess, especially in the field of medicine. See also quack. 2. in parapsychology, a person who uses conjuring tricks or other forms of deliberate deception to claim paranormal powers.

Charles Bonnet syndrome

Charles Bonnet syndrome complex visual hallucinations without delusions or the loss of insightful cognition, typically seen in older adults who have severe visual impairment. Such hallucinations are usually nonthreatening and often pleasant and are not indicative of mental illness or psychological disorder. Also called Bonnet syndrome. [Charles Bonnet (1720–1793), Swiss naturalist and philosopher]

charm

charm n. 1. the power of pleasing, attracting, or arousing interest in other people through one’s manner or other personal qualities. 2. an amulet often worn for its associative value to bring good luck or to protect from evil. 3. a magic spell, usually consisting of an incantation with associated ritual actions.

Charpentier’s bands

Charpentier’s bands illusory light and dark bands that appear to follow a moving slit of light in the dark. [Pierre Marie Augustin Charpentier (1852–1916), French experimentalist]

Charpentier’s illusion

Charpentier’s illusion see size–weight illusion. [Pierre Charpentier]

chart

chart 1. n. a graphic or tabular display of data. 2. vb. to create such a display.

chastity

chastity n. the state of abstaining from illicit sexual intercourse or—by extension—from all sexual activity. In religious usage, it also includes the concept of not having sexual urges or impure thoughts. See also celibacy. —chaste adj.

chat

chat n. see khat.

chauvinism

chauvinism n. excessive favoritism toward a social, political, or ethnic group. Initially, the word referred to extreme patriotism, as it derives from the name of a French soldier (Nicolas Chauvin) who displayed excessive devotion to Napoleon; now, however, it is often used to mean the mistaken belief that men are superior to women (male chauvinism). —chauvinistic adj. —chauvinist n.

CHD

CHD abbreviation for coronary heart disease.

ChE

ChE abbreviation for cholinesterase.

cheating

cheating n. 1. influencing one’s own or others’ outcomes by deceit, trickery, or other unfair maneuvers. Because cheating is disruptive to maintaining a variety of social relationships, human beings and other animals have developed strategies to detect and punish it. 2. in evolutionary psychology, using asocial strategies to gain an evolutionary advantage. For example, males of some species who have formed an exclusive pair bond with a female may nonetheless seek to mate with other females so as to increase their chances of producing offspring. 3. in reciprocal altruism, the failure of an individual to aid another individual who has provided assistance in the past. 4. see infidelity. —cheat vb., n.

check reading

check reading in ergonomics, a machine display that provides information about the particular state of a system and is used by an operator to assess whether that system is operating within normal limits. Compare annunciator.

checkerboard pattern

checkerboard pattern a pattern of alternating light and dark squares used in visual psychophysical tests and to stimulate visually responsive cells in the brain.

checklist

checklist n. a list of items that are to be observed, recorded, corrected, or otherwise considered in some manner. See also behavior checklist.

ChEI

ChEI abbreviation for cholinesterase inhibitor.

cheilophagia (chilophagia)

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cheiromancy

cheiromancy n. see palmistry. —cheiromancer n.

chelation

chelation n. the formation of chemical bonds between a metal ion and two or more nonmetallic ions. It can be used to remove certain types of ions from biological reactions or from the body, as in the removal of lead or mercury from the body by use of chelating agents.

chemesthesis

chemesthesis n. the sense receptive to chemical stimuli through activation of receptors in the eyes, nose, mouth, and throat other than those associated with the chemical senses, typically those involved in pain, touch, and thermal awareness. An example is the activation of pain receptors deriving from the burn in the taste of a chili pepper. Also called common chemical sense.

chemical antagonism

chemical antagonism see antagonist.

chemical brain stimulation

chemical brain stimulation the placing of various neurotransmitters or other brain-active chemicals in specific brain locations for therapeutic or experimental purposes.

chemical castration

chemical castration the administration of chemicals (e.g., estrogens or antiandrogens) that block the effects of androgens and inhibit testicular production to manage advanced prostate cancer or, more controversially, to reduce sexual drive in sex offenders. Research has shown that a minority of sex offenders will offend again after chemical castration, indicating that sex drive is not the only cause of sexual offenses.

chemical communication

chemical communication the use of odorants and other substances (see external chemical messenger) to transmit information between individuals. Many nonhuman animals have specialized scent glands for scent production and specialized behavior for depositing scents. Chemical signals communicate the identity of species, subspecies, and individuals; reproductive status; dominance status; fear; and territorial boundaries. An advantage of chemical communication is that signals can remain long after the communicator has left.

chemical dependence

chemical dependence see substance dependence.

chemical senses

chemical senses the senses receptive to chemical stimulation (i.e., through contact with chemical molecules or electrolytes), particularly the senses of smell and taste. Airborne molecules are inhaled and dissolved in the mucous membrane of the olfactory epithelium to confer odors. Molecules dissolved in liquids are delivered to the taste cells on the tongue, soft palate, larynx, and pharynx to confer tastes.

chemical stimulation

chemical stimulation activity or a change of activity generated in olfactory (smell) or gustatory (taste) receptor cells by contact with specific electrolytes or molecules. Both chemical senses have specialized receptor proteins to which stimulating molecules bind to create electrical potentials. These potentials are passed on to peripheral nerves that transmit the message to the central nervous system for interpretation. See chemoreceptor.

chemical sympathectomy

chemical sympathectomy see sympathectomy.

chemical synapse

chemical synapse a type of specialized junction through which a signal is transmitted from one neuron to another across the narrow gap (synaptic cleft) separating them through the release and diffusion of neurotransmitter. Though slower than electrical synapses, chemical synapses are more flexible and comprise the majority of neuronal junctions within the body. Because of this prevalence, the qualifier generally is omitted and synapse used alone to denote a chemical junction.

chemical trail

chemical trail a track of chemical signals left by some nonhuman animals along the ground or another surface that allows group members to follow in the same direction as the trail maker but at a different time. Ants, for example, often leave chemical trails that provide direction toward foraging sites or the home nest.

chemical transmission

chemical transmission the transmission of nerve impulses between nerve cells by neurotransmitter molecules. See also synapse.

chemical transmitter

chemical transmitter see neurotransmitter.

chemical warfare

chemical warfare combat and associated military operations involving the use of incapacitating agents (e.g., poisons, contaminants, irritants), some of which may be lethal. Chemical weapons conventions prohibit the development, production, stockpiling, and use of such agents.

chemistry

chemistry n. 1. the composition, attributes, and reactions of substances, particularly at the atomic level. 2. the science of such phenomena. See also neurochemistry.

chemoaffinity hypothesis

chemoaffinity hypothesis the notion that each neuron has a chemical identity that directs it to synapse on the proper target cell during development. [developed in the 1940s by U.S. psychologist Roger Sperry]

chemoattractant

chemoattractant n. a chemical compound that attracts particular classes of growth cones of neurons and so directs the growth of their axons. Compare chemorepellant.

chemoreceptor

chemoreceptor n. a sensory nerve ending, such as any of those in the taste buds or olfactory epithelium, that is capable of reacting to certain chemical stimuli. The chemical molecule or electrolyte generally must be in a solution to be detected by the chemoreceptors for taste; it must be volatile to be detected by those involved in smell. In humans, there are hundreds of different taste receptor proteins and a total of about 300,000 taste cells, with some taste receptors reacting only to certain stimuli, such as those producing a bitter taste. Humans also have about 1,000 types of olfactory receptors and about 1,000 receptors of each type, giving a total of one million olfactory receptors; other mammals (e.g., dogs) may have ten times that number. The relation between specific olfactory stimuli and particular olfactory receptors is still being debated.

chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ)

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chemorepellant

chemorepellant n. a chemical compound that repels particular classes of growth cones of neurons and so directs the growth of their axons. Compare chemoattractant.

chemosensory event-related potential (CSERP)

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chemotaxis

chemotaxis n. see taxis.

chemotherapy

chemotherapy n. the use of chemical agents to treat diseases, particularly cancer, in which case it is contrasted with radiation therapy. —chemotherapeutic adj. —chemotherapist n.

Chernoff faces

Chernoff faces a representation of data in the form of stylized faces, designed to take advantage of the ability of observers to discern subtle changes in facial expressions. Features such as head and eye eccentricity, eyebrow slant, and mouth size represent different values of the variables of interest. [Herman Chernoff (1923– ), U.S. statistician]

chessboard illusion

chessboard illusion an illusion of depth that occurs if a systematically distorted checkerboard pattern (known as the Helmholtz chessboard) is viewed close to the retina. The pattern contains small squares in the center, which become progressively larger toward the periphery. The progressive enlargement of the squares compensates for the progressive distortion of the image in the peripheral retina, caused by the optics of the eye. [described by Hermann von Helmholtz]

chest voice

chest voice the lower reaches, or range, of the speaking or singing voice, in which tone is created by pectoral breathing and chest resonance with little or no nasal resonance. A calm and relaxed normal speaking tone is generally delivered in a chest voice. Compare head voice.

Cheyne–Stokes breathing

Cheyne–Stokes breathing labored breathing that alternates between increasing and decreasing rates, as in premature infants and individuals in a coma. [John Cheyne (1777–1836), Scottish medical writer; William Stokes (1804–1878), Irish physician]

chi (qi)

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chi-square

chi-square (symbol: χ2) n. a statistic that is the sum of the squared differences between the observed scores in a data set and the expected value. That is, to obtain the chi-square one finds the difference between each observed score and the expected score, squares that difference, and divides by the expected score; finally, one adds the resulting values for each score in the set. The smaller the chi-square, the more likely it is that the model from which the expected score is obtained provides a legitimate representation of the phenomenon being measured.

chi-square distribution (χ2 distribution)

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chi-square test

chi-square test any of various procedures that use a chi-square distribution to evaluate how well a theory fits a set of observed data. Unless otherwise specified, this term usually refers to the chi-square test for independence, used to determine whether there is a relationship between two variables whose values are categories. For example, it may be used to test whether sex (male vs. female) is unrelated to having a household pet (yes vs. no). It compares observed data to the data that would be expected in each cell of a contingency table if the two variables were entirely independent. This discrepancy between observed and expected counts is then used to compute the chi-square statistic. Also called chi-square procedure.

chiaroscuro

chiaroscuro n. the illusion of depth or distance in a picture produced by the use of light and shade.

chiasmal syndrome

chiasmal syndrome loss of visual acuity and abnormalities of the visual field associated with damage to the optic chiasm and the adjacent optic nerve or optic tract. Typical features are bitemporal hemianopia and optic atrophy. The majority of cases are caused by brain tumors.

chibih

chibih n. see susto.

Chicago school

Chicago school a school of psychology that emerged at the University of Chicago in the early 20th century, associated with psychologists John Dewey, James R. Angell, and Harvey A. Carr. Their approach, called functionalism, was related to the act psychology of Franz Brentano; it was an attempt to modify the subject matter of psychology by introducing the Darwinian idea that mental activities subserve an adaptive biological action function that should be the focus of psychology.

chicken game

chicken game a type of laboratory game used in experimental investigations of bargaining and competition, in which each party in the interaction can win only by selecting the competitive rather than the cooperative alternative. For example, if two cars traveling in opposite directions are stopped at a narrow intersection without traffic lights and both drivers are in a hurry, each motorist may want to start first across the intersection, pursuing his or her own interest (i.e., choosing the competitive alternative) and hoping that the other will give way (i.e., will adopt the more cooperative strategy). The danger is that if both parties choose the competitive strategy, both lose. This game differs from the prisoner’s dilemma, in which both parties have incentives both to cooperate and compete with their partner. See also game theory.

chicken pox

chicken pox a highly contagious viral infection characterized by skin eruptions with fever, headache, anorexia, and other mild constitutional symptoms. The varicella-zoster virus, which causes chicken pox in children, also causes shingles in adults, although children or adults may experience both forms (see herpes infection). A common neurological complication is acute cerebellar ataxia. Cranial nerve paralysis also may follow a chicken pox infection. Also called varicella.

child

child n. a young boy or girl between infancy and adolescence. See childhood.

child abuse

child abuse harm to a child caused by a parent or other caregiver. The harm may be physical (violence), sexual (violation or exploitation), psychological (causing emotional distress), or neglect (failure to provide needed care). See also battered-child syndrome.

child advocacy

child advocacy any organized and structured interventions on behalf of children by professionals or institutions, often in relation to such issues as special parenting needs, child abuse, and adoption or foster care.

child analysis

child analysis the application of psychoanalytic principles (considerably modified from those of classical psychoanalysis) to the treatment of children. In his first and most famous case, Sigmund Freud analyzed 5-year-old Little Hans by having the child answer questions through his father, but Freud never analyzed a child patient directly. Pioneers in the field are Melanie Klein, who developed the psychoanalytic play technique to achieve a deep analysis of the child’s unconscious, and Anna Freud, whose method was more pedagogical and encouraged ego development. See also play therapy.

Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)

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child care

child care 1. the daytime care of children by a person or organization while parents are at work. 2. the full-time residential care of children who have no other home or whose home life is seriously troubled. 3. broadly, the care of children of any age in any setting.

child care facilities

child care facilities facilities licensed to provide regular out-of-home care to children during the working day. Child care facilities may be privately run but may also be associated with firms, churches, or social agencies. Such a facility is often referred to as a day care center.

child care worker

child care worker an individual trained to attend to children on a day-to-day basis in a variety of group settings, including child care centers, schools, businesses, private households, and health care institutions. Child care workers perform such tasks as dressing, feeding, bathing, and overseeing play.

child custody

child custody the care, protection, and supervision of a child. In certain legal proceedings, such as divorce or separation, the court may grant custody to one or both parents following a child custody evaluation.

child custody evaluation

child custody evaluation a procedure, often conducted by clinical psychologists, that involves evaluating parenting behavior, analyzing parental capacity to address a child’s needs, and providing the court with a recommendation regarding child custody arrangements. See primary caretaker standard.

child day care

child day care see child care.

child development

child development the sequential changes in the behavior, cognition, and physiology of children as they grow from birth through adolescence. See developmental task.

child find

child find in the U.S. educational system, an organized screening and identification program, directed by each state’s Department of Education, that identifies preschool children in need of particular services and evaluates their readiness for school entry as well as their risk for developmental disabilities.

child guidance

child guidance a mental health approach for children that focuses not only on treatment but also on the prevention of possible future disorders by offering instruction, information, and therapeutic aid to the child and his or her family. Child-guidance services and treatment are typically provided by specialized child-guidance clinics. The child-guidance movement emerged in the early 20th century and was at its strongest from the 1940s to 1970s.

child molestation

child molestation child sexual abuse: any sexual behavior toward a child by an adult. See also emotional incest; ritual abuse.

child neglect

child neglect the denial of attention, care, or affection considered essential for the normal development of a child’s physical, emotional, and intellectual qualities, usually due to indifference from, disregard by, or impairment in the child’s caregivers. See also parental rejection.

child pornography

child pornography pornographic material featuring children. This may include written stories, pictures, or videos of naked children or of children engaging in sexual activity. Child pornography is illegal in the United States, and production or circulation of such materials is usually vigorously prosecuted.

child psychology

child psychology the branch of psychology concerned with the systematic study of the behavior, adjustment, and growth of individuals from birth through adolescence, as well as with the treatment of their behavioral, mental, and emotional disorders. See also developmental psychology.

child psychotherapy

child psychotherapy psychotherapy for children up to the age at which they reach puberty. The focus may be on emotions, cognitions, or behavior. The level of parental involvement typically depends on the age of the child, type of problem, or approach used. The child may be treated concurrently in group or family therapy.

child study movement

child study movement the first organized effort, launched in the late 19th century by G. Stanley Hall, to apply scientific methods to the study of children. The movement focused on child welfare and, among other things, helped to bring about the passage of laws governing child labor and compulsory education.

child support

child support a legally enforceable requirement that parents provide the financial means to meet the economic and educational needs of their children after the parents divorce or separate.

child visitation

child visitation in the context of divorce or situations in which children have been legally placed in the care of another (e.g., foster care), the permission granted by the court allowing a noncustodial parent, grandparent, or other family member some time to visit the child, provided this contact remains in the best interests of the child. Also called visitation rights.

child welfare

child welfare the emotional or physical well-being of children, particularly in the context of legal issues or of social programs designed to enrich or intervene in their lives.

child with special needs

child with special needs a child who requires special education. Such children may have learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, physical disabilities, or emotional difficulties. Also called special child; special needs child. See also exceptional child.

child-centered

child-centered adj. focused on the needs, interests, safety, and well-being of children, as in child-centered home or child-centered education. See also child-focused family.

child-directed speech

child-directed speech the specialized register of speech that adults and older children use when talking to young children. It is simplified and often more grammatically correct than adult-directed speech. See also infant-directed speech.

child-focused family

child-focused family a family in which the needs of one or more children are paramount, sometimes to a point where they dominate the family constellation and the parents’ needs become secondary. Also called child-centered family.

child-rearing practice

child-rearing practice a pattern of raising children that is specific to a particular society, subculture, family, or period in cultural history. Child-rearing practices vary in such areas as methods of discipline, expression of affection, and degree of permissiveness.

child–parent relationship therapy (CPRT)

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childhood

childhood n. 1. the period between the end of infancy (about 2 years of age) and the onset of puberty, marking the beginning of adolescence (10–12 years of age). This period is sometimes divided into (a) early childhood, from 2 years through the preschool age of 5 or 6 years; (b) middle childhood, from 6 to 8–10 years of age; and (c) late childhood or preadolescence, which is identified as the 2-year period before the onset of puberty. 2. the period between 3 or 4 years of age and about 7 years of age. In this context, childhood represents the period after weaning and before children can fend for themselves. Childhood in this more technical sense is unique to humans; other mammals advance directly from infancy to juvenility. See juvenile period. [defined by U.S. anthropologist Barry Bogin (1950– )]

childhood absence epilepsy

childhood absence epilepsy a form of epilepsy in which children below the age of 7 experience frequent absence seizures. It was formerly called pyknolepsy.

childhood amnesia

childhood amnesia the commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood (see early memory). Childhood amnesia has been attributed to the facts that (a) cognitive abilities necessary for encoding events for the long term have not yet been fully developed and (b) parts of the brain responsible for remembering personal events have not yet matured. Also called infantile amnesia.

childhood apraxia of speech

childhood apraxia of speech see developmental apraxia of speech.

childhood autism

childhood autism see autism.

childhood depression

childhood depression a major depressive episode that occurs in childhood. Defining symptoms may differ from those of major depressive episodes in adults in that irritable mood is more characteristic than depressed mood, and failure to make expected weight gains often replaces an actual weight loss.

childhood disintegrative disorder

childhood disintegrative disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by a significant loss of two or more of the following: previously acquired language skills, social skills or adaptive behavior, bowel or bladder control, play, or motor skills. This regression in functioning follows a period of normal development and occurs between the ages of 2 and 10. Impairments in social interaction and communication are also evident. In DSM–5, childhood disintegrative disorder is subsumed into autism spectrum disorder and is no longer considered a distinct entity.

childhood disorder

childhood disorder any social, emotional, behavioral, or educational disorder of childhood.

childhood fears

childhood fears fears occurring at different stages of childhood, such as fear of strangers, which usually develops around 8 months of age, and fear of heights, which emerges after the child learns to crawl. The content of fear changes for children from 2 to 6 years of age, with fears of darkness, animals, doctors, ghosts, monsters, and storms being common occurrences that usually pass in a few months or years without treatment.

childhood neurosis

childhood neurosis in Freudian theory, the development of psychological symptoms in childhood in response to efforts of defense against conflict.

childhood psychosis

childhood psychosis a psychotic disorder with onset in childhood; the defining features (e.g., hallucinations, delusions) are essentially the same as they are for affected individuals in other age groups. Historically, the term has been used much more widely to denote any of a variety of disorders or mental conditions in children that result in severe functional impairment, encompassing, for example, intellectual disability and pervasive developmental disorders.

childhood schizophrenia

childhood schizophrenia schizophrenia with onset prior to age 12; the defining features of schizophrenia are essentially equivalent across all age groups. Historically, the term has been used more widely to denote schizophrenic behavior that appears early in life, encompassing pervasive developmental disorders and autism in particular.

childhood sensorineural lesion

childhood sensorineural lesion see sensorineural lesion.

childhood-onset fluency disorder

childhood-onset fluency disorder in DSM–5, the term for stuttering.

children in need of supervision (CHINS)

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Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)

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Children’s Auditory Verbal Learning Test (CAVLT)

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Children’s Complex Figure Test

Children’s Complex Figure Test see Complex Figure Test.

Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI)

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Children’s Embedded Figures Test (CEFT)

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Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (CMAS)

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Children’s Personality Questionnaire (CPQ)

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chilophagia

chilophagia n. see cheilophagia.

chimera

chimera n. 1. an organism composed of two or more kinds of genetically dissimilar cells. For example, a chimera may have received a transplant of genetically different tissue, such as bone marrow, or it may have been produced by grafting an embryonic part of one animal onto the embryo of a genetically different animal; the graft may be either from a different species (a xenograft) or from a genetically nonidentical member of the same species (an allograft). 2. an illusion of the imagination, sometimes something desired but impossible to realize. —chimeric adj.

chimeric stimulation

chimeric stimulation a procedure used by Roger Sperry and colleagues to study the functions of the two isolated cerebral hemispheres in split-brain patients. In a typical experiment, participants are presented with an image of a chimeric face, showing the left half of one face joined to the right half of a different face. Both halves are shown in gray scale and are adjusted to fit in an apparently natural way. In patients with a surgically severed corpus callosum, the left hemisphere perceives the left half of visual space, and the right hemisphere perceives the right half. If the patient’s eyes are fixating on the midline of the chimeric face, each hemisphere fills in the missing half by symmetry, yielding two separate percepts of two different faces. Sperry suggested that in split-brain patients there may be two conscious streams in the two hemispheres. See also commissurotomy; left-hemisphere consciousness; right-hemisphere consciousness.

chimerism

chimerism n. the presence in an individual of cells with different genotypes, derived from different zygotes. Compare mosaicism.

chin reflex

chin reflex see jaw jerk.

China white

China white see fentanyl.

Chinese Room argument

Chinese Room argument a philosophical argument claiming that computers or symbol-processing systems can receive and produce only syntactical streams of ordered signs and not semantic information. The name derives from a thought experiment in which a monolingual English speaker in a sealed room attempts to organize streams of Chinese characters into correct sequences, using only a set of rules of Chinese syntax provided by a computer program, and sends these sequences to a Chinese-speaking recipient outside the room. Success at this task produces an exchange that to the recipient is meaningful conversation but that to the English speaker is an exercise in mastering Chinese syntax; like the computer program that generated the syntactical instructions, the English speaker still has no understanding of the meaning of Chinese. The Chinese Room argument is intended as a challenge to conclusions about the significance of passing the Turing test: A computer program that successfully simulated intelligent data (such as syntactical rules) would pass this test, but such a simulation is not the same as actual human intelligence and thought. [proposed by U.S. philosopher John R. Searle (1932– ) ]

CHINS

CHINS acronym for children in need of supervision.

chipper

chipper n. 1. someone who smokes five or fewer cigarettes on an average of four days a week with no evidence of withdrawal or addiction. 2. someone who uses opiates occasionally without reaching the point of abuse or dependence.

chiromancy (cheiromancy)

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chiropractic

chiropractic n. an alternative health care system concerned with the relationship between vertebral alignment within the spine and disease processes. Treatment comprises noninvasive drug-free methods, primarily manipulations and adjustments to the body, theorized to restore proper nerve functioning and to promote health. See also complementary and alternative medicine. —chiropractor n.

chirosophy

chirosophy n. see palmistry. —chirosopher n.

chloral hydrate

chloral hydrate a short-acting depressant of the central nervous system, first synthesized in 1832 and once widely used chiefly as a hypnotic. It is occasionally still used to induce sleep, but its use is limited by its potential toxicity. U.S. trade name: Aquachloral. See also knockout drops.

chlordiazepoxide

chlordiazepoxide n. the first commercially available benzodiazepine anxiolytic. Developed in 1957 and in clinical use in the early 1960s, it became one of the most heavily prescribed medications ever developed. It is characterized by extensive metabolism in the liver and possesses a number of metabolic products, giving it a lengthy half-life and a consequent long-acting anxiolytic effect. Its use in the management of anxiety and insomnia has been largely supplanted by benzodiazepines with less complicated metabolism and more predictable half-lives, but it remains in common use to protect against the effects of alcohol withdrawal. It is available in oral and injectable form. Because of erratic absorption, intramuscular administration is not advised. U.S. trade name: Librium.

chloride channel

chloride channel see ion channel.

chloropsia

chloropsia n. see chromatopsia.

chlorpromazine (CPZ)

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chlorprothixene

chlorprothixene n. a low-potency antipsychotic of the thioxanthene class, similar in its effects to other thioxanthenes. U.S. trade names: Taractan; Taractin.

choice axiom

choice axiom a mathematical model of decision making that assumes, given several alternatives from which to choose, the probability that a particular alternative will be picked is independent of the sequence of decisions. [developed in 1959 by U.S. mathematician and psychologist R. Duncan Luce (1925–2012)]

choice behavior

choice behavior the selection of one of many available options or behavioral alternatives.

Choice Dilemma Questionnaire (CDQ)

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choice reaction time

choice reaction time the total time that elapses between the presentation of a stimulus and the occurrence of a response in a task that requires a participant to make one of several different responses depending on which one of several different stimuli is presented. The time actually required to decide on a response can be calculated using Donders’s method. Also called complex reaction time; compound reaction time. Compare simple reaction time.

choice shift

choice shift any change in an individual’s choices or decisions that occurs as a result of group discussion, as measured by comparing his or her prediscussion and postdiscussion responses. In many cases, a risky shift is seen within the group as a whole. See also cautious shift.

choice stimuli

choice stimuli in reaction-time tasks, the array of possible stimuli that may occur in a particular trial. Each stimulus or item in the array is mapped to a different response (e.g., a different key to be pressed). Participants must decide which response to make to a particular stimulus.

choked disk

choked disk see papilledema.

chokes

chokes n. see decompression sickness.

choking under pressure

choking under pressure a paradoxical effect in which the demands of a situation that calls for good performance—such as a school test, sports competition, or job interview—cause an individual to perform poorly relative to his or her capabilities. Pressure denotes the individual’s desire to perform well; choking refers to the actual decrement in performance that results.

cholecystokinin (CCK)

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choleric type

choleric type a type of temperament characterized by irritability and quick temper, as described by Galen. See humoral theory.

cholesterol

cholesterol n. a steroid derivative abundant in animal tissues, found especially in foods rich in animal fats. Cholesterol is a constituent of plasma membranes, the precursor of other steroids (e.g., the sex hormones), and a component of plasma lipoproteins, especially low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), which are believed to play an important role in forming atherosclerotic plaques (see atherosclerosis).

choline

choline n. a biogenic amine, often classed as a B vitamin, that is a constituent of many important compounds, such as acetylcholine and lecithin (a component of plasma membranes).

choline acetylase

choline acetylase an enzyme that is involved in the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from choline and acetyl coenzyme A. Also called choline acetyltransferase.

cholinergic

cholinergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving acetylcholine. For example, a cholinergic neuron is one that employs acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.

cholinergic drug

cholinergic drug any pharmacological agent that stimulates activity in the parasympathetic nervous system because it potentiates the activity of acetylcholine or has effects similar to this neurotransmitter. Cholinergic drugs include such alkaloids as physostigmine and pilocarpine; bethanechol; and anticholinesterases (cholinesterase inhibitors; e.g., edrophonium, neostigmine, and pyridostigmine). They are used for such purposes as treating myasthenia gravis, glaucoma, and urinary retention. Also called parasympathetic drug; parasympathomimetic drug.

cholinergic receptor

cholinergic receptor another name for an acetylcholine receptor. Also called cholinoceptor.

cholinergic synapse

cholinergic synapse a synapse that uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter. Cholinergic synapses are found in postganglionic parasympathetic fibers, autonomic preganglionic fibers, preganglionic fibers to the adrenal medulla, somatic motor nerves to the skeletal muscles, and fibers to the sweat glands.

cholinergic system

cholinergic system the part of the autonomic nervous system that reacts to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and to cholinergic drugs. Activities of this system are inhibited by anticholinergic drugs, such as atropine. Compare adrenergic system.

cholinesterase (ChE)

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chondroectodermal dysplasia

chondroectodermal dysplasia see Ellis–van Creveld syndrome.

chord keyboard

chord keyboard a keyboard with a limited number of keys that can be used to enter a wide range of alphanumeric information by pressing various keys in combination. Some can support one-handed entry. See also Dvorak keyboard.

chorda tympani

chorda tympani see greater superficial petrosal nerve.

chorea

chorea n. irregular and involuntary jerky movements of the limbs and facial muscles. Chorea is associated with various disorders, including Huntington’s disease and Sydenham’s chorea (formerly known as Saint Vitus’s dance), which occurs as a complication of a streptococcal infection (e.g., rheumatic fever). —choreal adj. —choreic adj.

choreiform

choreiform adj. involving involuntary movement that resembles chorea. Also called choreoid.

choreoathetosis

choreoathetosis n. chorea accompanied by athetosis (involuntary writhing) of the face, tongue, hands, and feet. The condition is characteristic of Huntington’s disease.

choreoid

choreoid adj. see choreiform.

choreomania

choreomania n. an uncontrollable urge to dance, especially in a frenzied, convulsive manner. Major outbreaks of choreomania occurred in Europe during the Middle Ages. Also called dancing madness; dancing mania.

chorion

chorion n. the outermost of the membranes that surround and protect the developing embryo. In most mammals (including humans), a section of it forms the embryonic part of the placenta. —chorionic adj.

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

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choroid layer

choroid layer the vascular pigmented layer of tissue that covers the back of the eye and is located between the retina and the sclera. In the anterior portion of the eye it is continuous with the pigmented portion of the ciliary body. The pigment in the choroid layer absorbs stray light; the blood vessels include the choriocapillaris, a plexus of capillaries that provides oxygen and sustenance to the photoreceptors of the retina. Also called choroid; choroid coat.

choroid plexus

choroid plexus a highly vascularized portion of the lining of the cerebral ventricles that is responsible for the production of cerebrospinal fluid.

Chotzen’s syndrome

Chotzen’s syndrome a genetic condition characterized by an abnormally shaped head due to premature closing of one or more of the cranial sutures, usually involving the coronal suture (see craniosynostosis syndrome), and by webbing of the fingers and toes. Delayed development and learning difficulties can be associated with the disorder, but affected children often have average intelligence. Most cases are caused by mutations in the TWIST1 gene. In a small number of cases, when the cause is a chromosomal deletion instead of a mutation within the TWIST1 gene, affected children are much more likely to have intellectual disability, developmental delay, and learning difficulties. It is thought that a loss of other genes on chromosome 7 may be responsible for these additional features. Also called acrocephalosyndactyly Type III; Saethre–Chotzen syndrome. [F. Chotzen, German physician]

Christian Science

Christian Science a Protestant Christian religious denomination founded in 1879 by U.S. spiritual leader Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910). It is based on the idea that mind has power over matter, enabling mental healing, particularly through prayer, of both spiritual ill health (i.e., sin) and physical illness and disease. The reliance of adherents on their beliefs has sparked many controversies regarding refusal of medical and mental health care.

chrom-

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chroma–brightness coefficient

chroma–brightness coefficient the relationship between saturation and intensity in the Munsell color system.

chromatic

chromatic adj. 1. in vision, possessing both hue and saturation. Thus, a chromatic color is any color other than black, white, or gray. Compare achromatic. 2. in music, pertaining to an octave scale in which each note differs from the preceding note by one semitone. Compare diatonic.

chromatic aberration

chromatic aberration a defect in the image formed by a simple glass lens resulting from the fact that light of short wavelength is refracted to a greater extent than light of long wavelength. It causes different colors to be focused at different distances, so that the image has colored fringes. Chromatic aberration can be corrected by the use of an achromatic lens. Also called chromatic error.

chromatic adaptation

chromatic adaptation decreased sensitivity to a particular color as a result of prolonged exposure to a colored stimulus. Also called color adaptation.

chromatic audition

chromatic audition a type of synesthesia in which color sensations are experienced when sounds are heard. Also called phonopsia. See chromesthesia.

chromaticity

chromaticity n. a color-stimulus quality determined by the purity and wavelength of the stimulus, independent of its luminance. Chromaticity and luminance together provide a description of a colored stimulus that is independent of an observer’s perceptions. Also called chromaticness.

chromatics

chromatics n. in optics, the study of color and the sensation of color.

chromatid

chromatid n. in cell division, one of the two duplicate, filamentlike subunits, joined at the centromere, that make up a chromosome and then separate, each going to a different pole of the dividing cell to become a new chromosome in one of the daughter cells.

chromatin

chromatin n. a substance present in chromosomes and cell nuclei that consists of nucleic acids (mainly DNA) combined with protein (i.e., nucleoprotein). It readily stains with certain identifying dyes.

chromatin negative

chromatin negative denoting the absence of sex chromatin in the nucleus of a human somatic cell; this absence identifies the cell as being from a male.

chromatin positive

chromatin positive denoting the presence of sex chromatin in a human somatic cell; this presence identifies the cell as being from a female.

chromatopsia

chromatopsia n. an aberration in color vision in which there is excessive visual sensitivity to one color, such that objects appear tinged with that color. Chromatopsia is caused by drugs, intense stimulation, or snow blindness, and it can occur after eye hemorrhages, cataract extraction, electric shock, or optic atrophy. There are several forms: erythropsia (red vision), chloropsia (green vision), xanthopsia (yellow vision), and cyanopsia (blue vision). Also called chromopsia.

chromesthesia

chromesthesia n. a type of synesthesia in which perception of nonvisual stimuli (e.g., sounds, tastes, odors) is accompanied by color sensations. Strictly speaking, chromesthesia is not a conscious juxtaposition of two different sense perceptions: The two perceptions coincide as responses to the same stimulus (e.g., the musical note G may be consistently experienced as blue). Also called pseudochromesthesia.

chromic myopia

chromic myopia see myopia.

chromo- (chrom-; chromato-)

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chromopsia

chromopsia n. see chromatopsia.

chromosomal aberration

chromosomal aberration 1. an abnormal change in the structure of a chromosome. 2. a congenital defect that can be attributed to an abnormal chromosome. See autosomal aberration; sex-chromosomal aberration.

chromosomal map

chromosomal map the appearance of a stained chromosome when observed under a microscope. Visually distinct light and dark bands give each chromosome a unique pattern, which enables karyotype testing to be carried out.

chromosomal mutation

chromosomal mutation see mutation.

chromosome

chromosome n. a strand or filament composed of nucleic acid (mainly DNA in humans) and proteins (see chromatin) that carries the genetic, or hereditary, traits of an individual. Located in the cell nucleus, chromosomes are visible, through a microscope, only during cell division. The normal human complement of chromosomes totals 46, or 23 pairs (44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes), which are believed to contain a total of 20,000 to 25,000 genes (see genome). Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair, so a child receives half its chromosomes from its mother and half from its father. —chromosomal adj.

chromosome 18, deletion of long arm

chromosome 18, deletion of long arm a chromosomal disorder involving absence of a portion of chromosome 18 and resulting in microcephaly, short stature, hypotonia, hearing impairment, foot deformities, and intellectual disability. Also called distal 18q-.

chromosome 4, deletion of short arm

chromosome 4, deletion of short arm a chromosomal disorder involving absence of a portion of chromosome 4, resulting in microcephaly, delayed growth, visual defects, intellectual disability, and seizures. The size of the deleted genetic material varies, and studies suggest that larger deletions tend to result in more severe intellectual disability and physical abnormalities than do smaller deletions. Although sometimes the disorder is passed on from an unaffected parent, most cases are not inherited. Also called Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome.

chromosome 5, deletion of short arm

chromosome 5, deletion of short arm see cri du chat syndrome.

chromosome abnormality

chromosome abnormality an abnormality that is evidenced by either an abnormal number of chromosomes or some alteration in the structure of one or more chromosomes.

chromosome disorder

chromosome disorder any disorder caused by a defect in the structure or number of one or more chromosomes. Such disorders can result from autosomal aberrations or sex-chromosomal aberrations.

chromosome mosaicism

chromosome mosaicism a condition resulting from an error in the distribution of chromosomes between daughter cells during an early embryonic cell division, producing two and sometimes three populations of cells with different chromosome numbers in the same individual. Mosaicism involving the sex chromosomes is not uncommon (see hermaphroditism).

chromosome number

chromosome number the number of chromosomes present in the tissue cells of an individual. All members of a species normally have the same number of chromosomes. The normal number for humans is 46. In most mammals, the chromosome number of a gamete, or reproductive cell, is half the somatic chromosome number; for example, in humans, it is 23. See deletion.

chromotherapy

chromotherapy n. see photobiology.

chron-

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chronaxie (chronaxy)

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chronesthesia

chronesthesia n. a hypothetical ability or capacity of the human brain or mind, acquired through evolution, that allows humans to be constantly aware of the past and the future. The key feature of this “mental time travel” is to enable people to anticipate the future—that is, to learn what to avoid and how to behave in the future—by recalling past events. For example, chronesthesia enables people over time to “distinguish friends from foes” in social relationships and to develop tools that work well (and discard those that do not) in occupational activities. [introduced by Endel Tulving]

chronic

chronic adj. denoting conditions or symptoms that persist or progress over a long period of time and are resistant to cure. Compare acute.

chronic adjustment disorder

chronic adjustment disorder see adjustment disorder.

chronic alcoholism

chronic alcoholism habitual, long-term dependence on alcohol (see alcohol dependence).

chronic anxiety

chronic anxiety a persistent, pervasive state of apprehension that may be associated with aspects of a number of anxiety disorders. These include uncontrollable worries in generalized anxiety disorder, fear of a panic attack in panic disorder, and obsessions in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

chronic brain disorder

chronic brain disorder any disorder caused by or associated with brain damage and producing permanent impairment in one or more areas of brain function (cognitive, motor, sensory, and emotional). Such disorders may arise from trauma, stroke, infection, degenerative diseases, or many other conditions. In older literature, these disorders are also referred to as chronic brain syndromes.

chronic care

chronic care long-term care and treatment of patients with long-standing health problems.

chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)

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chronic illness

chronic illness illness that persists for a long period. Chronic illnesses include many major diseases and conditions, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and arthritis. Disease management is important when dealing with chronic illness; this includes ensuring adherence to treatment and maintaining quality of life.

chronic mood disorder

chronic mood disorder see mood disorder.

chronic motor or vocal tic disorder

chronic motor or vocal tic disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a tic disorder characterized by motor or vocal tics (but not both) for a period of more than 1 year, during which any period without tics lasts for no more than 3 months. The disorder has an onset before the age of 18. It is identified as persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic disorder in DSM–5. Compare Tourette’s disorder.

chronic myofascial pain (CMP)

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chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

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chronic pain

chronic pain pain that continues to occur despite all medical and pharmacological efforts at treatment. In many cases, the pain is initially caused by tissue damage or disease. The continuation of the pain is often the result of pathological changes in the central nervous system.

chronic posttraumatic stress disorder

chronic posttraumatic stress disorder a form of posttraumatic stress disorder that is diagnosed when the symptoms persist over a period of more than 3 months.

chronic preparation

chronic preparation the process by which a research animal undergoes an experimental procedure, often surgical in nature, and is then allowed to recover so that it can be observed over an extended period of time. Compare acute preparation.

chronic psychosis

chronic psychosis 1. a delusional or hallucinatory state that persists indefinitely. 2. a former name for chronic schizophrenia. 3. historically, any irreversible disorder of cognition, mood or affect, and behavior.

chronic schizophrenia

chronic schizophrenia schizophrenia in which the symptoms persist for an extended period. It is contrasted with acute schizophrenic episodes, in which the symptoms are more transient.

chronic stress

chronic stress the physiological or psychological response to a prolonged internal or external stressful event (i.e., a stressor). The stressor need not remain physically present to have its effects; recollections of it can substitute for its presence and sustain chronic stress.

chronic traumatic encephalopathy

chronic traumatic encephalopathy see dementia pugilistica.

chronically accessible constructs

chronically accessible constructs mental contents (e.g., ideas or categories) that are frequently used and therefore come to mind particularly readily.

chronically suicidal

chronically suicidal describing an individual with a history of multiple suicide attempts or episodes that include serious thoughts about or plans for committing suicide. Such a history often occurs in individuals with borderline personality disorder.

chronicity

chronicity n. 1. the state of being chronic. 2. see social breakdown syndrome.

chrono- (chron-)

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chronobiology

chronobiology n. the branch of biology concerned with biological rhythms, such as the sleep–wake cycle.

chronograph

chronograph n. an instrument that records time sequences graphically. —chronographic adj.

chronological age (CA)

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chronometer

chronometer n. a precise clock that runs continuously and is designed to maintain its accuracy under all conditions of temperature, pressure, and the like.

chronometric analysis

chronometric analysis a method for studying a mental process that involves varying stimulus input conditions and measuring participants’ reaction times to those stimuli. The relations between the stimulus variables and reaction times are then used to make inferences about the underlying mental processes. Also called mental chronometry. See Donders’s method.

chronometry

chronometry n. the measurement of time. —chronometric adj.

chronopsychology

chronopsychology n. the scientific study of the way in which changes to daily sleep–wake cycles can affect the ability to function.

chronosystem

chronosystem n. in ecological systems theory, changes and continuities occurring over time that influence an individual’s development. These influences include normative life transitions (e.g., school entry, marriage, retirement), nonnormative life transitions (e.g., divorce, winning the lottery, relocation), and the cumulative effects of the entire sequence of transitions over the life course. Compare exosystem; mesosystem; macrosystem. [introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner]

chronotaraxis

chronotaraxis n. a condition of time confusion in which the individual tends to underestimate or overestimate the passage of time or is confused about the time of day or day of the week.

chronotherapy

chronotherapy n. a treatment for circadian rhythm sleep disorders that systematically moves bedtime progressively later by intervals (phase delays) until it approaches the desired bedtime.

chronotopic constraints

chronotopic constraints the limitations imposed by the development of the brain on the timing of maturational events, such as the acquisition of language-processing ability. See also architectural constraints; representational constraints.

chunking

chunking n. 1. the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in short-term memory. As a result of this recoding, one item in memory (e.g., a keyword or key idea) can stand for multiple other items (e.g., a short list of associated points). The capacity of short-term memory is believed to be constant for the number of individual units it can store (see seven plus or minus two), but the units themselves can range from simple chunks (e.g., individual letters or numbers) to complex chunks (e.g., words or phrases). The exact number of chunks remembered depends on the size of each chunk or the subunits contained within each chunk. 2. the associated principle that effective communication between humans depends on sorting information into units that do not exceed the mind’s capacity to chunk them (the chunking limit). This has implications for the content and layout of written documents, diagrams and visual aids, websites, and so on. For example, any list of more than nine bullet points should normally be subdivided into two or more shorter lists. [coined by George Armitage Miller in 1956]

CI

CI abbreviation for confidence interval.

cicatrization

cicatrization n. 1. the formation of a scar, or cicatrix, after a wound has healed. 2. the deliberate scarring of some part of the body for cosmetic or religious purposes. —cicatrize vb.

cichlid

cichlid n. a tropical spiny-finned freshwater fish that is commonly the subject of behavioral studies.

CIE XYZ color space

CIE XYZ color space see XYZ system.

CIL

CIL abbreviation for Center for Independent Living. See independent living.

cilia

cilia pl. n. see cilium.

ciliary body

ciliary body a part of the eye located behind the iris and consisting of the ciliary processes and the ciliary muscles.

ciliary muscle

ciliary muscle smooth muscle in the ciliary body of the eye that changes the shape of the lens to bring objects into focus on the retina. The ciliary muscle regulates the tension of the zonules, causing the lens to flatten (which lessens the power of the lens and allows focus of distant objects) or become more curved (which increases the power of the lens and allows focus of near objects). The action of the ciliary muscle is a large component of accommodation.

ciliary processes

ciliary processes the extensions of the ciliary body that project into the posterior chamber of the eye. The ciliary processes are covered by epithelial cells that produce the aqueous humor and are connected by the zonules to the capsule of the lens.

cilium

cilium n. (pl. cilia) 1. an eyelash. 2. a hairlike extension of a cell, usually occurring in tufts or tracts, as in the stereocilia of hair cells in the cochlea of the inner ear. —ciliary adj.

Cinderella syndrome

Cinderella syndrome behavior in childhood based on the child’s belief of being a “Cinderella,” or a victim of parental rejection, neglect, or abuse.

cingulate cortex

cingulate cortex a long strip of cerebral cortex on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere in the prefrontal lobe. The cingulate cortex arches over and generally outlines the location of the corpus callosum, from which it is separated by the callosal sulcus. It is a component of the limbic system and has a role in emotion and memory; it also has a role in motor planning. Also called callosal gyrus; cingulate gyrus; gyrus cinguli. See also anterior cingulate cortex; posterior cingulate cortex.

cingulate sulcus

cingulate sulcus the fissure that separates the cingulate cortex from the superior frontal gyrus on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere.

cingulotomy

cingulotomy n. a procedure used in the treatment of chronic pain in which electrodes are used to destroy portions of the cingulum bundle. It is also, albeit rarely, used in the treatment of some chronic mental disorders (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder) that have not responded to other, nonsurgical forms of treatment. Also called cingulumotomy.

cingulum bundle

cingulum bundle a longitudinal tract of nerve fibers, lying beneath the cingulate cortex, that connects the frontal lobe with the parahippocampal gyrus and adjacent regions in the temporal lobe.

CIPS

CIPS abbreviation for Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale. See impostor phenomenon.

circadian dysrhythmia

circadian dysrhythmia a disruption of the normal cycles of wakefulness and sleep. See circadian rhythm sleep disorder.

circadian oscillator

circadian oscillator a neural circuit with an output that repeats about once per day. A circadian oscillator is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus and is thought to be important in sleep–wake cycles.

circadian rhythm

circadian rhythm any periodic variation in physiological or behavioral activity that repeats at approximately 24-hour intervals, such as the sleep–wake cycle. Also called diurnal rhythm. Compare infradian rhythm; ultradian rhythm. See also biological rhythm.

circadian rhythm sleep disorder

circadian rhythm sleep disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a sleep disorder that is due to a mismatch between the sleep–wake schedule required by a person’s environment or occupational circumstances (e.g., shift work) and his or her circadian sleep–wake pattern, resulting in excessive sleepiness or insomnia. This disorder was formerly called sleep–wake schedule disorder. DSM–5 calls it circadian rhythm sleep–wake disorder. See dyssomnia. See also disorders of the sleep–wake cycle schedule.

circannual rhythm

circannual rhythm a biological rhythm of behavior, growth, or some other physiological variable that recurs yearly.

Circle of Security

Circle of Security a 20-week attachment-based intervention that aims to reduce the long-term risks associated with insecure attachment in children. It is individualized for a particular caregiver–child dyad on the basis of the child’s insecure attachment classification (e.g., anxious–resistant) and the caregiver’s behavior and internal working model of attachment. It is delivered in a systematic week-by-week, video-based group model and consists of both educational and therapeutic components. [developed by U.S. developmental psychologist Robert S. Marvin (1944– )]

circle of support

circle of support a group of people who provide support for an individual. For a person with a developmental disability, the circle often includes family members, friends, acquaintances, coworkers, and sometimes service providers or coordinators, who meet on a regular basis and help the individual accomplish personal goals. These goals are selected based on extensive and recurrent review of the person’s past and current preferences and interests; they are addressed one stage at a time.

circle of Willis

circle of Willis a ring of blood vessels on the underside of the brain, formed by links between branches of several major arteries—the basilar artery, internal carotid artery, anterior cerebral artery, anterior communicating artery, middle cerebral artery, posterior cerebral artery, and posterior communicating artery. By providing multiple pathways for blood circulation, this arrangement ensures the continuous flow of oxygenated blood to the brain in the event a supplying artery becomes blocked or constricted as a result of an injury, disease, or other condition. Also called arterial circle. [Thomas Willis (1621–1675), English anatomist and physician who was the first to illustrate this area definitively and provide a description of its function]

circuit resistance training

circuit resistance training a series of different exercises set out in a specific order, with a specific time or number of repetitions for each exercise. The type and order of exercises will be set according to their use as rehabilitation—health-related exercise for individuals with spinal cord injuries, diabetes, obesity, and other conditions—or as fitness training for athletes.

circular behavior

circular behavior any action that stimulates a similar action in others, such as yawning or laughing. Also called circular response. See also behavioral contagion.

circular causality

circular causality 1. a sequence of causes and effects that leads back to the original cause and either alters or confirms it, thus producing a new sequence, as in a feedback loop. 2. a form of circular reasoning in which the cause of some event is held to exist in or be implied by the event itself.

circular questioning

circular questioning a technique used in some methods of family therapy to yield information about the dynamics and relationships in a family. For example, one family member may be asked to answer a question about who in the family is most depressed; subsequent family members each respond to the same question. This method of questioning everyone in the “circle” is intended to elicit the various perspectives within the group.

circular reaction

circular reaction 1. any action that generates a response that provides the stimulation for repetition of the action, often such that responses increase in intensity and duration. An example is the contraction of a muscle that sends a nerve impulse toward the brain or spinal cord, which in turn sends a nerve impulse back to the muscle to maintain the contraction. Also called circular reflex. 2. in Piagetian theory, repetitive behavior observed in children during the sensorimotor stage, characterized as primary, secondary, or tertiary circular reactions. The primary phase involves ineffective repetitive behaviors; the secondary phase involves repetition of actions that are followed by reinforcement, typically without understanding causation; and the tertiary phase involves repetitive object manipulation, typically with slight variations among subsequent behaviors. 3. in the analysis of crowds and collectives, repetitive behavior that produces behavioral contagion as individuals imitate others’ actions without considering the meaning or consequences of those actions.

circular reasoning

circular reasoning a type of informal fallacy in which a conclusion is reached that is not materially different from something that was assumed as a premise of the argument. In other words, the argument assumes what it is supposed to prove. Circular reasoning is sometimes difficult to detect because the premise and conclusion are not articulated in precisely the same terms, obscuring the fact that they are really the same proposition.

circulating levels

circulating levels see blood levels.

circulatory system

circulatory system see cardiovascular system.

circumcision

circumcision n. the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis, typically for religious, cultural, or medical reasons. Circumcision is often performed in infancy but may be performed at any age.

circumlocution

circumlocution n. 1. a mode of speaking characterized by difficulty or inability in finding the right words to identify or explain an object that has been perceived and recognized. It involves the use of a variety of words or phrases that indirectly communicate the individual’s meaning. Circumlocution can be a manifestation of anomic aphasia caused by damage to the left posterior temporal lobe of the brain, but in some cases it is an indication of disorganized thought processes, as in schizophrenia. See circumstantiality. 2. a style of speaking used consciously by healthy individuals to convey meaning indirectly, so that the meaning is inferred by the listener.

circumplex

circumplex n. a circular depiction of the similarities among multiple variables. For example, a researcher studying emotions might focus on certain core affects and create a circumplex representation of them, with variables having opposite values or characteristics (i.e., tranquility–frenzy; sadness–enthusiasm; sluggishness–excitement) displayed at opposite points on the circumplex, whereas variables having highly similar characteristics are displayed adjacent to one another on the circumplex. In other words, the similarity (and correlation) between elements declines as the distance between them on the circle increases.

circumscribed amnesia

circumscribed amnesia see localized amnesia.

circumscribed belief

circumscribed belief a narrowly defined delusional belief that is internally consistent and highly resistant to disproof and appears to function separately from other beliefs held by the same person.

circumstantial bilingualism

circumstantial bilingualism see folk bilingualism.

circumstantial evidence

circumstantial evidence evidence from which the existence of a fact may be inferred but that does not constitute direct proof of that fact.

circumstantiality

circumstantiality n. circuitous, indirect speech in which the individual digresses to give unnecessary and often irrelevant details before arriving at the main point. An extreme form, arising from disorganized associative processes, may occur in schizophrenia, obsessional disorders, and certain types of dementia. Circumstantiality differs from tangentiality in that the main point is never lost but rather accompanied by a large amount of nonessential information.

circumstriate cortex

circumstriate cortex see prestriate cortex.

circumthanatology

circumthanatology n. the study of near-death experiences.

circumvallate papillae

circumvallate papillae swellings on the posterior portion (back) of the tongue, each surrounded by a trench. In humans, there are 7 to 11 circumvallate papillae, arranged in a chevron; each papilla contains about 250 taste buds, lining the trench and oriented horizontally. Receptors in circumvallate papillae are particularly sensitive to bitter chemicals.

circumventricular organs

circumventricular organs four small structures located along the third and fourth ventricles at the base of the brain, outside the blood–brain barrier, that are believed to influence body fluid homeostasis, thirst, vomiting, and other physiological functions. Also called circumventricular system. See also area postrema; organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis; subcommissural organ; subfornical organ.

cirrhosis

cirrhosis n. a result of chronic liver disease marked by widespread formation of fibrous tissue and loss of normal liver function. In most cases, it is a consequence of alcohol abuse, although it may also be due to congenital defects involving metabolic deficiencies, exposure to toxic chemicals, or infections (e.g., hepatitis). —cirrhotic adj.

CISD

CISD abbreviation for critical-incident stress debriefing.

cisgender

cisgender adj. having or relating to a gender identity that corresponds to the culturally determined gender roles for one’s birth sex (i.e., the biological sex one was born with). A cisgender man or cisgender woman is thus one whose internal gender identity matches, and presents itself in accordance with, the externally determined cultural expectations of the behavior and roles considered appropriate for one’s sex as male or female. Also called cisgendered. Compare transgender. —cisgenderism n.

cissa

cissa n. a craving for unusual foods or nonnutritive substances while pregnant. See also pica.

cistern puncture

cistern puncture see suboccipital puncture.

cisterna

cisterna n. (pl. cisternae) 1. in anatomy, an enlarged space, such as the cisterna magna in the brain. 2. in cell biology, a flattened membranous sac within the Golgi apparatus of a cell. —cisternal adj.

cisterna magna

cisterna magna an enlarged space between the lower surface of the cerebellum and the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata, which serves as a reservoir of cerebrospinal fluid. Also called cisterna cerebellomedullaris.

CIT

CIT abbreviation for critical-incident technique.

citalopram

citalopram n. an antidepressant of the SSRI class. It exerts its action by blocking the presynaptic serotonin transporter, preventing reabsorption of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron and thereby increasing levels of available serotonin in the synaptic cleft without increasing overall levels of serotonin in the brain. U.S. trade name: Celexa.

citation analysis

citation analysis a form of research that examines the history, frequency, and distribution of citations of particular writers or particular books, articles, or other sources. It now mostly involves the automated search of online or electronic databases.

citizen

citizen n. one who is a formal member of a particular political community, such as a country or state, and is therefore entitled to full civil rights as defined, guaranteed, and protected by that political entity. —citizenship n.

cittosis

cittosis n. an abnormal desire for unusual foods or nonnutritive substances. See cissa; pica.

civil commitment

civil commitment a legal procedure that permits a person who is not charged with criminal conduct to be certified as mentally ill and to be institutionalized involuntarily.

civil disobedience

civil disobedience public, nonviolent opposition or protest, usually on the grounds of conscience, to a government or its policies that takes the form of refusing to obey certain laws or to pay taxes. See also passive resistance.

civil emergency

civil emergency a disastrous event, either natural or caused by human activities, that threatens civilian populations. Such emergencies often require the cooperative effort of both civilian and military authorities to provide civil defense and crisis and disaster management.

civil rights

civil rights the rights of personal liberty and equality guaranteed to citizens by law. Also called civil liberties.

civil rights movement

civil rights movement any collective effort to gain political or social rights denied by government, usually by such means as demonstrations, lobbying, and civil disobedience. When capitalized, the term usually refers to the struggle for full constitutional rights by African Americans as it originated and developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s.

Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services (CHAMPUS)

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civilization

civilization n. 1. a highly developed society, advanced in such areas as arts, sciences, technology, law, religion, and moral and social values. 2. human society as a whole in its present highly advanced state of cultural, intellectual, and technical development. 3. the process of attaining this level of development. —civilized adj.

CJD

CJD abbreviation for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.

CK

CK abbreviation for creatine kinase.

CL

CL 1. abbreviation for drug clearance. 2. abbreviation for comparison level.

CL alt

CL alt abbreviation for comparison level for alternatives.

cladistics

cladistics n. a method for classifying organisms on the basis of their evolutionary relationships, which are expressed in treelike diagrams called cladograms. —cladism n. —cladist n.

claims review

claims review an evaluation of the appropriateness of a claim for payment for a medical or mental health service rendered. It will consider whether the claimant is eligible for reimbursement, whether the charges are consistent with customary fees or published institutional rates, and whether the service was necessary.

clairaudience

clairaudience n. in parapsychology, the alleged ability to hear voices or sounds beyond the normal range of hearing, including supposed messages from spirit guides or the dead. This may involve messages heard from or attuned to an “inner voice” or voices separate from thought. It is the auditory equivalent of clairvoyance. See also extrasensory perception. —clairaudient n., adj.

clairvoyance

clairvoyance n. in parapsychology, the alleged ability to see things beyond the normal range of sight, such as distant or hidden objects or events in the past or future. Clairvoyance is supposedly an organic ability, whereas remote viewing is a planned activity, with rules and standards, in which clairvoyance may be used to see or sense things (events, thoughts, locations, etc.) from a distance. Compare clairaudience. See also extrasensory perception; second sight. —clairvoyant n., adj.

clairvoyant dream

clairvoyant dream in parapsychology, a dream depicting events that appear to be confirmed by later happenings or knowledge. See clairvoyance; premonitory dream.

clamminess

clamminess n. a sensory blend that consists of coldness, moistness, and stickiness. —clammy adj.

clan

clan n. 1. in anthropology, a major social division of many traditional societies consisting of a group of families that claim common ancestry. Clans often prohibit marriage between members and are often associated with reverence for a particular totem. See also descent group; phratry. 2. in Scotland and Ireland, a kinship group and former social unit based on traditional patterns of land tenure and the concept of loyalty to a clan chief. Clan members often took the name of the supposed clan founder prefaced by Mac (Scotland) or O’ (Ireland) but were not necessarily linked by common ancestry.

Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS)

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clang association

clang association an association of words by similarity of sound rather than meaning. Clang association occurs as a pathological disturbance in manic states and schizophrenia. Also called clanging.

clarification

clarification n. a therapist’s formulation, in clear terms and without indicating approval or disapproval, of a client’s statement or expression of feelings. Clarification goes further than restatement and reflection of feeling but stops short of interpretation.

class

class n. 1. a group, category, or division. See categorization. 2. in sociology and political theory, see social class. 3. in biological taxonomy, a main subdivision of a phylum, consisting of a group of similar, related orders. 4. in logic and philosophy, a collection of entities that have a specified property or properties in common: that is, a set defined by a condition.

class advocate

class advocate see advocacy.

class consciousness

class consciousness awareness of belonging to a particular economic or social group, especially one regarded as being exploited or victimized. Karl Marx viewed class consciousness as a necessary condition for a revolution of industrial workers against the capitalist owners’ class. The concept was extended in the late 20th century to include gender, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation, with similar implications. Here, the sense of “consciousness” derives from German philosophy and implies a social belief system or worldview (see Weltanschauung) rather than perceptual or waking consciousness.

class inclusion

class inclusion the concept that a subordinate class (e.g., dogs) must always be smaller than the superordinate class in which it is contained (e.g., animals). Jean Piaget believed that understanding the concept of class inclusion represented an important developmental step. Children progress from classifications based on personal factors, perceptual features, and common function to classifications based on hierarchical relationships; for example, a monkey is a primate, a mammal, and a vertebrate animal. See concrete operation.

class interval

class interval a range of scores or numerical values that constitute one segment or class of a variable of interest. For example, individual weights can be placed into class intervals such as 100 lb–120 lb, 121 lb–140 lb, 141 lb–160 lb, and so forth. Class intervals often are used in frequency distributions and histograms to present a large data set in a simpler manner that is more easily interpreted.

class limit

class limit the uppermost and lowermost values between which lie a range of values constituting a segment or class of a variable: the upper and lower boundaries of a class interval.

class structure

class structure the composition, organization, and interrelationship of social classes within a society. The term encompasses the makeup of individual classes as well as their economic, political, and other roles within the larger social order.

class theory

class theory 1. the notion that conflict between social and economic classes is a fundamental determining force in human affairs, affecting not only systems of government and social organization but also individual psychology. It is held that one’s perceptions, goals, and expectations, and even one’s conceptions of psychological health and illness, are heavily influenced by the class of which one is a member. Most modern manifestations of class theory trace their origins to Karl Marx, although the work of the critical theorists of the Frankfurt school (1930s onward) has also been influential. See Marxism. 2. the branch of set theory that is concerned with the properties of classes. It is particularly interested in defining the distinction between classes and sets that are not classes.

classic categorical approach

classic categorical approach a method for classifying disorders founded on the assumption that there are clear-cut differences between disorders.

classical

classical adj. denoting a style, mode of operation, or function that was typical or standard at some time in the past. In psychology, for instance, the term classical conditioning was used to contrast Pavlovian conditioning with newly recognized operant conditioning when the distinction between the two forms of learning was pointed out by B. F. Skinner in 1938.

classical conditioning

classical conditioning a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus—the conditioned stimulus (CS)—when paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response—the unconditioned stimulus (US)—results in a learned, or conditioned, response (CR) when the CS is presented. For example, the sound of a tone may be used as a CS, and food in a dog’s mouth as a US. After repeated pairings, namely, the tone followed immediately by food, the tone, which initially had no effect on salivation (i.e., was neutral with respect to it), will elicit salivation even if the food is not presented. Also called Pavlovian conditioning; respondent conditioning; Type I conditioning; Type S conditioning. [discovered in the early 20th century by Ivan Pavlov]

classical humors

classical humors see humoral theory.

classical inference

classical inference see frequentist inference.

classical paranoia

classical paranoia as conceptualized in the 19th century by German physician Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828–1899) and later refined by Emil Kraepelin, a rare disorder characterized by elaborate, fixed, and systematic delusions, usually of a persecutory, grandiose, or jealous character, that develop insidiously, cannot be accounted for by any psychiatric disorder, and exist in the context of preserved logical and orderly thinking.

classical probability

classical probability an approach to the understanding of probability based on the assumptions that any random process has a given set of possible outcomes and that each possible outcome is equally likely to occur. An example often used is rolling a die, in which there are six possible outcomes and each outcome is assumed to be equally likely.

classical psychoanalysis

classical psychoanalysis 1. psychoanalytic theory in which major emphasis is placed on the libido, the stages of psychosexual development, and the id instincts or drives. The prototypical theory of this kind is that of Sigmund Freud. Also called classical theory; drive theory. 2. psychoanalytic treatment that adheres to Sigmund Freud’s basic procedures, using dream interpretation, free association, and analysis of resistance, and to his basic aim of developing insight into the patient’s unconscious life as a way to restructure personality. Also called orthodox psychoanalysis.

classical test theory (CTT)

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classical theory

classical theory see classical psychoanalysis.

classicism factor

classicism factor in psychological aesthetics, a dimension of artistic style that emphasizes traditional aesthetic values, particularly those associated with the art and architecture of ancient Greece and Rome. The classicism factor is also used to distinguish more polished and formal art works from those that emphasize novelty and imagination (the romanticism factor).

classification

classification n. 1. in cognitive psychology, see categorization. 2. in clinical psychology and psychiatry, the grouping of mental disorders on the basis of their characteristics or symptoms. See also DSM–IV–TR; DSM–5; International Classification of Diseases; nosology. 3. in biology, see biological taxonomy. —classify vb.

classification and regression tree analysis

classification and regression tree analysis see CART analysis.

classification method

classification method in industrial and organizational psychology, a method of evaluating jobs for the purpose of setting wages or salaries in which jobs are assigned to predefined classes or categories, usually on the basis of job title and job description. This usually involves comparison with one or more benchmark jobs. An example of such a method is the General Schedule system of the United States Civil Service. Compare factor-comparison method; job-component method; point method; ranking method.

classification rule

classification rule a mathematical formula for placing units into groups (e.g., within discriminant analysis) so as to maximize the similarities among group members with regard to a set of characteristics. Also called allocation rule.

classification table

classification table a table showing the number or percentage of cases correctly categorized by a given model, rule, or algorithm derived for that purpose. Columns represent the model predictions and rows represent the actual classes to which the items in a sample data set belong. For example, a researcher might use a classification table to display the results of a discriminant analysis of college attendance for a group of high school students so as to evaluate the general accuracy of the model used. Also called classification matrix; confusion matrix.

classification test

classification test 1. a test in which participants are required to sort objects, people, events, or stimuli into specific categories. See categorization. 2. a test in which participants are themselves sorted into categories (e.g., of ability or psychological type) according to the responses given.

classifier system

classifier system a cognitive architecture consisting of a computational system in which knowledge, in the form of “if → then” classifier rules, is exposed to a reacting environment and as a result undergoes modification over time (learning). The entire system is evaluated over time, with the importance of the individual classifier seen as minimal. See adaptive production system. [created in 1986 by U.S. computer scientist John Henry Holland (1929– )]

classroom discipline

classroom discipline 1. traditionally, any form of compliance with discipline imposed on school pupils in class. 2. the methods of correction used by teachers or schools for student behavior that does not comply with the rules and regulations that have been established for an optimal learning environment. 3. any type of training expected to produce a specific pattern of behavior within a classroom. In some countries, classroom discipline now excludes physical punishment.

classroom environment

classroom environment the physical, social, psychological, and intellectual conditions that characterize an instructional setting. Although the physical environment usually includes classrooms, laboratories, and lecture halls, it may also include alternative locations, such as a museum, home, gymnasium, or even the outdoors. Regardless of the setting, the degree of enclosure or openness, noise, seating arrangements, density, and size have all been shown to have an effect on student behavior and learning. See also open-classroom design.

classroom test

classroom test a test devised by a teacher for use in class, as contrasted with a standardized test.

classroom-behavior modification

classroom-behavior modification an instructor’s use of basic learning techniques, such as conditioning, to alter the behavior of the students within a learning environment. Specifically, classroom-behavior modification may utilize such methods as adjusting classroom seating, providing a flexible time deadline for assignments, or altering the lesson requirements. Direct intervention, however, is the most effective modification procedure, using cognitive behavioral techniques to address inappropriate classroom behavior. Such procedures are most useful for students with learning disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and other special needs.

claudication

claudication n. 1. limping. 2. a cramping pain in the muscles (intermittent claudication), occurring especially in the calf muscles. See also mental claudication.

clause

clause n. a linguistic unit smaller than a sentence but larger than a phrase; in traditional grammar, a clause is defined as having both a subject and a finite verb (i.e., one that agrees with the subject in number and person). Clauses are usually divided into two principal types: main clauses, which make sense by themselves and can constitute a sentence in their own right, and subordinate clauses, which are dependent on a main clause in both these respects. In I smiled at Jane, who waved back, for example, the words before the comma constitute a main clause and those after the comma are a subordinate clause. In psycholinguistics, clauses are considered to be an important unit of sentence processing. Sentences that are complex from a syntactic point of view, in that they contain one or more subordinate clauses, are also considered psychologically more complex. See complex sentence; coordination. —clausal adj.

claustrophobia

claustrophobia n. a persistent and irrational fear of enclosed places (e.g., elevators, closets, tunnels) or of being confined (e.g., in an airplane or the backseat of a car). Situations where enclosure or confinement may be encountered are often avoided or else endured with intense anxiety or distress. The focus of fear is typically on panic symptoms triggered in these situations, such as feelings of being unable to breathe, choking, sweating, and fears of losing control or going crazy. —claustrophobic adj.

claustrum

claustrum n. (pl. claustra) a thin layer of gray matter in the brain that separates the white matter of the lenticular nucleus from the insula (from Latin: “barrier”). The claustrum forms part of the basal ganglia and its function is unknown. —claustral adj.

clava

clava n. see gracile tubercle. [from Latin, “club”]

clavus

clavus n. a sharp sensation as if a nail were being driven into the head.

clay therapy

clay therapy a form of therapy in which children manipulate clay, often used in physical rehabilitation, in stimulating individuals with intellectual disability, and in the assessment and treatment of various disorders. The clay can be a metaphor for feelings, yet at the same time it serves as a tangible item that is visible, changeable, and under the child’s control. A child can look at the clay, focus on it, manipulate it, squeeze it, and pound it, which can help reduce anxiety, enable the acting out of hostile emotions, and provide opportunities for gratification, achievement, and acceptance.

clear sensorium

clear sensorium see sensorium.

clearance (CL)

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clearance requirement

clearance requirement 1. in the design of security systems, the requirement that only specifically authorized personnel should have access to certain physical areas or types of information. 2. in safety engineering, a mandate or guideline specifying the minimal distance or elevation of objects from a potentially hazardous source.

cleavage

cleavage n. the first stage of embryonic development, in which a fertilized ovum divides repeatedly to form a mass of smaller and smaller cells (see blastula). Also called segmentation.

cleft palate

cleft palate a congenital disorder characterized by a fissure in the roof of the mouth caused by failure of bones of the palate to fuse properly during prenatal development. The extent of a cleft palate may vary in different individuals, affecting only the hard palate or both hard and soft palates or extending completely through to the uvula; a cleft lip may or may not co-occur. The condition is typically corrected through surgery between 9 and 18 months of age, and repeated surgeries during childhood may be necessary for complete correction. Also called uranoschisis.

CLEP

CLEP acronym for College Level Examination Program.

Clérambault’s syndrome

Clérambault’s syndrome a form of erotic paranoia in which a person has delusions that someone else, who is typically older and of higher social status, is in love with him or her. The person continues to hold this belief despite having little contact with the other person and no reciprocation of feelings. The condition is more common in females than in males. Also called de Clérambault’s syndrome. [first described in 1922 by Gaëtan Gatian de Clérambault (1872–1934), French physician]

clerical aptitude

clerical aptitude 1. the ability to learn specific skills required for office work, such as perceptual speed (e.g., comparing names or numbers), speed in typing, error location, and vocabulary. 2. the measure of individual abilities in the following areas: vocabulary (understanding words and ideas), arithmetic (handling figures easily and accurately), and checking (recognizing similarities and differences rapidly).

clerical test

clerical test an examination to assess a person’s knowledge or skills needed for office, clerical, or administrative support positions. Also called clerical-aptitude test.

CLES

CLES abbreviation for Constructivist Learning Environment Survey.

Clever Hans

Clever Hans the “thinking horse,” reputed to be able to solve mathematical problems, spell words, distinguish colors, and identify coins, that became famous in Berlin around 1900. It signaled its answers by tapping its foot. However, German psychologist Oskar Pfungst (1874–1932), using experimental methods, demonstrated that the horse was responding to minimal cues in the form of involuntary movements on the part of its owner.

click-thru rate

click-thru rate the extent to which consumers actually click on banner advertisements to visit a different website. This is viewed as one measure of banner advertising success.

client

client n. a person receiving treatment or services, especially in the context of counseling or social work. See patient–client issue.

client abuse

client abuse see patient abuse.

client characteristics

client characteristics aspects of a client that define his or her physical and personality attributes as well as the problems and symptoms that the client brings into therapy for resolution and healing.

client education

client education an intervention aimed at giving individuals information intended to change their cognitions, beliefs, affect, and behaviors. This educational process can take place in formal groups (psychoeducational groups) or as a routine part of initiating psychotherapy.

client obligations

client obligations see contract.

client rights

client rights the rights of patients or clients to be fully informed of the benefits or risks of treatment procedures and to make knowledgable decisions to accept or reject treatment.

client satisfaction

client satisfaction the extent to which a person seeking mental health services is content with the results.

client self-monitoring

client self-monitoring see self-monitoring.

client-centered consultation

client-centered consultation see mental health consultation.

client-centered therapy

client-centered therapy a form of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers in the early 1940s. According to Rogers, an orderly process of client self-discovery and actualization occurs in response to the therapist’s consistent empathic understanding of, acceptance of, and respect for the client’s frame. The therapist sets the stage for personality growth by reflecting and clarifying the ideas of the client, who is able to see himself or herself more clearly and come into closer touch with his or her real self. As therapy progresses, the client resolves conflicts, reorganizes values and approaches to life, and learns how to interpret his or her thoughts and feelings, consequently changing behavior that he or she considers problematic. It was originally known as nondirective counseling or nondirective therapy, although this term is now used more broadly to denote any approach to psychotherapy in which the therapist establishes an encouraging atmosphere but avoids giving advice, offering interpretations, or engaging in other actions to actively direct the therapeutic process. Also called client-centered psychotherapy; person-centered therapy; Rogerian therapy.

client–patient issue

client–patient issue see patient–client issue.

client–treatment matching

client–treatment matching the selection of therapeutic components (i.e., specific therapies and therapists) that are most appropriate for a client’s needs and characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, gender, personality traits). There is evidence that client–treatment matching improves therapeutic outcomes.

climacteric

climacteric n. the biological stage of life in which reproductive capacity declines and finally ceases. In women this period, which results from changes in the levels of estrogens and progesterone and is known as menopause (popularly, change of life), typically occurs between 45 and 55 years of age and lasts 2 to 7 years. During this time, menstrual flow gradually decreases in occurrence, duration, and volume (a transitional phase called perimenopause) and finally ceases altogether, and various physical and potentially psychological changes, such as hot flashes, night sweats, joint pain, emotional lability, and depression, may occur in varying combinations and degrees. Some men undergo a similar period about 10 years later than is typical for women (see male climacteric). Also called climacterium. See also gonadopause.

climate

climate n. long-term weather conditions in a particular region, such as average temperature, humidity, and sunshine. The study of climatic influences on cognition, mood, and behavior is studied in environmental psychology. —climatic adj.

climax

climax n. see orgasm.

clinging behavior

clinging behavior a form of attachment behavior in which a child 6 months of age or older clings to the primary caregiver and becomes acutely distressed when left alone. Clinging behavior reaches a maximum in the 2nd and 3rd years and then slowly subsides. The behavior is also observed in the young of other primates and of some rodents.

clinic

clinic n. 1. a health care facility for the diagnosis and treatment of emergency and ambulatory patients. 2. a brief instructional program or session with diagnostic, therapeutic, or remedial purpose in the areas of mental or physical health or education.

clinical

clinical adj. 1. of or relating to the diagnosis and treatment of psychological, medical, or other disorders. Originally involving only direct observation of patients, clinical methods have now broadened to take into account biological and statistical factors in treating patients and diagnosing disorders. 2. relating to or occurring in a clinic.

clinical assessment

clinical assessment the systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and social factors in a person presenting with a possible psychological disorder. See also dynamic assessment.

clinical counseling

clinical counseling counseling that addresses a client’s personal or emotional difficulties. The counseling encompasses general goals for the client, for example, greater self-acceptance, better reality orientation, improved decision-making ability, and greater effectiveness in interpersonal relationships. The counselor’s responsibilities include gathering and interpreting data, identifying the client’s major problems, and formulating and (sometimes) implementing a treatment plan.

clinical depression

clinical depression among mental health professionals, a synonym for major depressive disorder. Within the general public, however, the term is often more broadly used to encompass any depressive disorder requiring therapeutic intervention.

clinical diagnosis

clinical diagnosis the process of identifying and determining the nature of a disorder through the study of the symptom pattern, review of medical and other records, investigation of background factors, and, where indicated, administration of psychological tests.

clinical efficacy

clinical efficacy the effectiveness of clinical interventions based on the evidence of controlled studies. Such studies typically include random assignment to control groups and treatment manuals that guide therapist actions.

clinical evidence

clinical evidence information about clients or patients that is relevant to clinical diagnosis and therapy, obtained either directly, through questioning (see clinical interview; psychological test), or indirectly, through observation of their behavior in a clinical setting, their case histories, and the like.

clinical geropsychology

clinical geropsychology an interdisciplinary field of research and practice that utilizes a lifespan perspective as a conceptual basis to address the mental health needs and services of older adults.

clinical health psychology

clinical health psychology a specialty field in health psychology that applies biopsychosocial theory, research, and practice principles to promote physical health and to help resolve the immediate problems of patients with medical conditions and related family difficulties. Biofeedback, relaxation training, hypnotherapy, and coping skills are among the many methods used by clinical health psychologists, who are also active in health policy and in developing and implementing models of preventive intervention.

clinical hypnosis

clinical hypnosis see hypnotherapy.

clinical interview

clinical interview a type of directed conversation initially used with children but now applied in a variety of contexts, including human factors research, psychological assessment, and treatment planning for patients by mental health professionals. In a clinical interview, the investigator may utilize certain standard material but essentially determines which questions to ask based on the responses given by the patient to previous ones. This technique is largely spontaneous and enables the interviewer to adapt questions to the patient’s comprehension and ask additional questions to clarify ambiguities and enhance understanding. See also diagnostic interview.

clinical investigation

clinical investigation 1. examination of a patient by means of interviews, testing, behavioral observation, or document analysis. 2. an in-depth analysis of an individual’s life experiences and personal history.

clinical judgment

clinical judgment analysis, evaluation, or prediction of the presenting signs and symptoms in an individual with a disease, disorder, dysfunction, or impairment. It includes assessing the appropriateness of particular treatments and the degree or likelihood of clinical improvement. These conclusions are derived from the expert knowledge of health or mental health professionals, as opposed to conclusions drawn from actuarial tables or statistical methods.

clinical judgment research

clinical judgment research empirical studies of the factors influencing the judgments mental health practitioners make with regard to assessment, treatment, predictions (e.g., dangerousness, suicidality), and prognosis in therapeutic and legal settings. Factors researched include individual differences of the practitioner (e.g., values, gender, sexual orientation), social contexts, and complex cognitive thought processes involved in judgment.

clinical marker

clinical marker an observable sign indicative of disorder. See also biochemical marker; biological marker.

clinical method

clinical method the process by which a health or mental health professional arrives at a conclusion, judgment, or diagnosis about a client or patient in a clinical situation.

clinical neurology

clinical neurology see neurology.

clinical neuropsychology

clinical neuropsychology a specialty of clinical psychology that represents the applied practice of neuropsychology and is concerned with assessment of and rehabilitation from brain injury that impairs an individual’s ability to function.

clinical neuroscience

clinical neuroscience an emerging field in which basic neuroscience data and the scientific method are coupled to such fields as clinical psychology, psychiatry, and neurology in order to better understand the neural underpinnings of mental and nervous system disorders and to improve their diagnosis and treatment.

clinical pediatric neuropsychology

clinical pediatric neuropsychology see pediatric neuropsychology.

clinical practice

clinical practice providing health or mental health services to patients or clients. In mental health, clinical practice includes services (e.g. psychological assessment, diagnosis, treatment) provided by a clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, or other mental health care provider who works directly with clients or patients to relieve distress or dysfunction caused by emotional and behavioral problems. Clinical practice typically refers to work in health and mental health clinics or in group or independent practices.

clinical practice guidelines

clinical practice guidelines systematically developed statements to assist providers, as well as clients or patients, in making decisions about appropriate medical or mental health care for specific clinical conditions.

clinical prediction

clinical prediction the process of examining such factors as signs, symptoms, and case histories to determine the clinical diagnosis and likely progress of patients. Clinical prediction can be contrasted with actuarial prediction, in which formal statistical methods combine numerical information for the same purposes. See clinical judgment.

clinical psychology

clinical psychology the branch of psychology that specializes in the research, assessment, diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of emotional and behavioral disorders. Clinical psychologists are doctorate-level professionals who have received training in research methods and techniques for the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological disorders. They work primarily in health and mental health clinics, in research, in academic settings, or in group and independent practices. They also serve as consultants to other professionals in the medical, legal, social-work, and community-relations fields. Clinical psychologists comprise approximately one third of the psychologists working in the United States and are governed by the code of practice of the American Psychological Association and by state licensing requirements.

clinical psychopharmacology

clinical psychopharmacology a branch of pharmacology concerned with how drugs affect the brain and behavior and specifically with the clinical evaluation and management of drugs developed for the treatment of mental disorders. See also psychopharmacotherapy.

clinical psychophysiology

clinical psychophysiology the therapeutic use of the theories and principles of psychophysiology through such techniques as biofeedback, meditation, and hypnosis. See also applied psychophysiology.

clinical risk assessment

clinical risk assessment a clinician-based prediction of the likelihood that an individual will pose a threat to others or engage in a certain behavior (e.g., violence) within a given period. Unlike actuarial risk assessment, a specific formula or weighting system using empirically derived predictors is not applied. Instead, clinicians make predictions of dangerousness or violent behavior primarily on the basis of their own experience, reasoning, and judgment; their observations, examination, and psychological testing of the individual; and information obtained from his or her life history.

clinical significance

clinical significance the extent to which a study result is judged to be meaningful in relation to the diagnosis or treatment of disorders. An example of a clinically significant result would be an outcome indicating that a new intervention strategy is effective in reducing symptoms of depression. See also practical significance; statistical significance.

clinical social work

clinical social work a field devoted to providing individual, family, and group treatment from a psychosocial perspective in such areas as health, mental health, family and child welfare, and correction. Clinical social work also involves client-centered advocacy that assists clients with information and referral and in dealing with local, state, and federal agencies.

clinical sociology

clinical sociology see public sociology.

clinical sport psychology

clinical sport psychology a specialty within clinical psychology focused on individuals involved in sport. Clinical sport psychologists perform much the same services for athletes as do professionals in educational sport psychology (i.e., helping with performance enhancement and consistency), but they also assist athletes with clinical issues that typically extend beyond the training of educational sport psychologists (e.g., depression, eating disorders).

clinical trial

clinical trial a research study designed to compare a new treatment or drug with an existing standard of care or other control condition (see control group). Trials generally are designed to answer scientific questions and to find better ways to treat individuals who have a specific disease or disorder. Also called clinical study. See also randomized clinical trial.

clinical type

clinical type an individual whose pattern of symptoms or behaviors is consistent with a recognizable disorder of clinical psychology and psychiatry.

clinical utility

clinical utility 1. the extent to which diagnostic testing (e.g., genetic testing) is useful in facilitating beneficial health outcomes (e.g., preventing mortality, ameliorating morbidity and disability) from interventions that are initiated based on test results. 2. the extent to which the interventions themselves can be applied successfully and cost-effectively.

clinical utility research

clinical utility research see effectiveness research.

clinical validation

clinical validation the act of acquiring evidence to support the utility of specific procedures for diagnosis or treatment.

clinical vampirism

clinical vampirism see vampirism.

clinically relevant behavior (CRB)

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clinician

clinician n. a medical or mental health care professional who is directly involved in the care and treatment of patients, as distinguished from one working in other areas, such as research or administration.

clinodactyly

clinodactyly n. a permanent deflection of one or more of the fingers. This is a common physical anomaly but is also associated with many genetic or chromosomal disorders, including Down syndrome.

clipping

clipping n. the shortening of a word in such a way that the new word is used with exactly the same meaning, for example, exam from examination. In general, adults prefer back-clipping, for example, prof for professor, whereas children prefer front-clipping, for example, fessor for professor. Unlike a back-formation, the clipped word has the same part of speech as the full form.

clique

clique n. a status- or friendship-based subgroup within a larger group or organization. Cliques are particularly common during adolescence, when they are often used to raise social standing, strengthen friendship ties, and reduce feelings of isolation and exclusion.

clitoral circumcision

clitoral circumcision see female genital mutilation.

clitoral hood

clitoral hood a fold of skin that covers the clitoris when it is flaccid. It is homologous to the foreskin of the penis. See also prepuce.

clitoridectomy

clitoridectomy n. the surgical removal of all or part of the clitoris, usually performed on girls as an ethnic or religious rite. It is a highly controversial practice and the most common form of female genital mutilation.

clitoris

clitoris n. a small body of erectile tissue situated anterior to the vaginal opening. It is homologous to the penis but usually much smaller. —clitoral adj.

cloaca

cloaca n. 1. the common cavity, occurring in early mammalian embryos, into which the intestinal, urinary, and reproductive canals open. The proximity of these functions and the pleasure involved in them are a major factor in Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory. 2. in nonmammalian vertebrates, the cavity through which sperm are discharged in the male, and eggs are laid in the female, and through which wastes are eliminated. [Latin, literally: “sewer,” “drain”] —cloacal adj.

clomipramine

clomipramine n. a tricyclic antidepressant drug used for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) as well as depression and panic disorder. Clomipramine is a more potent inhibitor of serotonin reuptake than other tricyclic antidepressants, and its active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine, inhibits norepinephrine reuptake; it thus is classified as a mixed serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Because of its tricyclic structure, it has the same adverse side effects and toxicity as other tricyclic antidepressants, and it has been largely supplanted by the SSRIs, one of which—fluvoxamine—is also used for the treatment of OCD. U.S. trade name: Anafranil.

clonazepam

clonazepam n. a highly potent benzodiazepine originally developed to treat absence seizures but now used for the treatment of panic disorder and other anxiety disorders and as a mood stabilizer. Because it has a slow onset of action, long half-life, and slow rate of clearance, it needs to be taken less frequently (twice a day) than some other benzodiazepines. U.S. trade name: Klonopin.

clone

clone 1. n. an organism that is genetically identical to another, whether because both organisms originate from a single common parent as a result of asexual reproduction or because one is derived from genetic material taken from the other, as in reproductive cloning. Differences in characters between cloned individuals are assumed to be the result of environmental factors. 2. n. a group of genetically identical organisms. 3. n. a group of cells derived from a single parent cell. 4. vb. to produce genetically identical copies of a particular organism or cell. —clonal adj.

clonic

clonic adj. of, relating to, or characterized by clonus.

clonic phase

clonic phase see tonic–clonic seizure.

clonic spasm

clonic spasm see spasm.

clonidine

clonidine n. a drug used for the treatment of hypertension. It functions by direct stimulation of alpha-adrenergic receptors in the brainstem to restrict the flow of impulses in peripheral sympathetic nerves supplying the arteries, thus causing them to relax (widen); most of the other commonly prescribed antihypertensive drugs act as beta blockers or as diuretics. Clonidine has been used as an adjunctive agent in the management of alcohol and opioid withdrawal, as a nonstimulant treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and in the management of clozapine-induced sialorrhea (i.e., drooling). It has also been tested in patients with bipolar disorder who are resistant to other drug treatments, but with limited effectiveness. U.S. trade name (among others): Catapres.

cloning

cloning n. 1. the process of making copies of a specific piece of DNA, usually a gene. This uses the techniques of genetic engineering to isolate the desired gene and transfer it to a suitable host cell, such as a bacterium, inside which it will undergo replication. Cloning facilitates investigation of gene structure and function and enables identification and analysis of particular gene products. Also called gene cloning. 2. the process of making genetically identical copies (i.e., clones) of an entire organism. The potential cloning of human beings raises major ethical and social questions.

Cloninger’s alcoholism typology

Cloninger’s alcoholism typology a two-part classification for distinguishing different types of persons with alcohol dependence. Type 1 individuals tend to start problem drinking after age 25, experience alcohol dependence that is more psychological than physiological, and feel guilty for drinking. Type 2 individuals start problem drinking at a younger age, are more likely to have family members with substance abuse problems, and tend to have more behavioral problems. The two types have also been found to differ in personality traits; for example, Type 1 alcoholics are more often harm avoidant (see Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality). These types are sometimes considered representative of either end of a continuum rather than as discrete groups. [developed by U.S. psychiatrist and geneticist C. Robert Cloninger (1944– )]

Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality

Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality a seven-factor model that includes four dimensions of temperament and three dimensions of character. The temperament dimensions include harm avoidance (sensitivity to, and avoidance of, punishing stimuli), novelty seeking (a tendency toward exhilaration or excitement in response to cues of potential reward or relief of punishment), reward dependence (a tendency to respond to positive signals such as social approval and to maintain rewarded behavior), and persistence (a tendency to continue a task or activity regardless of frustration, dissatisfaction, or fatigue). The character dimensions include self-directedness (the extent to which individuals are goal-oriented and resourceful), cooperativeness (the extent to which individuals relate to others), and self-transcendence (the extent to which individuals are transpersonal, spiritual, and idealistic). The model suggests that dimensions of temperament are heritable and that novelty seeking and harm avoidance are closely related to the behavioral approach system and behavioral inhibition system, respectively, described by British psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray (1934–2004). In addition, the model proposes a link between certain temperaments and specific neurotransmitters: that is, between novelty seeking and dopamine, between harm avoidance and serotonin, and between reward dependence and norepinephrine. Major character traits, however, are said to be related to insight learning and shaped both by temperament and environmental factors. The model has been influential in framing research questions in both psychiatry and psychology, although empirical support for its theoretical assumptions and predictions has been mixed. Measures that assess central concepts of the model include the Temperament and Character Inventory. [developed by C. Robert Cloninger]

clonus

clonus n. a type of involuntary movement caused by a rapid succession of alternate muscular contractions and relaxations. Although some forms of clonus, such as hiccups, are considered normal, most such movements are abnormal; for example, clonus occurs as part of a tonic–clonic seizure. More severe forms are associated with spinal cord damage, poisoning (e.g., from strychnine), or an infection (e.g., syphilis).

Clopixol

Clopixol n. a trade name for zuclopenthixol.

clorazepate

clorazepate n. a long-acting benzodiazepine used in the treatment of anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, and partial seizures. U.S. trade name (among others): Tranxene.

closed adoption

closed adoption see adoption.

closed call system

closed call system a system of vocal communication in which there is a limited number of vocalizations that can be used by an organism or in which the vocalizations are not modifiable after a certain age. For example, in some bird species there is little evidence of environmentally induced change in calls after hatching, and in others there is little or no change in vocalizations after a critical period for learning has ended. Compare open call system.

closed economy

closed economy an experimental design used in instrumental- or operant-conditioning procedures in which all arranged reinforcement (e.g., food) is obtained within experimental tests, with no supplements occurring outside the experimental context. Compare open economy.

closed group

closed group a group consisting of only those members who constitute the original group. In counseling or therapy, the term refers to a group that excludes new members during the course of therapy. Compare open group.

closed head injury

closed head injury a head injury, such as a concussion or acceleration–deceleration injury, in which the skull is not broken open or pierced. Compare open head injury.

closed marriage

closed marriage a marriage that changes little over the years and that involves relatively little change in the individual partners. A closed marriage relies on the legal bond between the parties to enforce permanence and sexual exclusivity. Also called static marriage. Compare open marriage.

closed question

closed question see fixed-alternative question.

closed scenario

closed scenario an experiment in which the participant is required to choose between a limited number of options for solving an assigned problem.

closed shop

closed shop a work arrangement in which union membership is a precondition for hiring. In the United States, the Labor Management Relations Act prohibits such a precondition but does allow union shops and agency shops. Compare open shop.

closed skill

closed skill any motor skill that is performed under the same conditions on every occasion, as in making a free-throw shot in a game of basketball. Compare open skill.

closed society

closed society see open society.

closed system

closed system 1. an isolated, self-contained system having no contact with the environment, such as the blood vascular system or a space module. 2. by analogy, a social system that is resistant to new information or change. Compare open system.

closed-captioned television

closed-captioned television television programs supplemented with printed captions, usually placed at the bottom of the screen, that provide a visual representation of the speech on the audio channel. Closed captioning is used for the benefit of viewers with hearing loss.

closed-circuit television system (CCTV system)

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closed-class words

closed-class words in a language, a category of words that does not readily admit new members, consisting mainly of words that serve key grammatical functions, such as pronouns, prepositions, and determiners (see function word). Compare open-class words.

closed-loop system

closed-loop system 1. a system that recirculates materials, information, or energy without external input. 2. a self-regulating system in which feedback from sensors enables a control mechanism to maintain a set of operating conditions. An example would be a central heating or air-conditioning system that is set to maintain an environment at a particular temperature. Compare open-loop system.

closedmindedness

closedmindedness n. a personality trait reflecting a relatively high level of dogmatism. Compare openmindedness. —closedminded adj.

closet homosexual

closet homosexual a gay man or lesbian who does not reveal his or her sexual orientation to others, particularly to family members, parents, or employers. Compare coming out.

closing

closing n. ending a session in psychotherapy or counseling. Approaches to closing vary among therapists: Some allow the client to initiate the end of the session; others initiate it themselves.

closure

closure n. 1. the act, achievement, or sense of completing or resolving something. In psychotherapy, for example, a client achieves closure with the recognition that he or she has reached a resolution to a particular psychological issue or relationship problem. 2. one of the Gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive incomplete forms (e.g., images, sounds) as complete, synthesizing the missing units so as to perceive the image or sound as a whole—in effect closing the gap in the incomplete forms to create complete forms. Also called law of closure; principle of closure. See also auditory closure; goodness of configuration; Prägnanz; visual closure. 3. more generally, the act of closing or the state of being closed.

Closure Flexibility Test

Closure Flexibility Test a perceptual test in which each item consists of one simple geometrical figure and four complex figures: The participant is asked to identify which one of the complex figures has the simple figure embedded within it. The test, which was developed from the earlier Gottschaldt Figures Test, is considered to be an index of perceptual flexibility. Also called Concealed Figures Test. [originally developed by German psychologist Kurt Gottschaldt (1902–1991)]

clouded sensorium

clouded sensorium see sensorium.

clouding of consciousness

clouding of consciousness a mental state involving a reduced awareness of the environment, inability to concentrate, and confusion. Also called mental fog.

cloverleaf skull

cloverleaf skull see Kleeblattschädel syndrome.

clozapine

clozapine n. an atypical antipsychotic agent of the dibenzodiazepine class: the first of the atypical antipsychotics to be used clinically and released into the U.S. market in 1990. Although regarded by some as the most effective of all antipsychotic drugs, clozapine has problematic side effects that have limited its use. Among others, these adverse effects may include weight gain, sedation, and—importantly—agranulocytosis, which may occur in 1% to 2% of patients treated with the drug. Use of clozapine therefore requires frequent monitoring of white blood cell counts in patients and is generally reserved for patients who have responded suboptimally to other antipsychotic agents. U.S. trade name: Clozaril.

cloze procedure

cloze procedure a technique used in both testing and teaching reading and comprehension, in which words are deleted from a text, leaving blank spaces. The number of blanks that students fill in correctly is used as a measure of progress in these subjects. The cloze procedure is based on the Gestalt principle of closure. [introduced in 1953 by Wilson L. Taylor]

CLT

CLT abbreviation for central limit theorem.

club drug

club drug a substance used by teenagers and young adults at bars, dance clubs, or all-night parties known as raves. Club drugs include MDMA (Ecstasy); GHB, flunitrazepam, and ketamine (see also date-rape drug); methamphetamine; and LSD. Chronic abuse can have severe physiological or psychological repercussions (or both) and, when combined with the intake of alcohol, might also prove fatal.

clubfoot

clubfoot n. a type of deformity in which the foot is twisted out of normal position, resulting—in most cases—in more than one positional distortion (e.g., the foot may be turned inward and downward, outward and upward, or in some other variation). Clubfoot may be congenital, or the condition may be due to injury or disease, such as poliomyelitis. Clubfoot often is associated with another anomaly, such as meningomyelocele. Also called talipes.

clumsy automation

clumsy automation in ergonomics, any reallocation of system functions from humans to machines that does not lead to the expected gains in safety and efficiency. This is usually because automation alters the human operator’s task, resulting in increased workload or underload. Similarly, machine functions may be misallocated to humans. See also adaptive task allocation; function allocation. [defined in 1989 by U.S. management scientist Earl Wiener (1949– )]

cluster analysis

cluster analysis a method of multivariate data analysis in which individuals or units are placed into distinct subgroups based on their strong similarity with regard to specific attributes. For example, one might use cluster analysis to form groups of individual children on the basis of their levels of anxiety, aggression, delinquency, and cognitive difficulties so as to identify useful typologies that could increase understanding of co-occurring mental disorders and lead to more appropriate treatments for specific individuals. There are several different forms of cluster analysis—including hierarchical clustering and latent class analysis—and each is appropriate for use with different types of data. Results of a cluster analysis often are presented in a dendrogram. Also called clustering.

cluster evaluation

cluster evaluation 1. a type of program evaluation, either a formative evaluation or a summative evaluation, carried out at several sites. Each site has the same evaluation objectives, which are assessed in a coordinated effort by different evaluators in a continuous process. Information so obtained is then shared to enable common program outcomes to be assessed and to identify elements that contributed to the failures or successes of the program. 2. a strategy for accumulating information in evaluation research that involves combining and reconciling studies with somewhat different conclusions. This approach suggests criteria for determining when data from dissimilar studies can be pooled. 3. an approach in which individual evaluators in separate projects collaborate with an overarching evaluator. See also metaevaluation.

cluster headache

cluster headache an extremely severe unilateral headache, typically limited to the area around one eye, that lasts between 15 minutes and 3 hours and occurs in bouts, or “clusters,” every day (sometimes twice or more a day or every other day) for a period of up to 3 months, followed by a headache-free period of months or years. The exact cause is not known but may include vascular dilation, trigeminal nerve activity, or histamine release. Also called histamine headache.

cluster randomization

cluster randomization a process in which preexisting groups are assigned randomly to specific experimental conditions, as occurs in group experiments, group-randomized trials, and other designs in which collective entities form the unit of analysis. When such a process is applied to single individuals it is called random assignment.

cluster sampling

cluster sampling a tiered method of obtaining units for a study. A population is first subdivided into smaller groups or clusters (often administrative or geographical), and a random sample of these clusters is drawn. The process is then repeated for each sampled cluster until the required level is reached. An example would be sampling voters in a large jurisdiction (e.g., a state) by randomly choosing subgroups (e.g., counties) and then further subgroups (e.g., towns and cities) until individual participants are obtained for a study.

cluster suicide

cluster suicide a statistically high occurrence of suicides within a circumscribed geographic area, social group, or time period. Cluster suicides have been identified involving adolescents, factory workers, and dispersed individuals who imitated the suicide of an admired role model as described by the media (see Werther syndrome). Compare mass suicide.

cluster-randomized trial

cluster-randomized trial see group-randomized trial.

clustered data

clustered data a set of observations or scores that can be grouped into multiple subsets (clusters), such that the items in each subset are similar to one another with respect to certain attributes and the distinctions between subsets help explain the overall variation among the values as a whole. See cluster analysis.

clustering

clustering n. 1. the tendency for items to be consistently grouped together in the course of recall. This grouping typically occurs for related items. It is readily apparent in memory tasks in which items from the same category, such as nonhuman animals, are recalled together. 2. in statistics, see cluster analysis. 3. in ergonomics, a method of knowledge elicitation in which a researcher interviewing users of a product or system jots down key ideas or words as they occur and then groups together linked ideas and meanings. The clusters so formed are then used to create taxonomies, task hierarchies, or menu structures. —cluster n., vb.

cluttering

cluttering n. 1. a language disorder characterized by rapid speech that is confused, jumbled, and imprecise. Compare stuttering. 2. a tendency to collect items without any intention to do so. It is distinct from the clinically diagnosable condition of hoarding in that the saved articles do not include trash or other unsanitary items and the individual is able to make rational decisions about and periodically discard materials.

CM

CM abbreviation for cochlear microphonic.

CMAS

CMAS abbreviation for Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale.

CME

CME abbreviation for continuing medical education.

CMHC

CMHC abbreviation for community mental health center.

CMI

CMI abbreviation for Cornell Medical Index.

CMP

CMP abbreviation for chronic myofascial pain.

CMS

CMS abbreviation for Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.

CNS

CNS abbreviation for central nervous system.

CNS abnormality

CNS abnormality any defect in structure or function of the tissues of the brain and spinal cord, that is, the central nervous system (CNS).

CNS depressant

CNS depressant any of a group of drugs that, at low doses, depress the inhibitory centers of the brain. At somewhat higher doses, they depress other neural functions, slow reaction times, and lower respiration and heart rate. At still higher doses, they can induce unconsciousness, coma, and death. Examples of CNS depressants are alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, inhalants, and meprobamate. See also sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic drug.

CNS stimulant

CNS stimulant any of a group of drugs that, at low to moderate doses, heighten wakefulness and alertness, diminish fatigue, and provoke feelings of energy and well-being. At higher doses, the more powerful stimulants can produce agitation, panicked excitement, hallucinations, and paranoia. In general, stimulants exert their effects by enhancing catecholamine neurotransmission and increasing activity in the sympathetic nervous system. Cocaine and the amphetamines are examples of stimulants thought to activate the reward system (nucleus accumbens, limbic, and frontal cortex) by potentiating dopaminergic neurotransmission. Caffeine and nicotine are CNS stimulants with different mechanisms of action at adenosine receptors and nicotinic receptors, respectively. In non-Western cultures, betel nut, coca leaves, guarana, khat, and numerous other substances are used as stimulants. Some stimulants are used clinically in mental health, and in psychiatric contexts, they are often referred to as psychostimulants. These drugs include the amphetamines and related or similarly acting compounds (e.g., methylphenidate, pemoline, modafinil), used for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsy, depression, and brain dysfunction and as appetite suppressants. Caffeine and ephedrine are ingredients of over-the-counter “alertness” medications.

CNS vasodilation

CNS vasodilation dilation of cerebral blood vessels leading to increased cerebral blood flow. It can be caused by various agents, such as nitrous oxide.

CNV

CNV abbreviation for contingent negative variation.

Co

Co abbreviation for comparison stimulus.

CO blob

CO blob abbreviation for cytochrome oxidase blob.

Co-Dependents Anonymous

Co-Dependents Anonymous a self-help group for individuals who seek to improve problematic codependent relationships with others by using a twelve-step program. See codependency.

co-occurrence

co-occurrence n. a relation between two or more phenomena (objects or events) such that they tend to occur together. For example, thunder co-occurs with lightning, and in English the letter Q typically co-occurs with the letter U. By itself, co-occurrence does not imply a causal link: For co-occurrence to become covariation, there must be a systematic correlation between both the occurrence of the phenomena and their nonoccurrence. —co-occur vb.

coaching

coaching n. specialized instruction and training provided to enable individuals to acquire or enhance particular skills, as in executive coaching or life coaching, or to improve performance, as in athletic or academic coaching.

Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS)

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coacting group

coacting group a group consisting of two or more individuals working in one another’s presence on tasks and activities that require little or no interaction or communication (coaction tasks), such as clerical staff working at individual desks in an open-design office. Researchers often create coacting groups in laboratory studies to determine the effect of the mere presence of others on performance. See also social facilitation.

coaction effect

coaction effect the positive or negative change in an individual’s performance sometimes seen when other individuals are present and engaged in the same task. See also audience effect.

coaction task

coaction task any performance, competition, work assignment, or other goal-oriented activity that individuals execute in the presence of one or more other individuals who are performing a similar type of task. Examples include an aerobics exercise session and students taking a written test in a classroom. Compare audience task.

coactivation

coactivation n. the activation of the same response at the same time by two different stimuli.

coactive sport

coactive sport a sport in which participants perform the same task without the need for interaction or for coordination of their actions with those of other players. Bowling and golf are examples of coactive sports. Compare interactive sport.

coadaptation

coadaptation n. the development of interdependent behavioral adaptations between species. For example, a type of fruit tree may depend on a specific mammal to disperse its seeds and that mammal may depend on the tree’s fruit as part of its diet. See also symbiosis.

coalition

coalition n. an alliance of two or more individuals or groups, often formed to gain a better outcome (e.g., power and influence) than can be achieved by each alone. Coalitions tend to be adversarial, in that they seek outcomes that will benefit the coalition members at the expense of nonmembers. They also tend to be unstable because (a) they include individuals who would not naturally form an alliance but are obliged or encouraged to do so by circumstances and (b) members frequently abandon one alliance to form a more profitable one. Such alliances are also formed among nonhuman animals. In chimpanzees, for example, a coalition of two or more lower-ranking chimps can subdue the dominant male in the troop. See also minimum power theory; minimum resource theory.

coarse tremor

coarse tremor see tremor.

coarticulation

coarticulation n. a phenomenon in which the performance of one or more actions in a sequence varies according to the other actions in the sequence. This is particularly important in speech, where the formation of certain phonemes varies according to the speech sounds that immediately precede or follow: For example, the aspirated [p] sound in pin differs slightly from the unaspirated [p] in spin (see aspiration). Coarticulation also occurs in keyboarding, where the movements used to type a particular key are different when the preceding or following keys are different. See also allomorph; allophone.

cobedding

cobedding n. the practice of placing sibling infants, such as twins, in the same crib, bed, or incubator. There is some evidence of improved outcomes for infants born prematurely and those with low birth weight who are cobedded in neonatal intensive care units. However, the practice of cobedding infants at home remains controversial as it is assumed to present an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Compare bed-sharing.

coca

coca n. a shrub, Erythroxylum coca, that is indigenous to Peru, Bolivia, and other South American countries and cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. The leaves have been used for centuries as the source of cocaine.

cocaine

cocaine n. a drug, obtained from leaves of the coca shrub, that stimulates the central nervous system (see CNS stimulant), with the effects of reducing fatigue and increasing well-being, followed by a period of depression as the initial effects diminish. The drug acts by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. The psychoactive properties of the coca plant were recognized by the Peruvian Incas before 4000 bce, and in the 1880s the possible therapeutic uses of cocaine were investigated. Sigmund Freud observed that the drug functioned as a topical anesthetic. See also crack; freebase.

cocaine abuse

cocaine abuse in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of cocaine use marked by recurrent significant adverse consequences related to the repeated ingestion of the substance. This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of cocaine dependence: If the criteria for cocaine abuse and cocaine dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given. In DSM–5, however, both have been combined into one category, stimulant use disorder, and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance abuse.

Cocaine Anonymous (CA)

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cocaine dependence

cocaine dependence in DSM–IV–TR, repeated or continued use of cocaine despite significant cocaine-related behavioral, physiological, and psychosocial problems and tolerance or characteristic withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended. In DSM–5, cocaine dependence has been combined with cocaine abuse into a single disorder, and neither is considered a distinct diagnosis any longer (see stimulant use disorder). See also substance dependence.

cocaine intoxication

cocaine intoxication in DSM–IV–TR, a reversible syndrome due to the recent ingestion of cocaine. It includes clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., agitation, aggressive behavior, elation, grandiosity, impaired judgment, talkativeness, hypervigilance), as well as two or more physiological signs (e.g., rapid heartbeat, elevated blood pressure, perspiration or chills, nausea and vomiting). Large doses, especially when taken intravenously, may produce confusion, incoherence, apprehension, transient paranoid ideas, increased sexual interest, and perceptual disturbances (e.g., a sensation of insects crawling on the skin). An hour or so after these effects subside, the user may experience tremulousness, anxiety, irritability, fatigue, and depression. The equivalent term in DSM–5 is stimulant intoxication. See also substance intoxication.

cocaine intoxication delirium

cocaine intoxication delirium in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome that develops over a short period of time (usually hours to days) following the heavy ingestion of cocaine. It includes disturbances of consciousness (e.g., reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention), accompanied by changes in cognition (e.g., memory deficit, disorientation, or language disturbance) in excess of those usually associated with cocaine intoxication. See also substance intoxication delirium.

cocaine withdrawal

cocaine withdrawal in DSM–IV–TR, a characteristic withdrawal syndrome that develops after cessation of (or reduction in) prolonged, heavy consumption of cocaine. The essential characteristic is depressed mood, sometimes severe, and there may also be fatigue, disturbed sleep, increased appetite, vivid and unpleasant dreams, or psychomotor retardation or agitation, or all of these features. Marked withdrawal symptoms (see crash) often follow an episode of intense, high-dose use. The equivalent term in DSM–5 is stimulant withdrawal. See also substance withdrawal.

coccygeal nerve

coccygeal nerve see spinal nerve.

coccyx

coccyx n. (pl. coccyges) the last bone of the spinal column in apes and humans; it is formed by fusion of the caudal vertebrae. —coccygeal adj.

cochlea

cochlea n. the bony fluid-filled part of the inner ear that is concerned with hearing. Shaped like a snail shell, it forms part of the bony labyrinth. Along its length run three canals: the scala vestibuli, scala tympani, and scala media, or cochlear duct. The floor of the scala media is formed by the basilar membrane; the organ of Corti, which rests on the basilar membrane, contains the hair cells that act as auditory receptor organs. —cochlear adj.

cochlear aplasia

cochlear aplasia the clinical absence or defective development of the cochlea in the inner ear.

cochlear duct

cochlear duct see scala media.

cochlear echo

cochlear echo see otoacoustic emissions.

cochlear emissions

cochlear emissions see otoacoustic emissions.

cochlear implant

cochlear implant an electronic device designed to enable individuals with complete deafness to hear and interpret some sounds, particularly those associated with speech. It consists of a microphone to detect sound, a headpiece to transmit sound, a processor to digitize sound, and a receiver to signal electrodes that are surgically implanted in the cochlea to stimulate the auditory nerve. In contrast to a hearing aid, which amplifies sound, it directly stimulates the auditory nerve.

cochlear microphonic (CM)

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cochlear nerve

cochlear nerve see auditory nerve.

cochlear nucleus

cochlear nucleus a mass of cell bodies of second-order auditory neurons in the brainstem. The principal subdivisions are the ventral, dorsal, and anterior cochlear nuclei.

cochlear recruitment

cochlear recruitment the recruitment of previously unstimulated neurons in the cochlea with an increase in stimulus intensity.

Cochran Q test

Cochran Q test a nonparametric statistical procedure applied when each experimental unit (e.g., an individual participant) is observed under multiple conditions and the data can have only one of two outcomes (e.g., yes or no, pass or fail). The Q test is used to evaluate the equality of the outcomes under the different conditions. [William Gemmell Cochran (1909–1980), Scottish-born U.S. statistician]

Cockayne syndrome

Cockayne syndrome a hereditary disorder characterized by microcephaly, dwarfism, premature aging, severe photosensitivity, hearing loss, and moderate to severe learning delays. There are three types: Type 1 (Type A) is diagnosed during early childhood; Type 2 (Type B) is a more severe form in which growth and developmental abnormalities are present at birth; and Type 3 (Type C) is a milder form of the disorder. Individuals with Type 1 or 2 usually do not survive past childhood, whereas those with Type 3 live into adulthood. [reported in 1936 by Edward Alfred Cockayne (1880–1956), British physician]

cocktail-party effect

cocktail-party effect the ability to attend to one of several speech streams while ignoring others, as when one is at a cocktail party. Research in this area in the early 1950s suggested that the unattended messages are not processed, but later findings indicated that meaning is identified in at least some cases. For example, the mention of one’s name is processed even if it occurs in an unattended speech stream. See also attenuation theory.

cocktail-party universal

cocktail-party universal see psychological universal.

cocoa

cocoa n. a product derived from the cacao plant (Theobroma cacao) by roasting and grinding the beans (seeds) and removing the oils. The pharmacologically active ingredients are theobromine (typically about 1%–3% of dry weight) and caffeine.

coconsciousness

coconsciousness n. 1. generally, experiences (e.g., perceptions, memories, thoughts, volitions) of which one is unaware but that exist in the fringe of consciousness. See divided consciousness; unity of consciousness. 2. in cases of dissociative identity disorder, a person’s sense of having access to coexisting, distinct personalities. —coconscious adj. [described by U.S. physician Morton Prince (1854–1929), who preferred coconscious to the term subconscious]

cocontraction

cocontraction n. concurrent activity in the agonist and antagonist muscles controlling a joint.

cocounseling

cocounseling n. the counseling of peers by each other, as opposed to one-way, professionally led counseling. See reevaluation counseling.

COD

COD abbreviation for change-over delay.

codability

codability n. the extent to which speakers of a language agree on a name for something. For example, the codability of a color is defined by how much agreement there is about a name for that color. —codable adj.

code of ethics

code of ethics a set of standards and principles of professional conduct, such as the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct of the American Psychological Association. See professional ethics; standards of practice.

code switching

code switching in sociolinguistics, the practice typical of individuals proficient in two or more registers, dialects, or languages who will switch from one to the other depending on the conversational context or in order to enhance linguistic or social meaning. See also diglossia.

code test

code test a test that requires participants to translate one set of symbols into another, for example, by writing California in numbers that stand for letters according to the code A = 3, B = 4, C = 5, and so on. Also called coding test; symbol-substitution test. See cryptarithmetic; cryptogram. See also symbol–digit test.

codeine

codeine n. a morphine-derived opiate that is used as an analgesic (alone or in combination with other analgesics, e.g., aspirin) and as a cough suppressant. It also induces euphoria; however, its addiction potential is substantially less than that of heroin. See opioid analgesic.

codependency

codependency n. 1. the state of being mutually reliant, for example, a relationship between two individuals who are emotionally dependent on one another. 2. a dysfunctional relationship pattern in which an individual is psychologically dependent on (or controlled by) a person who has a pathological addiction (e.g., alcohol, gambling). —codependent adj.

codification

codification n. 1. the systematic arrangement of items in an organized fashion or the classification of items into identifiable categories. 2. the conversion of data or other information into a code that can be translated by others. Also called coding.

codification-of-rules stage

codification-of-rules stage in Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development, the stage at which children of 11 and 12 years of age and older view rules as binding once they are agreed to, and games are seen as a system of interconnecting laws. Although the awareness of rules emerges at an earlier age, systematic adherence is not manifested until the codification-of-rules stage.

coding

coding n. see codification.

coding test

coding test see code test.

codominance

codominance n. a sharing of high rank in certain nonhuman animal populations. Wild macaques, baboons, and chimpanzees may control their groups through a few small males exhibiting codominance, rather than through a linear hierarchy of animal dominance. Coalitions may be formed by lower ranking individuals either to counter the influence of more dominant individuals or to overthrow them. Often these coalitions are short-lived as one coalition member assumes dominance over the others.

codon

codon n. a unit of the genetic code consisting of three consecutive bases in a DNA or messenger RNA sequence. Most codons specify a particular amino acid in protein synthesis, although some act as “start” or “stop” signals. Codons on a gene are numbered, and genetic mutations are described as occurring at particular codons or locations on the gene. Thus, a family might be described as having a mutation at codon 630 on exon 11 of chromosome 10.

coefficient

coefficient n. 1. a quantity or value that serves as a measure of some property. For example, the correlation coefficient is a measure of linear relatedness and a regression coefficient is a measure of the relationship between a predictor and a response variable. 2. in algebra, a scalar that multiplies a variable in an equation. For example, in the equation y = bx, the scalar quantity b is said to be a coefficient.

coefficient alpha

coefficient alpha see Cronbach’s alpha.

coefficient of agreement

coefficient of agreement a numerical index that reflects the degree of agreement among a set of raters, judges, or instruments as to which of several categories a case belongs. Coefficients of agreement, such as Cohen’s kappa, are often corrected for chance agreement. Also called agreement coefficient.

coefficient of alienation

coefficient of alienation (symbol: k) a numerical index that reflects the amount of unexplained variance between two variables. It is a measure of the lack of relationship between the two variables. Also called alienation coefficient.

coefficient of association

coefficient of association any of various quantities that index the relationship between two variables. For example, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient might be used to measure a relationship involving linear associations, whereas the Spearman correlation coefficient might be used for one involving nonlinear associations.

coefficient of concordance

coefficient of concordance (symbol: W) a numerical index that reflects the degree to which the rankings of k conditions or objects by m raters are in agreement. Its value ranges from 0 (no agreement) to 1 (perfect agreement). Also called Kendall’s coefficient of concordance; Kendall’s W.

coefficient of contingency

coefficient of contingency (symbol: C) a measure of the degree of association between two variables whose values are unordered categories. Its value ranges from 0 to 1, with 0 indicating that the two nominal variables are independent of each other. Examples include Cramér’s V and Yule’s Q. Also called contingency coefficient.

coefficient of determination

coefficient of determination (symbol: r2) a numerical index that reflects the proportion of variation in an outcome or response variable that is accounted for by its relationship with a predictor variable. More specifically, it is a measure of the percentage of variance in a dependent variable that is accounted for by its linear relationship with a single independent variable. Obtained by multiplying the value of the correlation coefficient (r) by itself, the coefficient of determination ranges in value from 0 to 1. Low values indicate the outcome is relatively unrelated to the predictor, whereas values closer to 1 indicate that the two variables are highly related. For example, if r = .30, then the squared correlation coefficient is .302 = .09 and interpreted to mean 9% of the variance between the two variables is common or overlapping. Also called determination coefficient; squared correlation coefficient.

coefficient of multiple determination

coefficient of multiple determination (symbol: R2) a numerical index that reflects the degree to which variation in a response or outcome variable (e.g., workers’ incomes) is accounted for by its relationship with two or more predictor variables (e.g., age, gender, years of education). More specifically, it is a measure of the percentage of variance in a dependent variable that is accounted for by its relationship with a weighted linear combination of a set of independent variables. Obtained by multiplying the value of the multiple correlation coefficient (R) by itself, the coefficient of multiple determination ranges in value from 0 to 1. Low values indicate that the outcome is relatively unrelated to the predictors, whereas values closer to 1 indicate that the outcome and the predictors are highly related. For example, if R = .40, then the coefficient of multiple determination is .402 = .16 and interpreted to mean 16% of the variance in outcome is explainable by the set of predictors. Also called multiple correlation coefficient squared; squared multiple correlation coefficient.

coefficient of relatedness

coefficient of relatedness the mean number of genes shared between two related individuals. Identical twins share 100% of their genes and have a coefficient of relatedness of 1. Between siblings and between parents and offspring, the coefficient of relatedness is .5; between uncles or aunts and nieces or nephews and between grandparents and grand-offspring, it is .25; and between first cousins, it is .125. Most studies of kin recognition and kin-directed behavior show effects only with coefficients of relatedness of 0.25 and greater. See also inclusive fitness.

coefficient of reliability

coefficient of reliability see reliability coefficient.

coefficient of variation

coefficient of variation a measure of variability in a set or distribution of values. It is determined by dividing the distribution’s standard deviation by its mean. Also called variation coefficient.

coefficient of visibility

coefficient of visibility a measure of the visibility of light of a particular wavelength. The coefficient of visibility for photopic vision is 1 at 555 nm, the wavelength at which humans have peak photopic sensitivity. Also called luminosity coefficient.

coenesthesia

coenesthesia n. see cenesthesia.

coeno- (coen-; cene-; ceno-)

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coenzyme

coenzyme n. a nonprotein, organic compound that functions with the protein portion of an enzyme (an apoenzyme). Most enzymes fail to function without a specific coenzyme, which is often a vitamin.

coerced confession

coerced confession an accused person’s admission of guilt elicited by the use of threats, torture, or promises. Also called involuntary confession.

coercion

coercion n. the process of attempting to influence another person through the use of threats, punishment, force, direct pressure, and other negative forms of power. —coerce vb. —coercive adj.

coercive behavior

coercive behavior behavior designed to force others to do one’s bidding, often masked as filial devotion or as marital or parental concern and sometimes expressed directly (e.g., “If you don’t do what I say, I’ll kill myself”).

coercive persuasion

coercive persuasion 1. systematic, intensive indoctrination of political or military prisoners, using such methods as threats, punishments, bribes, isolation, continuous interrogation, and repetitious “instruction.” As a countermeasure, military personnel may be trained in methods of coercive persuasion resistance, which are designed to enable them to function and survive to the best of their ability under such adverse circumstances. Also called thought reform. See brainwashing. 2. broadly, a controlled program of social influence to bring about substantial changes in behavior and attitude in members of a group (e.g., military recruits, cult followers). [coined in 1961 by Swiss-born U.S. psychologist Edgar H. Schein (1928– )]

coercive power

coercive power the capacity to compel others’ compliance through the use of force, including punishment or the threat of punishment.

coercive treatment

coercive treatment see forced treatment.

coevolution

coevolution n. the concurrent evolution of two or more species that mutually affect each other’s evolution.

coexistence hypothesis

coexistence hypothesis a theoretical explanation of the misinformation effect stating that when misleading information is introduced after a witnessed event, it exists in competition with the original memory of the event. The false information is more accessible due to the recency effect and is more likely to be retrieved upon questioning, leading to erroneous reporting of the event. Compare alteration hypothesis.

cofacilitator

cofacilitator n. a therapist or student in training who assists in leading a therapy group. The cofacilitator may act as an observer or as one who balances the approach of the other group leader.

coffee

coffee n. a product derived from evergreen trees of the genus Coffea, which grow wild or are cultivated in tropical regions worldwide, including Brazil, Columbia, and Ethiopia. Of more than 100 species of Coffea, two are commercially important sources of coffee beans (seeds), used in beverages. They are C. arabica and C. robusta, whose beans contain significant concentrations (about 1% and 2%, respectively) of the stimulant caffeine.

Coffelt decision

Coffelt decision see Lanterman Developmental Disabilities Act.

cofigurative culture

cofigurative culture a society or culture in which people learn chiefly from other people in the same age group, so that, for example, children learn mostly from children and young adults from young adults. Compare postfigurative culture; prefigurative culture. [coined by U.S. anthropologist Margaret Mead (1901–1978)]

Cogan’s syndrome

Cogan’s syndrome a condition in which keratitis is associated with attacks of vertigo, tinnitus, and deafness. Pain in the eyes and reduced vision are also experienced. As the vertigo subsides (usually within days), the patient may become deaf or, in rare cases, blind. It is believed to be an autoimmune disorder. Also called nonsyphilitic interstitial keratitis. [described in 1945 by David Glendenning Cogan (1908–1993), U.S. physician]

CogAT

CogAT acronym for Cognitive Abilities Test.

Cogentin

Cogentin n. a trade name for benztropine.

cogito ergo sum

cogito ergo sum I am thinking, therefore I exist. This Latin statement, made by René Descartes, forms the basis for his rejection of metaphysical skepticism, the doctrine that nothing can be proven to have a real existence: If he (i.e., Descartes) thinks, then he must exist, and if he exists, the doctrine is wrong, leaving open the possibility of the existence of other beings and things. See Cartesian self.

cognate

cognate adj. denoting words that have a common etymology, or origin, especially words in different languages that have similar form and meaning. For example, the words picture (English), pintura (Spanish), and pittura (Italian) are said to be cognate.

Cognex

Cognex n. a trade name for tacrine.

cognition

cognition n. 1. all forms of knowing and awareness, such as perceiving, conceiving, remembering, reasoning, judging, imagining, and problem solving. Along with affect and conation, it is one of the three traditionally identified components of mind. 2. an individual percept, idea, memory, or the like. —cognitional adj. —cognitive adj.

Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT)

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cognitive ability

cognitive ability the skills involved in performing the tasks associated with perception, learning, memory, understanding, awareness, reasoning, judgment, intuition, and language.

cognitive aging

cognitive aging age-related changes in mental functioning (e.g., attention, memory, decision making) that occur across the lifespan.

cognitive aid

cognitive aid any external representation that supports a mental process. Examples are reminders, checklists, and other prompts designed to prevent forgetting of critical tasks.

cognitive analytic therapy

cognitive analytic therapy a time-limited, collaborative psychotherapy that emphasizes schemas and integrates principles and techniques from psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive behavior therapy. [developed in the 1980s by British psychiatrist Anthony Ryle (1927– )]

cognitive appraisal theory

cognitive appraisal theory the theory that cognitive evaluation is involved in the generation of each and every emotion. Evaluation includes both a primary appraisal and a secondary appraisal. This concept is elaborated in the cognitive–motivational–relational theory, which recognizes that cognition is one of three simultaneously operating processes that contribute to the generation of any emotion. See also core relational themes. [proposed by Richard S. Lazarus]

cognitive architecture

cognitive architecture a hypothesized architecture for human problem solving, usually represented as a component of a computer program. Examples include the production system and Soar. Empirical testing of cognitive phenomena is often used to establish the validity of aspects of this model.

cognitive arousal theory of emotion

cognitive arousal theory of emotion see Schachter–Singer theory.

cognitive assessment

cognitive assessment evaluation of such skills as learning, memory, judgment, and reasoning.

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)

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cognitive balance theory

cognitive balance theory see balance theory.

cognitive behavior modification

cognitive behavior modification see cognitive behavior therapy.

cognitive behavior theory

cognitive behavior theory any theory deriving from general behavioral theory that considers cognitive or thought processes as significant mediators of behavioral change. A central feature in the theoretical formulations of the process is that people respond primarily to cognitive representations of their environments rather than to the environments themselves. The theory has led to popular therapeutic procedures that incorporate cognitive behavior techniques to effect changes in self-image as well as behaviors.

cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)

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cognitive behavioral couples therapy

cognitive behavioral couples therapy behavioral couples therapy that specifically focuses on the reciprocal influence of the partners’ idiosyncratic patterns of ideas about each other and about couples in general. Interfering ideas are made conscious and explicit and are then altered to improve the couple’s relationship using techniques modified from cognitive behavior therapy. Compare integrative behavioral couples therapy.

cognitive behavioral group therapy

cognitive behavioral group therapy a type of group psychotherapy that uses techniques and methods of cognitive behavior therapy, such as modeling, restructuring thoughts, relaxation training, and communication skills training, to achieve behaviorally defined goals. Groups can include clients with diverse issues or can be limited to clients with specific problems (e.g., agoraphobia, anger).

cognitive click

cognitive click a moment in psychotherapy in which it becomes suddenly clear to the client that his or her thinking is incorrect and therefore that he or she must change his or her attitudes and beliefs.

cognitive closure

cognitive closure 1. the state in which an individual recognizes that he or she has achieved understanding of something. 2. the final stage in figuratively seeing the total picture and how all pieces of it fit together.

cognitive complexity

cognitive complexity the state or quality of a thought process that involves numerous constructs, with many interrelationships among them. Such processing is often experienced as difficult or effortful. See also conceptual complexity.

cognitive complexity and control theory (CCC theory)

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cognitive conditioning

cognitive conditioning a process in which a stimulus is repeatedly paired with an imagined or anticipated response or behavior. Cognitive conditioning has been used as a therapeutic technique, in which case the stimulus is typically aversive. For example, the client imagines that he or she is smoking a cigarette and gives himself or herself a pinch; the procedure is repeated until the thought produces the effect of discouraging the behavior. See also cognitive rehearsal.

cognitive consistency

cognitive consistency the extent to which one cognitive element follows from or is implied by another cognitive element. See also cognitive consonance; cognitive dissonance.

cognitive consistency theory

cognitive consistency theory any of a broad class of theories postulating that attitude change is a result of the desire to maintain consistency among elements of a cognitive system. See also balance theory; cognitive dissonance theory; congruity theory.

cognitive consonance

cognitive consonance in cognitive dissonance theory, a situation in which two cognitive elements are consistent with one another, that is, one cognitive element follows from or is implied by the other.

cognitive construct

cognitive construct see construct.

cognitive control

cognitive control the set of processes that organize, plan, and schedule mental operations. See also control processes; executive.

cognitive coping

cognitive coping any strategy in which a person uses mental activity to manage a stressful event or situation. A variety of different forms exist, such as putting the experience into perspective, seeking to understand the causes of the situation, thinking about steps to resolve the situation, thinking about pleasant experiences instead of the current difficulty (positive refocusing), redefining the situation to emphasize potential benefits (positive reappraisal), exaggerating the negative consequences of the event (catastrophizing), blaming oneself or others for the occurrence of the event, dwelling on the negative emotions associated with the event (rumination), and minimizing the situation or its impact (cognitive avoidance). Some of these strategies (e.g., positive reappraisal, positive refocusing, putting things into perspective) generally are considered more effective than others, being associated with more positive psychological outcomes. Compare behavioral coping.

cognitive decline

cognitive decline reduction in one or more cognitive abilities, such as memory, awareness, judgment, and mental acuity, across the adult lifespan. The presence and degree of decline varies with the cognitive ability being measured: Fluid abilities often show greater declines than crystallized abilities (see Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence). Cognitive decline is a part of normal healthy aging, but a severe decline is not normative and could be symptomatic of disease: It is the primary symptom of disease-induced dementias, such as Alzheimer’s disease.

cognitive deconstruction

cognitive deconstruction a mental state characterized by lack of emotion, the absence of any sense of future, a concentration on the here and now, and a focus on concrete sensation rather than abstract thought. People may cultivate this state to escape from emotional distress or troublesome thoughts. [first described by U.S. social psychologist Roy Baumeister (1953– )]

cognitive deficit

cognitive deficit performance on intellectual and other mentally based tasks (e.g., those involving memory), as measured by individually administered standardized assessments (verbal and nonverbal cognitive measures), that is substantially below that expected given the individual’s chronological age and formal educational experience.

cognitive derailment

cognitive derailment the often abrupt shifting of thoughts or associations so that they do not follow one another in a logical sequence. Cognitive derailment is a symptom of schizophrenia; the term is essentially equivalent to thought derailment. See also cognitive slippage.

cognitive development

cognitive development the growth and maturation of thinking processes of all kinds, including perceiving, remembering, concept formation, problem solving, imagining, and reasoning. Various cognitive developmental theories exist that attempt to explain the mechanisms underlying such growth and maturation. Explanations may be in terms of stages of development in which the changes in thinking are relatively abrupt and discontinuous, or the changes may be viewed as occurring gradually and continuously over time.

cognitive discrimination

cognitive discrimination the ability to make distinctions between concepts and to distinguish between examples and nonexamples of a particular concept.

cognitive disorder

cognitive disorder any disorder that involves impairment of the executive functions, such as organization, regulation, and perception. Impairments in these fundamental processes can affect performance in many cognitive areas, including processing speed, reasoning, planning, judgment, decision making, emotional engagement and regulation, perseveration, impulse control, awareness, attention, language, learning, memory, and timing.

cognitive dissonance

cognitive dissonance an unpleasant psychological state resulting from inconsistency between two or more elements in a cognitive system. It is presumed to involve a state of heightened arousal and to have characteristics similar to physiological drives (e.g., hunger). Thus, cognitive dissonance creates a motivational drive in an individual to reduce the dissonance (see dissonance reduction). See also cognitive consonance. [first described by Leon Festinger]

cognitive dissonance theory

cognitive dissonance theory a theory proposing that people have a fundamental motivation to maintain consistency among elements in their cognitive systems. When inconsistency occurs, people experience an unpleasant psychological state that motivates them to reduce the dissonance in a variety of ways (see dissonance reduction). Several variants of this theory have also been proposed, including the new-look theory and self-consistency perspective. Alternative theories have been proposed as well, such as self-affirmation theory and self-perception theory. See also cognitive consonance. [first proposed by Leon Festinger]

cognitive distortion

cognitive distortion faulty or inaccurate thinking, perception, or belief. An example is overgeneralization. Cognitive distortion is a normal psychological process that can occur in all people to a greater or lesser extent.

cognitive domain

cognitive domain see Bloom’s taxonomy.

cognitive dysfunction

cognitive dysfunction any disruption in mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering.

cognitive electrophysiology

cognitive electrophysiology see electroencephalography.

Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ)

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cognitive enhancer

cognitive enhancer a type of drug used to improve cognitive function, usually in the treatment of progressive dementias such as Alzheimer’s disease but also of cognitive dysfunction due to traumatic brain injury. Cognitive enhancers do not reverse the course of the dementia but are reported to slow its progress in mild to moderate forms. Many of these drugs work by inhibiting the activity of acetylcholinesterase in the central nervous system, thereby counteracting the disruption of cholinergic neurotransmission observed in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Other drugs use different mechanisms for improving cognitive performance in patients with Alzheimer’s disease, including NMDA receptor antagonism and potentially the prevention of beta-amyloid plaque formation in the brain. Current cognitive enhancers include donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine. Also called memory-enhancing drug; and, formerly, nootropic.

cognitive ergonomics

cognitive ergonomics a specialty area of ergonomics that seeks to understand the cognitive processes and representations involved in human performance. Cognitive ergonomics studies the combined effect of information-processing characteristics, task constraints, and task environment on human performance and applies the results of such studies to the design and evaluation of work systems.

cognitive ethology

cognitive ethology the study of mental experiences, including consciousness and intentionality, in nonhuman animals and of the influence of these experiences on the animals’ behavior as they interact with their natural environment. Whether, and which, animals actually possess consciousness and intentionality remains a subject of controversy. [proposed in 1978 by U.S. zoologist Donald Redfield Griffin (1915–2003)]

cognitive evaluation theory

cognitive evaluation theory a theory postulating that an individual’s performance will improve or decline depending on his or her attitude about the reward for good performance, that is, about whether it is conferred as a true reward for effective performance or as a means by which the grantor of the reward asserts control over the performer. [posited by Leon Festinger]

cognitive faculty

cognitive faculty a specific aspect or domain of mental function, such as language, object recognition, or face perception. See faculty psychology.

cognitive flexibility

cognitive flexibility the capacity for objective appraisal and appropriately flexible action. Cognitive flexibility also implies adaptability and fair-mindedness.

cognitive flooding

cognitive flooding a method used in psychotherapy, mainly to treat phobias, in which the client is encouraged to focus on negative or aversive mental images to generate emotional states similar to those experienced when faced with a feared object or situation. The simulated fear is then seen to be manageable and associated with images that will reduce the original fear. See also implosive therapy; prolonged exposure therapy.

cognitive functioning

cognitive functioning the performance of the mental processes of perception, learning, memory, understanding, awareness, reasoning, judgment, intuition, and language.

cognitive generalization

cognitive generalization 1. the ability to apply knowledge, concepts, or cognitive skills acquired in one context or domain to problems in another. See general transfer. 2. a general principle of human cognition, such as association or categorization, that applies across cognitive faculties or domains. In the theory of cognitive grammar, such generalities are held to underlie the construction of meaning in language.

cognitive grammar

cognitive grammar in linguistics and psycholinguistics, a theory of grammar in which the constituent units are derived from general cognitive principles, such as associative memory, categorization, and so on, rather than from autonomous linguistic principles. This assumption that language is an integral part of cognition runs counter to the theory of the task specificity of language. [introduced in 1987 by U.S. linguist Ronald W. Langacker (1942– )]

cognitive heuristic

cognitive heuristic see heuristic.

cognitive hypothesis testing

cognitive hypothesis testing problem-solving behavior in which the individual derives a set of rules (hypotheses) that are then sampled and tested until the one rule is discovered that consistently results in correct solutions to the problem.

cognitive impairment

cognitive impairment any impairment in perceptual, learning, memory, linguistic, or thinking abilities. Multiple significant cognitive impairments in memory plus one or more other cognitive defects are characteristic of dementia. See also mild cognitive impairment.

cognitive impenetrability

cognitive impenetrability the condition of certain processes (e.g., visual processes, reflexes) that are characterized as free of influence from prior conceptual or intellectual knowledge and are thought to proceed with a minimum of conscious control. Compare cognitive penetrability. [coined by Canadian cognitive scientist and philosopher Zenon W. Pylyshyn (1937– )]

cognitive intelligence

cognitive intelligence one’s abilities to learn, remember, reason, solve problems, and make sound judgments, particularly as contrasted with emotional intelligence.

cognitive interdependence

cognitive interdependence the tendency of individuals in close, committed relationships to think of themselves less in individual terms and more as partners in a dyadic relationship. For example, cognitive interdependence leads people to increase their use of plural pronouns (we, us, our) while decreasing their use of singular pronouns (I, me, my). Cognitive interdependence is thought to reflect mental processes that stem from the meshing of perspectives, goals, and identities that characterizes committed relationships and is most commonly observed in romantic relationships such as marriage.

cognitive interview

cognitive interview a structured technique developed for enhancing eyewitness recollection in criminal investigation. It relies on principles of cognition and memory retrieval, such as context reinstatement, reporting everything (however seemingly irrelevant), recalling events in different order, and changing perspectives. See also aided recall. [developed in 1984 by U.S. psychologists R. Edward Geiselman (1949– ), Ronald P. Fisher (1947– ), and colleagues]

cognitive learning theory

cognitive learning theory any theory postulating that learning requires central constructs and new ways of perceiving events (see S–S learning model). Cognitive learning theories are usually contrasted with behavioral learning theories, which suggest that behaviors or responses are acquired through experience (see S–R psychology).

cognitive load

cognitive load the relative demand imposed by a particular task, in terms of mental resources required. Also called mental load; mental workload. See also cognitive overload; mental effort.

cognitive map

cognitive map a mental understanding of an environment, formed through trial and error as well as observation. The concept is based on the assumption that an individual seeks and collects contextual clues, such as environmental relationships, rather than acting as a passive receptor of information needed to achieve a goal. Human beings and other animals have well-developed cognitive maps that contain spatial information enabling them to orient themselves and find their way in the real world (see spatial cognition); symbolism and meaning are also contained in such maps. See also environmental cognition; landmark; mental map. [introduced by Edward C. Tolman]

cognitive miser

cognitive miser anyone who seeks out quick, adequate solutions to problems rather than slow, careful ones. Despite this negative denotation, the term describes a general tendency among all people: That is, as a rule people tend to use mental shortcuts in making judgments and drawing inferences.

cognitive model

cognitive model a theoretical view of thought and mental operations, which provides explanations for observed phenomena and makes predictions about an unknown future. People are continually creating and accessing internal representations (models) of what they are experiencing in the world for the purposes of perception, comprehension, and behavior selection (action).

cognitive narrowing

cognitive narrowing focusing on a single aspect of a situation or object rather than on the whole.

cognitive neuropsychology

cognitive neuropsychology the study of the structure and function of the brain as it relates to perception, reasoning, remembering, and all other forms of knowing and awareness. Cognitive neuropsychology focuses on examining the effects of brain damage on thought processes—typically through the use of single-case or small-group designs—so as to construct models of normal cognitive functioning.

cognitive neuroscience

cognitive neuroscience a branch of neuroscience and biological psychology that focuses on the neural mechanisms of cognition. Although overlapping with the study of the mind in cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, with its grounding in such areas as experimental psychology, neurobiology, brain imaging techniques, physics, and mathematics, is more concerned with the specific neural mechanisms by which mental processes occur in the brain; the two perspectives continually exert significant influence on each other. Also called neurocognition.

cognitive operation

cognitive operation the manipulation of mental representations, notably by identifying, organizing, and elaborating such representations or retrieving them from memory. See also cognitive process; operation; symbolic process; thinking.

cognitive overload

cognitive overload the situation in which the demands placed on a person by mental work (the cognitive load) are greater than the person’s mental abilities can cope with. See also communication overload; information overload; sensory overload; stimulus overload.

cognitive penetrability

cognitive penetrability the capacity of a mental process to be influenced by an individual’s knowledge, beliefs, or goals. Compare cognitive impenetrability.

cognitive plasticity

cognitive plasticity the capacity for change (e.g., improved performance) in mental processes such as learning and memory in response to a primary experience (e.g., practice).

cognitive problem-solving skills training

cognitive problem-solving skills training see problem-solving skills training.

cognitive process

cognitive process any of the mental functions assumed to be involved in the acquisition, storage, interpretation, manipulation, transformation, and use of knowledge. These processes encompass such activities as attention, perception, learning, and problem solving and are commonly understood through several basic theories, including the serial processing approach, the parallel processing approach, and a combination theory, which assumes that cognitive processes are both serial and parallel, depending on the demands of the task. This term is often used synonymously with mental process.

cognitive processing therapy (CPT)

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cognitive psychology

cognitive psychology the branch of psychology that explores the operation of mental processes related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory, mainly through inferences from behavior. The cognitive approach, which developed in the 1940s and 1950s, diverged sharply from contemporary behaviorism in (a) emphasizing unseen knowledge processes instead of directly observable behaviors and (b) arguing that the relationship between stimulus and response was complex and mediated rather than simple and direct. Its concentration on the higher mental processes also contrasted with the focus on instincts and other unconscious forces typical of psychoanalysis. More recently, cognitive psychology has been influenced by approaches to information processing and information theory developed in computer science and artificial intelligence. See also cognitive science.

cognitive rehabilitation

cognitive rehabilitation specific rehabilitation interventions designed to address problems in mental processing that are associated with chronic illness, brain injury, or trauma, such as stroke. Cognitive rehabilitation may include relearning specific mental abilities, strengthening unaffected abilities, or substituting new abilities to compensate for lost ones.

cognitive rehearsal

cognitive rehearsal a therapeutic technique in which a client imagines those situations that tend to produce anxiety or self-defeating behavior and then repeats positive coping statements or mentally rehearses more appropriate behavior.

cognitive remediation

cognitive remediation an intervention to improve neuropsychological function, such as in attention or memory, that has been impaired due to traumatic brain injury, stroke, severe mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia), or other conditions. See cognitive rehabilitation.

cognitive reserve

cognitive reserve a capacity of the adult brain to sustain the effects of disease or injury without manifesting clinical symptoms of dysfunction and to draw on the active acquisition and differential use of numerous sophisticated cognitive strategies to process information, solve problems, and perform tasks. In other words, individuals with high cognitive reserve have developed a variety of efficient neural networks and neural pathways to cope with brain pathology such that they can have a greater degree of underlying neurological damage than individuals with low cognitive reserve before becoming symptomatic. The size of this hypothesized supply of mental abilities and mechanisms, and thus the degree of protection against dementia and other neurological disorders it conveys, is believed to depend on the intellectual challenges a person experiences throughout life: More mental stimulation creates more reserve. Possible mechanisms by which this might occur include the following: (a) Knowledge can enhance memory in the form of richer and more elaborate encoding and more effective retrieval cues facilitated by a superior organizational structuring of information; (b) knowledge can result in easier access to relevant information and better organized representations of the problem, resulting in enhanced problem-solving skills; (c) knowledge of past consequences of various alternatives can provide an effortless means of making accurate predictions regarding future consequences; (d) knowledge can enable reliance on previously compiled efficient algorithms, rather than on slow and controlled processes; and (e) knowledge of prior solutions to familiar problems can reduce online processing requirements. Commonly used indirect measures of cognitive reserve include number of years of education, literacy level, vocabulary knowledge, occupational complexity, estimated premorbid intelligence, and frequency and range of participation in mentally stimulating leisure activities (e.g., reading, writing, doing crossword puzzles, playing board or card games, playing music) or complex mental activities generally. It is important to distinguish cognitive reserve from the closely related brain reserve, which posits that brain-based anatomical differences among people convey differential abilities to tolerate neuronal damage or loss before developing cognitive impairment. Despite the different emphases of the two terms, many researchers use them interchangeably.

cognitive resource theory

cognitive resource theory 1. a general theoretical framework that assumes that individuals respond to problems, challenges, and choices by actively encoding, processing, and recalling needed information, but that these mental activities place demands on cognitive capacity such that heavy loads in one cognitive domain will lead to reductions in activity in another. 2. a conceptual analysis of leadership effectiveness that assumes that team performance depends on a combination of the leader’s cognitive resources (e.g., intelligence, skills, experience) and the particular group setting, especially with regard to the level of interpersonal conflict and stress in the group. This model was developed from the contingency theory of leadership to give greater weight to the traits of individual leaders. See leadership theories. [developed in 1987 by Fred Fiedler and his colleagues]

cognitive response theory

cognitive response theory a theory postulating that attitude change occurs primarily as a function of people’s evaluative responses to attitude-relevant information. Such responses include inferences generated about the information, assessments of its validity, and other evaluative reactions that may or may not be cognitive in nature (e.g., emotional responses). This theory holds that it is primarily the number and valence of these responses, rather than memory for the information itself, that determines the magnitude and duration of attitude change. See also message-learning approach.

cognitive restructuring

cognitive restructuring a technique used in cognitive therapy and cognitive behavior therapy to help the client identify his or her self-defeating beliefs or cognitive distortions, refute them, and then modify them so that they are adaptive and reasonable.

cognitive schema

cognitive schema see schema.

cognitive science

cognitive science an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the mind and mental processes that combines aspects of cognitive psychology, philosophy of mind, epistemology, neuroscience, anthropology, psycholinguistics, and computer science.

cognitive self-guidance system

cognitive self-guidance system the use of private, self-directed speech to guide problem-solving behavior. [proposed by Lev Vygotsky]

cognitive self-management

cognitive self-management the use of self-talk, imagery, or both to direct one’s behavior in demanding or stressful situations.

cognitive set

cognitive set the predetermined way an individual construes a situation, which is based on a group of concepts, related to the self and other things, that determines an individual’s view of the world and influences his or her behavior.

cognitive sign principle

cognitive sign principle the belief that, through learning, stimuli come to signal outcomes or events in the environment (see S–S learning model). Edward C. Tolman offered cognitive sign learning as an alternative to the ideas of other behavioral theorists, such as Clark L. Hull, who postulated that stimuli become directly associated with responses (see S–R learning model).

cognitive slippage

cognitive slippage a mild form of disconnected thought processes or loosening of associations. Cognitive slippage may be seen in patients with a range of physical and mental disorders; it is a common characteristic of individuals with schizophrenia. [coined by Paul Everett Meehl]

cognitive specificity hypothesis

cognitive specificity hypothesis the proposition that specific feeling states, such as depression and anxiety, are linked to particular kinds of automatic thoughts. [proposed by Aaron T. Beck]

cognitive stage

cognitive stage in some theories of cognitive development, especially that of Jean Piaget, a plane of cognition that is characterized by a particular, qualitatively different level of thinking than earlier or later stages.

cognitive strategy

cognitive strategy any predetermined plan to control the process and content of thought. In sport psychology, for example, such strategies involve use of the self-talk dialogue to assist athletes to keep focused, energized, confident, and “in the zone.”

cognitive structure

cognitive structure 1. a mental framework, pattern, or schema that maintains and organizes a body of information relating to a particular topic. When a need arises for the cognitive structure, as in a college test, the individual is thought to engage in a memory search in which the stored cognitive structure is retrieved and applied to the present requirements. 2. a unified structure of facts, beliefs, and attitudes about the world or society. See cognitive map; conceptual system; frame.

cognitive style

cognitive style a person’s characteristic mode of perceiving, thinking, remembering, and problem solving. Cognitive styles might differ in preferred elements or activities, such as group work versus working individually, more structured versus less defined activities, or visual versus verbal encoding. Other dimensions along which cognitive styles vary include reflection–impulsivity, abstract attitude versus concrete attitude, and field dependence versus field independence. The term is also commonly used to refer to the idea that people differ with respect to the mode of learning (e.g., instruction, study) that is most effective for them. Indeed, many use the term learning style interchangeably with cognitive style, whereas others use the former more specifically to mean a person’s characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological behaviors that influence his or her preferred instructional methods and interactions with the learning environment. Also called thinking style. See also learning types; theory of mental self-government.

cognitive system

cognitive system a set of cognitions that are organized into a meaningful complex with implied or stated relationships between them. See also complex of ideas.

cognitive task analysis

cognitive task analysis the use of descriptive and analytical techniques to identify the knowledge and decision-making processes required to perform a given task proficiently.

cognitive theory

cognitive theory any theory of mind that focuses on mental activities, such as perceiving, attending, thinking, remembering, evaluating, planning, language, and creativity, especially a theory that suggests a model for the various processes involved.

cognitive theory of leadership

cognitive theory of leadership any of various models that define and explain leadership in terms of the perceptual, intellectual, and mental processes of both leaders and those they lead. See also leadership theories.

cognitive therapy (CT)

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cognitive triad

cognitive triad a set of three beliefs thought to characterize major depressive episodes. These are negative beliefs about the self, the world, and the future. Also called negative triad. [proposed in 1976 by Aaron T. Beck]

cognitive tunneling

cognitive tunneling a psychological state, typical of people concentrating on a demanding task or operating under conditions of stress, in which a single, narrowly defined category of information is attended to and processed. Cognitive tunneling involves the processing of highly critical task-relevant information, with limited or no processing of secondary information that may also be important to the task. For example, cognitive tunneling occurs when a pilot focuses on the head-up displays without also scanning out the windows of the plane. Compare social tunneling.

cognitive unconscious

cognitive unconscious unreportable mental processes such as implicit percepts, memories, and thoughts. There are many sources of evidence for a cognitive unconscious, including regularities of behavior due to habit or automaticity, inferred grammatical rules, the details of sensorimotor control, and implicit knowledge after brain damage. It differs from the psychoanalytic notion of the dynamic unconscious, which involves material that is excluded from consciousness to avoid anxiety, shame, or guilt. Compare emotional unconscious. See also tacit knowledge. [proposed by U.S. cognitive psychologist John F. Kihlstrom (1948– )]

cognitive vulnerability

cognitive vulnerability a set of beliefs or attitudes thought to make a person vulnerable to emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety. Examples include perfectionism, dependence, and sociotropy.

cognitive walkthrough method

cognitive walkthrough method in ergonomics, a method of assessing the usability of a product or design in which several evaluators, representing the targeted user group, perform its various functions while discussing and identifying or anticipating problems arising from flawed design.

cognitive well-being

cognitive well-being see subjective well-being.

cognitive-social learning theory

cognitive-social learning theory see social-cognitive theory.

cognitive–affective crossfire

cognitive–affective crossfire a state of conflict between a person’s cognitive responses to feedback about the self and his or her affective responses. In particular, an individual’s thoughts (cognitions) may favor information that confirms his or her existing self-concept (see self-verification motive), whereas the same individual’s emotional reactions (affects) may favor pleasant or positive views of the self (see self-enhancement motive).

cognitive–affective personality system

cognitive–affective personality system a theoretical conception of personality structure as a complex system that features a large number of highly interconnected cognitions and emotional tendencies. [developed by Austrian-born U.S. personality psychologist Walter Mischel (1930– ) and Japanese-born U.S. psychologist Yuichi Shoda]

cognitive–evaluative consistency

cognitive–evaluative consistency the degree to which the cognitive basis of an attitude (see bases of an attitude) and the overall attitude are evaluatively consistent with one another. For example, if the cognitive basis is extremely positive and the overall attitude is extremely negative, cognitive–evaluative consistency is low. See also affective–cognitive consistency; affective–evaluative consistency.

cognitive–motivational–relational theory

cognitive–motivational–relational theory an extension of the cognitive appraisal theory that puts equal emphasis on three processes involved in the generation of an emotion: (a) appraisal (the cognitive process); (b) the central role of the individual’s strivings, intentions, and goals (the motivational process); and (c) the relevance of external events to these strivings (the relational process). [proposed by Richard S. Lazarus]

cognitively based persuasion

cognitively based persuasion an active attempt to change an attitude primarily by altering beliefs regarding attributes associated with the attitude object. Also called rationally based persuasion. See also bases of an attitude. Compare affectively based persuasion.

cognitively guided instruction

cognitively guided instruction an educational approach in which teachers make decisions about their instruction based on the knowledge and performance level of their students. Students are encouraged to create their own solutions to problems rather than rely on a set of preconceived, teacher-directed procedures.

cognitivism

cognitivism n. adherence to the principles of cognitive psychology, especially as opposed to those of behaviorism.

cognitivist

cognitivist 1. n. a theorist concerned primarily with describing either intellectual development (e.g., Jean Piaget, Jerome Seymour Bruner) or early language behavior (e.g., Roger Brown). 2. adj. describing a perspective or approach that is based on cognitivism.

cognize

cognize vb. to know or become aware of. —cognizance n. —cognizant adj.

cogwheel rigidity

cogwheel rigidity muscular rigidity that produces a ratcheted resistance to passive movement of the limbs of people who have Parkinson’s disease. It may also be seen as the side effect of medication, especially antipsychotic drugs such as the phenothiazines. Also called cogwheeling. Compare lead-pipe rigidity.

cohabitation

cohabitation n. 1. the state or condition of living together as sexual and domestic partners without being married. See common-law marriage; domestic partnership. 2. broadly, people or nonhuman animals sharing living quarters or a habitat. —cohabit vb. —cohabitee n.

Cohen’s d

Cohen’s d a measure of effect size based on the standardized difference between two means: It indicates the number of standard deviation units by which the means of two data sets differ. For example, a mentoring intervention associated with a Cohen’s d of +0.25 indicates an increase of 0.25 standard deviation units for the average child who received mentoring relative to the average child who did not receive mentoring. The metric is used to represent effect sizes in meta-analysis as well as in the determination of power, with values of 0.20, 0.50, and 0.80 representing small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively. See also Glass’s d. [Jacob Cohen (1923–1998), U.S. psychologist and statistician]

Cohen’s kappa

Cohen’s kappa (symbol: κ) a numerical index that reflects the degree of agreement between two raters or rating systems classifying data into mutually exclusive categories, corrected for the level of agreement expected by chance alone. Values range from 0 (no agreement) to 1 (perfect agreement), with kappas below .40 generally considered poor, .40 to .75 considered fair to good, and more than .75 considered excellent. In accounting for chance, Cohen’s kappa avoids overestimating the true level of agreement as might occur through simply determining the number of times that two raters agree relative to the total number of ratings. [Jacob Cohen]

coherence

coherence n. 1. meaningful interconnections between distinct psychological entities. For example, a system of independent beliefs that is logically consistent from one belief to another would be described as coherent. 2. a measure of the extent to which energy waves (such as light waves) are correlated between two times (temporal coherence) or two points (spatial coherence). Beams of such waves that are in phase, or have a constant phase relationship, are said to be coherent. 3. in imagery, the tendency for an image to be influenced by its background.

cohesion

cohesion n. see group cohesion.

cohort

cohort n. a group of individuals who share a similar characteristic or experience. The term usually refers to an age (or birth) cohort, that is, a group of individuals who are born in the same year and thus of similar age.

cohort analysis

cohort analysis a statistical procedure to assess the effects attributed to members of a group sharing a particular characteristic, experience, or event. In other words, it is the evaluation of data obtained from studies involving cohorts, as may be the case in longitudinal designs, for example.

cohort effect

cohort effect any outcome associated with being a member of a group whose members all undergo similar experiences. Cohort effects may be difficult to separate from age effects and period effects in research.

cohort sampling

cohort sampling a method of sampling data in which one or more groups sharing a similar characteristic, such as year of birth, are identified and observed.

cohort study

cohort study see longitudinal design.

cohort-sequential design

cohort-sequential design an experimental design in which multiple measures are taken over a period of time from two or more groups of different ages (birth cohorts). If, for instance, individuals ranging in age from 5 to 10 years are sampled and then the members of each age group are studied for a 5-year period, the resulting data would span 15 years of development. Such studies essentially are a combination of a longitudinal design and a cross-sectional design. Also called accelerated longitudinal design.

coital anorgasmia

coital anorgasmia failure of a woman to reach orgasm during penile–vaginal intercourse. Studies show that roughly half of women do not have coital orgasms in the absence of concurrent clitoral stimulation. Sex therapists do not consider this a dysfunction; if the woman can have orgasm with her partner in other ways, and enjoys intercourse, there is no requirement that both happen simultaneously.

coitus

coitus n. an act of sexual union, usually the insertion of the penis into the vagina followed by ejaculation. Variations include, among others, coitus a tergo, in which the penis is inserted from the rear, and coitus inter femora (interfemoral sex), in which the penis is inserted between the pressed thighs of the partner. Also called coition; intercourse; sexual intercourse. See also anal intercourse; carezza; copulation. —coital adj.

coitus a tergo

coitus a tergo see coitus.

coitus analis

coitus analis see anal intercourse.

coitus in ano

coitus in ano see anal intercourse.

coitus inter femora

coitus inter femora see coitus; interfemoral sex.

coitus interruptus

coitus interruptus the withdrawal of the penis during intercourse, prior to orgasm, with orgasm occurring external to the vagina. This is done mainly to reduce the likelihood of conception but is not very effective, as some semen is often released prior to orgasm.

coitus intra mammas

coitus intra mammas coitus in which the penis is inserted between the breasts of the female.

coitus prolongatus

coitus prolongatus see carezza.

coitus reservatus

coitus reservatus sexual intercourse in which the man suppresses the ejaculation of semen. Also called male continence.

coke

coke n. a common colloquial term for cocaine.

cola nut

cola nut see kola nut.

cold cognition

cold cognition a mental process or activity that does not involve feelings or emotions. For instance, reading a list of nonsense syllables or factoids (brief pieces of invented or inaccurate information) typically involves cold cognition. Compare hot cognition. [introduced in 1963 by U.S. social psychologist Robert P. Abelson (1928–2005)]

cold emotion

cold emotion a reaction to some stimulants (e.g., epinephrine) that entails the physiological responses of emotional arousal without an identifiable affective root.

cold pressor pain test

cold pressor pain test a test of pain produced by immersing a limb in iced water. Also called cold pressor test.

cold spot

cold spot any point on the surface of the skin containing nerve receptors sensitive to low-temperature stimuli.

cold turkey

cold turkey a common colloquial term for the abrupt cessation of the use of drugs, particularly opiates, without cushioning the impact by the use of medications (e.g., methadone) that provide some of the same actions as the drug being stopped. The name refers specifically to the chills and gooseflesh experienced during opioid withdrawal.

cold-blooded animal

cold-blooded animal see ectotherm.

cold-deck imputation

cold-deck imputation one of several methods of inserting values for missing data (see imputation) in which missing observations are replaced by values from a source unrelated to the data set under consideration. Suppose, for example, that a patient questionnaire was administered in a hospital and that five people failed to respond to an item. Substituting responses from a similar item on a survey conducted previously would be an example of cold-deck imputation. Compare hot-deck imputation.

coldness

coldness n. 1. a psychological characteristic featuring a relative absence of empathy toward and emotional support of others. 2. a thermal sensation produced by a stimulus that is below skin temperature. Exposure to low temperatures may affect physical and mental health. Research indicates that reaction time, tracking proficiency, tactile discrimination, and other types of performance begin to deteriorate at temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) or below. Studies of cold effects on social behavior have produced conflicting evidence of both increased and decreased aggression.

coleadership

coleadership n. the sharing of the organizational, directive, and motivational duties of leadership between two or more individuals. For example, two therapists or counselors may engage in coleadership during group therapy. The leadership role may be deliberately divided, or division may occur spontaneously as the various leadership duties become associated with several individuals (see role differentiation). In some cases, the leaders are equal in status and responsibilities, but in other cases, one leader may have more status than another.

colera

colera n. see bilis.

colic

colic n. 1. the condition in an otherwise healthy baby of crying at least 3 hours a day, at least 3 days a week, for at least 3 weeks; the cause is not understood. 2. a type of pain marked by abrupt onset and cessation.

colitis

colitis n. inflammation of the colon, the main part of the large intestine. Colitis may be caused or aggravated by emotional disturbances, such as depression or anxiety.

collaboration

collaboration n. 1. the act or process of two or more people working together to obtain an outcome desired by all, as in collaborative care and collaborative learning. 2. an interpersonal relationship in which the parties show cooperation and sensitivity to the others’ needs. [first described by Henry Stack Sullivan] —collaborative adj.

collaborative care

collaborative care 1. collaboration between two or more disciplines or practitioners to assess a client’s problem or problems, develop a treatment plan, and monitor progress. Also called split treatment. 2. collaboration across agencies to coordinate services to a particular client or client group.

collaborative empiricism

collaborative empiricism an approach to psychotherapy in which the therapist and client work together as equal partners in addressing issues and fostering change through mutual understanding, communication, and respect. The therapist views the client as a peer who is capable of objective analyses and conclusions.

collaborative evaluation

collaborative evaluation see participatory evaluation.

collaborative family health care

collaborative family health care a form of interdisciplinary practice based on the belief that health events occur simultaneously on biological, psychological, and social levels. Collaborative clinicians share decision making and responsibility with patients and their families and integrate clinical expertise from relevant disciplines to provide patients with comprehensive and coordinated care.

collaborative filtering

collaborative filtering a partially automated decision-making procedure in which a computer recommends certain choices on the basis of choices made by others who are similar to the present chooser.

collaborative learning

collaborative learning 1. the interaction between two or more people working on a task that allows greater learning to be achieved, particularly by those who are less skilled, than would occur if the participants worked alone. 2. the third stage of cultural learning, in which two or more individuals who are equal in expertise or authority work together to solve a common problem. See also imitative learning; instructed learning. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Michael Tomasello (1950– ) and colleagues]

collaborative memory

collaborative memory the recall output of a group of individuals working together to remember shared information or events. Also called collaborative remembering. See also collective memory.

collaborative therapy

collaborative therapy 1. any form of therapy employing collaborative empiricism. 2. couples therapy conducted by two therapists, each seeing one partner but conferring from time to time. Also called collaborative marriage therapy; collaborative marital therapy.

collagen

collagen n. the major protein of the white fibers of the body’s connective tissue (e.g., in skin, cartilage, bone, and tendons).

collapsing

collapsing n. the process of combining multiple response options or categories to form a smaller number of responses or categories. For example, a researcher could collect demographic data for students at a particular college by each year of matriculation (i.e., freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior) and then collapse the information from four to two categories (e.g., lower division and upper division).

collateral

collateral adj. secondary to something else. For example, a collateral fiber is a nerve fiber that branches off the main axon of a neuron, and collateral circulation is an alternative route for blood when the primary vessel is obstructed (see anastomosis). —collaterally adv.

collateral behavior

collateral behavior behavior that is not required by a reinforcement contingency but occurs in a regular, temporal relation to behavior directly reinforced by the contingency. Compare adjunctive behavior; interim behavior; mediating behavior.

collateral heredity

collateral heredity descent along different lines but from a common ancestry.

collateral sulcus

collateral sulcus a fissure that runs along the inferior surface of each cerebral hemisphere from approximately the posterior end of the occipital lobe to the anterior end of the temporal lobe.

collative properties

collative properties the structural properties of such stimulus patterns in art forms as complexity and novelty. Studies indicate that people tend to prefer stimuli with moderate levels of collative properties. See also arousal potential.

collective

collective n. any aggregate of two or more individuals, especially a larger, spontaneous, and relatively short-lived social grouping such as a crowd or mob. A collective often includes individuals who are dispersed over a wide area and have no direct contact with one another but who nonetheless display common shifts in opinion or action.

collective bargaining

collective bargaining the process in which unionized employers negotiate with employee representatives on wages, benefits, hours, and other conditions of work, such as seniority, discipline, and discharge procedures. See also good-faith bargaining.

collective behavior

collective behavior joint or similar actions performed by members of a collective, especially when these actions would be atypical of the same individuals outside of the collective. Examples of collective behavior by groups or aggregations concentrated in a specific location include lynching, rioting, and panics. Others, such as fads and social movements, involve widely dispersed individuals who nonetheless engage in similar actions (see collective movements).

collective conscience

collective conscience the shared values, norms, sentiments, and beliefs that form the basis of moral thinking and action in a cohesive society. Also called common conscience. [introduced by Émile Durkheim]

collective consciousness

collective consciousness see group mind.

collective efficacy

collective efficacy the belief that a group is capable of integrating skills, efforts, and the persistence of its members to complete the demands of a task successfully.

collective effort model (CEM)

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collective experience

collective experience in group psychotherapy, the common body of emotional experience that develops out of the individual members’ identification with each other’s problems and mutual support and empathy. [first described by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

collective guilt

collective guilt 1. an unpleasant emotional state involving a shared realization that one’s group or social unit has violated ethical or social principles, together with associated feelings of regret. Collective guilt is more likely when members of a group (a) strongly identify with that group, (b) feel a sense of control over or responsibility for the negative actions of other members, and (c) recognize the group’s actions are illegitimate. 2. the idea that members of a group may be held responsible for violations of norms or laws committed by other members of the same group. See group fallacy; guilt by association.

collective hypnosis

collective hypnosis see group hypnosis.

collective hysteria

collective hysteria the spontaneous outbreak of atypical thoughts, feelings, or actions in a group or social aggregate. Manifestations may include psychogenic illness, collective hallucinations, and bizarre actions. Instances of epidemic manias and panics, such as choreomania in the Middle Ages, tulipmania in 17th-century Holland, and radio listeners’ reactions to the Orson Welles broadcast based on H. G. Wells’s War of the Worlds in 1938, have been attributed to collective hysteria. Also called group hysteria; epidemic hysteria; mass hysteria.

collective induction

collective induction group discussion or problem solving, especially when this involves identifying general principles or rules from a set of specific facts, instances, or evidence.

collective information-processing model

collective information-processing model a general theoretical explanation of group decision making that assumes that group members combine and process information through group discussion to formulate decisions, choices, and judgments.

collective memory

collective memory shared recollection: mental representations of past events that are common to members of a social group. For example, mine workers may collectively remember the accidental death of a coworker differently than the general public, just as younger and older people may remember significant historical events differently. Collective memory is expressed in numerous forms—including oral and written narratives, monuments and other memorials, commemorative rituals, and symbols—and serves a range of functions, such as establishing and maintaining relationships, teaching or entertaining others, and supporting group identity. The memory is common to the group, but it is remembered by individuals, and research suggests that they coordinate their personal memories with those of their groups through a process of attunement: Stimuli assumed to be experienced by one’s social group are more prominent in both cognition and behavior because they receive greater attentional focus or more elaborated encoding, which in turn increases their accessibility. Also called cultural memory; social memory.

collective mind

collective mind see group mind.

collective monologue

collective monologue a form of egocentric, unsocialized speech in which children talk among themselves without apparently communicating with each other in a meaningful way; that is, the statements of one child seem unrelated to the statements of the others. Also called pseudoconversation. [first described by Jean Piaget]

collective movements

collective movements instances of collective behavior in which the number of individuals responding similarly to some event or experience increases over time until numerous people are affected across physically distant locations. Some movements, which include social movements, are organized, deliberate attempts to involve and influence individuals, whereas others (fads, crazes, protests, or instances of collective hysteria) occur spontaneously.

collective psychology

collective psychology 1. the mental and emotional states and processes characteristic of individuals when aggregated in such groups as audiences, crowds, mobs, and social movements. The term is mainly associated with early theorists in this area, such as Gustave Le Bon. 2. the scientific study of these phenomena.

collective representations

collective representations the institutions, laws, symbols, rituals, and stories that embody a society’s key concepts and values and its sense of itself as a distinct community with its own identity and way of life. [introduced by Émile Durkheim]

collective self

collective self see social identity.

collective self-esteem

collective self-esteem individuals’ subjective assessment of that portion of their self-concept that is based on their membership in social groups, such as families, teams, or schools, as well as on categories that have psychological significance for them, such as race, ethnicity, or nationality. Collective self-esteem is often measured using the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES), developed in 1992 by U.S. social psychologists Riia K. Luhtanen and Jennifer Crocker (1952– ). Respondents evaluate their general group memberships across four subscales pertaining to membership esteem (evaluation of their worthiness as members of a group), private collective self-esteem (evaluation of the worthiness of the group), public collective self-esteem (evaluation of others’ perceptions of the group), and the importance of the group to their identity.

collective suicide

collective suicide see mass suicide.

collective unconscious

collective unconscious the part of the unconscious that, according to Carl Jung, is common to all humankind and contains the inherited accumulation of primitive human experiences in the form of ideas and images called archetypes and manifested in myths as well as other cultural phenomena (e.g., religion) and in dreams. It is the deepest and least accessible part of the unconscious mind. See also personal unconscious; racial memory.

collectivism

collectivism n. 1. the tendency to view oneself as a member of a larger (family or social) group, rather than as an isolated, independent being. 2. a social or cultural tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the unity of the group or community rather than each person’s individuality. Most Asian, African, and South American societies tend to put more value on collectivism than do Western societies, insofar as they stress cooperation, communalism, constructive interdependence, and conformity to cultural roles and mores. Compare individualism. —collectivist adj.

college admission tests

college admission tests tests for college applicants, which are used to help determine academic achievement and college readiness. For admission to undergraduate programs, these tests, also called college boards, often include the Scholastic Assessment Test and the ACT Assessment. Depending on the field of study, students applying to graduate programs are usually required to take standardized admissions tests such as the Graduate Record Examinations, Graduate Management Admission Test, Law School Admission Test, or Medical College Admission Test.

College Entrance Examination Board Advanced Placement Program

College Entrance Examination Board Advanced Placement Program see advanced placement examinations.

College Level Examination Program (CLEP)

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collegial model

collegial model any collaborative approach that encourages equal participation by all interactants while minimizing status differences. In research, for example, this approach enjoins researchers to involve participants fully in the research process; in therapeutic settings, the model requires therapists to treat clients as equals.

colliculus

colliculus n. (pl. colliculi) a small elevation. Two pairs of colliculi are found on the dorsal surface of the midbrain. The rostral pair, the superior colliculi, receive and process visual information and help control eye movements; they are also thought to have a role in blindsight. The caudal pair, the inferior colliculi, receive and process auditory information. [from Latin, “small hill”]

collinearity

collinearity n. in regression analysis, the situation in which two independent variables are so highly associated that one can be closely or perfectly predicted by the other. For example, collinearity likely is present if a researcher examines how height and age contribute to children’s weight, since the two predictors are highly interrelated (i.e., as children grow older they get taller). Collinearity leads to difficulties in interpreting the unique influences of the independent variables and requires the use of partialing procedures to distinguish their separate effects. See also multicollinearity. —collinear adj.

colloid

colloid n. 1. a large, gluelike molecule that cannot pass through the plasma membrane of a cell. When injected into the peritoneum, colloids attract and retain water by osmosis. 2. a system consisting of two or more phases in which one phase (the dispersed phase) is distributed throughout the other phase (the continuous phase). A sol, for example, consists of large molecules or small solid particles distributed in a liquid, as when starch is mixed with water. —colloidal adj.

collusion

collusion n. in psychotherapy, the process in which a therapist consciously or nonconsciously participates with a client or third party to avoid an issue that needs to be addressed. —collusional adj.

collusional marriage

collusional marriage a marriage in which one partner instigates or engages in inordinate, deficient, irregular, or illegal conduct and the other partner covertly endorses it or covers it up, while ostensibly being in the role of passive victim or martyr. See also marital skew.

coloboma

coloboma n. an apparent absence or defect of some ocular tissue, usually due to failure of a part of the fetal fissure to close. See iris coloboma.

colocalization

colocalization n. spatial overlap, in particular the presence of more than one neurotransmitter or neurochemical in the same presynaptic terminal or of more than one brain activation in neuroimaging.

colonial species

colonial species a species in which several breeding groups of birds live in spatial proximity. Cliff swallows and herring gulls, for example, build nests in proximity to many others of their species (colonial nesting). Colonial species can benefit from their proximity in collective defense against predators, but there may be extreme competition or infanticide between neighbors and increased risk of disease transmission.

colonialism

colonialism n. see postcolonialism.

colony

colony n. 1. a gathering of animals of the same species into a relatively large group that may or may not display social organization. A colony may provide the advantage of having many individuals available for locating food and defending against predators, but it has potential costs in terms of increased competition for food or breeding opportunities and increased potential for disease transmission. 2. a group of people who settle in a new territory but continue to have some relationship with their homeland. 3. a territory that has become subject to the political and economic control of another country, usually a distant one, as a result of settlement from that country. The settlers or their descendants usually form the ruling class, despite being a minority. 4. a group of individuals who share a common interest and live in proximity, such as an artists’ colony or nudist colony, or the place inhabited by such a group. —colonial adj. —colonialism n. —colonist n. —colonize vb.

color

color n. the quality of visible light that corresponds to wavelength as perceived by retinal receptors. It is thus the subjective experience of a physical entity. Color is characterized by the three separate attributes of hue, saturation, and luminous intensity, but in general usage the term refers to hue only. See also achromatic; chromatic; primary colors.

color adaptation

color adaptation see chromatic adaptation.

color agnosia

color agnosia see visual agnosia.

color amnesia

color amnesia an inability to recall the characteristic colors of objects (e.g., a fire truck is red), despite intact color vision and perception.

color anomia

color anomia the inability to name a presented color while being able to point to it when the name is given and to match colors correctly. Color anomia is explained as a disconnection of the cortical color centers from the language areas in the left hemisphere of the brain.

color attribute

color attribute any of the basic characteristics of color: hue, saturation, or luminous intensity.

color balance

color balance the amounts of different colors that are most pleasing with each other. German poet and scholar Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) was the first to formulate a mathematical description of color balance; his work was amplified by U.S. painter Albert H. Munsell (1858–1918). See also Munsell color system.

color blindness

color blindness the inability to discriminate between colors and to perceive color hues. Color blindness may be caused by disease, drugs, or brain injury (see acquired color blindness), but most often it is an inherited trait (congenital color blindness) that affects about 10% of men (it is rare in women). The most widely used classification of the different types of color blindness is based on the trichromatic nature of normal color perception, using prefixes to indicate the three primary colors: proto- (red), deutero- (green), and trit- (blue). The type of deficiency is indicated by suffixes: -anomaly for partial inability to perceive one or more of the primary colors and -anopia for complete inability to do this. The most common form of the disorder involves the green or red receptors of the cone cells in the retina, causing a red–green confusion (see deuteranopia; protanopia). Total color blindness is rare, affecting about 3 individuals out of 1 million (see achromatism). See also dichromatism; monochromatism; trichromatism.

color cells

color cells the three types of retinal cones, each of which is sensitive to one of the visual primary colors: red, green, and blue. See photopigment; trichromatic theory. See also color blindness.

color circle

color circle 1. an array of chromatic colors around the circumference of a circle. The colors are arranged in the order in which they are seen in the spectrum, but nonspectral purples and reds are also included. Complementary colors are opposite each other. 2. the arrangement of color sectors on a disk such that the disk appears gray when the colors are “mixed” by rotation of the disk. [first devised by Isaac Newton]

color cone

color cone a three-dimensional representation of all visible colors that takes into account hue, saturation, and luminous intensity. Luminous intensity is represented on the vertical axis, hue is represented in polar coordinates around the vertical axis, and saturation is represented radially around the vertical axis. See color solid.

color constancy

color constancy the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same color under different conditions of illumination. For example, a red apple will be perceived as red in well or poorly illuminated surroundings. Color constancy is an example of perceptual constancy. Compare brightness constancy; object constancy; shape constancy; size constancy.

color contrast

color contrast the effect of one color upon another when they are viewed in proximity. In simultaneous contrast, complementary colors, such as yellow and blue, are enhanced by each other: The yellow appears yellower, and the blue appears bluer. In successive contrast, the complement of a color is seen after shifting focus to a neutral surface.

color harmony

color harmony the extent to which colors are pleasing in combination with one another. At least in isolation, complementary colors and colors of the same hue but differing considerably in saturation or lightness are judged to be most harmonious.

color hearing

color hearing see chromatic audition.

color induction

color induction see induced color.

color mixer

color mixer a device that enables light of two different wavelengths to be presented simultaneously or in rapid sequence to the same region of the retina.

color mixture

color mixture a fusion effect produced by combining pigments (subtractive mixture), projecting lights simultaneously (additive color mixture), or rapid rotation in a color mixer (retinal mixture).

color perception

color perception the awareness of the stimulus attribute of hue.

color purity

color purity a measure of the extent to which a color is free of white, gray, or black. A color that is predominantly free of such admixtures is said to have high chromaticity.

color pyramid

color pyramid see color solid.

color saturation

color saturation see saturation.

color scotoma

color scotoma an area of depressed or lost color vision in one or both eyes. Color scotomas may be present in cases of optic neuritis and are found in the contralateral half of the visual field of each eye after unilateral brain injury (see hemiachromatopsia).

color sensation

color sensation the experience evoked by exposure of the visual system to chromatic stimuli. Mental awareness and the integration of color sensations lead to color perception.

color solid

color solid a three-dimensional representation of all aspects of color, including the various degrees and combinations of hue, luminous intensity, and saturation. Various solid shapes can be used to form such a representation; these give rise to different types of color solids, such as the color cone, color pyramid, and color spindle.

color subtraction

color subtraction a process in which some wavelengths of an illuminating light source are absorbed by pigments in an object, while the remaining wavelengths are reflected. The reflected wavelengths are therefore the only ones that can be perceived, regardless of the wavelength composition of the original illumination. See also color mixture.

color surface

color surface a plane made by cutting through a color solid to show all possible hues and saturations at a specific level of luminous intensity.

color system

color system any system devised to organize colored stimuli that takes into account the attributes of hue, saturation, and luminous intensity. Examples include the DIN color system, Munsell color system, Ostwald color system, and Ridgway color system.

color temperature

color temperature the temperature in kelvin (K) of a nonblack body indicated by the temperature to which a black body would need to be heated to give the same spectral distribution as that of the nonblack body. For example, candlelight has a color temperature of 1500 K, whereas blue sky is over 9000 K.

color theory

color theory any of a variety of theories formulated to explain color phenomena. Examples include the dual process theory of color vision (see opponent process theory of color vision), the Ladd-Franklin theory, and the retinex theory.

color triangle

color triangle a triangular two-dimensional representation of the relationship between hue, luminous intensity, and saturation. Compare color solid.

color value

color value 1. an attribute of a colored stimulus related to its luminance or perceived amount of gray. 2. a dimension in the Munsell color system that specifies the lightness of a stimulus.

color vision

color vision the ability to distinguish visual stimuli on the basis of the wavelengths of light they emit or reflect. See color theory.

color wheel

color wheel a disk divided into sectors of different colors. The wheel is rotated to investigate color mixture.

color zones

color zones 1. areas of the retina that are differentially sensitive to different colors. All colors are perceived in the fovea centralis; blues, yellows, and grays in the middle zone; and (with some overlap) only achromatic colors in the periphery. 2. in perimetry, regions in the visual field with different color sensitivity, corresponding to the regions of retinal color sensitivity.

color-blindness test

color-blindness test any task or device that tests the ability to distinguish different colored stimuli, specifically to discover abnormalities in the perception of color. The most common tests involve the detection of colored figures against a colored background under conditions that require the use of hue information, rather than luminous intensity or saturation. See also Ishihara Test for Color Blindness.

Colored Progressive Matrices

Colored Progressive Matrices see Raven’s Progressive Matrices.

colorimeter

colorimeter n. an instrument used to compare, identify, or reproduce colors by comparison with a known mixture of monochromatic and white lights or a mixture of the three primary colors.

colostrum

colostrum n. the first milk secreted by a woman immediately following the end of pregnancy. The milk is thin and opalescent and has a different nutrient composition than milk secreted during the remaining lactation period, which has high levels of antibodies that confer passive immunity on the infant.

column

column n. in anatomy, a structure that resembles an architectural pillar. Columns range from macroscopic, such as the spinal column, to microscopic, such as cortical columns and dorsal columns. —columnar adj.

columnar organization

columnar organization see cortical column.

coma

coma n. a profound state of unconsciousness due to dysfunction of the ascending reticular activating system, cerebral cortex, and other brain areas critical to alertness and cognition. A person in a coma is unaware of the self or environment, does not engage in any voluntary activity, and does not respond to light, sound, touch, or other stimuli. He or she cannot be roused, his or her eyes remain closed, and normal sleep and wake cycles cease. Causes are numerous but commonly include head injury or other trauma, blockage or rupture of cerebral blood vessels, infection, oxygen deprivation (from cardiac arrest, hypoxia, etc.), severe drug or alcohol intoxication, seizures, strokes, tumors, and metabolic disturbances and other disorders. Comas typically last 10 to 14 days, with affected individuals often progressing to a minimally conscious state or a vegetative state. Prognosis depends on the severity and site of neurological damage as well as the cause and duration of the coma. The Glasgow Coma Scale is the most commonly used instrument for assessing the severity of consciousness deficits, but others include the Grady Coma Scale, the Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score, and the Wessex Head Injury Matrix. Electroencephalography and somatosensory potentials also are regarded as useful tools for exploring residual brain activity and providing information for recovery. —comatose adj.

coma stimulation

coma stimulation the use of multimodal sensory stimulation in an attempt to speed up the process of recovery from coma or improve arousal level. The efficacy of such approaches remains unestablished.

coma therapy

coma therapy see insulin-shock therapy.

coma vigil

coma vigil an imprecise and obsolescent term generally used to denote a vegetative state. In coma vigil, individuals may appear alert and aware (e.g., by opening and moving their eyes) but do not respond to stimuli in any adaptive, meaningful way.

combat and operational stress control (COSC)

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combat stress reaction (CSR)

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combat stress reduction

combat stress reduction a set of measures designed to develop skills to reduce combat stress reactions. Stress reduction entails remediation procedures, regulatory techniques, and preventive strategies (psychological coping techniques). See also combat and operational stress control.

combination

combination n. the selection of r objects from among n objects without regard to the order in which the objects are selected. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is often denoted as nCr. A combination is similar to a permutation but distinguished by the irrelevance of order.

combination law

combination law see law of combination.

combination test

combination test a type of test in which the main task is to assemble or combine words or objects into a more complex whole.

combination therapy

combination therapy the application of two or more distinct therapeutic approaches by the same therapist to a client’s presenting problem. It is distinct from adjunctive therapy, which involves multiple practitioners.

combination tone

combination tone a tone generated in the ear that is produced when two primary tones (i.e., two tones differing in frequency) are presented simultaneously. For example, under certain conditions a 1000 Hz tone and a 1200 Hz tone will produce audible combination tones whose frequencies are 200 Hz (a difference tone) and 800 Hz (a cubic difference tone). Most combination tones are produced by nonlinear distortion that occurs within the cochlea.

combinatorial operation

combinatorial operation a mental process that generates new representations by merging constituents according to a set of rules. For example, sentences are constructed by combinatorial operations on words and phrases according to the rules of syntax.

combined therapy

combined therapy 1. psychotherapy in which the client is engaged in two or more treatments with the same or different therapists. For example, couples therapy may include group therapy with several other couples in addition to individual therapy or conjoint therapy for each couple. 2. treatment using a combination of psychotherapy and medication. See also adjunctive therapy; adjuvant therapy.

coming out

coming out revealing that one is gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender. Such a declaration can sometimes lead to problems with the individual’s family, employers, or friends and can therefore be a difficult step, even for those who accept and are comfortable with their sexual orientation. Also called coming out of the closet.

command style

command style in education, a highly structured, traditional instruction method in which the teacher makes all decisions regarding lesson development and implementation and the students’ role is to receive the information passively and perform required tasks. Compare individual program.

commensalism

commensalism n. an interspecies interaction in which two species live closely together with neither species gaining or losing any benefits from the association. Compare mutualism; parasitism. —commensal adj., n.

commissural fiber

commissural fiber an axon from any of various neurons that connect the same or equivalent structures in the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Compare association fiber.

commissure

commissure n. a structure that forms a bridge or junction between two anatomical areas, particularly the two cerebral hemispheres or the halves of the spinal cord. Examples include the two key landmarks in brain mapping: the anterior commissure, a bundle of myelinated fibers that joins the temporal lobes and contains fibers of the olfactory tract; and the posterior commissure, a bundle of myelinated fibers that connects regions in the midbrain and diencephalon. See also corpus callosum; gray commissure; white commissure. —commissural adj.

commissurotomy

commissurotomy n. a surgical procedure involving a partial cutting of a commissure or fiber bridge, especially the great fiber bridge between the two cerebral hemispheres, the corpus callosum. A complete sectioning of the corpus callosum is called a callosectomy; this also severs its large forward portion, the anterior commissure. Complete callosectomies are now avoided if possible, in favor of partial transections. This surgery has been used to treat severe and intractable epilepsy, and it has also enabled researchers to study the isolated functions of each hemisphere. Research in this area was pioneered by Roger Sperry (see chimeric stimulation). Also called callosotomy; split-brain procedure; split-brain technique. See split brain.

commitment

commitment n. 1. confinement to a mental institution by court order following certification by appropriate mental health authorities. The process may be voluntary but is generally involuntary. See certification laws. See also civil commitment; criminal commitment. 2. obligation or devotion to a person, relationship, task, cause, or other entity or action.

commitment laws

commitment laws legislation governing the holding of a patient in a mental hospital involuntarily upon certification. See certification laws.

commodity theory

commodity theory a theory proposing that the value of a product or service is related to its availability. In general, a product that is in short supply is perceived as having greater value than one that is readily available. However, a product’s value is also related to the demand for it. It may be scarce, but if no one wants it, it will not have a high value. Commodity theory is used to explain consumer behavior in times of product or service restriction. [formulated in 1968 by Timothy C. Brock]

common cause hypothesis

common cause hypothesis the hypothesis that all changes in sensory ability and intellectual functioning (cognitive aging) in old age are due to a common factor, the deterioration of brain function.

common chemical sense

common chemical sense see chemesthesis.

common conscience

common conscience see collective conscience.

common factor

common factor 1. in psychotherapy, any of several variables that are common to various types of therapy, such as the therapeutic alliance, and that promote therapeutic success regardless of the different approaches used; common factors can thus be contrasted with factors that are unique to a particular therapy, such as the use of interpretation. The concept of common factors is a premise underlying integrative psychotherapy. Therapeutic factors are similar but typically apply to therapies with groups. [first articulated by Saul Rosenzweig in a 1936 article, “Some Implicit Common Factors in Diverse Methods of Psychotherapy”] 2. see specific factor.

common fate

common fate one of the gestalt principles of organization, stating that objects functioning or moving in the same direction appear to belong together, that is, they are perceived as a single unit (e.g., a flock of birds). Also called law of common fate; principle of common fate.

common knowledge effect

common knowledge effect in groups, the tendency for information that is known by more members prior to a discussion to more strongly influence the group’s subsequent discussion and judgment. [proposed in 1993 by U.S. social psychologists Daniel Gigone and Reid Hastie]

common law

common law 1. the legal principles deriving from previous decisions of the courts, as opposed to those established by statute. Also called judge-made law. See case law. 2. the legal system originating in England and used in the United States and some other English-speaking countries, especially as opposed to those systems deriving from Roman law used in Continental Europe.

common metric

common metric a unit or scale of measurement that is applied to data from different sources. In a meta-analysis, for instance, the results from multiple studies may need to be placed on a common metric so that they may be meaningfully compared.

common region

common region a recently introduced gestalt principle of organization, stating that objects sharing a common bounded region of space appear to belong together and tend to be perceived as a distinct group. For example, animals in a fenced-in enclosure are more likely to be seen as a group than are the same distribution of animals arrayed in open space. Also called law of common region; principle of common region. [proposed in 1992 by U.S. psychologist Stephen E. Palmer (1948– )]

common sense

common sense 1. beliefs or propositions that are generally agreed upon to reflect sound judgment and nonesoteric reasoning. 2. see sensus communis. —commonsense adj.

common trait

common trait in the personality theory of Gordon W. Allport, any of a number of enduring characteristics that describe or determine an individual’s behavior across a variety of situations and that are common to many people and similarly expressed. Common traits, such as assertiveness, thus serve as a basis for comparison of one person to another and are distinct from personal dispositions.

common-law marriage

common-law marriage a relationship between an unmarried but long-term cohabiting couple that is considered legally equivalent to marriage. Most states in the United States do not recognize common-law marriages, although cohabitees may be regarded as equivalent to married partners for some purposes.

commonality analysis

commonality analysis in multiple regression, a technique by which the known variance in an outcome or response variable is separated out into the parts that can be uniquely attributed to each individual predictor variable and the parts that are common to any two or more variables.

commons dilemma

commons dilemma see tragedy of the commons.

commonsense justice

commonsense justice practices and procedures that ordinary people consider to be fair and just, which may differ from legal conceptions of justice and fairness.

commonsense psychology

commonsense psychology ideas about psychological issues derived from common experience and not necessarily from empirical laboratory or clinical studies. See folk psychology; popular psychology.

communal nursing

communal nursing see allonursing.

communal relationship

communal relationship a relationship in which interaction is governed primarily by consideration of the other’s needs and wishes. This contrasts with an exchange relationship, in which the people involved are concerned mainly with receiving as much as they give. See also equity theory. [discussed by U.S. social psychologists Margaret Clark and Judson Mills (1932–2008)]

communality

communality n. in factor analysis, the proportion of variance in one variable that is accounted for by an underlying element common to all of the variables in a set. It is given by the communality coefficient (h2), which is scaled such that the closer it is to 1.0 in value the more completely the underlying element accounts for the observed variability. Also called common variance. Compare uniqueness.

commune

commune n. a collective living arrangement among individuals or families, typically involving shared chores, resources, and child-rearing, as an alternative to marriage and the nuclear family. Such arrangements were fashionable in the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s.

communicated authenticity, regard, empathy (CARE)

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communicating hydrocephalus

communicating hydrocephalus hydrocephalus in the absence of any blockage in the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricular system. Cerebrospinal fluid passes freely from the brain into the spinal canal but is overproduced or abnormally or inadequately reabsorbed. Compare noncommunicating hydrocephalus.

communication

communication n. the transmission of information, which may be by verbal (oral or written) or nonverbal means (see nonverbal communication). Humans communicate to relate and exchange ideas, knowledge, feelings, and experiences and for many other interpersonal and social purposes. Nonhuman animals likewise communicate vocally or nonvocally for a variety of purposes (see animal communication). Communication is studied by cognitive and experimental psychologists, and communication disorders are treated by mental and behavioral health therapists and by speech and language therapists. Communications is the discipline that studies the processes and systems involved in communication at both the interpersonal and broadly social levels, in the latter case paying particular attention to the publishing media and telecommunication systems (telephones, radio, television, Internet, etc.).

communication analysis

communication analysis the study of the oral and written communications among people, particularly employees in an organization, with the objective of understanding and improving the process. It can include a determination of the patterns and types of these communications as well as an analysis of breakdowns in the communication process. See communication ergonomics.

communication apprehension

communication apprehension anxiety related to initiating or maintaining conversation with others. This is a common feature of social phobia. See also public-speaking anxiety.

communication channels

communication channels see channels of communication.

communication deviance (CD)

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communication disorder

communication disorder any of a group of disorders characterized by difficulties with speech and language, such as expressive language disorder, mixed receptive-expressive language disorder, phonological disorder, and stuttering.

communication engineering

communication engineering the application of scientific principles to the development of technical systems for communication, such as telephone, radio, television, and computer networks. The development and proliferation of computer networks have made knowledge of computer technology essential to communication engineering.

communication ergonomics

communication ergonomics a specialty area of ergonomics that identifies those factors that support or undermine communication in shared tasks. Such factors, including information systems, technical systems, and communication networks and protocols, may be especially important when participants in a task are widely distributed and safety depends on clear, unambiguous communication (e.g., in air traffic control).

communication network

communication network the patterns of information transmission and exchange that occur in a group or organization, showing who communicates most frequently (and to what extent) with whom. Such networks may be either centralized or decentralized and characterized mainly by downward communication or upward communication. See also channels of communication.

communication overload

communication overload a condition in which more information is presented to a person or a computer system than can be processed or otherwise effectively utilized by the person or system. See also cognitive overload; information overload; sensory overload; stimulus overload.

communication skills

communication skills the skills required to achieve effective communication. In addition to general language proficiency (adequate vocabulary and knowledge of syntax), effective communication involves the ability to listen and read with comprehension, to present one’s thoughts clearly both in speech and in writing, to accept that the perspectives of others may differ from one’s own, and to anticipate the effect of what one says or writes on listeners or readers.

communication skills training

communication skills training an intervention that teaches individuals to express themselves clearly and directly and to listen in an active and empathic way, using such techniques as feedback and modeling, in group, family, or work contexts. Training sessions typically focus on a specific theme (e.g., active listening, problem solving, or conflict resolution) after which homework is assigned. Initially developed for couples and families, the training is now used with such populations as people with developmental impairment and with teams in industry settings.

communication system

communication system an organized scheme or mechanism for transmitting and receiving information for the purposes of communication. The communication may be between people, between machines (usually computers), or between people and machines. Traditional systems include one-way communication (e.g., broadcast radio, television) and two-way communication (e.g., telephone, citizens-band radio). Computers and computer networks provide both one-way communication (e.g., websites) and two-way communication (e.g., e-mail, instant messaging, social media).

communication theory

communication theory 1. the theoretical treatment of the interchange of signs and signals that constitutes communication. 2. the branch of science concerned with all aspects (technical, physiological, psychological, and social) of the storage and transmission of information. See information theory.

communicative act

communicative act any verbal or nonverbal behavior through which one party deliberately or unintentionally transmits information to others. For example, a father may point at an object while helping his daughter clean her room to convey to the child that the object should be put away.

communicative competence

communicative competence a speaker’s knowledge of language and ability to use it appropriately in various communicative settings and with a range of different interlocutors. In contrast to Noam Chomsky’s notion of competence, which explicitly excludes nonlinguistic factors, the idea of communicative competence stresses the social uses of language and the importance of context. See also communication skills. [first described by U.S. sociolinguist Dell H. Hymes (1927–2009)]

communicology

communicology n. an area covering the theory and practice of audiology, speech and language pathology, and improvement in communication by means of exchanging ideas, relating experiences, and giving voice to feelings.

communitas

communitas n. a society or social group with a strong sense of unity and shared purpose, especially one bound together by shared rituals and traditions. Communitas (Latin for community) was also the title of the classic 1947 text on city planning by U.S. psychologist Paul Goodman (1911–1972) and his architect brother Percival Goodman, which stressed the relationship between city design and human potential.

community

community n. 1. a socially organized set of species members living in a physically defined locality. Human communities are often characterized by (a) commonality of interests, attitudes, and values; (b) a general sense of belonging to a unified, socially integrated group; (c) members’ self-identification as community members; and (d) some system of communication, governance, education, and commerce. In general parlance, “the community” often means society or the general public. 2. a collection of individuals who are not socially connected but do have common interests or shared qualities and are therefore perceived by others or by themselves as distinctive in some way (e.g., the scientific community). 3. in behavioral ecology, a unit comprising all the animal and plant species that coexist and are necessary for each other’s survival. Thus, a community includes predator and prey species as well as the various plants that animals need for food, shelter, and so forth; the plants may benefit from the presence of the animals in the community through seed dispersal or interspecies interactions.

community action group

community action group a group of citizens organized to campaign against specific problems within the local community, such as inadequate delivery of health services, homelessness, or crime.

community care

community care in psychiatry, psychology, and rehabilitation, comprehensive community-based services and supports for people with developmental, psychiatric, or physical disabilities. These facilities or services include halfway houses, group homes, sheltered workshops and supported work arrangements, supervised and supportive residences, special education or integrated education programs for children and young people, in-home treatment and family support, personal-care or home-care assistance, case management or service coordination, cooperative living, and hospital-based or free-standing clinics.

community competence

community competence the efficacy of a unified, socially organized group of people in producing and regulating its outcomes, or its members’ perceptions of this efficacy.

community control

community control see neighborhood control.

community correction

community correction see alternative sentencing.

community ergonomics

community ergonomics the application of ergonomic principles and practices to address cumulative social trauma in complex societal systems. Community ergonomics focuses on distressed community settings characterized by poverty, social isolation, dependency, and low levels of self-regulation and control. In practice, community ergonomics seeks to identify and implement a community–environment interface to bridge the gap between the disadvantaged residents of a community and the resources defining the social environment within which they function.

community inclusion

community inclusion the practice of accepting and encouraging the presence and participation of people with disabilities—in particular, intellectual and developmental disabilities—in the full range of social, educational, work, and community activities.

community integration

community integration the practice of assisting people with disabilities, especially developmental disabilities, to participate in community activities. Those with such disabilities are encouraged to attend community functions, engage in social interactions with peers and community members without disabilities, and join formal and informal community groups. One model of community integration has service settings that consist of clusters of houses in which adults with disabilities who can function somewhat independently participate in work and daily routines with people without disabilities. With the help of staff members, these adults manage the houses independently—planning meals, purchasing and preparing food, and participating in household maintenance chores—and enjoy leisure activities with their peers. In many instances, staff live in the community as well.

community mental health

community mental health activities undertaken in the community, rather than in institutional settings, to promote mental health. The community approach focuses on the total population of a single catchment area and involves overall planning and demographic analyses of the area’s mental health needs. It emphasizes preventive services (e.g., by identifying sources of stress within the community) and seeks to provide a continuous, comprehensive system of services designed to meet the mental health needs in the community. Mental health is approached indirectly through consultation and education, with emphasis on such strategies as brief psychotherapy and crisis intervention and on using such workers as paraprofessionals and indigenous mental health workers.

community mental health center (CMHC)

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Community Notification Act

Community Notification Act see Megan’s law.

community prevention and intervention

community prevention and intervention organized efforts by professionals, indigenous nonprofessionals, and others to implement preventive programs as well as systems for intervention in dealing constructively with problems in the community, such as substance abuse, homelessness, child abuse, juvenile delinquency, cigarette smoking, and a high suicide rate. These efforts are typically most effective where the residents are themselves involved in dealing with such problems through existing community groups, such as neighborhood councils, block committees, service groups, social and fraternal organizations, and community educational and self-help programs. See also community-centered approach.

community psychology

community psychology a branch of psychology that encourages the development of theory, research, and practice relevant to the reciprocal relationships between individuals and the social systems that constitute the community context. It intersects with other branches of psychology (e.g., social psychology) and with other disciplines, such as sociology and public health. A particular emphasis is on social welfare, community mental health, and prevention. Its research findings and methods are applied with regard to poverty, substance abuse, violence, school failure, and other social issues. See ecological perspective.

community residence

community residence a residential setting, usually serving 3 to 15 people and located in a regular house, with live-in or shift staffing. Community residences—some of which provide clinical services in addition to supervision, personal assistance, and training in everyday living skills—represent the most common out-of-home residential setting for people with intellectual or developmental disabilities.

community services

community services the complex of community-based services and facilities designed to maintain health and welfare, including mental health clinics, public health and adoption services, family services, vocational training facilities, rehabilitation centers, and living facilities (e.g., halfway houses, home care, and foster-family care). See community care; community-centered approach.

community social worker

community social worker a professional who serves as a liaison between local, state, and federal government officials and the public on matters affecting the community. Community social workers may, for example, try to raise awareness among officials about the need for local recreational facilities, about employment problems in the community, and about environmental obstacles in public buildings to residents with physical impairments.

community speech and hearing center

community speech and hearing center see speech, language, and hearing center.

community-centered approach

community-centered approach a concerted, coordinated approach by local agencies and facilities to address such problems in a community or catchment area as mental disorder, delinquency, and substance abuse. This approach holds that since these problems developed in the community, efforts at prevention and treatment should be community-based rather than the province primarily of state institutions or federal agencies.

comorbidity

comorbidity n. the simultaneous presence in an individual of more than one illness, disease, or disorder. —comorbid adj.

companionate grandparent

companionate grandparent the type of grandparent who has a warm, loving relationship with his or her grandchildren but does not take on day-to-day responsibility for them. Compare involved grandparent; remote grandparent.

companionate love

companionate love a type of love characterized by strong feelings of intimacy and affection for another person rather than strong emotional arousal in the other’s presence. In these respects, companionate love is distinguished from passionate love. From the perspective of Robert J. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, the relationship is high in intimacy and commitment.

companionate marriage

companionate marriage a marriage of warmth, affection, and trust between spouses, usually one based on equality of the partners and interchangability of their relationship roles.

comparable form

comparable form see alternate form.

comparable worth

comparable worth the principle that men and women should be paid equally for work requiring similar skills and responsibilities. In other words, comparable worth advocates equal pay for work of equal value, such as a woman working as a receptionist and a man working as a mailroom clerk. The principle has been invoked as a means of closing the gender pay gap and remedying systematic discrimination in pay for female-dominated occupations in comparison to male-dominated occupations with similar behaviors and demands. Also called pay equity. See equity theory.

comparable-forms reliability

comparable-forms reliability see alternate-forms reliability.

comparative analysis

comparative analysis see comparative method.

comparative cognition

comparative cognition a subfield of comparative psychology that investigates the origins and mechanisms of cognition in various species and studies the differences and similarities in cognitive processes (e.g., perception, spatial learning and memory, problem solving, social cognition) across a range of animals, including humans, dolphins, elephants, chimpanzees, parrots, and bees.

comparative judgment

comparative judgment a psychophysical judgment in which two or more stimuli are compared with one another or with a given standard. Also called relative judgment. Compare absolute judgment.

comparative linguistics

comparative linguistics the branch of linguistics that studies similarities and differences between languages with the general purpose of understanding the historical relationships between them. See diachronic linguistics; genetic linguistics; philology.

comparative method

comparative method an experimental research method of analyzing and comparing the behavior of different species of nonhuman animals, different cultures of humans, and different age groups of humans and other animals so as to identify similarities and dissimilarities and obtain an understanding of a phenomenon of interest. For example, macaques are often used as a model for understanding human mother–infant relationships. However, male macaques rarely become interested in or involved with care of the young, so comparative study of other species is needed to understand when and how male care of the young develops. Also called comparative analysis.

comparative neuropsychology

comparative neuropsychology the study of the relationships between behavior and neural mechanisms in different animal species, including humans, especially in relation to the effects of brain damage.

comparative psychology

comparative psychology the study of nonhuman animal behavior with the dual objective of understanding the behavior for its own sake and furthering the understanding of human behavior. Comparative psychology usually involves laboratory studies (compare ethology) and typically refers to research involving nonhuman species whether or not it utilizes the comparative method. Some comparative psychologists engage in both field and laboratory studies. See also animal–human comparison; comparative cognition.

comparative trial

comparative trial see controlled trial.

comparator

comparator n. an information-processing unit that compares one variable against a similar variable or standard measure and—based on the difference—may act to bring the variable within desired limits. For example, a thermostat may compare the ambient temperature against a preset temperature, turning the heating system on or off to minimize or eliminate any difference. See also brain comparator; servomechanism.

comparator hypothesis

comparator hypothesis a theory of classical conditioning proposing that the strength of conditioning is based on a comparison of the likelihood that an unconditioned stimulus will occur following a conditioned stimulus with the likelihood that it will occur in the absence of a conditioned stimulus. It predicts that a response will be observed only if the former probability is higher.

comparison

comparison n. any appraisal of two or more groups in order to identify differences, such as that between the mean of a variable in one population and its mean in another. Comparisons may be planned in advance, as in a priori comparisons, or decided upon after data analysis has already begun, as in post hoc comparisons. Also called contrast.

comparison group

comparison group 1. see social comparison theory. 2. see control group.

comparison level (CL)

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comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)

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comparison process

comparison process in self psychology, evaluating one’s abilities, traits, or performances in relation to those of selected other people. Comparisons may be upward, as when weekend golfers compare themselves to professionals, or downward, as when weekend golfers compare themselves to beginners. See also social comparison theory.

comparison stimulus (Co)

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comparison-wise error rate

comparison-wise error rate see testwise error rate.

compartmentalization

compartmentalization n. a defense mechanism in which thoughts and feelings that seem to conflict or to be incompatible are isolated from each other in separate and apparently impermeable psychic compartments. In the classical psychoanalytic tradition, compartmentalization emerges in response to fragmentation of the ego, which ideally should be able to tolerate ambiguity and ambivalence. See also isolation. —compartmentalize vb.

compassion

compassion n. a strong feeling of sympathy with another person’s feelings of sorrow or distress, usually involving a desire to help or comfort that person. —compassionate adj.

compassion fatigue

compassion fatigue the burnout and stress-related symptoms experienced by caregivers and other helping professionals in reaction to working with traumatized people over an extended period of time. See also posttraumatic stress disorder. [defined by U.S. psychologist Charles R. Figley (1944– )]

Compassionate Friends

Compassionate Friends a voluntary organization that offers support, friendship, and understanding to families grieving the death of a child. See self-help group.

compassionate love

compassionate love a form of love that emphasizes the well-being of another person. Compassionate love is affectionate and giving, focused on reducing the other’s suffering and promoting the other’s flourishing. Originally used to define a type of selfless caring described by several religious traditions, the concept is now applied broadly to romantic partners, family members, social groups, and humanity as a whole. Compassionate love is similar to the Platonic ideal of altruistic love. See also agape; companionate love; passionate love.

compatibility

compatibility n. 1. the state in which two or more people relate harmoniously because their attitudes, traits, and desires match or complement those of the other or others. 2. in philosophy, the position that free will and determinism are congruent and can, in some sense, coexist. Compare incompatibility. See also soft determinism. —compatible adj.

Compazine

Compazine n. a trade name for prochlorperazine.

compensable job factors

compensable job factors the factors used to determine the pay rate of a particular job, commonly including skills, effort, or education required; amount of responsibility entailed; and working conditions. The identification of such factors is the basis of the factor-comparison method and the point method of job evaluation.

compensation

compensation n. 1. substitution or development of strength or capability in one area to offset real or imagined deficiency in another. This may be referred to as overcompensation when the substitute behavior exceeds what might actually be necessary in terms of level of compensation for the deficiency. Compensation may be a conscious or unconscious process. In his classical psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud described compensation as a defense mechanism that protects the individual against the conscious realization of such deficiencies. The idea of compensation is central to Alfred Adler’s theory of personality, which sees all human striving as a response to feelings of inferiority (see also inferiority complex). However, many psychologists emphasize the positive aspects of compensation in mitigating the effects of a weakness or deficiency (see compensatory mechanism). For example, it can be regarded as an important component of successful aging because it reduces the negative effects of cognitive and physical decline associated with the aging process. See selective optimization with compensation. 2. in neuroscience, the recruitment of brain areas to substitute for the loss, due to injury or disease, of neural activity in other areas. See also brain reserve. 3. in Piagetian theory, a mental process—a form of reversibility—in which one realizes that for any operation there exists another operation that compensates for the effects of the first; that is, a change in one dimension can compensate for changes in another. Also called reciprocity. —compensate vb. —compensatory adj.

compensation effect

compensation effect an increase in group performance that occurs when one or more members work harder to compensate for the real or imagined shortcomings of their fellow members. Compare Köhler effect; sucker effect.

compensatory damages

compensatory damages a sum of money awarded in a civil action ideally to restore the injured party to his or her state prior to the injury. Typical losses recoverable in compensatory damages are medical expenses, lost wages, and compensation for pain and suffering. Compare punitive damages.

compensatory education

compensatory education educational programs that are specially designed to enhance the intellectual and social skills of disadvantaged children. An example of such a program is Head Start.

compensatory eye movements

compensatory eye movements movements of the eyes that counteract movement of the head. An example is the vestibulo-ocular reflex.

compensatory mechanism

compensatory mechanism a cognitive process that is used to offset a cognitive weakness. For example, someone who is weaker in spatial abilities than in verbal abilities might use compensatory mechanisms to attempt to solve spatial problems, such as mentally rotating a geometric figure by using verbal processes. The underlying theory is that intelligence partly consists of finding ways to compensate for the skills that one has lost over time or in which one was not adept in the first place.

compensatory nystagmus

compensatory nystagmus see Bekhterev’s nystagmus.

compensatory reflex

compensatory reflex a response that is opposite to, and therefore compensates for, another response. For example, a compensatory response to the suppression of pain by opioid drugs would be an increase in pain sensitivity. Therefore, with extended use, more of the opioid would be needed to achieve the same effect of pain suppression.

compensatory self-enhancement

compensatory self-enhancement a strategy for maintaining self-esteem or public image in which a person responds to poor performance or feedback in one sphere by focusing on or emphasizing his or her positive traits in an unrelated sphere. This emphasis on the positive is intended to offset the unwelcome implications of the bad feedback.

compensatory task

compensatory task a task or project that a group can complete by averaging individual members’ solutions or recommendations. Groups are more likely to outperform individuals on such tasks when (a) the members are equally proficient at the task and (b) the members do not share common biases that produce systematic tendencies toward overestimation or underestimation. Compare additive task; conjunctive task; disjunctive task. See also wisdom of crowds.

compensatory tracking

compensatory tracking in ergonomics, a tracking task requiring the operator to use a control (e.g., a joystick) to compensate for the movement of a cursor or other indicator on a display so that it remains within a defined target area. A driver, for example, must control his or her speed so that the needle on the speedometer remains at or below the mark showing the legal speed limit.

competence

competence n. 1. the ability to exert control over one’s life, to cope with specific problems effectively, and to make changes to one’s behavior and one’s environment, as opposed to the mere ability to adjust or adapt to circumstances as they are. Affirming, strengthening, or achieving a client’s competence is often a basic goal in psychotherapy. 2. one’s developed repertoire of skills, especially as it is applied to a task or set of tasks. A distinction is sometimes made between competence and performance, which is the extent to which competence is realized in one’s actual work on a problem or set of problems. 3. in linguistics and psycholinguistics, the nonconscious knowledge of the underlying rules of a language that enables individuals to speak and understand it. In this sense, competence is a rationalist concept that must be kept distinct from the actual linguistic performance of any particular speaker, which may be constrained by such nonlinguistic factors as memory, attention, or fatigue. Both terms were introduced by Noam Chomsky, who proposed the study of linguistic competence as the true task of linguistics; in doing so, he effectively declared linguistics to be a branch of cognitive psychology. See generative grammar; grammaticality; language acquisition device. 4. in law, the capacity to comprehend the nature of a transaction and to assume legal responsibility for one’s actions. See competency to stand trial. Compare incompetence. —competent adj.

competence motivation

competence motivation the drive to interact effectively with the environment and develop personal skill and capability in solving problems and performing tasks, such mastery being reinforced by a sense of control and positive self-esteem.

competency evaluation

competency evaluation evaluation of a defendant by a psychologist to determine his or her competency to stand trial.

competency to stand trial

competency to stand trial the capacity to be tried in court as determined by a person’s ability, at the time of trial, to understand and appreciate the criminal proceedings against him or her, to consult with an attorney with a reasonable degree of understanding, and to make and express choices among available options. It is a component of adjudicative competence. See Dusky standard. See also incompetency plea.

competency-based instruction

competency-based instruction a teaching method in which students work at their own pace toward individual goals in a noncompetitive setting. The teacher works with students in identifying appropriate goals and monitoring their progress toward those goals.

competent reservoir

competent reservoir see dilution effect.

competing response training

competing response training a technique in behavior therapy that involves two sequential stages: (a) identification of habit occurrence, including antecedents and warning signs; and (b) creation and practice, in session and through homework, of a competing (i.e., alternative) response to the problem behavior. The competing response should be physically incompatible with the behavioral habit, inconspicuous, and easy to practice. This technique is typically used with habit disorders and is also used in anger management training. See also alternative behavior completion.

competition

competition n. any performance situation structured in such a way that success depends on performing better than others. Interpersonal competition involves individuals striving to outperform each other; intergroup competition involves groups competing against other groups, with such groups including both small, face-to-face gatherings and very large groups, such as nations; intragroup competition involves individuals within a group trying to best each other. Because competing individuals sometimes increase their chances of success by actively undermining others’ performances, such goal structures can lead to conflict. Compare cooperation. —compete vb. —competitive adj.

competition by resource defense

competition by resource defense the use of territory or other defended space to exclude others from access to resources. The resources are defended indirectly rather than by direct aggression or competition. A special case is resource defense polygyny, in which a male can acquire additional mates if it is able to defend a larger than average set of resources.

competition for resources

competition for resources in ecology, the use of the same resource by individuals of the same species (intraspecific competition) or of different species (interspecific competition) when the supply of the resource is insufficient for the combined needs of all individuals. It is a major factor in natural selection. Also called struggle for existence. See also Darwinism; survival of the fittest.

competition routine

competition routine a predetermined pattern of behavior, self-talk, and imagery used during competition to enhance performance.

competition tolerance

competition tolerance 1. acceptance of goal structures that require interactants to compete with one another. 2. a positive, healthy reaction when one must perform competitively.

competitive bargaining

competitive bargaining see distributive bargaining.

competitive goal structure

competitive goal structure a performance situation structured in such a way that an interactant can reach his or her goals only by outperforming others or preventing others from reaching their goals. When goal structures are purely competitive, individual success requires that all others fail. Because competition creates incompatibility between people, such goal structures can generate interpersonal conflict. Compare cooperative goal structure.

competitive goals

competitive goals 1. goals that can only be attained by outperforming or outmaneuvering other individuals or groups who are also seeking to attain them. 2. in sports psychology, standards of excellence to be achieved during competition rather than during practice or training. Also called competition goals. 3. established goals that cannot be achieved simultaneously—in effect, they compete or conflict with one another. By spending time and effort to achieve one goal, an individual cannot achieve another goal.

competitive motive

competitive motive the drive or dispositional tendency to respond competitively in interpersonal and performance settings by maximizing one’s own outcomes and impeding the progress of others. Compare cooperative motive.

competitive reward structure

competitive reward structure a performance setting in which rewards are assigned on the basis of individual rather than group achievement and which is structured in such a way that the success of any one individual decreases the rewards received by the other group members. Compare cooperative reward structure; individualistic reward structure.

Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI)

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competitiveness

competitiveness n. a disposition to seek out objective competitive situations and to compare one’s performance against a standard or another person of comparable ability. —competitive adj.

complement

complement n. in linguistics, a word, phrase, or clause added to a verb to complete the sense of the predicate. The term is most closely associated with the type of phrase that follows a copula (linking verb), such as my father in He is my father or very unhappy in She looked very unhappy.

complementarity

complementarity n. 1. the quality of a relationship between two people, objects, or situations such that the qualities of one supplement or enhance the different qualities of the others. 2. in any dyadic relationship, the existence of different personal qualities in each of the partners that contribute a sense of completeness to the other person and provide balance in the relationship. Certain behaviors or traits tend to elicit the complementary behaviors or traits from partners (e.g., dominance often is followed by submission, and vice versa). Complementarity is an important factor in building rapport and the therapeutic relationship in psychotherapy because it reduces anxiety, preserves self-concept, and reinforces the interaction pattern. —complementary adj.

complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)

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complementary class

complementary class in set theory, the totality of elements that do not belong to a particular class. For example, if A is the class of all psychologists, then its complementary class is the class of all people who are not psychologists.

complementary classification

complementary classification in classification tasks, the grouping of items from conceptually different categories into a superordinate class based on an individual’s mental associations from past experience. For example, cow, tractor, and farmer may be grouped because they are all found on a farm. Also called functional classification; schematic classification; thematic classification. Compare conceptual classification; idiosyncratic classification; perceptual classification.

complementary colors

complementary colors see antagonistic colors.

complementary distribution

complementary distribution the situation in which two or more allophones of a phoneme occur in mutually exclusive phonetic environments. Compare free variation.

complementary identification

complementary identification in psychoanalysis, a form of countertransference in which the analyst identifies with a significant object (person) in the patient’s life and experiences the affects that the object would have in relation to the patient. For instance, the patient might project feelings of parental neglect onto the analyst and imply that the analyst is ignoring him or her. This induces feelings of guilt in the analyst, who feels like the rejecting, neglectful parent. Also called complementary countertransference. Compare concordant identification. [introduced by Polish-born Argentinian psychoanalyst Heinrich Racker (1910–1961)]

complete block design

complete block design a study in which participants are first divided into blocks (relatively homogeneous subsets) according to some characteristic (e.g., age) that is not a focus of interest and are then assigned to the different treatments or conditions in such a manner that each treatment appears once in each block. Thus, the number of participants in each block must equal the number of experimental conditions. For example, the following arrangement of four treatments (A, B, C, D) and 16 individuals (from four age groups) is a complete block design: By ensuring that the “nuisance” characteristic (here, age) is equally represented across all conditions, complete block designs reduce or eliminate its contribution to experimental error. Compare incomplete block design. See also block design; randomized block design.

complete counterbalancing

complete counterbalancing a process of arranging a series of experimental conditions or treatments in such a way that every possible sequence of conditions is given at least once during the study. For instance, the following arrangement of sequences of three treatments (A, B, C), each assigned to a different subgroup of participants, demonstrates complete counterbalancing: A-B-C, A-C-B, B-C-A, B-A-C, C-A-B, and C-B-A. Compare incomplete counterbalancing.

complete factorial design

complete factorial design a research study involving two or more independent variables in which every possible combination of the levels of each variable is represented. For instance, in a study of two drug treatments, one (A) having two dosages and the other (B) having three dosages, a complete factorial design would pair the dosages administered to different individuals or groups of participants as follows: A1 with B1, A1 with B2, A1 with B3, A2 with B1, A2 with B2, and A2 with B3. Compare fractional factorial design.

complete-case analysis

complete-case analysis see listwise deletion.

completion test

completion test a type of test in which the participant is usually required to supply a missing phrase, word, or letter in a written text. In nonverbal completion tests, a missing number, symbol, or representation must be supplied. See also word-stem completion.

complex

complex n. a group or system of related ideas or impulses that have a common emotional tone and exert a strong but usually unconscious influence on the individual’s attitudes and behavior. The term, introduced by Carl Jung to denote the contents of the personal unconscious, has taken on an almost purely pathological connotation in popular usage, which does not necessarily reflect usage in psychology. Primary examples from classical psychoanalysis and its offshoots are Jung’s power complex, Sigmund Freud’s castration complex and Oedipus complex, and Alfred Adler’s inferiority complex.

complex behavior

complex behavior an activity that requires many decisions and actions in rapid order or simultaneously. Dancing in a ballet is an example of a complex behavior.

complex cell

complex cell a neuron in the cerebral cortex that responds to visual stimulation of appropriate contrast, orientation, and direction anywhere in the receptive field. Compare simple cell.

complex comparison

complex comparison an evaluation that involves comparing some combination of two or more groups against one or more other groups. For example, a researcher investigating the influence of a new teaching style on test scores might examine whether the average score across two classrooms of students differs from that of a third classroom. Compare simple comparison.

complex emotion

complex emotion any emotion that is an aggregate of two or more others. For example, hate may be considered a fusion of anger, fear, and disgust, whereas love blends tenderness, pleasure, devotion, and passion. Comprising the majority of one’s affective experiences, complex emotions include, among others, awe, disgust, embarrassment, envy, gratitude, guilt, jealousy, pride, remorse, shame, and worry. Research suggests that these emotional composites are seen more often in older adults than in children, who have only a partial conceptualization of such complexity: They understand the arousal associated with the emotion but have no knowledge of the kinds of situations that evoke it. Conversely, simple emotions are those that are irreducible by analysis to any other emotion. They are pure, unmixed states and include anger, fear, and joy, among others.

Complex Figure Test

Complex Figure Test a nonverbal memory test for a complex design. The individual is first asked to copy a complex design without being forewarned about a later memory test. This is followed by immediate and delayed recall trials in which the individual is asked to reproduce the complex figure from memory. A comparison of performance on the copy and recall trials allows the examiner to estimate the contribution of visuospatial and visuomotor processes, task strategy, and memory abilities to the individual’s performance. The Children’s Complex Figure Test is a version of this test for children. Also called Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT); Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCFT). [originally developed by Swiss psychologists André Rey (1906–1965) and Paul-Alexandre Osterrieth]

complex ideas

complex ideas in associationism, those conceptions that are more abstract and involved than simple ideas. Associationists held that complex ideas, such as beauty, were derived from simple sensations by means of mental processes, such as comparing and generalizing. See association of ideas. [defined by John Locke]

complex motives

complex motives simultaneous, multiple desires to achieve one or more goals. For example, desires may be compatible and oriented toward the same goal (e.g., working hard due to a desire for success as well as a desire for money) or incompatible and oriented toward opposing goals (e.g., desiring to achieve success through work while simultaneously desiring to relax by not working).

complex of ideas

complex of ideas a set of related ideas closely associated with emotions, memories, and other psychic factors so that when one of the ideas is recalled, other aspects of the complex are recalled with it. See also cognitive system.

complex partial seizure

complex partial seizure a partial seizure that is characterized by complex psychological symptoms, repetitive motor activities, and specific sensory experiences. During the seizure the individual is in an impaired or altered, often trancelike, state of consciousness, typically accompanied by false memories (e.g. déjà vu), and may experience such emotions as fear, anxiety, or (less commonly) sadness or pleasure. Stereotyped motor behavior includes grimacing, sucking, chewing, and swallowing, and there may also be visual or olfactory hallucinations. Complex partial seizures are most commonly associated with abnormal discharges from neurons in the temporal lobe. Also called psychomotor seizure.

complex reaction time

complex reaction time see choice reaction time.

complex schedule of reinforcement

complex schedule of reinforcement a schedule of reinforcement in which simple schedules are presented in combination. Examples include the conjoint schedule, conjunctive reinforcement, and interlocking reinforcement schedule.

complex sentence

complex sentence in linguistics, a sentence consisting of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, as contrasted with a simple sentence consisting of a single main clause or a compound sentence consisting of several main clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions (see coordination). See also embedded sentence.

complex tone

complex tone a sound that consists of two or more components of different frequencies. See sound spectrum. Compare pure tone.

complex trauma

complex trauma see developmental trauma disorder.

complexity factor

complexity factor in psychological aesthetics, a dimension of artistic style involving high levels of complexity (multiplicity). High complexity may reflect the artist’s feelings of tension or anger and convey similar feelings. By contrast, a simple work of art may convey a feeling of tranquility.

complexity hypothesis

complexity hypothesis a hypothesis that conscious experiences arise from massive neuronal activity in the thalamocortical system of the brain, particularly when interactivity in a dynamic core of neurons reaches a high level. Complexity is a mathematically defined measure of neuronal integration and differentiation. [proposed by Italian–U.S. neuroscientist Giulio Tononi (1960– ) and U.S. neuroscientist Gerald M. Edelman (1929–2014)]

complexity of an attitude

complexity of an attitude the number of distinct dimensions underlying attitude-relevant knowledge. The greater the number of dimensions (i.e., distinct categories of attitude-relevant information), the greater the complexity of an attitude. Researchers have sometimes distinguished between two components of complex attitudes: differentiation (the number of distinct dimensions) and integration (the extent to which those dimensions are seen as related to one another). All complex attitudes are high in differentiation but may vary in their level of integration.

complexity theory

complexity theory a field that studies nonlinear systems with very large numbers of interacting variables using mathematical modeling and computer simulation. In general, it proposes that such systems are too complex to be accurately predicted but are nevertheless organized and nonrandom. Complexity theory has important applications in such fields as ecology, epidemiology, finance, and information science. See also chaos theory; dynamic systems theory.

compliance

compliance n. 1. submission to the demands, wishes, or suggestions of others. See also conformity. 2. a change in a person’s behavior in response to a direct request. A variety of techniques have been developed to enhance compliance with requests. Although some techniques may enhance compliance by producing attitude change, behavioral change is the primary goal of these techniques. See disrupt-then-reframe technique; door-in-the-face technique; foot-in-the-door technique; low-ball technique; that’s-not-all technique. 3. in pharmacotherapy, see adherence. 4. in safety engineering, adherence to workplace codes or guidelines designed to enforce safe behaviors and exclude behaviors that increase the risk of injury or illness. Compliance is the end goal of workplace attempts to train or warn employees exposed to hazards. —compliant adj. —comply vb.

compliant character

compliant character a submissive personality whose prime motive is to seek affection from others. Karen D. Horney defined the development of such a character as one of three basic neurotic trends used as a defense against basic anxiety. Compare aggressive character; detached character.

complicated grief

complicated grief a response to death (or, sometimes, to other significant loss or trauma) that deviates significantly from normal expectations. Three different types of complicated grief are posited: chronic grief, which is intense, prolonged, or both; delayed grief; and absent grief. The most often observed form of complicated grief is the pattern in which the immediate response to the loss is exceptionally devastating and in which the passage of time does not moderate the emotional pain or restore competent functioning. The concept of complicated grief was intended to replace the earlier terms abnormal grief and pathological grief.

complication

complication n. an additional disease, disorder, or condition that occurs or develops during the course of another disease or disorder or during a medical procedure. See also comorbidity.

complication experiment

complication experiment an experiment in which two or more events occur simultaneously, but only one is the focus of attention. Such experiments indicate that the events occurring outside the focus of attention are perceived as being displaced in time. See law of prior entry.

component evaluation

component evaluation an approach in program evaluation that examines the separate elements comprising a service delivery system or intervention program. The unit of analysis in the evaluation shifts from the program level to components or links between components and subsequent program outcomes.

component instinct

component instinct in psychoanalytic theory, a fundamental element of the sexual instinct that has a specific source in one part of the body (e.g., the oral instinct) and a particular aim (e.g., instinct to master). The component instincts are posited to function independently during the early stages of psychosexual development and later to fuse during the genital stage, which begins at puberty. Also called partial instinct; part instinct.

componential analysis

componential analysis 1. any analysis in which a process or system is separated into a series of subprocesses or components. 2. a set of information-processing and mathematical techniques that enables an investigator to decompose an individual’s performance on a cognitive task into the underlying elementary cognitive processes. For example, solving an analogy requires encoding of stimuli, inference of the relation between the first two terms of the analogy, and so forth. Componential analysis enables the investigator to ascertain, for each individual, (a) the identities of the components used, (b) the strategy by which the components are combined, (c) the amount of time spent on each component, (d) the susceptibility of the component to erroneous execution, and (e) information regarding the mental representation upon which the component acts. [devised by U.S. psychologist Robert J. Sternberg (1949– )] 3. a formal semantic analysis in which words are broken down into their separate elements, for example, man = human + male. Componential analysis is often employed to aid understanding of the meaning of words used by members of a particular culture.

componential subtheory

componential subtheory a subtheory in the triarchic theory of intelligence that specifies three kinds of information-processing components in human intelligence. The three components are (a) metacomponents, which are used to plan, monitor, and evaluate problem solving and decision making; (b) performance components, which are actually used to solve the problems or make the decisions; and (c) knowledge-acquisition components, which are used to learn how to solve the problems or make the decisions in the first place.

components of an attitude

components of an attitude see bases of an attitude.

compos mentis

compos mentis in law, mentally competent; that is, neither mentally deficient nor legally insane. See competence. Compare non compos mentis.

composite figure

composite figure in psychoanalytic theory, a person or object in a dream whose image is created from the features or qualities of two or more individuals or objects (actual or existing in fantasy or imagination) by the process of condensation.

composite hypothesis

composite hypothesis a statistical hypothesis that is not specific about all relevant features of a population or that does not give a single value for a characteristic of a population but allows for a range of acceptable values. For example, a statement that the average age of employees in academia exceeds 50 is a composite hypothesis, as there are a variety of ages above that number that the average could assume to validate the statement. Alternatively, a composite hypothesis could give a specific value for one characteristic (e.g., the mean) but not others (e.g., the variance). Compare simple hypothesis.

composite reliability

composite reliability 1. the aggregate reliability of two or more similar items, such as judges’ ratings. 2. in structural equation modeling, the extent to which the set of constructs represented in the model relate to a given latent variable. Cronbach’s alpha is an index of such reliability.

composition of movement

composition of movement the sequence and pattern of neuromuscular activity involved in movement (e.g., walking), including the integration of signals in the premotor and cerebellar areas of the brain.

compound

compound n. in linguistics, two or more words or other linguistic units combined into a single unit, as in a compound noun (e.g., bypass), a compound verb (e.g., shall go), or a compound sentence (e.g., John ate a sandwich, and Mary did too).

compound action potential

compound action potential a recording of the action potentials from several axons of a nerve when different axons are stimulated together. The different amplitudes and conduction velocities of the fibers account for the compound nature of the response. See also evoked potential.

compound bilingual

compound bilingual see coordinate bilingual.

compound eye

compound eye the type of eye found in certain lower forms of animals (e.g., insects), which is composed of a number of separate visual units (ommatidia). Compare simple eye.

compound probability

compound probability the likeliness that two unrelated (independent) events will occur together, either simultaneously or in succession. For example, one could calculate the compound probability of rolling a 6 twice in a row on a die, of rolling a 6 on the first turn and a 2 on the second, and so forth.

compound reaction time

compound reaction time see choice reaction time.

compound reflex

compound reflex a set of reflexes that are evoked together.

compound schedule of reinforcement

compound schedule of reinforcement a procedure for studying a single response in which two or more schedules of reinforcement are arranged to alternate, to appear in succession, or to be in effect simultaneously (i.e., concurrently). See conjoint schedule; mixed reinforcement schedule; multiple reinforcement schedule; tandem reinforcement.

compound sentence

compound sentence see complex sentence.

compound stimulus

compound stimulus a stimulus comprising two or more simple stimuli that occur at the same time.

comprehension

comprehension n. the act or capability of understanding something, especially the meaning of a communication. Compare apprehension. See also verbal comprehension. —comprehend vb.

comprehension test

comprehension test 1. a reading-ability test in which understanding is assessed by asking questions about the passages read. 2. a test requiring individuals to state how they would deal with a given practical situation. For example, a testee might be asked what he or she would do upon finding a letter on the street that has an address written on it and that is stamped with the proper postage.

comprehensive functional assessment

comprehensive functional assessment an assessment that is broad in scope, often implemented by an interdisciplinary team, and most frequently focuses on a person with intellectual or developmental disabilities. It typically incorporates findings regarding specific developmental strengths and individual preferences, specific functional and adaptive social skills that the individual needs to learn, the nature of any presenting disabilities and their causes, and the need for a wide range of services.

comprehensive mental health center

comprehensive mental health center see community mental health center.

compressed speech

compressed speech recorded speech that has been transformed so that it can be replayed without unacceptable distortion at a higher rate (in words per minute) than that at which it was originally produced. Speech compression is usually accomplished by digital coding and modifying the coded representation to preserve the characteristics of speech that are essential to its intelligibility while speeding its flow.

compression

compression n. in neurology, pressure on the brain, spinal cord, or a nerve. Compression inside the skull raises intracranial pressure and may be caused by, for example, edema, hydrocephalus, or a tumor. Symptoms include motor disorders and disturbances of sensation, memory, or consciousness.

compression of morbidity

compression of morbidity the hypothesis that the impact of chronic and disabling disease on an individual may be compressed into a shorter period of time before death if the first occurrence of the disease can be delayed to a later age of onset (e.g., by reducing lifetime health risks that cause morbidity and mortality). [proposed by U.S. physician James F. Fries (1938– )]

compromise formation

compromise formation in psychoanalytic theory, the conscious form of a repressed wish or idea that has been modified or disguised, as in a dream or symptom, so as to be unrecognizable. Thus, it represents a compromise between the demands of the ego’s defenses and the unconscious wish. This serves to protect the person from the perceived feeling of anxiety, conscious or unconscious.

compulsion

compulsion n. a type of behavior (e.g., hand washing, checking) or a mental act (e.g., counting, praying) engaged in to reduce anxiety or distress. Typically, the individual feels driven or compelled to perform the compulsion to reduce the distress associated with an obsession or to prevent a dreaded event or situation. For example, individuals with an obsession about contamination may wash their hands repetitively until their skin is cracked and bleeding. Such compulsions do not provide pleasure or gratification, although the individual may experience some temporary relief from engaging in them, and they are disproportionate or irrelevant to the feared situation that they are used to neutralize. See countercompulsion; obsessive-compulsive disorder. —compulsive adj.

compulsion to repeat

compulsion to repeat see repetition compulsion.

compulsive character

compulsive character a personality pattern characterized by rigid, perfectionistic standards; an exaggerated sense of duty; and meticulous, obsessive attention to order and detail. Individuals of this type are sometimes humorless, parsimonious, stubborn, inhibited, rigid, and unable to relax. Also called compulsive personality. See also obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

compulsive disorder

compulsive disorder any disorder in which the individual feels forced to perform acts that are against his or her wishes or better judgment. The act may be associated with an experience of pleasure or gratification (e.g., compulsive gambling, drinking, or drug taking) or with the reduction of anxiety or distress (e.g., rituals in obsessive-compulsive disorder). See intermittent explosive disorder; kleptomania; paraphilia; pathological gambling; pyromania; substance abuse; trichotillomania. See also impulse-control disorder.

compulsive drinker

compulsive drinker an individual who has an uncontrollable urge to drink excessively: an alcoholic. See alcohol dependence.

compulsive eating

compulsive eating an irresistible drive to overeat, in some cases as a reaction to frustration or disappointment. See also binge-eating disorder; bulimia nervosa; food addiction.

compulsive exerciser

compulsive exerciser an individual who feels it is necessary to participate in moderate to high-level physical activity on a regular basis, often daily.

compulsive gambling

compulsive gambling see gambling disorder; pathological gambling.

compulsive laughter

compulsive laughter persistent, inappropriate, and apparently uncontrollable laughter of which the individual may be unaware. See also inappropriate affect.

compulsive orderliness

compulsive orderliness overconcern with everyday arrangements, such as a clean desk or dust-free house, with unbearable anxiety if there is any variation. See obsessive-compulsive disorder; obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

compulsive personality

compulsive personality see compulsive character.

compulsive personality disorder

compulsive personality disorder see obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

compulsive repetition

compulsive repetition the irresistible drive to perform needless acts, such as checking and rechecking a door to see whether it has been locked. See compulsion; obsessive-compulsive disorder.

compulsive stealing

compulsive stealing see kleptomania.

compulsiveness

compulsiveness n. a behavior pattern associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. See compulsion.

compunction

compunction n. distress or guilt associated with wrongdoing or with an anticipated action or result.

computational epistemology

computational epistemology see cybernetic epistemology.

computational formula

computational formula the equation used to calculate values for a statistical concept. This contrasts with the definitional formula, which is the formal verbal definition of the concept.

computational linguistics

computational linguistics an interdisciplinary field of study in which techniques from computer science and artificial intelligence are used to model theories based on linguistic analysis. Computers have been used experimentally to evaluate a range of hypotheses about phonetic perception and language processing. More practical applications have included the development of automatic translation systems and programs that can simulate or transcribe human speech.

computational metaphor

computational metaphor a model of the mind as a device for performing operations on symbols that are analogous to those performed by a computer.

computational model

computational model any account of cognitive or psychobiological processes that assumes that the human mind functions like a digital computer, specifically in its ability to form representations of events and objects and to carry out complex sequences of operations on these representations.

computed tomography (CT)

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computer adaptive testing (CAT)

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computer addiction

computer addiction see Internet addiction.

computer anxiety

computer anxiety strong apprehension about computers and computer use that is disproportionate to the actual threat posed by these machines. The anxiety may be related to fear of the unknown or fear of the possible outcome of trying to use a computer (e.g., failure, frustration, embarrassment, or disappointment). If the anxiety is sufficient to cause significant distress and impairment, it may be classified as a specific phobia, situational type. Also called computer phobia.

computer literacy

computer literacy the ability to understand what computers and computer networks do, how they function, and how to use them effectively for such purposes as composing and editing text, sending and receiving e-mail, and finding information through the Internet.

computer model

computer model a computer simulation of an external entity, such as a psychological function, for the purpose of helping to understand its components. Such models may be designed, for example, to enable a scientist to approximate, manipulate, and revise a particular human decision-making process.

computer network

computer network a group of computers interconnected by communication lines. Computer networks vary in size and complexity from local area networks (LANs) to the global Internet. Connections between network nodes (i.e., computers) can be wireless (for short distances) or via copper wires (as in traditional telephone lines) or optical fibers.

computer of averaged transients

computer of averaged transients an instrument that enables the computerized averaging of several successive responses to stimuli, as recorded by electroencephalography, in order to raise the ratio of signal to noise so that event-related potentials can be seen. This enables the responses to be distinguished above the noise of ongoing activity. See also average evoked potential.

computer phobia

computer phobia see computer anxiety.

computer programming

computer programming the process of giving coded instructions to a computer that direct it to perform a specific set of operations. The instructions are given in a formal computer programming language that the computer can read and understand. There are hierarchies of programming languages from low-level machine code and assembly languages to high-level languages, such as FORTRAN, LISP, Logo, and PROLOG.

computer simulation

computer simulation 1. in cognitive psychology, a technique in which a model of cognitive processes is implemented as a computer program. This technique is generally used to investigate specific theories of cognitive processing rather than to explore the more general issues that are the province of artificial intelligence. 2. in linguistics, see computational linguistics.

computer slanguage

computer slanguage slang or jargon used in computer contexts. Examples include flaming to denote the sending of intemperate Internet messages.

computer-assisted diagnosis

computer-assisted diagnosis see computerized diagnosis.

computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

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computer-assisted psychotherapy

computer-assisted psychotherapy see computerized therapy.

computer-assisted testing

computer-assisted testing 1. assessment of skills that is given on, or with the support of, a computer. It can assess the ability of an individual (usually a student or an employee) to access specific material using a computer or to interact directly with a computer in order to complete an assessment. 2. any testing that uses a computer. Such testing does not assess computer skills, and no previous computer experience or skills are required.

computer-managed instruction

computer-managed instruction a method of instruction in which a computer is used to assist the teacher in carrying out a plan of individualized instruction. The computer processes daily data regarding the performance of each student; such data can then be used in prescribing the next instructional step for each student. The learner does not interact directly with the computer.

computerized assessment

computerized assessment the process of using a computer to obtain and evaluate psychological information about a person. The computer presents questions or tasks and then makes diagnoses and prognoses based on a comparison of the participant’s responses or performance to databases of previously acquired information on many other individuals. Also called automated assessment.

computerized diagnosis

computerized diagnosis the use of computer programs for cataloging, storing, comparing, and evaluating psychological and medical data as an aid to clinical diagnosis. In view of the possible variables involved in a particular type of disorder, computerized diagnosis makes use of information based on thousands of similar or related sets of signs and symptoms in previous patients, as well as information on diagnoses and effective treatments stored in databases. Also called computer-assisted diagnosis. See problem-oriented record.

computerized therapy

computerized therapy the use of a specially programmed computer to provide therapy, under the auspices of a trained therapist. Also called computer-assisted psychotherapy.

Comrey Personality Scales (CPS)

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COMT

COMT abbreviation for catechol-O-methyltransferase.

COMT gene

COMT gene the gene that codes for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT). Lack of one copy of the gene due to a condition affecting chromosome 22 (see 22q11.2 deletion syndrome22q112-deletion-syndrome) is associated with increased risk of schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. Other variations in the COMT gene may also have roles in anxiety and bipolar disorder as well as in eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and panic disorder.

Comte’s paradox

Comte’s paradox an articulation, attributed by William James to Auguste Comte, of the difficulty associated with any science of human beings in which the mind becomes both the instrument of study and the object of study. That is, objective study of the rational mind by the rational mind seems paradoxical.

CON

CON abbreviation for certificate of need.

conarium

conarium n. in the theory of René Descartes, the point of contact between mind (res cogitans) and body (res extensa), which he located in the pineal gland of the brain. According to some interpreters, Freud’s id represents much the same concept. See Cartesian dualism.

conation

conation n. the proactive (as opposed to habitual) part of motivation that connects knowledge, affect, drives, desires, and instincts to behavior. Along with affect and cognition, conation is one of the three traditionally identified components of mind. The behavioral basis of attitudes is sometimes referred to as the conative component. See also bases of an attitude; tripartite model of attitudes.

conative

conative adj. characterized by volition or self-activation toward a goal.

concaveation

concaveation n. in animal behavior, a form of sensitization whereby a virgin female, through repeated exposure to young animals, begins to display maternal behavior despite having no prior experience and undergoing none of the hormonal changes associated with pregnancy and nursing.

Concealed Figures Test

Concealed Figures Test see Closure Flexibility Test.

concealed measure

concealed measure see unobtrusive measure.

concentration

concentration n. 1. the act of bringing together or focusing, as, for example, bringing one’s thought processes to bear on a central problem or subject (see attention). 2. the proportion of a dissolved substance in a solution or mixture. —concentrate vb.

concentration-camp syndrome

concentration-camp syndrome a variant form of posttraumatic stress disorder suffered by survivors of concentration camps. Persistent stress symptoms in survivors consist of severe anxiety, defenses against anxiety, an obsessive ruminative state, psychosomatic reactions, depression, and survivor guilt produced by remaining alive while so many others died.

concentrative meditation

concentrative meditation a type of meditation that focuses on a specific image (e.g., a yantra); a specific sound, syllable, word, or phrase (see mantra); or a specific thought. It is the opposite of insight in that thoughts unrelated to the stimulus ideally do not enter the consciousness. See also transcendental meditation. Compare mindfulness meditation.

concept

concept n. 1. an idea that represents a class of objects or events or their properties, such as cats, walking, honesty, blue, or fast. See conceptualization; conjunctive concept; disjunctive concept. See also abstract idea. 2. in conditioning, a class of stimuli to which an organism responds in a similar or identical manner (see stimulus generalization) and that the organism discriminates from other classes. —conceptual adj.

concept acquisition

concept acquisition see concept formation.

concept formation

concept formation the process by which a person abstracts a common idea from one or more particular examples and learns the defining features or combination of features that are characteristic of a class (e.g., those describing a bird) or that are necessary and sufficient to identify members of a class of objects, relations, or actions (e.g., the concepts triangle, above, or move). Also called concept acquisition; concept learning. See also abstraction.

concept hierarchy

concept hierarchy a collection of objects, events, or other items with common properties arranged in a multilevel structure. Concepts on the higher levels have broad meanings, whereas those at lower levels are more specific. For example, a concept hierarchy of anxiety disorders would place that term on top, with phobias lower, and specific types of phobia (e.g., claustrophobia) on the bottom.

concept learning

concept learning see concept formation.

concept-discovery task

concept-discovery task a task in which the participant must try to discern the rule used to define members and nonmembers of a category. Also called concept-identification task. See also abstraction experiment; concept-formation test.

concept-formation test

concept-formation test any test used in studying the process of concept formation and in assessing the level of formation achieved by a specific individual. See also abstraction experiment; concept-discovery task.

concept-identification task

concept-identification task see concept-discovery task.

conception ratio

conception ratio 1. in human demography, the proportion of males to females conceived, which is about 150:100. Male embryos are more vulnerable than female embryos, and the ratio of live births (the birth ratio) is about 105 boys to 100 girls in the United States. See sex ratio. 2. in animal husbandry, the ratio of the number of times a female becomes pregnant to the number of times she is mated.

conceptual apraxia

conceptual apraxia a profound inability to use tools in an appropriate way. Conceptual apraxia is characterized by conceptual errors, in contrast to ideomotor apraxia, in which spatial errors are typically encountered.

conceptual classification

conceptual classification in classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category, for example, cow, dog, horse; tractor, bus, motorcycle. Also called categorical classification; nominal classification; similarity classification; taxonomic classification. Compare complementary classification; idiosyncratic classification; perceptual classification.

conceptual complexity

conceptual complexity the degree to which an idea or an argument is difficult to understand, owing to the number of abstract concepts involved and the intricate ways in which they connect. See also cognitive complexity.

conceptual dependency

conceptual dependency a formalized semantic network designed for use in computer programs to capture and understand the conceptual relationships of sentences in natural (human) language. There are four primitive (or atomic) components of this network: actions, objects (picture producers), modifiers of actions, and modifiers of objects. See also computational linguistics.

conceptual disorder

conceptual disorder a disturbance in the thinking process or in the ability to formulate abstract ideas from generalized concepts.

conceptual disorganization

conceptual disorganization irrelevant, rambling, or incoherent verbalizations, frequently including neologisms and stereotyped expressions. It is one of the major signs of disorganized thought processes. See also schizophrenic thinking.

conceptual formula

conceptual formula see definitional formula.

conceptual imagery

conceptual imagery the mental representation of concepts or conceptual relationships. See imagery.

conceptual model

conceptual model 1. a diagram, such as a Venn diagram or a tree diagram, used to represent in visual form the relations between concepts or between concepts and their attributes. 2. in computing, an organizing principle that is used to structure the presentation of programs, files, and information to the end-user in ways that he or she will find conceptually familiar. Such a model is often based on a real-world analogy, as with the desktop and the spreadsheet.

conceptual nervous system

conceptual nervous system a hypothetical model of the neurological and physiological functions of the nervous system that can be manipulated to provide analogies of behavioral activities. Critics claim that research should be concentrated on the actual nervous system rather than on this type of model. However, Donald O. Hebb pointed out that, over time, conceptual models of the nervous system have acquired more of the properties of the actual nervous system and that modeling properties of the nervous system has been fruitful in encouraging research.

conceptual replication

conceptual replication see replication.

conceptual system

conceptual system the organization of a person’s cognitive abilities, emotional awareness, experience, and philosophical or religious orientation into a system for understanding events, data, or experience. See also cognitive structure; frame.

conceptual tempo

conceptual tempo the pace that is typical of a person’s approach to cognitive tasks, for example, a hasty rather than a deliberate approach to observing, thinking, and responding. Conceptual tempo is an aspect of cognitive style. See also reflection–impulsivity.

conceptual test

conceptual test a memory test that involves processing the meaning of a stimulus. Conceptual tests can be used to measure both implicit memory, as in the category production test, and explicit memory, as in free recall. Compare perceptual test.

conceptualization

conceptualization n. the process of forming concepts, particularly those of an abstract nature, out of experience or learned material. See also abstract conceptualization; concept formation. —conceptualize vb.

conceptually driven processing

conceptually driven processing see top-down processing.

conceptually guided control

conceptually guided control a stage or level of human information processing that is controlled by higher order constructs, such as concepts or conceptual systems. Conceptually guided control functions primarily to direct thinking processes toward certain well-established goals.

Concerta

Concerta n. a trade name for methylphenidate.

conciliation

conciliation n. the act or process of reconciling the positions of individuals or groups whose interests and goals are, at least initially, in opposition or incompatible. During divorce proceedings, for example, a neutral third party may be brought in to facilitate conciliation between the spouses and thereby avoid lengthy, antagonistic legal proceedings and the attendant stress and anxiety. —conciliate vb.

concinnity

concinnity n. the quality of an artistic design that features a harmonious arrangement of the various parts to each other as well as to the whole design.

conclusion

conclusion n. 1. in logic and philosophy, the proposition to which a line of argument or analysis leads. The conclusion is that which an argument is intended to establish as valid. See inference. 2. in science, a general law or principle derived from experimental evidence by a process of induction.

concomitance

concomitance n. 1. the co-occurrence of two or more phenomena, especially such that the phenomena are essentially different manifestations of a single underlying reality. For example, a symbol and its meaning may be concomitant. According to Jungian psychology, synchronous events may be concomitant in this way (see synchronicity). 2. in statistics and experimental psychology, a co-occurrence between a response or outcome variable and a variable other than a predictor of interest. —concomitant adj.

concomitant variable

concomitant variable see covariate.

concordance

concordance n. 1. the state or condition of being in harmony or agreement. Affective concordance is said to exist, for instance, when facial gestures mirror internal states of feeling, such as frowning when perplexed or annoyed, or when two or more individuals related through some condition or activity experience the same or similar emotional reactions. 2. in twin studies, the presence of a given trait or disorder in both members of the pair. Evidence for genetic factors in the production of the trait or disorder comes from the comparison of concordance rates between identical and fraternal twins. Compare discordance.

concordance rate

concordance rate the percentage of pairs of twins or other blood relatives who exhibit a particular trait or disorder. Also called concordance ratio. See also twin study.

concordant identification

concordant identification in psychoanalysis, a form of countertransference in which the analyst identifies with the patient and empathizes with the patient’s experience. Also called concordant countertransference; counteridentification. Compare complementary identification. [introduced by Polish-born Argentinian psychoanalyst Heinrich Racker (1910–1961)]

concrete attitude

concrete attitude a cognitive style that is directed to specific objects and immediate stimuli. A person who exhibits a concrete attitude tends not to make abstract comparisons and will not usually respond to abstract qualities, concepts, or categories. Compare abstract attitude. [defined by Kurt Goldstein]

concrete image

concrete image an image that is recalled in terms of specific sense qualities, such as the taste of a particular kind of cheese or the sound of a ship’s bell.

concrete intelligence

concrete intelligence the ability to understand and manipulate objects. It is often contrasted with abstract intelligence and social intelligence.

concrete operation

concrete operation the ability of a growing child to mentally represent items in the physical world and to understand the logical relations between them. Concrete operational children are, for example, able to understand the concept of class inclusion and to represent part–whole relations in the physical world correctly (e.g., to grasp that dogs are a subset of animals or houses are a subset of buildings).

concrete operational stage

concrete operational stage in Piagetian theory, the third major stage of cognitive development, occurring approximately from 7 to 12 years of age, in which children can decenter their perception (see decentration), are less egocentric, and can think logically about physical objects and about specific situations or experiences involving those objects. See also formal operational stage; preoperational stage; sensorimotor stage.

concrete picture

concrete picture a mental representation that is based on a specific object or event in the physical world, with little or no abstraction. Compare abstract representation.

concrete thinking

concrete thinking thinking focused on immediate experiences and specific objects or events. It is characteristic of young children and may also be seen in people with schizophrenia and people who have suffered a brain injury, especially frontal lobe damage. Compare abstract thinking.

concrete word

concrete word in linguistics, a word denoting a physically real and perceptible entity, such as tree, airplane, or James. Compare abstract word.

concreteness effect

concreteness effect the finding that concrete nouns (e.g., chair) are better remembered than abstract nouns (e.g., love).

concretism

concretism n. in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, a type of thought or feeling that depends on immediate physical sensation and displays little or no capacity for abstraction. In some traditional societies, such thinking may manifest itself in fetishism and belief in magic. In the modern world, it may display itself as an inability to think beyond the obvious material facts of a situation.

concretization

concretization n. 1. inability to think abstractly in which there is an overemphasis on details and immediate experience. It occurs in such conditions as dementia and schizophrenia. 2. the process of being specific or of giving an example of a concept or relationship.

concurrence seeking

concurrence seeking striving to avoid disagreements and debates within a group, particularly during discussions or decision making. Concurrence seeking is pronounced in groups experiencing groupthink.

concurrent medical audit

concurrent medical audit see medical audit.

concurrent operants

concurrent operants two or more operant responses that are available at the same time; they can be chosen simultaneously or alternately.

concurrent review

concurrent review an analysis of admissions to a psychiatric hospital or clinic carried out while care is being provided. It comprises certification of the necessity for admission (see admission certification) and assessment of the need for care to be continued (see continued-stay review).

concurrent schedules of reinforcement

concurrent schedules of reinforcement a procedure in operant conditioning in which two or more separate reinforcement schedules, each associated with an independent operant (response), are in effect simultaneously.

concurrent therapy

concurrent therapy 1. the use of two treatments at the same time. 2. in couples therapy and family therapy, the simultaneous treatment of spouses or other family members in individual or group therapy, either by the same therapist or different therapists. See also combined therapy.

concurrent validity

concurrent validity the extent to which one measurement is backed up by a related measurement obtained at about the same point in time. In testing, the validity of results obtained from one test (e.g., self-report of job performance) can often be assessed by comparison with a separate but related measurement (e.g., supervisor rating of job performance) collected at the same point in time. See also criterion validity.

concurrent-chains procedure

concurrent-chains procedure a procedure in which completion of either of two concurrent schedules of reinforcement, called the initial links, results in presentation of another schedule of reinforcement, called a terminal link, rather than primary reinforcement itself. Completion of the terminal-link schedule results in primary reinforcement. The initial links are concurrently available, in effect giving the organism an opportunity to choose between two terminal links. Once a terminal link is earned, however, it must be completed before the next period of choosing is made available.

concussion

concussion n. mild injury to the brain, due to mechanical trauma or acceleration–deceleration injury, that disrupts brain function but is typically followed by spontaneous recovery. Concussion usually involves at least brief unconsciousness, although it may be diagnosed in the absence of unconsciousness. The symptoms may include memory loss, headache, irritability, inappropriate emotional reactions, and changes in behavior. Concussions may be classified by severity based on the period of unconsciousness or the extent of memory loss for events before and after the trauma. See head injury.

condensation

condensation n. the fusion of multiple meanings, concepts, or emotions into one image or symbol. Condensation is particularly common in dreams, in which, for example, one dream character may fuse the dreamer’s feelings toward several people, or one dream action may combine different emotional impulses.

condition

condition 1. n. a logical antecedent on which a conclusion is dependent or an empirical antecedent on which an event or state is dependent. A necessary condition is one without which the idea would not logically follow or the event would not occur. A sufficient condition is one that directly entails a particular conclusion or that has the power to produce a particular event regardless of other conditions. 2. n. in statistics and experimental research, a category or level of a variable whose values are manipulated by a researcher. Study participants are then assigned to receive or be exposed to one or more of the different conditions. 3. vb. to inculcate a response or a behavior in an organism by means of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or other behaviorist paradigms (see behaviorism). The term implies that the learning is largely automatic, based on processes more like reflexes than conscious mental activity. —conditional adj.

conditional clause

conditional clause a subordinate clause that expresses a hypothesis or possibility, typically one introduced by if or unless. See also counterfactual.

conditional discharge

conditional discharge the release of a patient from a psychiatric facility with imposition of certain conditions and limitations (such as periodically reporting to a supervisor or taking medications).

conditional discrimination

conditional discrimination a discrimination in which reinforcement of a response in the presence of a stimulus depends on the presence of other stimuli. For example, in a matching-to-sample procedure, responding to a comparison stimulus that matches the sample stimulus is reinforced; that is, determining the correctness of a response depends on the sample stimulus. See also simultaneous discrimination; successive discrimination.

conditional positive regard

conditional positive regard an attitude of acceptance and esteem that others express toward an individual on a conditional basis, that is, depending on the acceptability of the individual’s behavior in accordance with the others’ personal standards. In his theory of personality, Carl Rogers proposed that although the need for positive regard is universal, conditional regard works against sound psychological development and adjustment in the recipient. Compare unconditional positive regard.

conditional probability

conditional probability the likeliness that an event will occur given that another event is known to have occurred. Conditional probability plays an important role in statistical theory. The probability of observing a particular outcome given that another outcome is known to have occurred can be derived from a contingency table. Also called conditional likelihood.

conditional reasoning

conditional reasoning reasoning that takes the form “if X, then Y,” as in If Sam is male, then Sam is not a mother. In formal logic, the statement that follows if is called the antecedent and that following then is called the consequent.

conditional strategy

conditional strategy the ability of organisms to develop behavioral strategies appropriate for current conditions. An experienced adult male animal, for example, might actively defend a territory and guard females (see mate guarding), while a young male stays as a satellite male, not forming or defending the territory but attempting to copulate with available females (see sneak mating). If the resident male dies or disappears, the young male can rapidly change strategies to become a territory-defending male.

conditioned

conditioned adj. relating to or describing behavior whose occurrence, form of display, or both is a result of experience. The two main classes of experience resulting in conditioned behavior are operant conditioning and classical conditioning.

conditioned aversion

conditioned aversion a tendency or desire to avoid one stimulus that results from its pairing with another stimulus that is experienced as unpleasant. Such an aversion may arise after a single pairing of the stimuli (see conditioned taste aversion) or as part of a process of deliberate repeated pairings (as in aversion conditioning). For example, a person who is trying to stop nail biting may paint her fingernails with a bitter substance, such that the foul taste experienced each time she chews a nail eventually leads to cessation of the behavior.

conditioned avoidance response (CAR)

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conditioned emotional response (CER)

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conditioned escape response

conditioned escape response see conditioned avoidance response.

conditioned inhibition

conditioned inhibition the diminution of a conditioned response that occurs on presentation of a stimulus that has previously been experienced in different circumstances.

conditioned place preference (CPP)

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conditioned reflex

conditioned reflex see conditioned response.

conditioned reinforcement

conditioned reinforcement see secondary reinforcement.

conditioned reinforcer

conditioned reinforcer see natural reinforcer; secondary reinforcement.

conditioned response (CR)

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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conditioned stimulus preexposure effect

conditioned stimulus preexposure effect see latent inhibition.

conditioned stimulus–unconditioned stimulus interval (CS–US interval)

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conditioned suppression

conditioned suppression a phenomenon that occurs during an operant performance test when a conditioned response to a positive stimulus is reduced by another stimulus that is associated with an aversive stimulus. For example, a rat may be trained to press a lever to receive food. During this procedure, the rat is occasionally exposed to a series of brief electric shocks that are preceded by a tone (the conditioned stimulus). As a result, when the rat subsequently hears the tone alone, its rate of lever pressing is reduced. Conditioned suppression is also used to study classical conditioning.

conditioned taste aversion

conditioned taste aversion the association of the taste of a food or fluid with an aversive stimulus (usually gastrointestinal discomfort or illness), leading to a very rapid and long-lasting aversion to, or at the least a decreased preference for, that particular taste. Conditioned taste aversion challenges traditional theories of associative learning, since very few pairings between the food and illness are needed to produce the effect (often one pairing will suffice), the delay between experiencing the taste and then feeling ill can be relatively long (i.e., a long delay of reinforcement), and the aversion is highly resistant to extinction. This brainstem-based aversion has been observed both in humans and in nonhuman animals such as raccoons and octopuses. Also called Garcia effect; learned taste aversion; taste-aversion learning; toxicosis. See also preparedness.

conditioning

conditioning n. the process by which certain kinds of experience make particular actions more or less likely. See classical conditioning; instrumental conditioning; operant conditioning.

conditioning apparatus

conditioning apparatus in nonhuman animal research, any apparatus used in conditioning procedures. The most common conditioning apparatus is the operant chamber. See also operant conditioning chamber.

conditioning of attitudes

conditioning of attitudes the formation or change of an attitude as a result of the association of an attitude object with a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus in the environment. Attitudes may be conditioned via classical conditioning or operant conditioning processes.

conditioning therapy

conditioning therapy see behavior therapy.

conditions of worth

conditions of worth the state in which an individual considers love and respect to be conditional on meeting the approval of others. This belief derives from the child’s sense of being worthy of love on the basis of parental approval: As the individual matures, he or she may continue to feel worthy of affection and respect only when expressing desirable behaviors. See conditional positive regard. [proposed by Carl Rogers]

condom

condom n. a sheath, usually made of latex rubber, placed over the erect penis to prevent pregnancy and to avoid sexually transmitted diseases.

conduct disorder (CD)

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conduction

conduction n. in physiology, the transmission of excitation along a nerve, muscle, or other tissue. In a neuron, subthreshold stimulation results in decremental conduction, whereas suprathreshold stimulation results in a propagated action potential, or nerve impulse.

conduction aphasia

conduction aphasia a form of aphasia characterized by difficulty in repeating words and phrases accurately, even though language comprehension may be intact. Spontaneous speech tends to be grammatically correct but with frequent errors in the sounds of words and in finding the correct words to convey meaning. It is classically associated with lesions in the arcuate fasciculus, the tract linking the areas of the brain involved in the interpretation and control of speech, but modern research indicates that a lesion centered around the supramarginal gyrus and the planum temporale is responsible.

conduction deafness

conduction deafness loss of hearing due to a disorder in the structures that transmit sound to the cochlea. The cause may be an injury or disease that interferes with the normal functioning of the ossicles. Also called conductive deafness. Compare central deafness; sensorineural deafness. See air–bone gap.

conduction time (CT)

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conduction velocity

conduction velocity see velocity of conduction.

conductivity

conductivity n. 1. the ability of a substance to transmit energy, as in electrical conduction, thermal conduction, or skin conduction. 2. the ability of a tissue to convey signals and respond to stimuli.

cone

cone n. see retinal cone.

cone opsin

cone opsin see iodopsin.

confabulation

confabulation n. the falsification of memory in which gaps in recall are filled by fabrications that the individual accepts as fact. It is not typically considered to be a conscious attempt to deceive others. Confabulation occurs most frequently in Korsakoff’s syndrome and to a lesser extent in other conditions associated with neurologically based amnesia (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease). In forensic contexts, eyewitnesses may resort to confabulation if they feel pressured to recall more information than they can remember. —confabulate vb.

confederate

confederate n. 1. in an experimental situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment. 2. in parapsychology, an individual who assists a supposed psychic by covertly providing him or her with information about a client's concerns, preferences, background, or situation, thus creating or strengthening the illusion of the psychic's paranormal abilities.

conference method

conference method a method of personnel training in which participants work together in an attempt to resolve typical work-related problems and issues. Participants develop their problem-solving and decision-making abilities, acquire new information, and modify their attitudes in the process of pooling ideas, testing assumptions, discussing new approaches, and drawing inferences and conclusions. See also business game; case method; multiple-role playing; scenario analysis.

confidence interval (CI)

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confidence level

confidence level a value expressing the frequency with which a given confidence interval contains the true value of the parameter being estimated. For example, a 95% confidence level associated with a confidence interval for estimating a population mean indicates that in 95% of all estimates based on a random sample of a given size the confidence interval will contain the true value of the population mean. The particular confidence level used is up to the researcher but generally is 95% or 99%.

confidence limit

confidence limit either of the values at the upper and lower ends of a confidence interval, which provide an estimated range for the value of a population parameter. Also called confidence bound.

confidentiality

confidentiality n. a principle of professional ethics requiring providers of mental health care or medical care to limit the disclosure of a patient’s identity, his or her condition or treatment, and any data entrusted to professionals during assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. Similar protection is given to research participants and survey respondents against unauthorized access to information they reveal in confidence. See informed consent; Tarasoff decision. —confidential adj.

configural display

configural display see object display.

configural learning

configural learning learning to respond to two or more stimuli on the basis of their combination rather than on the individual experience of any of those stimuli alone. For example, if neither a tone nor a light presented separately is followed by food, but a tone–light combination is, configural learning has occurred when a conditioned response is elicited by the tone–light combination.

configural superiority effect

configural superiority effect in visual perception, a phenomenon in which a configuration of elements or features is easier to identify than a single feature alone. Two examples are the word-superiority effect and the object-superiority effect.

configural-cue approach

configural-cue approach an experimental approach based on the theory that the response to a compound stimulus is to its whole rather than to its individual parts; as such, it contrasts with the stimulus-element approach, which posits that each part of a compound stimulus is perceived the way it would be as an individual stimulus.

configuration

configuration n. 1. an arrangement of elements or components in a particular pattern or figure. See goodness of configuration. 2. the usual English translation of gestalt. —configurational adj.

configurational analysis

configurational analysis an integrative psychodynamic model for case formulation, psychotherapy, and outcome evaluation. Maladaptive states of mind in the context of the client’s problems, topics of concern, defenses, identity, and relationships are the focus of assessment and therapy. [developed by 21st-century U.S. psychiatrist Mardi J. Horowitz]

confinement study

confinement study a study in a controlled environment to determine at what point physiological and psychological impairment occurs as a result of spatial restrictions. Such studies are important in space or marine exploration, during which individuals live and work in an artificial environment. The variables studied include length of time in confinement, area available, and crew size. These variables may have effects on sleep loss and ability to perform operational tasks.

confirmable proposition

confirmable proposition a statement or conclusion that is capable of being confirmed or falsified by experimental procedures. In logical positivism, all other propositions (except those of logic and mathematics) are considered essentially meaningless.

confirmation

confirmation n. in purposive behaviorism, the fulfillment of an expectancy that reinforces the behavior that led to the fulfillment.

confirmation bias

confirmation bias the tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.

confirmatory data analysis

confirmatory data analysis a statistical analysis designed to address one or more specific research questions, generally with the aim of confirming preconceived hypotheses. Compare exploratory data analysis.

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

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confirmatory research

confirmatory research research conducted with the aim of testing one or more preexisting hypotheses. Compare exploratory research.

conflict

conflict n. the occurrence of mutually antagonistic or opposing forces, including events, behaviors, desires, attitudes, and emotions. This general term has more specific meanings within different areas of psychology. For example, in psychoanalytic theory, it refers to the opposition between incompatible instinctual impulses or between incompatible aspects of the mental structure (i.e., the id, ego, and superego) that may be a source of neurosis if it results in the use of defense mechanisms other than sublimation. In interpersonal relations, conflict denotes the disagreement, discord, and friction that occur when the actions or beliefs of one or more individuals are unacceptable to and resisted by others.

conflict behavior

conflict behavior behavior that results from experiencing two incompatible motivational states at the same time. It commonly occurs as a result of an approach–avoidance conflict, as when a hungry animal must leave shelter to feed in the presence of a predator (feeding vs. fear) or when a territorial male is in the presence of a potential mate (aggression vs. sex). Conflict behavior may be manifested in alternations of approach and retreat or in unrelated behavior (see displacement behavior).

conflict of interest

conflict of interest a state of incompatibility among an individual’s or group’s various interests and motivations, particularly when professional interests and responsibilities are inconsistent with personal motives and goals. For example, psychologists who are employed by a health agency may find that their obligation to help their clients is incompatible with the agency’s requirement to minimize treatment costs.

conflict resolution

conflict resolution the reduction of discord and friction between individuals or groups, usually through the use of active strategies, such as conciliation, negotiation, and bargaining. See also constructive conflict resolution.

conflict spiral

conflict spiral a pattern of escalating tension and discord between two or more parties. Parties in such conflicts counter one another’s responses with more negative and more extreme responses.

conflict theory

conflict theory 1. any conceptual analysis of the causes and consequences of interpersonal conflict. 2. more specifically, a sociological approach that stresses the inevitability of conflict in any setting in which resources are unevenly distributed among interactants. See realistic group conflict theory.

conflict-free sphere

conflict-free sphere in ego psychology, an area of the ego that develops and functions without giving rise to internal conflict. Functions ordinarily controlled by the conflict-free sphere include speech, motility, planning, and other autonomous ego functions. Psychoanalysis is thought to increase the confict-free sphere of the ego and therefore to free up an individual’s capacities in life, the result of reducing neurotic symptoms and releasing the energy bound up in them. Also called conflict-free area.

confluence

confluence n. a fusion or merging of several elements, for example, motives or perceptual elements. —confluent adj.

confluence model

confluence model a controversial theory that intelligence of siblings is correlated with family size. According to this model, average intelligence generally declines as the number of children in a family increases. Intelligence is also held to decline with birth order. The one exception is an only child, whose intelligence suffers because he or she does not have an older sibling to serve as a teacher. However, many variables (e.g., spacing of children) could affect and reverse such generalizations. [proposed in 1975 by Robert B. Zajonc and Greg Markus]

conformity

conformity n. the adjustment of one’s opinions, judgments, or actions so that they become more consistent with (a) the opinions, judgments, or actions of other people or (b) the normative standards of a social group or situation. Conformity includes temporary outward acquiescence (compliance) as well as more enduring private acceptance (conversion). Compare anticonformity; nonconformity. See also majority influence; peer pressure.

confound

confound n. in an experiment, an independent variable that is conceptually distinct but empirically inseparable from one or more other independent variables. Confounding makes it impossible to differentiate that variable’s effects in isolation from its effects in conjunction with other variables. For example, in a study of high-school student achievement, the type of school (e.g., private vs. public) that a student attended prior to high school and his or her prior academic achievements in that context are confounds. Also called confounding variable.

confounded comparison

confounded comparison a comparison of values obtained by different experimental groups on an outcome or dependent variable when two or more predictor or independent variables vary simultaneously across the groups. In such cases it is impossible to differentiate the effects of the independent variables. For example, consider a researcher studying how material presentation format (lecture vs. computer) and teacher sex (male vs. female) affect student learning. If the investigator were to examine data for only two groups of students (those who had a male teacher and lecture presentation format vs. those who had a female teacher and computer presentation format), he or she would have created a confounded comparison.

confounded effects

confounded effects the indivisible effects of two or more predictor or independent variables on a single response or dependent variable. That is, the unique influence of one predictor cannot be separated out from that of the others. For example, assume a researcher is examining the effectiveness of a hunger-reduction pill for weight loss. If some of the participants receiving the pill discover they are part of the treatment group and concurrently adopt better eating habits and increase their exercise levels, these additional healthy activities will also affect weight loss. Since those in the control group (receiving a placebo sugar pill) are not engaging in these same supplemental activities, effects of eating habits, exercise levels, and the actual treatment will have become confounded.

confounding variable

confounding variable see confound.

confrontation

confrontation n. 1. an argument or hostile disagreement. 2. the act of directly facing, or being encouraged or required to face, a difficult situation, realization, discrepancy, or contradiction involving information, beliefs, attitudes, or behavior. Confrontational techniques may be used therapeutically, for example, to reveal and invite self-examination of inconsistencies in a client’s reported and actual behavior, but they have a potential for disruptive as well as constructive effects. 3. in individual psychology, a statement or question calculated to motivate the client to make a decision or face the reality of a situation. —confrontational adj.

confrontation naming

confrontation naming any procedure that requires the naming of an object presented visually or from its pictorial representation—that is, an individual is “confronted” with a stimulus and asked to name it.

confrontational method

confrontational method an approach that aims to change behavior in individuals by aggressively compelling them to acknowledge their failures and weaknesses. Such methods are used, for example, in residential drug programs staffed by ex-addicts. Similar but less aggressive methods are used in encounter groups as a means of increasing awareness and modifying behavior. Research has not supported the efficacy of confrontational approaches, and many individuals subjected to them respond with increased resistance to change.

confusability index

confusability index in ergonomics, any quantity used to express the degree to which a symbol, graphic, display item, or other object is capable of being misunderstood by the user or assigned a meaning other than its intended meaning.

confusion

confusion n. a mental disturbance characterized by bewilderment, inability to think clearly or act decisively, and disorientation for time, place, and person. Also called mental confusion.

confusion effect

confusion effect an antipredator behavior in which each of several animals moves or vocalizes in a highly random way, making it difficult for predators to locate and attack any one individual. See also dilution effect.

confusion matrix

confusion matrix see classification table.

confusion of responsibility

confusion of responsibility the tendency for bystanders to refrain from helping in both emergencies and nonemergencies in order to avoid being blamed by others for causing the problem. This is a contributing factor in the bystander effect. See also diffusion of responsibility.

confusional arousal

confusional arousal a parasomnia in which an individual partially awakens during NREM sleep, appears fully awake but is unresponsive to or exhibits impaired orientation to environmental stimuli, and has no memory afterward for events occurring during an episode. Individuals experiencing a severe episode may become aggressive toward others or self-injurious. Confusional arousal is especially common in children but can occur in adults as well. Also called sleep disorientation; sleep drunkenness; somnolentia.

confusional psychosis

confusional psychosis a form of cycloid psychosis in which disturbances of cognitive processes are prominent and accompanied by a labile (highly changeable) emotional state characterized alternately by manifest anxiety, with the individual often misidentifying other people, and by mutism and greatly decreased movement. The latter differs from catatonic stupor in that self-care and spontaneity are preserved and negativism is absent. [defined by German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard (1904–1988)]

confusional state

confusional state a state of impaired mental functioning in which awareness is retained but with loss of cognitive coherence and orientation to time, place, and sometimes identity. It may be accompanied by rambling or incoherent speech, visual hallucinations, and psychomotor disturbances. It can arise from a wide variety of causes, including brain lesions, trauma, toxicity, medications, neurotransmitter imbalances, sleep disturbances, sedation, or fever. See also delirium.

congener

congener n. any of a variety of byproducts of the fermentation process found in alcoholic drinks, such as acetone, acetaldehyde, propanol, and glycols. Congeners determine the characteristics of specific alcoholic drinks, including flavor, color, odor, and possibly severity of hangover.

congenital

congenital adj. denoting a condition or disorder that is present at birth. Also called connate. Compare adventitious.

congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

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congenital anomaly

congenital anomaly see congenital defect.

congenital cataract

congenital cataract opacity of the lens of the eye that is present at birth or occurs soon after birth. Its effect is to scatter light and blur the image on the retina, which prohibits the development of pattern vision because of visual deprivation. Central vision is always affected, and peripheral vision may also be reduced. Congenital cataract can occur in one or both eyes; it may be hereditary or caused by congenital infection or metabolic disorders.

congenital character

congenital character a character or trait that is present at birth. It may be hereditary or result from the influence of factors experienced during fetal development or delivery.

congenital color blindness

congenital color blindness see color blindness.

congenital deafness

congenital deafness deafness that exists from birth, regardless of the cause. Compare adventitious deafness.

congenital defect

congenital defect any abnormality present at birth, regardless of the cause. It may be caused by faulty fetal development (e.g., spina bifida, cleft palate), hereditary factors (e.g., Huntington’s disease), chromosomal aberration (e.g., Down syndrome), maternal conditions affecting the developing fetus (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome), metabolic defects (e.g., phenylketonuria), or injury to the brain before or during birth (e.g., some cases of cerebral palsy). A congenital defect may not be apparent until several years after birth (e.g., an allergy or a metabolic disorder) or even until after the individual has reached adulthood (e.g., Huntington’s disease). Also called birth defect; congenital anomaly.

congenital glaucoma

congenital glaucoma an eye disease, present at birth, in which a sustained, abnormally high fluid pressure within the eyeball damages the optic nerve (see glaucoma). This causes enlargement of the eye (buphthalmos). In 70% of cases, both eyes are affected; the condition is found more frequently in males than in females and carries a 5% increased risk of occurrence in siblings and offspring. Congenital glaucoma may occur in association with many developmental syndromes (e.g., aniridia, Sturge–Weber syndrome). Decreased vision may result from optic atrophy, corneal clouding, astigmatism, visual deprivation, high myopia, and strabismus. In addition, children typically show photophobia and blepharospasm.

congenital hypothyroidism

congenital hypothyroidism a condition occurring when the thyroid gland fails to develop or function properly in a newborn. If untreated, congenital hypothyroidism can lead to intellectual disability and abnormal growth. If treatment begins in the first month after birth, infants usually develop normally. See cretinism.

congenital oculomotor apraxia

congenital oculomotor apraxia a condition, present at birth, in which a child is unable to fixate objects normally (see oculomotor apraxia). It is characterized by the absence of saccades and smooth-pursuit eye movements in the horizontal plane, but vertical eye movements are preserved: Children with this condition are often mistakenly thought to be blind. Between the ages of 4 and 6 months, they develop thrusting, horizontal head movements, sometimes blinking prominently or rubbing their eyelids when they attempt to change fixation. The cause of congenital oculomotor apraxia is unknown, but there is usually an improvement with age.

congenital rubella syndrome

congenital rubella syndrome a complex of congenital defects in infants whose mothers were infected by the rubella virus early in pregnancy. The defects may include deafness, cataracts, heart disease, and microcephaly (small head). Neurological abnormalities occur in about 80% of affected individuals, and brain weight is usually subnormal. Psychomotor retardation, marked by general lack of response to stimuli, and intellectual impairment are common. In developed nations, rubella vaccination has resulted in a massive decline in the occurrence of this syndrome. See also German measles.

congenital sensory neuropathy with anhidrosis

congenital sensory neuropathy with anhidrosis a disorder marked by the absence of pain perception. Severe injuries, such as multiple fractures, may go untreated because they cause no pain. Affected individuals tend to show delayed intellectual development, with IQs below 80. Skin biopsies show normal but nonfunctional sweat glands.

congenital trichomegaly

congenital trichomegaly see trichomegaly-retinal degeneration syndrome.

congenital visual agnosia

congenital visual agnosia a form of visual agnosia that is present at birth, due to abnormal development of those parts of the brain responsible for the visual identification of objects, faces, or both. Congenital visual agnosia represents a specific visual cognitive disorder that cannot be explained by visual, cognitive, or language deficits. Also called developmental visual agnosia.

congenital visual impairment

congenital visual impairment partial or total visual impairment already present at birth or occurring soon after birth. Major causes are infections, bilateral cataracts, and prematurity. Unless specially stimulated, children with this impairment are likely to show delay in sensory, motor, and social development. Compare adventitious visual impairment.

congruence

congruence n. 1. in general, agreement, harmony, or conformity. 2. a match between psychological attributes and behavior. 3. in the phenomenological personality theory of Carl Rogers, (a) the need for a therapist to act in accordance with his or her true feelings rather than with a stylized image of a therapist or (b) the conscious integration of an experience into the self. 4. in environmental psychology, see person–environment interaction. —congruent adj.

congruent validity

congruent validity see convergent validity.

congruity theory

congruity theory a cognitive consistency theory that focuses on the role of persuasive communications in attitude change. Congruity theory is similar to balance theory in that it postulates that people tend to prefer elements within a cognitive system to be internally consistent with one another. Accordingly, if the person receiving a persuasive communication has a negative attitude to the content of the message but a positive attitude to the source of the message, or vice versa, then he or she will be motivated to revise both of these attitudes in some degree in order to restore congruity. Congruity theory differs from balance theory in that it takes into account gradations of evaluation of elements and therefore makes more precise predictions regarding the magnitude of change required to restore congruity among elements. [first proposed by U.S. psychologists Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum (1927–2009)]

CONJ

CONJ abbreviation for conjunctive reinforcement.

conjoined twins

conjoined twins monozygotic twins whose bodies join or fail to separate completely during embryonic life; the exact mechanism and cause are not understood. Many conjoined twins are stillborn or die shortly after birth. Conjoined twins may have two bodies that are attached at the rib cage, head, or other location; alternatively, they may share one torso, limbs, or some internal organs. In some cases, surgical separation is possible. The popular name, Siamese twins, derives from the brothers Eng and Chang (1811–1874), who were born in Thailand (Siam) and exhibited in sideshows.

conjoint analysis

conjoint analysis a method of assessing behavioral choices in which participants are compared on pairs of attributes that have been selected by the researcher as potential explanations or predictors of such choices. For example, an investigator looking at vacation preferences might choose to examine such attributes as warm versus cold climates, hotels versus bed-and-breakfast accommodations, destinations in the United States versus destinations in Europe, and so forth. Conjoint analysis is used particularly in studies of consumer decision making.

conjoint behavioral consultation

conjoint behavioral consultation see behavioral consultation.

conjoint schedule

conjoint schedule a type of compound schedule of reinforcement under which two or more schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously for a single response.

conjoint therapy

conjoint therapy therapy in which the partners in a relationship or members of a family are treated together in joint sessions by one or more therapists, instead of being treated separately. Also called conjoint counseling. See also couples therapy; family therapy.

conjugate movements

conjugate movements coordinated movements of the two eyes.

conjugate reinforcement

conjugate reinforcement a reinforcement contingency in which some aspect of the reinforcer (e.g., its magnitude) varies systematically with some property of behavior (e.g., rate or force).

conjunction

conjunction n. in linguistics, a function word that serves to conjoin two or more sentence constituents or sentences, the most common being and, as in John and Mary got married. Other common conjunctions include but, because, or, and if. See coordination.

conjunction search

conjunction search a search task in which the target has two or more relevant features. According to feature-integration theory, conjunction search proceeds in a serial manner.

conjunctival reflex

conjunctival reflex the automatic closing of the eyelid when the sclera is stimulated.

conjunctive concept

conjunctive concept a concept that is defined by a set of attributes, every member of which must be present for the concept to apply. For example, the concept brother requires the joint presence of the attributes (a) male and (b) sibling, neither of which may be omitted. Compare disjunctive concept.

conjunctive motivation

conjunctive motivation the drive to achieve true and lasting (rather than temporary or substitute) satisfaction. Compare disjunctive motivation. [defined by Harry Stack Sullivan]

conjunctive reinforcement (CONJ)

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conjunctive task

conjunctive task a group task or project that cannot be completed successfully until all members of the group have completed their portion of the job (e.g., a factory assembly line). This means that the speed and quality of the work are determined by the least skilled member. Compare additive task; compensatory task; disjunctive task.

Conn’s syndrome

Conn’s syndrome see aldosterone. [Jerome W. Conn (1907–1994), U.S. physician]

connate

connate adj. see congenital.

connected discourse

connected discourse a relatively long and integrated unit of language, such as a written argument or spoken conversation. See discourse analysis.

connectionism

connectionism n. 1. an approach that views human cognitive processes in terms of massively parallel cooperative and competitive interactions among large numbers of simple neuronlike computational units. Although each unit exhibits nonlinear spatial and temporal summation, units and connections are not generally to be taken as corresponding directly to individual neurons and synapses. See also neural network; parallel distributed processing. 2. as used by Edward L. Thorndike, the concept that learning involves the acquisition of neural links, or connections, between stimulus and response. —connectionist adj.

connectionist model

connectionist model any of a class of theories hypothesizing that knowledge is encoded by the connections among representations stored in the brain rather than in the representations themselves. Connectionist models suggest that knowledge is distributed rather than being localized and that it is retrieved through spreading activation among connections. The connectionist model concept has been extended to artificial intelligence, particularly to its neural network models of problem solving. Compare information-processing model.

connector neuron

connector neuron see interneuron.

Conners’ Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales (Conners CBRS)

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Conners’ Rating Scales (CRS)

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connotative meaning

connotative meaning see denotative meaning.

CONOPS

CONOPS acronym for continuous operations.

consanguineous family

consanguineous family see extended family.

consanguinity

consanguinity n. a biological relationship between two or more individuals who are descended from a common ancestor. Compare affinity.

conscience

conscience n. an individual’s sense of right and wrong or of transgression against moral values. In psychoanalysis, conscience is the superego, or ethical component of personality, which acts as judge and critic of one’s actions and attitudes. More recent biological approaches suggest that the capacity of conscience may be neurologically based, whereas psychosocial approaches emphasize the role of learning in the development of conscience and its influence in the formation of groups and societies. See also Kohlberg’s theory of moral development; Piagetian theory.

conscientious objector

conscientious objector an individual who is opposed to war and preparations for war and who refuses to serve in the armed forces for religious reasons or for other beliefs of conscience.

conscientiousness

conscientiousness n. the tendency to be organized, responsible, and hardworking, construed as one end of a dimension of individual differences (conscientiousness vs. lack of direction) in the Big Five personality model. It is also a dimension in the five-factor personality model. Also called industriousness. —conscientious adj.

conscious (Cs)

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conscious access hypothesis

conscious access hypothesis the notion that a primary function of consciousness is to mobilize and integrate brain functions that are otherwise separate and independent. This hypothesis is part of global workspace theory.

conscious automatism

conscious automatism see epiphenomenalism.

conscious intention

conscious intention a purpose or goal that one has explicitly chosen to pursue. Compare unconscious intention.

conscious memory

conscious memory see declarative memory; explicit memory.

conscious mentalism

conscious mentalism any theory that posits the reality of purely mental phenomena, such as thinking, feeling, desiring, preferring, and (particularly) intention, holding that these mental phenomena are the chief causes of behavior and that they are available to the conscious mind. The rise of behaviorism was largely a reaction against mentalism as an explanation for behavior. Although most forms of conscious mentalism hold that mental phenomena have a nonmaterial existence, some recent mentalistic positions have been materialistic, accepting that mental states and processes have their origin in physical states and processes. Compare eliminativism; epiphenomenalism; reductionism.

conscious moment

conscious moment the present moment of experience, often thought to be about 2 to 4 seconds in duration, the approximate decay period for conscious sensory percepts that are not susceptible to longer term recall. Working memory is believed to extend the available present to 10 to 30 seconds. See also specious present.

conscious process

conscious process a mental operation of which a person is explicitly aware and often in control. Compare unconscious process. See also automaticity.

conscious resistance

conscious resistance in psychoanalysis, the patient’s deliberate withholding of unconscious material that has newly risen into consciousness. This withholding tends to occur because of shame, fear of rejection, or distrust of the analyst.

consciousness

consciousness n. 1. the state of being conscious. 2. an organism’s awareness of something either internal or external to itself. 3. the waking state (see wakefulness). 4. in medicine and brain science, the distinctive electrical activity of the waking brain, as recorded via scalp electroencephalogram, that is commonly used to identify conscious states and their pathologies. Beyond these succinct, in some cases everyday, senses of the term, there are intricate philosophical and research controversies over the concept of consciousness and multiple perspectives about its meaning. Broadly, these interpretations divide along two (although not always mutually exclusive) major lines: (a) those proposed by scholars on the basis of function or behavior (i.e., consciousness viewed “from the outside”—the observable organism); and (b) those proposed by scholars on the basis of experience or subjectivity (i.e., consciousness viewed “from the inside”—the mind). The former generally represents the reductionist or materialist perspective (see materialism), whereas the latter generally represents the immaterialist perspective (see immaterialism). For example, functional or behavioral interpretations tend to define consciousness in terms of physical, neurobiological, and cognitive processes, such as the ability to discriminate stimuli, to monitor internal states, to control behavior, and to respond to the environment. According particularly to this view, the contents of consciousness are assessed through their ability to be reported accurately and verifiably (see reportability), although recent brain imaging research suggests that brain indices of conscious contents may become available. Experiential or subjective interpretations, however, tend to define consciousness in terms of mental imagery; intuition; subjective experience as related to sensations, perceptions, emotions, moods, and dreams; self-awareness; awareness of awareness itself and of the unity between the self and others and the physical world; stream of consciousness; and other aspects of private experience. According to this view, the contents of consciousness can be assessed to some extent by their reportability but must also, given their phenomenological nature, rely on introspection. See also altered state of consciousness; evolution of consciousness.

consciousness of freedom

consciousness of freedom the sense of choice people tend to experience in making decisions and controlling actions in the absence of overt coercion. It may be the intuitive basis for the widespread belief in free will.

consciousness raising

consciousness raising a process, often used in group discussion, directed toward greater awareness of (a) oneself, such as, one’s condition, needs, values, and goals; or (b) a political or social issue, such as discrimination against a particular group of people.

consciousness studies

consciousness studies a multidisciplinary field that combines approaches from cognitive science, neurophysiology, and philosophy of mind to investigate the nature of consciousness. Major concerns include the relationship of the mind to the body (see mind–body problem), the hard problem of subjective experience, the significance of altered states of consciousness, and the possibility of consciousness in computers or other manmade systems (see machine consciousness).

consciousness-altering substance

consciousness-altering substance any psychoactive drug that affects conscious experience and perception.

consensual drift

consensual drift the tendency for two or more observers who are working together to depart gradually from accuracy or an agreed standard, such that they are making errors in the same direction and to the same extent. See observer drift.

consensual eye reflex

consensual eye reflex a phenomenon in which the pupil of a shaded eye contracts when the other eye is stimulated by bright light. Also called consensual light reflex.

consensual validation

consensual validation the process by which a therapist helps a client check the accuracy of his or her perception or the results of his or her experience by comparing it with those of others, often in the context of group therapy.

consensus

consensus n. general agreement among the members of a group, especially when making an appraisal or decision. In tests of person perception, a consensus that a target person has a certain trait can act as a standard against which to compare the self-related biases of those who disagree with the group view. See also false-consensus effect.

consent

consent n. voluntary assent or approval given by an individual: specifically, permission granted by an individual for medical or psychological treatment, participation in research, or both. Individuals should be fully informed about the treatment or study and its risks and potential benefits (see informed consent).

consentience

consentience n. a lesser form of consciousness attributed to nonhuman animals.

consequate

consequate vb. to establish a consequence to a behavior. If the behavior becomes more probable, consequation is said to have resulted in reinforcement. If the behavior becomes less probable, consequation has resulted in punishment. —consequation n.

consequent

consequent n. 1. an event, state, or circumstance that follows from some other event, state, or circumstance. 2. in a conditional proposition of the if…then form, the statement that follows the connective then. The consequent is what is expected to be the case given that the antecedent (the statement following if) is true. For example, in the conditional proposition, If Socrates is a man, then he is mortal, the statement he is mortal is the consequent.

consequent variable

consequent variable a variable that is correlated with a primary outcome or dependent variable and whose value is predicted by that outcome variable. For example, in studies examining the influence of teaching style on student academic achievement, student motivation may be a consequent variable of achievement. Compare antecedent variable.

conservation

conservation n. the awareness that physical quantities do not change in amount when they are altered in appearance, such as when water is poured from a wide, short beaker into a thin, tall one. According to Piagetian theory, children become capable of this mental operation in the concrete operational stage. See also reversibility.

conservation psychology

conservation psychology a subfield of psychology that seeks to understand the attitudes and behavior of individuals and groups toward the natural environment so as to promote their use of environmentally sustainable practices. Because of the highly diverse categories of behavior being studied, conservation psychologists generally focus on specific actions, such as paper recycling, rather than general tendencies. Although related to environmental psychology, conservation psychology is distinct in its orientation toward protecting ecosystems and preserving resources while ensuring quality of life for humans and other species.

conservation withdrawal

conservation withdrawal a response to emotional or physical stressors (or both) in which a person tends to withdraw from family and friends and to have less energy and strength for activities. A means of conserving energy and recouping psychological and physical strength, this response resembles symptoms experienced as part of a major depressive episode.

conservatism

conservatism n. an attitude characterized by a positive regard for the past or the status quo (e.g., established principles and procedures) and sometimes, but not necessarily or wholly, by dislike or distrust of change. —conservative adj.

conservative

conservative adj. describing statistical methods that have a reduced likelihood of error, particularly of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis, but that are less capable of detecting significant relationships among variables. In other words, conservative approaches have less power and thus tend to underestimate associations or effects.

conservatorship

conservatorship n. a legal arrangement by which an individual is appointed by a court to protect the interests and property of a person who is unable by reason of a physical or mental condition to take full responsibility for managing his or her own affairs. See also limited guardianship.

consideration

consideration n. in leadership theory, a component of effective leadership that involves showing concern for the feelings of subordinates, thereby reducing conflict, maintaining positive relationships, and enhancing feelings of satisfaction and trust in the group. Compare initiating structure.

consilience

consilience n. the view that the laws of physics and the rules of biological evolution underlie all aspects of human existence. All human endeavor should reflect these influences and exhibit a unity on the basis of a few basic scientific principles arising from them. [proposed by U.S. biologist Edward O. Wilson (1929– ) in his book Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (1998)]

consistency check

consistency check a method often built into an experimental or statistical procedure to verify that data are accurate or that computations have been done correctly. For example, questionnaire items with slightly different wording but identical meaning should be answered by individuals in the same way, and respondents claiming to have a high educational degree should be of a certain age.

consistency motive

consistency motive the desire to confirm one’s current beliefs about one’s self, including experimentally induced beliefs. Self-consistency strivings are thought to minimize discomfort associated with disjunctions between different aspects of self-knowledge. Compare self-assessment motive; self-enhancement motive. See also self-verification motive.

consistency theory

consistency theory a class of social psychological theory holding that people are chiefly motivated by a desire to maintain congruence or consistency among their cognitions. Originally introduced by Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, and others, consistency theory was first applied specifically to work behavior by Abraham K. Korman (1933– ) in 1970. Korman’s theory is based on a two-point premise: a balance notion and a self-image standard. The theory states that workers will engage in, and find satisfying, behaviors that maximize their sense of cognitive balance and will be motivated to perform in a manner consistent with their self-image. Also called self-consistency theory. See consistency motive; self-verification motive.

consistent estimator

consistent estimator an estimator calculated from sample data whose value becomes more and more representative of the true quantity in the larger population as the sample size increases. That is, a consistent estimator is one for which larger samples result in a reduction of bias. An example is the mean: As the size of the sample from which it is calculated increases, the obtained value more closely approximates the actual value in the population it is intended to represent.

consistent mapping

consistent mapping a condition of a search task in which a given stimulus is either (a) always a target or (b) always one of the distractor stimuli among which the target is embedded: It is never a target at one time and a distractor at another. Consistent mapping usually produces a much more efficient search performance. Compare varied mapping.

consistent missing

consistent missing in parapsychology experiments using Zener cards or similar targets, the phenomenon in which a participant’s “calls,” or guesses, are consistently wrong or significantly below chance expectations. Some people attribute such systematic failure to processing error or a conscious or nonconscious reluctance to confirm psychic ability. See also psi-missing.

consolidation

consolidation n. the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience. See perseveration–consolidation hypothesis.

consolidation hypothesis

consolidation hypothesis see perseveration–consolidation hypothesis.

consolidation period

consolidation period the time following a learning experience during which a permanent memory for the experience develops. According to different theories, the consolidation of long-term memory is said to take from seconds to days.

consolidation theory

consolidation theory see spacing effect.

consonance

consonance n. 1. the quality of harmony between elements, for example, in music. 2. in communication, harmony between content (denotative meaning) and intent (connotative meaning); for example, if a talk on the subject of peace is uttered in peaceful tones, content and intent agree and the communication is said to possess consonance. 3. in social psychology, the extent to which the components of an attitude are internally consistent or in agreement with each other. See cognitive consonance.

consonant

consonant 1. n. a voiced or unvoiced speech sound that is produced when the vocal tract is partly or wholly constricted. 2. n. one of the letters of the alphabet used to represent these sounds in writing. Compare vowel. 3. adj. characterized by or exhibiting consonance, or harmony.

consonant trigram

consonant trigram three consonants, which normally do not spell a word, used in verbal learning experiments (e.g., JCL). See nonsense syllable. See also Auditory Consonant Trigram.

Consonar

Consonar n. a trade name for brofaromine.

conspecific

conspecific 1. adj. belonging to the same species. 2. n. a member of the same species.

conspicuity

conspicuity n. the ability of an object to attract attention. In attention studies, when a participant searches for a target among distractors in a visual display, a target that has conspicuity will tend to be detected rapidly. See pop-out; salient.

conspicuous consumption

conspicuous consumption see consumerism.

constancy

constancy n. see perceptual constancy.

constancy law

constancy law see principle of constancy.

constancy of the IQ

constancy of the IQ a tendency for IQ results to remain approximately the same when the same or a similar test is administered. IQ tends, on average, to remain remarkably constant throughout life, starting after infancy and lasting until old age, when there are often declines (starting roughly 10 years before death). Measures of intelligence in infancy, such as of preference for novelty and of recognition memory, suggest that even infant intelligence may predict intelligence in later childhood and adulthood. However, radical changes in environment can result in radical changes in IQ, as when children are adopted out of orphanages or families in which they have experienced severe privation. Usually, such adoptions produce larger changes in IQ if they occur earlier (e.g., by age 2) rather than later.

constancy principle

constancy principle the general principle that psychic forces and energies tend to remain in a steady or balanced state or tend to seek a return to a state of balance or of decreased energy. The idea is related to other general conceptions of constancy found in many scientific fields. In the psychology of Sigmund Freud, constancy refers specifically to the tendency of psychic energy, or libido, to seek a homeostatic or balanced state. The same principle lies behind Freud’s notion of catharsis.

constancy scaling

constancy scaling the mental readjustment of a stimulus attribute (most commonly size) so that the stimulus is perceived as unaffected by the viewing conditions. For example, the small retinal angle subtended by a person seen in the distance is mentally scaled to a larger size so that the person is perceived to be of normal size rather than tiny.

constant

constant 1. n. in mathematics, a fixed quantity that remains unchanged during a specified operation or series of operations. For example, the element a in the regression equation y = a + bx + e is a constant. Compare variable. 2. adj. unvarying or continual.

constant comparative analysis

constant comparative analysis a procedure for evaluating qualitative data in which the information is coded and compared across categories, patterns are identified, and these patterns are refined as new data are obtained. For example, a researcher might use constant comparative analysis to assess responses to interview questions, creating categories of answers according to the perspectives expressed, examining their different items, and integrating categories or revising their properties before formulating a theory. Also called constant-comparison method.

constant error

constant error a systematic error in some particular direction. Constant error is computed as the average positive or negative difference between the observed and actual values along a dimension of interest. For example, if a weight of 1 kg is judged on average to be 1.5 kg, and a weight of 2 kg is judged to be 2.5 kg, the constant error is 500 g. See also absolute error; random error.

constant stimulus method

constant stimulus method see method of constant stimuli.

constellation

constellation n. in cognitive psychology, a group of ideas with a common theme or association. —constellatory adj.

constipation

constipation n. difficult or infrequent excretion of feces. The normal frequency of human bowel movements varies from three times a day to one every 3 days. In addition to diseases and mechanical obstructions, constipation may be caused by psychogenic factors. Psychogenic constipation is observed in some individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder who assign such importance to regularity that abnormal amounts of time and effort are devoted to daily bowel movements.

constituent

constituent n. a linguistic unit that is a component of a larger and more complex unit. Although the term is used in the more traditional forms of sentence parsing, it is now mainly associated with the type of constituent analysis practiced in phrase-structure grammar and other forms of generative grammar. In this form of analysis a canonical English sentence, such as The man opened a window, is usually said to have the immediate constituents “noun phrase” (NP) and “verb phrase” (VP); the verb phrase can be further subdivided into the constituents “verb” (V) and “noun phrase,” and both noun phrases into “determiner” (det) and “noun” (N).

constitution

constitution n. 1. the sum of an individual’s innate characteristics. 2. more broadly, the basic psychological and physical makeup of an individual, due partly to heredity and partly to life experience and environmental factors. —constitutional adj.

constitutional disorder

constitutional disorder a condition, disease, behavior, or constellation of behaviors arising from or inherent within some aspect of the individual’s physical makeup or physiological characteristics.

constitutional factor

constitutional factor a basic physiological tendency that is believed to contribute to personality, temperament, and the etiology of specific mental and physical disorders. Examples of this factor include hereditary predispositions and physiological characteristics (circulatory, musculoskeletal, glandular, etc.).

constitutional psychopathic inferior

constitutional psychopathic inferior a former name for an individual with antisocial personality disorder. The term psychopathic inferior was introduced in 1888 by German physician Robert Koch (1843–1910) and included by Emil Kraepelin in his classification of mental disorders (1893). Adolf Meyer added the word constitutional in the sense of deep-seated (but not congenital).

constitutional type

constitutional type a classification of individuals based on physique and other biological characteristics or on a hypothetical relationship between physical and psychological characteristics, such as temperament, personality, and a tendency to develop a specific type of mental disorder. See Carus typology; Kretschmer typology; Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality.

constrained association

constrained association see controlled association.

constraint commitment

constraint commitment see structural commitment.

construal

construal n. a person’s perception and interpretation of attributes and behavior of the self or of others. See also independent self-construal; interdependent self-construal.

construct

construct n. 1. a complex idea or concept formed from a synthesis of simpler ideas. See higher order construct. 2. an explanatory model based on empirically verifiable and measurable events or processes—an empirical construct—or on processes inferred from data of this kind but not themselves directly observable—a hypothetical construct. Many of the models used in psychology are hypothetical constructs. 3. in the study of social cognition, an element of knowledge (a cognitive construct).

construct validity

construct validity the degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity. For example, if a researcher develops a new questionnaire to evaluate respondents’ levels of aggression, the construct validity of the instrument would be the extent to which it actually assesses aggression as opposed to assertiveness, social dominance, and so forth. A variety of factors can threaten the basic construct validity of an experiment, including (a) mismatch between the construct and its operational definition, (b) various forms of bias, and (c) various experimenter effects and other participant reactions to aspects of the experimental situation. There are two main forms of construct validity in the social sciences: convergent validity and discriminant validity.

constructional apraxia

constructional apraxia an impaired ability to re-create visual images as drawings or other forms of construction (e.g., blocks or puzzle pieces).

constructional praxis

constructional praxis the ability to draw, copy, or manipulate spatial patterns or designs.

constructionism

constructionism n. see constructivism.

constructive alternativism

constructive alternativism in the personality construct theory of George A. Kelly, the capacity to view the world from multiple perspectives, that is, to envision a variety of alternative constructs.

constructive conflict resolution

constructive conflict resolution the use of collaborative, salutary methods, such as bargaining, negotiation, accommodation, and cooperation, to resolve interpersonal or intergroup disagreements.

constructive confrontation

constructive confrontation an organizational development initiative in which employees gather to identify, analyze, and plan solutions to work-related problems. At the heart of the method is a free and open discussion in which individuals can be frank without fear of punishment or blame.

constructive coping

constructive coping any instrumental approach to stress management that is generally considered to be adaptive or otherwise positive. Examples include planning and strategizing, seeking help and support from others, reframing the situation, and meditating. Constructive coping strategies are task relevant and action oriented and are divided into one of three categories: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and appraisal-focused coping. They rely on realistic assessments of stressors and available coping resources, and their use is associated with better physical and mental health outcomes than the use of other strategies (e.g., active coping, passive coping, defense mechanisms). Research suggests that constructive coping is likely to be used when stressors are of high intensity or when there is little negative emotional arousal generated in the context of the stressful experience or event.

constructive memory

constructive memory remembering conceived as involving the use of general knowledge stored in one’s memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling in various features of the memory. See reconstructive memory; repeated reproduction.

constructive obedience

constructive obedience compliance with the orders of a social authority that results in some benefit to the compliant individual or the larger society of which he or she is a part. Examples of constructive obedience include accident victims obeying the commands of emergency personnel and citizens adhering to laws within their communities, which reduces crime and makes neighborhoods safer, thus instilling a sense of security and well-being for individuals living within those neighborhoods. Compare destructive obedience.

constructive play

constructive play a form of object play in which children manipulate materials in order to create or build objects, for example, making a sand castle or using blocks to build a house. Constructive play facilitates creativity, learning, and the development of motor and other skills.

constructive theory of perception

constructive theory of perception any theory proposing that perceivers unconsciously combine information from a stimulus (such as a retinal image) with other information (such as apparent or expected distance and previous experience) to construct a perception.

constructive thinking

constructive thinking the ability to solve problems in everyday life with minimal stress.

Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI)

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constructivism

constructivism n. the theoretical perspective, central to the work of Jean Piaget, that people actively build their perception of the world and interpret objects and events that surround them in terms of what they already know. Thus, their current state of knowledge guides processing, substantially influencing how (and what) new information is acquired. Also called constructionism. See also social constructivism. Compare direct perception. —constructivist adj.

Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (CLES)

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constructivist psychotherapy

constructivist psychotherapy any psychotherapy approach that shares the theoretical perspective of constructivism and focuses on meaning-making to help clients reconceptualize their problems in a more life-enhancing way by using story, myth, poetry, and other linguistic and nonverbal forms. Constructivist psychotherapy began as an application of personal construct theory. See also narrative therapy; personal construct therapy.

constructivist theory of emotion

constructivist theory of emotion any theory holding that emotions are not innate but constructed through social and cultural experience. See social constructivism.

consultant

consultant n. 1. a mental health care or medical specialist called upon to provide professional advice or services in terms of diagnosis, treatment, or rehabilitation. 2. in the United Kingdom, a hospital doctor of the most senior rank in his or her field.

consultee

consultee n. see behavioral consultation; mental health consultation.

consultee-centered consultation

consultee-centered consultation see mental health consultation.

consulting

consulting n. the use of the particular skill, experience, and expertise of an individual or group to advise individuals, groups, or organizations.

consulting psychology

consulting psychology the branch of psychology that provides expert psychological guidance to business and industry, federal and state agencies, the armed forces, educational and scientific groups, religious groups, and volunteer and public service organizations. Consulting psychologists specialize in a variety of approaches—clinical, community, school, education, and industrial and organizational—and offer a wide variety of services, the most common of which are individual assessment, individual and group-process consultation, organizational development, education and training, employee selection and appraisal, research and evaluation test construction, management coaching, and change management.

consumer

consumer n. an individual or an entity (e.g., a school system) that purchases (or otherwise acquires) and uses goods or services. In the context of health care, consumers are generally patients or clients who receive medical or mental health services, but they can also include parents or legal guardians responsible for obtaining services on the patients’ or clients’ behalf.

consumer activism

consumer activism see consumerism.

consumer behavior

consumer behavior the acts of individuals or groups in obtaining, consuming, and disposing of economic goods and services, including the decision processes that precede and follow these acts.

consumer characteristics

consumer characteristics personality traits of consumers that can influence the planning of advertising campaigns. Most sophisticated studies of consumer characteristics go beyond age, sex, income, and neighborhood of residence and use established psychological techniques to analyze motives behind buying decisions. See also psychographics.

consumer counseling

consumer counseling counseling for individuals that focuses on good decision making in personal money management.

consumer education

consumer education programs that educate consumers primarily in (a) the criteria by which to evaluate complex technical products and services; (b) decision-making skills; (c) the workings of business, government, and the marketplace; (d) techniques for judging advertising and selling claims; and (e) money-saving buying strategies.

consumer innovator

consumer innovator one of the first individuals to use a new product or service (see adopter categories). Innovators tend to be risk takers.

consumer neuroscience

consumer neuroscience see neuromarketing.

consumer psychology

consumer psychology the branch of psychology that studies the behavior of individuals as consumers and the marketing and communication techniques used to influence consumer decisions. Consumer psychologists investigate the psychological processes underlying consumer behavior and responses to both for-profit and not-for-profit marketing.

consumer research

consumer research the application of clinical, scientific, and statistical research techniques to the study of consumer behavior. Consumer research may include studies of consumer tastes and preferences, the influence of branding and package design, and the personality traits of a target audience. See also market research; motivation research.

consumer survey

consumer survey a survey of consumer likes and dislikes in certain product categories (e.g., beverages) that may yield information about designing and packaging a product in ways the consumer will find attractive. Consumer surveys may be conducted by questionnaires, in-depth interviews, group interviews, visualization, and similar techniques.

consumer-driven health care

consumer-driven health care an approach to health care cost containment that lets consumers decide how to spend dollars earmarked for health and mental health care. Instead of providing insurance with a low deductible for employees, an employer might fund a high-deductible insurance policy and a tax-advantaged account such as a health savings account, a health reimbursement account, or another medical payment product that consumers could use to help meet the high deductible. Because consumers can shop for and choose the doctors that they want to see and the procedures that they want done, this type of care is posited to bring competition to the health services market and more control to consumers, although the benefits and effectiveness of this arrangement are being debated.

consumer-jury technique

consumer-jury technique a method of testing advertising appeals before an actual product promotion campaign is started in a test market. “Jury” members usually consist of typical consumers of the product category. They are shown a selection of proposed advertisements and asked to evaluate them in terms of which advertisement would be most likely to induce them to purchase the product. The consumer-jury technique has been found to be an accurate predictor of advertising effectiveness. See also continuous panel.

consumer-run drop-in center

consumer-run drop-in center an organization to which people recovering from mental illness can go for social support and for programs, services, and social activities offered in a nonclinical environment, with the ultimate goal of both empowering participants and reintegrating them into the greater community. It differs from a general drop-in center in that those who use the center also run its programs and assist the other people seeking help there. Such programs can include support groups, exercise classes, arts and crafts, excursions, guest speakers, access to and training on computers, employment services, personal and political advocacy, assistance with basic needs (e.g., laundry), and outreach programs.

consumerism

consumerism n. 1. the purchase and consumption of goods and services in amounts that exceed basic needs. Consumerism is often tied to the socioeconomic behavior of conspicuous consumption, whereby individuals acquire and display expensive goods as a means of obtaining or maintaining social status. See also ethical consumerism. 2. a movement to protect the rights of the consumer with regard to the quality and safety of available products and services (including psychotherapeutic and medical care). Consumers of mental health care have a number of clearly defined rights, including the right to know, to confidentiality, to choice, to determination of treatment, to nondiscrimination, to treatment review, and to accountability of treating professionals. Also called consumer activism. —consumerist adj.

consummatory pleasure

consummatory pleasure see anticipatory pleasure.

consummatory response

consummatory response the final response in a natural chain of behaviors directed toward achieving a goal. For example, eating (to reduce hunger) is the final act of the sequence of responses involved in foraging for food, and copulation (to reduce the sex drive) is the final act of sexual behavior. In 1918, U.S. ethologist Wallace Craig distinguished between consummatory behavior as an innate stereotyped activity and appetitive behavior as the active searching process that precedes it. Also called consummatory act; consummatory behavior. See also goal-directed behavior.

consummatory response theory of reinforcement

consummatory response theory of reinforcement see drive-induction theory.

contact behavior

contact behavior actions and interactions occurring during an interpersonal exchange, which may be either an intimate, personal relationship (e.g., sexual contact) or a relatively impersonal interaction (e.g., buying and selling).

contact comfort

contact comfort the positive effects experienced by infants or young animals when in close contact with soft materials. The term originates from Harry Harlow’s classic experiments, in which young rhesus monkeys exposed both to an artificial cloth mother without a bottle for feeding and to an artificial wire mother with a bottle for feeding spent more time on the cloth mother and, when frightened, were more readily soothed by the presence of the cloth mother than the wire mother.

contact desensitization

contact desensitization a variation of systematic desensitization involving participant modeling instead of relaxation training, used especially in the treatment of anxiety. The therapist demonstrates appropriate behaviors, beginning with those in the weakest anxiety-provoking situation for the client, and then assists the client in performing such behaviors. For example, in working with a client who is afraid of spiders, the therapist might first sit near a spider, then touch the spider, and then pick it up while the client observes. The client, with the guidance and assistance of the therapist, would then perform the same activities in the same order.

contact hypothesis

contact hypothesis the proposition that interaction among people belonging to different groups will reduce intergroup prejudice. Research indicates that the prejudice-alleviating effects of contact are robust across many situations, but that they are strengthened when the people from the different groups are of equal status, are not in competition with each other, and do not readily categorize the others as very different from themselves. Also called intergroup-contact hypothesis.

contact language

contact language an improvised system of communication, such as a pidgin, that emerges in situations of contact between speakers of different languages. Contact languages are usually characterized by a restricted lexicon, simplified sentence structures, and the absence of complex grammatical inflections.

contagion

contagion n. see social contagion.

containment

containment n. in object relations theory, the notion that either the mother or the analyst aids growth and alleviates anxieties by acting as a “container,” or “holding environment,” for projected aspects of the child’s or patient’s psyche (see projection). For instance, the infant, overwhelmed by distress and having no context to understand the experience, is held and soothed by the parent, who thus creates a safe context for the child and endows the experience with meaning. The psychoanalyst does this metaphorically by helping the patient reduce the anxiety to tolerable levels.

contamination

contamination n. 1. in testing and experimentation, the situation in which prior knowledge, expectations, or other factors relating to the variable under study are permitted to influence the collection and interpretation of data about that variable. 2. the mixing together of two or more discrete percepts, such as might occur on the Rorschach Inkblot Test or the Machover Draw-a-Person Test. 3. the creation of a neologism by combining a part of one word with a part of another, usually resulting in a word that is unintelligible.

contamination obsession

contamination obsession an intense preoccupation with disease, dirt, germs, mud, excrement, sputum, and so forth, based on a feeling that the world is disgusting, decaying, and dying. It is a frequent symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder, and, in extreme cases, it is regarded as a symptom of schizophrenia.

contemporaneity

contemporaneity n. in psychotherapy, the principle of focusing on immediate experience. See also here and now.

contempt

contempt n. an emotion characterized by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless. —contemptuous adj.

content

content n. in psychology and psychotherapy, the actual thoughts, images, and emotions that occur in conscious experience. Thus, content may be contrasted with the mental processes or the neural structures that underlie them.

content analysis

content analysis 1. a systematic, quantitative procedure for coding the themes in qualitative material, such as projective-test responses, propaganda, or fiction. 2. a systematic, quantitative study of verbally communicated material (e.g., articles, speeches, films) by determining the frequency of specific ideas, concepts, or terms. Also called quantitative semantics.

content psychology

content psychology an approach to psychology that is concerned with the role of conscious experience and the content of that experience. The term is mainly applied to early structuralism. Compare act psychology.

content validity

content validity the extent to which a test measures a representative sample of the subject matter or behavior under investigation. For example, if a test is designed to survey arithmetic skills at a third-grade level, content validity indicates how well it represents the range of arithmetic operations possible at that level. Modern approaches to determining content validity involve the use of exploratory factor analysis and other multivariate statistical procedures.

content word

content word in linguistics, a word with an independent lexical meaning, that is, one that can be defined with reference to the physical world or abstract concepts and without reference to any sentence in which the word may appear. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs are considered to be content words. Also called lexical word. Compare function word.

content-addressable store

content-addressable store a model of memory, borrowed from computer science, in which a memory is stored and retrieved based on representation of its contents rather than by an arbitrary tag. Knowledge or memory is represented by values along certain dimensions, such as temporal (e.g., last summer) or semantic (a vacation); an effective retrieval cue using the same values along those dimensions will access the information stored.

content-referenced test

content-referenced test see criterion-referenced test.

content-thought disorder

content-thought disorder a type of thought disturbance, typically found in schizophrenia and some other mental disorders (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder, mania), characterized by multiple fragmented delusions.

Contention Scheduling System (CSS)

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contentiousness

contentiousness n. a tendency toward disputes and strife: quarrelsomeness. Contentiousness may be observed in mania and in the early stages of predominantly persecutory delusional disorders when individuals perceive that they are being treated unfairly.

contents of consciousness

contents of consciousness see consciousness.

contentual objectivism versus contentual subjectivism

contentual objectivism versus contentual subjectivism the question of whether the proper subject matter (content) of psychology is objective behavior or the subjective realm of the mind or consciousness. This question is often seen as the principal issue at stake in the conceptual confrontation between structuralism and behaviorism in the early history of psychology. See also methodological objectivism versus methodological subjectivism.

context

context n. 1. generally, the conditions or circumstances in which a particular phenomenon occurs. 2. in linguistics, the parts of a speech or written passage that precede or follow a word, phrase, or other unit and clarify its meaning. 3. in studies of cognition, the environment in which a stimulus event occurs, especially as this influences memory, learning, judgment, or other cognitive processes. 4. in laboratory tasks involving the recognition of stimuli, the setting in which a target stimulus is presented, including any distractors or maskers (see masking). —contextual adj.

context clues

context clues clues provided by the immediate context (i.e., the sentence or paragraph) that enable a reader to recognize a word that is not a sight word. See word-recognition skills.

context reinstatement

context reinstatement a method used to aid the retrieval of memories. In the case of eyewitness recall, the individual is asked to re-create the event to be remembered in its original context and is encouraged to think about a variety of stimuli surrounding the event (e.g., smells, sounds) in the hope of providing additional retrieval cues. See also cognitive interview.

context shifting

context shifting in conversation or therapy, a tendency to change subjects abruptly, generally to avoid anxiety-laden issues.

context theory of meaning

context theory of meaning the theory that the meaning of a word or concept depends on mental images associated with a specific body of sensations, as in the concept of fire. [formulated by Edward Bradford Titchener]

context-independent learning

context-independent learning the learning of a skill or strategy independently of a specific situation in which the skill will be applied.

context-specific learning

context-specific learning learning that has occurred in a particular place, circumstance, or state (e.g., while intoxicated) and is displayed only in that context and not when testing occurs in another context. See also contextual association.

contextual analysis

contextual analysis any method of evaluating data that takes into account the characteristics of the environment in which the information was collected and their influence upon study units (e.g., behavior). For example, a contextual analysis of data gathered from an experimental study conducted in a laboratory would take into account the effects of the laboratory itself on study participants, whereas one conducted in a public setting would account for the effects of that environment on the participants. The data gathered (i.e., participant responses) from the different environments would likely be revealed to be quite different as well.

contextual association

contextual association a connection learned between items or material that an organism is exposed to and the context or circumstance in which that exposure occurs. For instance, a lecture may be associated with the classroom in which it occurs: That contextual association facilitates retrieval, so recall of the lecture should be better in the classroom than outside it.

contextual interference effect

contextual interference effect an effect on learning that may occur when training occurs in different contexts or when trials on one task are alternated with those on a different task. Learning is slowed by changing contexts or by intervening tasks, but the knowledge is more enduring and more readily transferable to different tasks or domains.

contextual subtheory

contextual subtheory a part of the triarchic theory of intelligence according to which factors in the environment affect both an individual’s intelligence and what constitutes an intelligent response to a given situation. The subtheory postulates that people are intelligent in context to the extent that they effectively adapt to, shape, and select environments.

contextualism

contextualism n. 1. the theory that memory and learning are not the result only of linkages between events, as in the associationist doctrine, but are also due to the meaning given to events by the context surrounding the experiences. 2. a worldview asserting that the environment in which an event occurs intrinsically informs the event and its interpretation.

contextualize

contextualize vb. to interpret an event within a preexisting mental framework. —contextualization n.

contiguity

contiguity n. the co-occurrence of stimuli in time or space. Learning an association between two stimuli is generally thought to depend at least partly on the contiguity of those stimuli. See association by contiguity; law of contiguity. —contiguous adj.

contiguity learning theory

contiguity learning theory a theory stating that if a pattern of stimulation and a response occur together in time and space, learning occurs by the formation of associations between them, so that the same stimulus pattern will elicit the same response on subsequent occasions. See also S–R psychology. [proposed by Edwin R. Guthrie]

contiguity of association

contiguity of association see association by contiguity.

contiguity principle

contiguity principle see law of contiguity.

continence

continence n. the ability to control sexual urges or the urge to defecate or urinate. —continent adj.

continental philosophy

continental philosophy a loose designation for philosophical developments originating in continental Europe from the middle of the 20th century, encompassing such movements as phenomenology, existentialism, structuralism, and deconstruction. Continental philosophy is often contrasted with the Anglo-American tradition of analytic philosophy.

contingencies of self-worth

contingencies of self-worth particular areas of life in which people invest their self-esteem, such that feedback regarding their standing or abilities in these domains has a strong effect on their self-concept. Research indicates that people choose to stake their self-esteem in different domains, so that for some people material or professional success is vital to their sense of self-worth, whereas for others this is much less important than being well liked or sexually attractive. Also called contingencies of self-esteem. [first described in 2001 by U.S. psychologist Jennifer Crocker (1952– )]

contingency

contingency n. a conditional, probabilistic relation between two events. When the probability of Event B given Event A is 1.0, a perfect positive contingency is said to exist. When Event A predicts with certainty the absence of Event B, a perfect negative contingency is said to exist. Probabilities between –1.0 and 1.0 define a continuum from negative to positive contingencies, with a probability of zero indicating no contingency. Contingencies may be arranged via dependencies or they may emerge by accident (see accidental reinforcement). See also law of contiguity; reinforcement contingency.

contingency awareness

contingency awareness 1. awareness of a relationship or connection between two occurrences. See co-occurrence. 2. awareness of the dependence of one variable on another. See covariation.

contingency contract

contingency contract a mutually agreed-upon statement between a teacher and student, a parent and child, or a client and therapist regarding the change or changes desired, typically specifying behaviors and their positive and negative consequences.

contingency management

contingency management in behavior therapy, a technique in which a reinforcement, or reward, is given each time the desired behavior is performed. This technique is particularly common in substance abuse treatment.

contingency model

contingency model any theory or model based on the generalization that there is no universal, ideal approach to structuring organizations and managing people. Rather, the most effective approach will depend on factors such as the nature of the task, the culture and environment of the organization, and the characteristics of the people involved. Also called situational approach. See also contingency theory of leadership.

contingency table

contingency table a two-dimensional table in which frequency values for categories of one variable are presented in the rows and values for categories of a second variable are presented in the columns: Values that appear in the various cells then represent the number or percentage of cases that fall into the two categories that intersect at this point. For example, the sex and geographical locations of a sample of individuals applying for a particular job may be displayed in a contingency table. Thus, the number of women from Los Angeles would be given, the number of men from Los Angeles would be given, the number of women from New York City would be given, the number of men from New York City would be given, and so on. Also called cross-classification table.

contingency theory of leadership

contingency theory of leadership any of various models predicting that leadership performance depends on the interaction of the personal characteristics of the leader and the nature of the group situation. The prototypical contingency theory emerged from the conceptual analysis of leadership effectiveness developed by Fred Fiedler in the 1960s. Fiedler’s model differentiates between task-motivated and relationship-motivated leaders, as indicated by scores on the Least Preferred Coworker Scale, and predicts that task-motivated leaders will be most effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable group settings, whereas relationship-motivated leaders will be more effective in moderately favorable settings. Other models of this kind include the situational leadership theory, the substitutes for leadership theory, and the Vroom–Yetton–Jago decision model. See also cognitive resource theory.

contingency-governed behavior

contingency-governed behavior behavior that is directly and solely the result of reinforcement contingencies. It occurs without deliberation. Compare rule-governed behavior.

contingent

contingent adj. dependent on circumstances, events, or conditions. See also contingency.

contingent aftereffect

contingent aftereffect an altered visual perception in which one stimulus dimension (e.g., color) depends on a separate stimulus dimension (e.g., orientation). The McCollough effect is an example in which repeated serial exposure to horizontal red bars followed by vertical green bars induces an aftereffect of horizontal white bars appearing green and vertical white bars appearing red. The color of the aftereffect is contingent on the orientation of the test stimulus.

contingent negative variation (CNV)

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contingent probability

contingent probability the probability, expressed as a number between 0 and 1, that one event or category of outcome will occur if another one does. An example is the probability that the child of a drug user will become a drug user himself or herself. Unusually high or low contingent probabilities (compared to the general population) may, but do not necessarily, imply a causal relationship between the two events.

contingent reinforcement

contingent reinforcement the process or circumstances in which the delivery of positive stimulus events (e.g., material goods, verbal praise) and, more rarely, the elimination of negative stimulus events (e.g., penalties) depend on the performance of desired behavior. In leadership and management, the term is applied to any approach in which a leader relies on rewards and penalties to motivate his or her followers. Also called contingent reward.

continuance commitment

continuance commitment that element of an employee’s organizational commitment that can be attributed to the cost, inconvenience, or difficulty of changing employers. Compare affective commitment.

continued-stay review (CSR)

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continuing bond

continuing bond the emotional attachment that a bereaved person continues to maintain with the deceased long after the death. The increasingly influential continuing-bond approach to the bereavement process focuses on ways in which the emotional and symbolic relationship with the deceased can be reconstructed and integrated into the bereaved’s life. This approach is in contrast to the view, particularly prevalent following Sigmund Freud’s 1917 essay “Mourning and Melancholia,” that successful mourning must necessarily involve the bereaved’s complete emotional detachment from the deceased. See also grief work; mourning; object loss. [introduced by Dennis Klass, Phyllis R. Silverman, and Steven L. Nickman in their 1996 edited volume, Continuing Bonds: New Understandings of Grief]

continuing care retirement community (CCRC)

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continuing care unit (CCU)

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continuing education

continuing education 1. a subset of adult education in which an adult updates or augments a previously acquired skill set, knowledge base, or area of expertise. 2. a requirement imposed by professional licensing bodies for the purpose of ensuring that professionals stay current with new developments in their field and maintain competence to practice.

continuing medical education (CME)

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continuity

continuity n. the quality or state of being unending or connected into a continuous whole. For example, the traditional concept of continuity of care implies the provision of a full range of uninterrupted medical and mental health care services to a person throughout his or her lifespan, from birth to death, as needed.

continuity hypothesis

continuity hypothesis 1. the assumption that successful discrimination learning or problem solving results from a progressive, incremental, continuous process of trial and error. Responses that prove unproductive are extinguished, whereas every reinforced response results in an increase in associative strength, thus producing the gradual rise of the learning curve. Problem solving is conceived as a step-by-step learning process in which the correct response is discovered, practiced, and reinforced. Compare discontinuity hypothesis. 2. the contention that psychological processes of various kinds (e.g., learning, childhood development) take place either in small steps or continuously, rather than in jumps or discontinuously from one identifiable stage to another. Also called continuity theory.

continuity of germ plasm

continuity of germ plasm see germ plasm.

continuity theory

continuity theory 1. a theory proposing that people generally maintain the same personality style, activity level, interests, and social roles as they age. Compare activity theory; disengagement theory. 2. see continuity hypothesis.

continuity versus discontinuity

continuity versus discontinuity the scientific debate over whether developmental change is gradual (continuous) or relatively abrupt (discontinuous).

continuous

continuous adj. describing a variable, score, or distribution that can take on any numerical values within its range. Compare discontinuous; discrete. See also continuous variable.

continuous avoidance

continuous avoidance see Sidman avoidance schedule.

continuous control

continuous control in ergonomics, a control device operated by continuous movements, such as a computer mouse used to move a cursor on a screen, as opposed to a discrete control device, such as an on–off switch or the like. See also isometric control; isotonic control.

continuous distractor task

continuous distractor task a test of memory retention in which a continuous string of items to be remembered is presented: Every few items, the participant is presented with one of the items previously presented and must remember the item following it, while also retaining the other items in sequence. A continuous distractor task contrasts with a study-trial/test-trial procedure.

continuous distribution

continuous distribution a distribution in which values can occur anywhere along an unbroken continuum. An example would be any distribution showing variation in human height or weight. A continuous distribution can be plotted as a single smooth line, and it may be used to display the likelihood of specific values occurring (a continuous probability distribution) or the actual number of times they have been observed to occur, such as in a research sample (a continuous frequency distribution). Compare discrete distribution. See also continuous variable.

continuous group

continuous group see open group.

continuous improvement

continuous improvement see total quality management.

continuous movement task

continuous movement task a purposeful movement that has no recognizable beginning or end—the behavior continues until it is arbitrarily stopped. Examples include running and steering a car. Compare discrete movement task.

continuous operations (CONOPS)

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continuous panel

continuous panel a form of consumer jury in which members serve on a more or less permanent basis so that consumer psychologists can detect shifts in attitudes, values, or behavior (see consumer-jury technique). The panel members are carefully selected to represent the demographic or psychographic characteristics of a population, and they are tested periodically for signs of psychic mobility that may also represent attitude changes in the general population.

continuous performance test (CPT)

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continuous rating scale

continuous rating scale a scale on which ratings are assigned along a continuum (e.g., a line) rather than according to categories. Such ratings are made by making a mark on the scale to indicate the exact “placement” of the rating or by assigning a precise numerical value. Also called continuous scale.

continuous recognition task

continuous recognition task a memory task in which a series of items is presented, with some items presented on multiple occasions in the series. The participant responds to each item by indicating whether it is old (seen previously in the series) or new (not seen earlier in the series).

continuous reinforcement (CRF)

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continuous spectrum

continuous spectrum see sound spectrum.

continuous variable

continuous variable a variable that may in theory have an infinite number of possible values. For example, time is a continuous variable because accurate instruments will enable it to be measured to any subdivision of a unit (e.g., 1.76 seconds). By contrast, number of children is not a continuous variable as it is not possible to have 1.76 children. In practice, a continuous variable may be restricted to an artificial range by instrumentation constraints, practical limitations, or other reasons. For example, a researcher assessing the influence of a new technique on student study time may only be able to observe a group of individuals for 1 hour per day, such that the range of time in the data he or she collects may span 0 minutes to 60 minutes, even though some people will in actuality have exceeded that upper figure. Compare discontinuous variable.

continuum approach

continuum approach an approach based on the view that behavior ranges over a continuum from effective functioning to severe abnormality. It assumes that differences between people’s behavior are a matter of degree rather than kind.

continuum of care

continuum of care provision over a period of time of continuous, comprehensive, and integrated care that involves health, mental health, and social services—in the home, a health care setting, or the community—at the appropriate level of intensity. The wide range and levels of available services in a continuum of care allow for adjustments to be made in treatment when the patient or client improves (e.g., during successful drug addiction treatment) or worsens (e.g., as the health of a terminally ill patient declines).

contra-

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contraception

contraception n. any method intended to prevent conception, that is, the natural fertilization of the female ovum by the male spermatozoa. See birth control. —contraceptive n., adj.

contract

contract n. an explicit written agreement between parties or individuals. A contract between a client and therapist may detail (a) both the client’s and the therapist’s obligations, (b) the provisions for benefits or privileges to be gained through achievements, and (c) the specified consequences of failures (e.g., missing sessions). See also behavior contract; contingency contract.

contract plan

contract plan a plan used in some schools in which a student signs a contract agreeing to change a certain behavior, such as raising a grade in a class. The contract enhances accountability for behavior; it often carries with it a reward for completion and sometimes a response cost for failure to perform.

contractility

contractility n. the capacity of living tissue, particularly muscle, to contract in response to a stimulus. Also called contractibility.

contraction

contraction n. 1. a shortening or tensing of a group of muscle fibers. See muscle contraction. 2. in linguistics, a word formed by combining two or more words and eliminating some of the letters or sounds. For example, don’t is a contraction of the words do and not.

contracture

contracture n. an abnormal shortening or tightening of a muscle, which can result in permanent disability due to difficulty in stretching the muscle. A contracture often follows a disorder or injury that makes movement painful or is a consequence of prolonged, enforced inactivity (e.g., a coma).

contradictory representation

contradictory representation a condition in which one mental image prevents another from occurring owing to conflict between the two images. For example, it is impossible to hold an image of the same object as both round and square. The effect of contradictory representation is to inhibit further mental activity of which the image in question is an essential part.

contralateral

contralateral adj. situated on or affecting the opposite side of the body. For example, motor paralysis occurs on the side of the body contralateral to the side on which a brain lesion is found. Compare ipsilateral. —contralaterally adv.

contralateral control

contralateral control the arrangement whereby the motor cortex of each cerebral hemisphere is mainly responsible for control of movements of the contralateral (opposite) side of the body.

contralateral deficit

contralateral deficit see ipsilateral deficit.

contralateral eye

contralateral eye the eye located on the opposite side of the body to another structure or object. For example, layer 6 of the left lateral geniculate nucleus receives input from the retinal ganglion cell axons that originate in the right (i.e., contralateral) eye. Compare ipsilateral eye.

contralateral hemisphere

contralateral hemisphere the cerebral hemisphere on the opposite side of the body from any organ or part that is being considered as the reference point. See also contralateral control.

contraprepared learning

contraprepared learning see preparedness.

contrast

contrast n. 1. that state in which the differences between one percept, thing, event, or idea and another are emphasized by a comparison of their qualities. This may occur when the stimuli are juxtaposed (simultaneous contrast) or when one stimulus immediately follows the other (successive contrast). For example, meeting a person in a social context that includes physically attractive people could lead to a more negative evaluation of the attractiveness of that person than would have been the case otherwise. The evaluation of the person’s attractiveness has been contrasted away from the social context. Compare assimilation. 2. in statistics, see comparison.

contrast analysis

contrast analysis 1. comparisons between two or more groups that address specific questions about the patterning of the means of these groups. 2. a focused analysis of data that is designed to determine the specific degree to which obtained data agree with predicted data (i.e., to which they support a hypothesis or theory). Contrast analysis yields an estimate of effect size and an associated level of significance for each contrast computed.

contrast coding

contrast coding in analysis of variance and multiple regression, a method of assigning weights to values so that specific comparisons of interest can be made. To ensure the statistical independence of the particular quantities being evaluated, the process requires that the weights in each comparison sum to 0. For example, consider a researcher investigating four different methods for teaching course content. If he or she wanted to compare the average performance of the first group to the average performance of the remaining three groups, the investigator would apply contrast weights of +3, −1, −1, and −1 to the respective group means. If, however, he or she wanted to compare the average performance of the first group to the average performance of the fourth group, the investigator instead would apply contrast weights of +1, 0, 0, and −1 to the respective group means. Also called orthogonal coding. Compare dummy variable coding; effect coding.

contrast detector

contrast detector 1. any of the retinal ganglion cells that are sensitive to contrast (i.e., light–dark borders). See also feature detector. 2. any structure, neural or theoretical, that is sensitive to contrast.

contrast effect

contrast effect 1. the perception of an intensified or heightened difference between two stimuli or sensations when they are juxtaposed or when one immediately follows the other. Examples include the effect produced when a trombone follows a violin or when bright yellow and red are viewed simultaneously. 2. in psychology experiments, an effect in which participants’ judgments shift away from an anchor after it is introduced. Compare assimilation effect.

contrast error

contrast error a type of rating error in which the evaluation of a target person in a group is affected by the level of performance of others in the group. When the others are high in performance, there may be a tendency to rate the target lower than is correct. When the others are low in performance, there may be a tendency to rate the target higher than is correct.

contrast illusion

contrast illusion a class of visual illusions in which the degree of a stimulus attribute, such as perceived size, color, brightness, or angle, is affected by the presence of additional stimuli that differ in the same attribute. For example, a small circle at the center of many large circles will appear to be smaller than the same circle at the center of many smaller circles.

contrast polarity

contrast polarity the degree of contrast between two visual elements, particularly figure and background. Contrast can be positive (light objects against dark backgrounds, e.g., a white letter printed upon black paper) or negative (dark objects against light backgrounds, e.g., a black letter printed upon white paper).

contrast sensitivity

contrast sensitivity a measure of spatial resolution based on an individual’s ability to detect subtle differences in light and dark coloring or shading in an object of a fixed size. Detection is affected by the size of contrasting elements and is usually tested using a grating of alternating light and dark bars, being defined by the minimum contrast required to distinguish that there is a bar pattern rather than a uniform screen. Contrast sensitivity is less for both coarse and fine gratings than it is for gratings of intermediate frequency. Humans have peak contrast sensitivity for gratings with 4 to 8 cpd (cycles per degree) and can detect contrast over a range from about 0.5 cpd to 50 to 60 cpd. Contrast sensitivity can be reduced after injury to the peripheral or central visual system: Patients complain of visual blurring, although visual acuity may be only moderately affected. Also called spatial contrast sensitivity. See also spatial frequency.

contrast-sensitivity function (CSF)

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contrastive analysis

contrastive analysis in linguistics, a comparison of the structures of two languages, usually with the goal of providing insight into effective second- or foreign-language instruction. See also language transfer.

contrastive rhetoric

contrastive rhetoric in linguistics, the theory that different languages have different rhetorical characteristics, as seen, for example, in the different ways they structure and present an argument. The idea of contrastive rhetoric has been much discussed in the field of second-language teaching, especially at the more advanced levels. It is said to explain, for example, why native speakers will often feel that there is something odd or “wrong” about essays, business letters, and so on produced by nonnative speakers, even when the grammar and vocabulary are flawless. Contrastive rhetoric has sometimes been linked to the wider hypothesis that languages embody culture-bound thought patterns (see linguistic determinism). [introduced in 1966 by U.S. applied linguist Robert B. Kaplan]

contravolitional

contravolitional adj. against the wishes of an individual or beyond his or her control.

contrecoup

contrecoup n. brain injury on one side of the head resulting from a blow to the opposite side.

contributing cause

contributing cause a cause that is not sufficient to bring about an end or event but that helps in some way to bring about that end or event. A contributing cause may be a necessary condition or it may influence events more indirectly by affecting other conditions that make the event more likely.

control

control n. 1. authority, power, or influence over events, behaviors, situations, or people. Researchers have hypothesized a need for control, and they also distinguish between primary control and secondary control. 2. the regulation of all extraneous conditions and variables in an experiment so that any change in the dependent variable can be attributed solely to manipulation of the independent variable and not to any other factors. 3. see statistical control.

control adoptees

control adoptees see cross-fostering.

control analysis

control analysis psychoanalytic treatment conducted by a trainee under the guidance of a qualified psychoanalyst, who helps the trainee decide the direction of the treatment and become aware of his or her countertransference. Also called supervised analysis; supervisory analysis.

control condition

control condition in an experiment or research design, a condition that does not involve exposure to the treatment or intervention under study. For example, in an investigation of a new drug, participants in a control condition may receive a pill containing some inert substance, whereas those in the experimental condition receive the actual drug of interest.

control device

control device the mechanism that allows the operator of an environmental control device to transmit instructions to a target device to perform a function. See also feedback device; switch device.

control discriminability

control discriminability in ergonomics, the ease with which a control can be distinguished from other controls or objects on the interface and matched correctly to the effect that its activation or use will have on the system. The discriminability of a control will be a function of size, shape, color, and other design features.

control experiment

control experiment a follow-up experiment designed to check that the findings of an initial study were in fact caused by the factor under investigation and not by some other variable. For example, consider a case in which initial research appeared to demonstrate the beneficial effect of a new treatment for depression. To confirm these results a control experiment might be devised in which a similar group of individuals was tracked to find the number of individuals whose depression was alleviated without use of the treatment.

control function logic

control function logic in ergonomics, a logical or typical and expected relationship between the operation of a control or input device and the resulting action or effect on a display. For example, if a person moves a computer mouse to the left, the on-screen cursor should also move to the left to preserve control function logic. See also display–control compatibility.

control group

control group a comparison group in a study whose members receive either no intervention at all or some established intervention. The responses of those in the control group are compared with the responses of participants in one or more experimental groups that are given the new treatment being evaluated. See also no-treatment control group.

control of action model

control of action model a cognitive model in which action selection is held to be controlled by two distinct processes: the Contention Scheduling System, which makes choices between routine functions that are performed automatically, and the Supervisory Attentional System, which is required in nonroutine situations involving decision making and other executive functions. Also called attentional control of action model; Norman and Shallice model. [proposed in 1980 by U.S. cognitive scientist Donald A. Norman (1935– ) and British neuropsychologist Timothy Shallice (1940– )]

control order

control order in ergonomics, the specific type of relationship between the operation of a control or input device and the resulting action or effect on a display. For example, a joystick may have either position or velocity control over cursor movements on a monitor.

control procedure

control procedure a procedure applied before commencing a study in order to equate participants with regard to some variable that is not of research interest but nonetheless may influence the outcome. Matching is an example of a control procedure.

control processes

control processes those processes that organize the flow of information in an information-processing system. See also cognitive control; executive.

control question test (CQT)

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control theory

control theory 1. the idea that people regulate their behavior through repeated cycles of comparing their current state to a standard and acting to reduce discrepancies. [first proposed in 1982 by U.S. social psychologists Charles S. Carver (1947– ) and Michael Scheier] 2. a field of mathematics and engineering dealing with monitoring and controlling the behavior of certain physical processes and systems to produce the desired or best outcome.

control variable

control variable a variable that is considered to have an effect on the response measure in a study but that itself is not of particular interest to the researcher. To remove its effects a control variable may be held at a constant level during the study or managed by statistical means (e.g., a partial correlation). Also called controlled variable.

control-mastery theory

control-mastery theory 1. a perspective, underlying an integrative form of psychotherapy, that focuses on changing a client’s nonconscious and maladaptive beliefs developed in childhood due to thwarted attempts to achieve attachment and safety in the client’s family. The client is seen to have an inherent motivation toward health that results in testing these beliefs through transference and through passive-into-active behaviors; when such testing is productive, the client is then free to pursue adaptive goals. [developed by U.S. psychiatrist Joseph Weiss] 2. an integrative approach to child development that focuses on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors resulting from children’s needs for attachment and safety in the family.

control–display ratio

control–display ratio in ergonomics, the ratio between the distance that a control or input device (e.g., a computer mouse) is moved by the operator and the consequent distance that the object it controls (e.g., the cursor) is moved on the display (e.g., the computer screen).

controllable turnover

controllable turnover see turnover.

controlled association

controlled association a technique in which a constraint is imposed on the participant’s responses such that the given response relates to the stimulus in accordance with specific directions. For example, in an experiment involving presentation of stimulus words, the participant may be directed to give a synonym or antonym of each word. Also called constrained association. See free association.

controlled attention

controlled attention see selective attention.

controlled drinking

controlled drinking a controversial harm reduction approach for those with relatively mild alcohol problems and low alcohol dependence. Research has not supported controlled drinking as an efficacious primary goal of intervention for moderate to severe alcohol dependence.

controlled observation

controlled observation an observation made under standard and systematic conditions rather than casual or incidental conditions.

Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT)

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controlled processing

controlled processing in cognitive psychology, attentive processing: that is, processing that requires control, effort, and intention. See attention.

controlled sampling

controlled sampling a method of choosing cases for research in which certain characteristics are considered undesirable and the probability of their being selected is therefore minimized. For example, an educational researcher may need to adjust his or her sampling technique if certain subsets of students are costly to find or if their obtained data may exert undue influence upon study results or otherwise present logistical difficulties.

Controlled Substances Act (CSA)

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controlled trial

controlled trial a study in which patients with a particular condition, disease, or illness are assigned either to a treatment group, which receives the new intervention under investigation, or to a control group, which receives either no intervention or some standard intervention already in use. If individuals are allocated to the different groups at random, then the design is a randomized clinical trial. Also called comparative trial.

controlled-exposure technique

controlled-exposure technique a method of pretesting advertising effectiveness by presenting advertisements to a limited audience. Several variations of the advertisement may be tested using tachistoscopes, hidden cameras, galvanic skin response equipment to detect physiological reactions, and questionnaire surveys of the potential consumer responses.

controlling goal

controlling goal a goal, usually set by others, that must be achieved in order to receive an extrinsic reward.

controversial child

controversial child see sociometric status.

contusion

contusion n. a bruise. For example, various kinds of head injury can result in cerebral contusion.

convalescent center

convalescent center see skilled nursing facility.

convenience sampling

convenience sampling any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability. Interviewing the first 50 people to exit a store is an example of convenience sampling. Data obtained from convenience sampling do not generalize to the larger population; there may be significant sampling bias, and sampling error cannot be estimated. Also called accidental sampling; opportunity sampling.

conventional antipsychotic

conventional antipsychotic see antipsychotic.

conventional level

conventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the intermediate level of moral reasoning, characterized by an individual’s identification with and conformity to the expectations and rules of family and society: The individual evaluates actions and determines right and wrong in terms of other people’s opinions. This level is divided into two stages: the earlier interpersonal concordance (or good-boy-nice-girl orientation, Stage 3 in Kohlberg’s overall theory), in which moral behavior is that which obtains approval and pleases others; and the later law-and-order (or authority and social order maintaining) orientation (Stage 4), in which moral behavior is that which respects authority, allows the person to do his or her duty, and maintains the existing social order. Also called conventional morality. See also preconventional level; postconventional level.

conventionalism

conventionalism n. a personality trait marked by excessive concern with and inflexible adherence to social customs and traditional or accepted values and standards of behavior. The term is also used to refer specifically to one of the traits associated with the authoritarian personality.

convergence

convergence n. the rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas. Convergence enables the slightly different images of an object seen by each eye to come together and form a single image. The muscular tension exerted is also a cue to the distance of the object from the eyes.

convergence theory

convergence theory a conceptual analysis of collective behavior that assumes that mobs, social movements, and other forms of mass action occur when individuals with similar needs, values, goals, or personalities come together.

convergent evolution

convergent evolution the tendency of unrelated organisms in a particular environment to evolve superficially similar body structures that enable them to adapt effectively to their habitat. Thus, many aquatic animals acquire a streamlined form and smooth surfaces for rapid movement through water. See also homoplasy. Compare divergent evolution.

convergent production

convergent production the capacity to produce the right answer to a question or to choose the best solution to a problem. It is one of the abilities recognized in the structure of intellect model. Compare divergent production.

convergent strabismus

convergent strabismus see cross-eye; strabismus.

convergent thinking

convergent thinking critical thinking in which an individual uses linear, logical steps to analyze a number of already formulated solutions to a problem to determine the correct one or the one that is most likely to be successful. Compare divergent thinking. [defined in 1967 by Joy Paul Guilford]

convergent validity

convergent validity the extent to which responses on a test or instrument exhibit a strong relationship with responses on conceptually similar tests or instruments. This is one of two aspects of construct validity, the other being discriminant validity. Also called congruent validity.

conversation

conversation n. the use of speech to communicate ideas and information between or among people. Conversations arise flexibly in response to such elements as topic, private and public goals, rhetorical devices, temporal constraints, and individual speaking styles. Conversations proceed only through the mutual belief that the addressee has understood the speaker well enough for immediate purposes. Forms of this type of verbal exchange include small talk, gossip, repartee, debate, and negotiation, among others. —conversational adj.

conversation analysis

conversation analysis 1. a specialty within discourse analysis that focuses upon casual discussions as well as other more formal, extended verbal exchanges between two or more speakers. 2. in ergonomics, a method of evaluating a system or product that involves the examination of conversations occurring between two or more users interacting with it. Conversation analysis can be either qualitative or quantitative. It is a form of knowledge elicitation.

conversational inference

conversational inference the process by which people engaged in a conversation can frequently infer the meanings intended by the other speakers, even when these are unstated or inexplicit. Such inferences will be based partly on a knowledge of the personal background and general context but more importantly on an awareness of conversational norms within a particular culture and the expectations that these create. Conversational inference does not depend on logical inference. For example, if a speaker says My boss has been sober all week, most listeners will understand that this person is frequently drunk, even though such an inference is not valid in logic. The listeners will assume, probably correctly, that such a statement would not be made in such a form unless it reflected an exceptional, rather than the usual, state of affairs. See also implicature; indirect speech act.

conversational maxims

conversational maxims the four basic rules governing interpersonal communications. The rules state that such communications should be (a) truthful; (b) as informative as is required; (c) relevant to the matter under discussion; and (d) clear, orderly, and brief. Violations of these maxims are usually presumed to be deliberate or indicative of a cognitive disturbance. [introduced by British-born U.S. philosopher H. Paul Grice (1913–1988)]

conversational repair

conversational repair see repair.

converse accident

converse accident a type of informal fallacy or a persuasive technique that involves arguing from a qualified position or particular case to an unqualified and general rule. For example, because patients with certain illnesses are permitted to use marijuana, marijuana use should be legal for everyone. In empirical research, the same fallacy can result from drawing conclusions from data based on small or nonrepresentative samples. Also called hasty generalization.

conversion

conversion n. 1. in psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious process in which anxiety generated by psychological conflicts is transformed into physical symptoms. Traditionally, this process was presumed to be involved in conversion disorder, but current diagnostic criteria for the disorder do not make such an implication. 2. actual change in an individual’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that occurs as a result of social influence. Unlike compliance, which is outward and temporary, conversion occurs when the targeted individual is personally convinced by a persuasive message or internalizes and accepts as his or her own the beliefs expressed by other group members. Also called private acceptance. See also conformity. 3. the movement of all members of a group to a single, mutually shared position, as when individuals who initially offer diverse opinions on a subject eventually come to share the same position. See group polarization. 4. the process by which a person comes to embrace a new religious faith (or, sometimes, a more intense version of his or her existing belief). For example, a nonbeliever who becomes Catholic has experienced a conversion, as has a member of a minority religion who adopts the beliefs of a more mainstream faith. In Protestant traditions, conversion is often seen as a sudden transformation in which a person apparently undergoes a dramatic change in his or her personality, values, and lifestyle. Compare deconversion. —convert vb.

conversion anesthesia

conversion anesthesia a sensory conversion symptom marked by the absence of sensation in certain areas of the body that cannot be accounted for by any identifiable biological pathology or defect. See glove anesthesia; stocking anesthesia.

conversion disorder

conversion disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a somatoform disorder in which patients present with one or more symptoms or deficits affecting voluntary motor and sensory functioning that suggest a physical disorder but for which there is instead evidence of psychological involvement. These conversion symptoms are not intentionally produced or feigned and are not under voluntary control. Symptoms can include paralysis, loss of voice, blindness, seizures, globus pharyngeus, disturbance in coordination and balance, and loss of pain and touch sensations (see motor conversion symptoms; sensory conversion symptoms). The formal criteria for the disorder in DSM–5, which refers to it also as functional neurological symptom disorder, primarily emphasize that there must be clear clinical evidence of symptom incompatibility with recognized neurological pathology before a diagnosis can be made. That there may also be psychological involvement in the onset of symptoms, or that stress or trauma of any sort, either psychological or physical, may have etiological relevance, is recognized in DSM–5 as among “associated features” that, if found, support diagnosis. The absence of feigning, however, is no longer a required criterion for diagnosis due to the clinical challenge of reliably discerning its absence.

conversion hysteria

conversion hysteria a former name for conversion disorder.

conversion nonepileptic seizure

conversion nonepileptic seizure a form of psychogenic nonepileptic seizure (PNES) that is a result of a diagnosed conversion disorder. It is not associated with abnormal electrical activity on an electroencephalogram. Most PNESs are conversion nonepileptic seizures. Also called conversion seizure.

conversion paralysis

conversion paralysis a psychogenic disorder in which there is an apparent loss of function of the muscles of a limb or a portion of the body for which no neurological cause can be identified. Unlike organic paralysis, reflexes may be intact, muscle tone may be normal, and the paralyzed limb may be moved inadvertently when the patient’s attention is elsewhere. This is one of the possible symptoms of conversion disorder.

conversion seizure

conversion seizure see conversion nonepileptic seizure.

conversion symptom

conversion symptom see conversion disorder.

conversion therapy

conversion therapy a highly controversial, ethically questionable, and generally discredited process intended to change individuals of same-sex or bisexual orientation to heterosexual orientation. Associated with religious proscriptions against homosexuality and outdated psychoanalytic theories about dysfunctional family dynamics and childhood trauma, conversion therapy has been denounced by the professional organizations of the major fields of psychiatry, psychology, and social work. There is a lack of empirical evidence to support its effectiveness, and studies suggest that the practice actually may be harmful; clients have reported such negative side effects as poor self-esteem, depression, suicidality, anxiety, social withdrawal, and sexual difficulties. Nonetheless, practitioners do exist often citing client distress and personal choice as reasons for offering the intervention; they claim that most individuals benefit by experiencing their changed sexual orientation and improved psychological functioning (e.g., through stress reduction, feeling a sense of community or belonging). Opponents of the practice argue that the research does not support this claim and cite numerous reasons not to acquiesce to a client’s desire to change his or her sexual orientation, particularly the fact that such requests stem from a climate of social intolerance. Critics also argue that conversion therapy continues to stigmatize homosexuality as a pathological condition to be cured rather than a natural variation of human sexuality. Many suggest that a better approach to addressing client dissatisfaction with sexual orientation is to offer affirmative, evidence-based, multicultural interventions that help clients explore their sexuality, evaluate their conflicts, and come to individual resolution about managing them and that do not impose an outcome with regard to a specific sexual orientation identity. Also called change therapy; reorientation therapy; reparative therapy; sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE).

conviction

conviction n. in social psychology, the subjective sense that an attitude is a valued possession or an important aspect of self-concept. Conviction is related to attitude strength.

convolution

convolution n. a folding or twisting, especially of the surface of the brain.

convoy model of social relations

convoy model of social relations a theory that conceptualizes relationships as an evolving social network hierarchy of three concentric circles surrounding an individual, with each circle representing a relationship that has a different level of perceived intimacy or closeness to the individual at a given point in time. The theory attempts to account for how relationships of importance to the individual (i.e., that provide a secure base for individual functioning) change as she or he ages. [originally proposed by U.S. social psychologist Robert L. Kahn and U.S. developmental psychologist Toni C. Antonucci (1948– )]

convulsant

convulsant n. any substance that causes or otherwise results in convulsions, usually by blocking inhibitory neurotransmission.

convulsion

convulsion n. an involuntary, generalized, and violent muscular contraction, in some cases tonic (contractions without relaxation) and in others clonic (alternating contractions and relaxations of skeletal muscles).

convulsive disorder

convulsive disorder any form of epilepsy that involves recurrent generalized seizures or partial seizures with convulsions.

convulsive therapy

convulsive therapy any treatment that is based on the induction of a generalized seizure by electrical or chemical means. See electroconvulsive therapy; Metrazol shock treatment; shock therapy.

cooing

cooing n. vowel-like sounds produced by young infants when they are seemingly happy and contented.

Cook’s distance (Cook’s D)

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cookies

cookies pl. n. small files automatically saved on a computer that provide records of websites that the user has viewed. They enable Web servers to identify and track an individual user’s online activities and preferences, thereby making it possible, for example, for Web-based marketers to pitch a different advertisement to the user each time he or she returns to a website. Cookies are considered by some users to be an invasion of privacy and may be disabled.

Coolidge Assessment Battery (CAB)

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Coolidge effect

Coolidge effect increased sexual vigor when a human or nonhuman animal mates with multiple partners. The phenomenon is named for U.S. President Calvin Coolidge, alluding to a visit that he and his wife made to a farm where Mrs. Coolidge observed a rooster mating frequently. She allegedly asked the farmer to point this out to her husband, who is said to have replied “Same hen each time?”

Cooper–Harper Handling Qualities Rating Scale

Cooper–Harper Handling Qualities Rating Scale a standardized measure of cognitive load devised for use by NASA. After a test flight, pilots were asked to evaluate, using a simple decision tree, the handling qualities of the aircraft and the demands placed on themselves as a result of any deficiencies. It has since been adapted to many other settings. Also called Cooper–Harper rating scale; Cooper–Harper scale. [introduced in 1969 by George E. Cooper and Robert P. Harper Jr., U.S. pilots]

cooperating teacher

cooperating teacher an experienced teacher assigned to supervise student teacher trainees who are learning to teach in classrooms. Student teachers are thus provided with an opportunity to put into practice the principles of teaching that they have learned in their teacher education training programs. Cooperating teachers introduce the teacher trainees to the practical component of teaching in such a manner as to minimize the mistakes that they are likely to make.

cooperation

cooperation n. a process whereby two or more individuals work together toward the attainment of a mutual goal or complementary goals. This contrasts with competition, in which an individual’s actions in working toward a goal lessen the likelihood of others achieving the same goal. In game theory, cooperation is regarded as the strategy that maximizes the rewards and minimizes the costs for all participants in the game; this is sometimes posited as an explanation for altruism. Studies of nonhuman animals often suggest cooperation, but whether animals understand that individuals must act together to reach a common solution or whether they act randomly and occasionally appear to cooperate by chance is still unclear. Often cooperation leads to outcomes, such as increased food, predator avoidance, or survival of kin, that make it adaptive (see adaptation), but the benefit to each individual is not always obvious. See also animal cooperation. —cooperate vb. —cooperative adj.

cooperative breeding

cooperative breeding a type of mating system in which typically only one male and one female breed while other group members help in taking care of the offspring (see alloparenting). Subordinate animals are reproductively inhibited, either physiologically or behaviorally; they have few options other than to assist the breeding pair and wait for a breeding vacancy to occur.

cooperative education

cooperative education a school-administered program that combines study with employment. In higher education, the program especially seeks to enrich academic studies by supplementing them with practical field experience, ideally in responsible jobs in the student’s field of interest. Periods of full- or part-time study alternate at intervals of 3 or 6 months.

cooperative goal structure

cooperative goal structure a performance setting structured in such a way that individuals can reach their goals more easily if they work with others rather than against them. When goal structures are purely cooperative, individuals can succeed only when others succeed as well. Compare competitive goal structure.

cooperative learning

cooperative learning 1. learning in small groups, to which each student in the group is expected to contribute using interpersonal skills and face-to-face interaction. Students also participate in regular assessment of the group process. 2. a formal method of acquiring information that combines knowledge obtained in a classroom setting with that obtained in a work or applied setting. Typically, the formal classroom aspect of instruction is focused specifically on the actual work experience. See also cooperative training.

cooperative motive

cooperative motive the drive or dispositional tendency to respond cooperatively in interpersonal and performance settings by helping others achieve their goals. Compare competitive motive.

cooperative play

cooperative play see social play.

cooperative reward structure

cooperative reward structure a performance setting in which rewards are assigned on the basis of group rather than individual achievement, and the success of each member promotes the success of the group as a whole. In most cases, such structures improve group trust and communication and possibly foster greater achievement. Compare competitive reward structure; individualistic reward structure.

cooperative training

cooperative training a vocational program for high school students who are placed in jobs related to the occupational fields of their choice. A program coordinator provides classroom instruction that supplements the job experience while monitoring the students’ progress on the job by consulting with employers.

cooperativeness

cooperativeness n. see Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality; Temperament and Character Inventory.

cooperativity

cooperativity n. the affinity of a series of binding sites to an enzyme or receptor following its binding to the first of those sites. Cooperativity may be positive (i.e., increased) or negative (i.e., decreased).

coordinate bilingual

coordinate bilingual a person who regularly uses two languages, the second language having been learned independently from the first and within a different contextual environment. The mental representation of knowledge about the two languages is thought to be relatively independent. In contrast, a compound bilingual is a person who regularly uses two languages but who learned the languages as a result of equal and simultaneous exposure to them. See code switching; dual coding theory.

coordination

coordination n. 1. the capacity of various parts to function together. This can be applied to body parts (e.g., the two legs while walking or the eyes and hands while drawing), to joints (e.g., the motion at the elbow and shoulder as the arm is swung back and forth), and to the muscles producing force at a joint (see antagonistic muscles). 2. in linguistics, the linking of two or more clauses of equal status by means of a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and or but), as in The boy ate the cake, and the girl drank the milk. This contrasts with subordination, in which one of the clauses is dependent on the other for its meaning, as in The boy ate the cake that the girl liked. See complex sentence. —coordinate vb.

coordination loss

coordination loss in groups, a reduction in productivity caused by the imperfect integration of the efforts, activities, and contributions of each member of the group. See also process loss.

coordination of secondary circular reactions

coordination of secondary circular reactions see secondary circular reaction.

coordinative structure

coordinative structure see synergy.

coparenting

coparenting n. the practice by which parents coordinate their child-rearing practices. It can be supportive in nature, with partners reinforcing one another in child-rearing activities, but it may also be antagonistic, where partners are either inconsistent in parenting (e.g., show discrepant levels of parent–child engagement) or undermine each other’s child-rearing efforts (e.g., compete for their children’s attention or conflict about their children). Also called parental alliance.

COPD

COPD abbreviation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Copernican theory

Copernican theory see heliocentric theory.

copicide

copicide n. see suicide by cop.

coping

coping n. the use of cognitive and behavioral strategies to manage the demands of a situation when these are appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources or to reduce the negative emotions and conflict caused by stress. See also coping strategy. —cope vb.

coping behavior

coping behavior a characteristic and often automatic action or set of actions taken in dealing with stressful or threatening situations. Coping behaviors can be both positive (i.e., adaptive), for example, taking time to meditate or exercise in the middle of a hectic day; or negative (i.e., maladaptive, avoidant), for example, not consulting a doctor when symptoms of serious illness appear or persist. See also coping mechanism; coping strategy.

coping imagery

coping imagery a desensitization technique in which relaxation is accompanied by images that have proved successful in controlling anxiety in situations that had previously aroused fear. See also coping-skills training. [developed by U.S. psychologist Joseph R. Cautela (1927–1999)]

coping mechanism

coping mechanism any conscious or nonconscious adjustment or adaptation that decreases tension and anxiety in a stressful experience or situation. Modifying maladaptive coping mechanisms is often the focus of psychological interventions. See also coping behavior; coping strategy.

coping potential

coping potential an individual’s evaluation of the prospects of successfully managing environmental demands or personal commitments. Coping potential differs from coping in that it deals with prospects of successful management (rather than with actual deployment of resources).

coping strategy

coping strategy an action, a series of actions, or a thought process used in meeting a stressful or unpleasant situation or in modifying one’s reaction to such a situation. Coping strategies typically involve a conscious and direct approach to problems, in contrast to defense mechanisms. See also coping behavior; coping mechanism; emotion-focused coping; problem-focused coping.

coping style

coping style the characteristic manner in which an individual confronts and deals with stress, anxiety-provoking situations, or emergencies.

coping-skills training

coping-skills training therapy or educational interventions to increase an individual’s ability to manage a variety of often uncomfortable or anxiety-provoking situations, ranging from relatively normal or situational problems (e.g., test taking, divorce) to diagnosed disorders (e.g., phobias). The types of skills taught are tailored to the situation and can involve increasing cognitive, behavioral, and affective proficiencies.

copro- (copr-; kopro-; kopr-)

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coprolagnia (koprolagnia)

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coprolalia

coprolalia n. spontaneous, unprovoked, and uncontrollable use of obscene or profane words and expressions, particularly those related to feces. It is a symptom that may be observed in individuals with a variety of neurological disorders, particularly Tourette’s disorder. See also latah. Also called coprophrasia.

coprophagia

coprophagia n. the eating of feces. Also called coprophagy.

coprophemia (koprophemia)

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coprophilia

coprophilia n. literally, the love of feces, which is manifested in behavior as an excessive or pathological preoccupation with the bodily product itself or with objects and words that represent it. In classical psychoanalytic theory, these tendencies are held to represent a fixation during the anal stage of development.

coprophrasia

coprophrasia n. see coprolalia.

copula

copula n. in linguistics, a verb used so that it has little meaning other than to express equivalence between the subject and the complement in a sentence. In English, the most important copula is the verb be, as in He is my uncle or She is angry. Other verbs that can function as copulas include become, feel, get, seem, and look. Also called linking verb.

copulation

copulation n. sexual intercourse: coitus. Copulation usually includes mounting, intromission (insertion of the penis into the vagina), and ejaculation. In some species (e.g., rats), several intromissions are necessary prior to ejaculation, and a female must receive several intromissions in order for ova to be implanted in the uterus. In other species, copulation is necessary to induce ovulation. In many socially monogamous species, such as human beings, copulation can occur irrespective of the stage of the female’s ovulatory cycle.

copulatory lock

copulatory lock see mate guarding.

cordocentesis

cordocentesis n. see percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling.

core area

core area the central part of a group’s home range that is used most extensively, often where the major locations of food or shelter are found. Home ranges of groups may overlap considerably, but it is rare to find overlap in core areas.

core conflictual relationship theme (CCRT)

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core emotion

core emotion see primary emotion.

core gender identity

core gender identity in psychoanalytic theory, an infant’s sense of himself or herself as male or female, typically solidifying in the second year of life. See also gender identity.

core hours

core hours see flextime.

core knowledge

core knowledge the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying human cognition. Typically, each mechanism is characterized as having four properties. First, it is domain specific and functions to represent a particular kind of entity (e.g., individual objects, object kinds, places in the environment). Second, it is task specific and uses its representations to track and recognize objects and locations. Third, it uses only a subset of the information delivered by the organism’s input systems (e.g., visual perception) and sends information only to a subset of its output systems. Fourth, it is relatively automatic and impervious to explicitly held beliefs. In neonativist theory, infants and young children are thought to possess core knowledge in areas (relating, e.g., to people and social relations, objects, numbers, and quantities) that have been important throughout human evolutionary history. Its mechanisms are considered to be shared with many nonhuman species.

core relational themes

core relational themes 1. in the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions, a person’s judgments of the specific significance of particular events to himself or herself, resulting in the generation of specific emotional states (e.g., anger, joy, envy, or shame) in that person. Any core relational theme has three components: goal relevance, ego involvement, and coping potential. See appraisal dimension; primary appraisal; secondary appraisal. 2. repetitive patterns of relating to others that are presumed to be determined by relationships with parents and other influential individuals in early life. These relational themes can include dependent patterns and distrustful patterns, among others.

core temperature

core temperature see deep body temperature.

coreometer

coreometer n. see pupillometry.

CORFing

CORFing acronym for cutting off reflected failure. See basking in reflected glory.

Coricidin

Coricidin n. a trade name for dextromethorphan.

Corino de Andrade’s paramyloidosis

Corino de Andrade’s paramyloidosis see Andrade’s syndrome.

cornea

cornea n. the transparent part of the outer covering of the eye, through which light first passes. It is continuous laterally with the sclera. The cornea provides the primary refractive power of the eye. —corneal adj.

corneal reflection technique

corneal reflection technique a method of studying eye movements using light reflected from the cornea.

corneal reflex

corneal reflex the reflexive closing of the eyelids when the cornea is touched.

Cornelia de Lange syndrome

Cornelia de Lange syndrome a genetic disorder characterized by slow growth before and after birth, intellectual disability, skeletal abnormalities involving the arms and hands, microcephaly, short stature, and distinctive facial features (e.g., thin eyebrows that meet in the middle; long eyelashes; small, widely spaced teeth; a small, upturned nose). Mutations in the NIPBL, SMC1A, and SMC3 genes can cause the syndrome, with NIPBL the most common cause, accounting for 50% of cases. SMC1A and SMC3 gene mutations tend to cause milder symptoms than those seen in NIPBL mutations but are less common. In a third of cases of the disorder, the cause is unknown. Also called Amsterdam dwarf disease; Brachmann–de Lange syndrome; de Lange syndrome. [Cornelia de Lange (1871–1950), Dutch pediatrician]

Cornell Medical Index (CMI)

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cornu ammonis

cornu ammonis see hippocampus.

corollary discharge

corollary discharge a neuronal signal that encodes a copy of an intended motor command, which is sent to a structure in the brain (a brain comparator) that can compare the intended movement with the sensory feedback (reafference) that results from the actual movement. For example, when the eyes move, the world does not appear to move, even though the image of the world moves across the retina. The corollary discharge of the intended movement in effect cancels out the movement of the world over the retina. When the eye is moved passively by gently pushing on the eyelid, there is no corollary discharge, and the world appears to jump. Also called efference copy.

corona glandis

corona glandis the prominent posterior border of the head of the penis. See glans penis.

coronal plane

coronal plane the plane that divides the front (anterior) half of the body or brain from the back (posterior) half. Also called frontal plane.

coronal section

coronal section the cross section made by the coronal plane. Also called frontal section.

coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)

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coronary heart disease (CHD)

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coronary thrombosis

coronary thrombosis see thrombosis.

coronary-prone behavior

coronary-prone behavior actions or patterns of actions believed to be associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. See Type A personality.

corp-

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corpora

corpora pl. n. see corpus.

corporal

corporal adj. of or relating to the body.

corporal punishment

corporal punishment physical punishment; that is, punishment that uses physical force that causes pain but not injury to correct or control an individual’s behavior (e.g., spanking a child). Compare abusive punishment.

corporeal

corporeal adj. of a material, tangible nature, as opposed to spiritual.

corpse phobia

corpse phobia see necrophobia.

corpus

corpus n. (pl. corpora) 1. a body or distinct anatomical structure, such as the corpus callosum or corpus luteum. 2. a body of linguistic data, such as recorded conversation or written text, that is subjected to linguistic or psycholinguistic analysis.

corpus callosum

corpus callosum a large tract of nerve fibers running across the longitudinal fissure of the brain and connecting the cerebral hemispheres: It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain. The largest of the interhemispheric commissures, it is known as the great commissure. See also commissural fiber.

corpus callosum agenesis

corpus callosum agenesis see agenesis.

corpus cavernosum

corpus cavernosum (pl. corpora cavernosa) either of the columns of erectile tissue that form the superior (upper) portion of the body of the penis. A third column of tissue, the corpus spongiosum, lies inferior to the corpora cavernosa.

corpus luteum

corpus luteum a yellowish glandular mass in the ovary that remains after a graafian follicle has ruptured and released an ovum. Its development is stimulated by luteinizing hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, and it functions as a transient endocrine gland, secreting progesterone.

corpus mammillare

corpus mammillare see mammillary body.

corpus planning

corpus planning see language planning.

corpus spongiosum

corpus spongiosum a column of tissue on the inferior (lower) side of the body of the penis that surrounds the urethra and extends into the glans penis. Above it lie the two columns of the corpora cavernosa (see corpus cavernosum). The three columns, which are bound together by connective tissue, make up the erectile tissue of the penis. However, the corpus spongiosum does not become as erect as the corpora cavernosa during an erection. Also called corpus cavernosum urethrae.

corpus striatum

corpus striatum see basal ganglia.

correct detection

correct detection in signal detection tasks, an accurate report of a target stimulus (signal) by the participant in trials in which the signal is present, often expressed as a percentage accuracy rate (see hit rate). See also correct rejection; false detection; false rejection.

correct rejection

correct rejection in signal detection tasks, an accurate decision by the participant that a target stimulus (signal) is not present. See also correct detection; false detection; false rejection.

correction

correction n. 1. a quantity that is added, subtracted, or otherwise introduced to remove inaccuracy from a measure, calculation, or analysis. Corrections are made, for example, when the assumptions about data that accompany a statistical procedure do not correspond to the actual data being analyzed. 2. in optometry, the rectification of visual defects that are due to refractive errors through the use of corrective lenses.

correction for attenuation

correction for attenuation in analyses estimating the relationship between two variables, an adjustment for error introduced during the process of obtaining the measures, where such error serves to underestimate the measured effect.

correction for continuity

correction for continuity a procedure that is applied to adjust for the fact that a statistical method is based on an assumption that the data have a continuous distribution when, in fact, they have a discrete distribution. Yates’s correction for continuity is an example.

correction for guessing

correction for guessing a scoring rule for multiple-choice tests such that the expected value of getting an item correct under the assumption of no knowledge is 0 rather than 1/n, where n is the number of alternatives. Thus, if a test taker incorrectly answered four questions, a further 4/n would be deleted from his or her score. By thereby penalizing inaccurate responses, the correction discourages a test taker from guessing and provides a better estimate of that person’s true ability.

correction procedure

correction procedure the repetition or continuation of particular stimulus conditions (usually in discrimination training) after certain responses (usually errors) or in the absence of certain responses.

correctional facility

correctional facility any facility that houses or detains individuals who have been formally processed by the criminal or juvenile justice system, for the purpose of reform or rehabilitation. Examples include prisons, juvenile halls, and jails. Also called correctional institution.

correctional psychology

correctional psychology a branch of forensic psychology concerned with the application of counseling and clinical techniques to criminal and juvenile offenders in penal and correctional facilities (e.g., reformatories, penitentiaries). Correctional psychologists also participate professionally in court activities, probation departments, parole boards, prison administration, supervision of inmate behavior, and programs for the rehabilitation of offenders.

corrective advertising

corrective advertising advertising required of companies found guilty of deceptive advertising by the Federal Trade Commission. Such advertising is designed to counter the incorrect inferences deduced from the deceptive advertisement.

corrective emotional experience

corrective emotional experience 1. an experience through which one comes to understand an event or relationship in a different or unexpected way that results in an emotional coming to terms with it. 2. originally, a concept from psychoanalysis positing that clients achieve meaningful and lasting change through new interpersonal affective experiences with the therapist, particularly with regard to situations that clients were unable to master as children. [originally described in 1946 by Hungarian psychoanalyst Franz Alexander (1891–1964) and U.S. physician Thomas Morton French (b. 1892)]

corrective lens

corrective lens a lens worn on or in front of the eye to correct or improve vision. In eyeglasses, a pair of corrective lenses is mounted in a frame worn on the face; in contact lenses, the corrective lens is applied directly to the eye.

corrective therapy

corrective therapy see kinesiotherapy.

correlate

correlate 1. n. a variable that is related to another variable. See correlation. 2. vb. to calculate a correlation coefficient.

correlated samples

correlated samples see dependent samples.

correlation

correlation n. the degree of a relationship (usually linear) between two variables, which may be quantified as a correlation coefficient.

correlation analysis

correlation analysis any of various statistical procedures for identifying relationships among variables and determining their strength or degree. Canonical analysis and factor analysis are examples. Correlation analyses make no inferences about causality (compare causal analysis). Also called association analysis.

correlation barrier

correlation barrier the notion that there is a maximum correlation that can be obtained between tests of intelligence and the criteria that these tests are intended to predict, such as various measures of life success. Typically, such tests have only a moderate relationship (e.g., correlation coefficients between .3 and .5) with school performance and measures of success in later life.

correlation coefficient

correlation coefficient a numerical index reflecting the degree of linear relationship between two variables. It is scaled so that the value of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship (such that high scores on variable x are associated with high scores on variable y), –1 indicates a perfect negative relationship (such that high scores on variable x are associated with low scores on variable y, or vice versa), and 0 indicates no relationship. The most commonly used type of correlation coefficient is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient.

correlation matrix

correlation matrix a symmetrical square matrix displaying the degree of association between all possible pairs of variables contained in a set. A correlation coefficient between the ith and jth variables in a set of variables is displayed in the intersection of the ith row and the jth column of the matrix.

correlation ratio

correlation ratio (symbol: η) a measure of the strength or degree of relationship between two variables whose association is nonlinear (i.e., it cannot be depicted graphically by a straight line). Often referred to as eta, the correlation ratio is the nonlinear equivalent of the correlation coefficient.

correlational fallacy

correlational fallacy the fallacy that association implies causation: the practice of drawing conclusions about cause and effect based solely on observations of a relationship between variables. For example, assume a researcher found that dieters tend to weigh more than other people. If the investigator were to conclude that the diet is responsible for the additional weight, then he or she has committed a correlational fallacy.

correlational redundancy

correlational redundancy see distributional redundancy.

correlational research

correlational research a type of study in which relationships between variables are simply observed without any control over the setting in which those relationships occur or any manipulation by the researcher. Field research often takes this form. For example, consider a researcher assessing teaching style. He or she could use a correlational approach by attending classes on a college campus that are each taught in a different way (e.g., lecture, interactive, computer aided) and noting any differences in student learning that arise. Also called correlational design; correlational method; correlational study. Compare experimental research.

correspondence

correspondence n. in attribution theory, the extent to which an observed behavior, such as pushing past others to go to the front of a line, is believed to correlate to a general personality trait in the actor, such as rudeness or aggressiveness. Observers have a strong tendency to overestimate the correspondence of behaviors with traits (the fundamental attribution error). See actor–observer effect; correspondent inference theory. —correspondent adj.

correspondence bias

correspondence bias see fundamental attribution error.

correspondence problem

correspondence problem the requirement that elements in one image must be matched by the visual system with the same elements in another image when the two images differ from one another in some respect. In stereopsis, the features seen through the left eye must be matched to the features seen through the right eye before depth information can be inferred. In apparent movement, the elements in one stationary image must be matched with the same elements in the next stationary image if the elements are to be perceived as moving. Theories of object recognition must take into account the ability to recognize objects as the same, even though they may appear from different perspectives in two different scenes. The correspondence problem is solved effortlessly by the visual system but has proven to be extremely difficult to solve in artificial vision.

correspondence training

correspondence training a behavior therapy intervention for children and adolescents in which the clients are tangibly or socially reinforced either for verbally promising to do something and then following through or for doing a desired behavior and then verbally reporting on the activity. Promises and reports can be made to either an adult or a peer.

correspondent inference theory

correspondent inference theory a model describing how people form inferences about other people’s stable personality characteristics from observing their behaviors. Correspondence between behaviors and traits is more likely to be inferred if the actor is judged to have acted (a) freely, (b) intentionally, (c) in a way that is unusual for someone in the situation, and (d) in a way that does not usually bring rewards or social approval. See also attribution theory. [proposed in 1965 by U.S. social psychologists Edward E. Jones (1926–1993) and Keith E. Davis (1936– )]

corridor illusion

corridor illusion an illustration of size constancy in which two identical figures appear to be radically different in size. If the figures are placed in a picture of a corridor, the one placed in the distance appears larger than the one placed in the foreground. This is because depth cues affect expectations about true size.

corroboration

corroboration n. evidence to support a theory, fact, opinion, or the like. Austrian-born British philosopher Karl Popper (1902–1994) regarded mere corroboration as insufficient grounds for acceptance of a theory. He held instead that the proper test of a theory was one that had a high probability of refuting the theory if it was wrong, and that a theory lacking falsifiability was not scientific. —corroborate vb.

cortex

cortex n. (pl. cortices) the outer or superficial layer or layers of a structure, as distinguished from the central core. In mammals, the cortex of a structure is identified with the name of the gland or organ, for example, the adrenal cortex (see adrenal gland), cerebellar cortex, or cerebral cortex. Compare medulla. —cortical adj.

cortical activation

cortical activation activation of regions of the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex. It can be achieved by sensory stimulation or engagement in cognitive tasks or by such techniques as transcranial magnetic stimulation. The activation can be recorded by noninvasive techniques, such as electroencephalography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, or positron emission tomography.

cortical amaurosis

cortical amaurosis see amaurosis.

cortical amnesia

cortical amnesia a form of amnesia due to neurological causes, such as a stroke or brain injury.

cortical area

cortical area see Brodmann’s area; cerebral cortex.

cortical barrel

cortical barrel in nonhuman animals with facial whiskers, a column of neurons in the somatosensory area that receives sensory information from those whiskers. The cortical barrels correspond to the whiskers in a somatotopic fashion (see somatotopic organization).

cortical blindness

cortical blindness blindness, with normal pupillary responses, that is due to complete destruction of the optic radiations or the striate cortex. Because the subcortical structures (white matter) of the visual system are involved, it is also called cerebral blindness. Typically caused by a stroke affecting the occipital lobe of the brain, cortical blindness can also result from traumatic injury or hypoxia. In children, it is often a consequence of hydrocephalus, meningitis, toxic or hypertensive encephalopathy, trauma, or diffuse demyelinating degenerative disease. Complete loss of vision in a portion of the visual field is called partial cortical blindness.

cortical center

cortical center 1. an area of the cerebral cortex where sensory fibers terminate or motor fibers originate. 2. an area of the cerebral cortex specialized for a certain function, such as the speech center or the vision center.

cortical column

cortical column one of the vertical groups of interconnected neurons that span several cortical layers and constitute the basic functional organization of the neocortex. Columnar organization is most evident in visual cortex (see ocular dominance column; orientation column).

cortical control

cortical control 1. the normal regulation of an activity, such as movement of a limb, by the cerebral cortex. 2. control of a prosthesis by signals recorded from the cerebral cortex, which are computer-processed and amplified.

cortical deafness

cortical deafness deafness that is caused by damage to auditory centers in the cerebral cortex of the brain. The peripheral auditory system (which includes the retrocochlear neural pathways terminating in the brainstem) can be intact in this condition.

cortical dementia

cortical dementia dementia arising from degeneration of the cortical areas of the brain, rather than the subcortical (deeper) areas. The most common dementia of this type is Alzheimer’s disease. Compare subcortical dementia.

cortical dysplasia

cortical dysplasia abnormality in the development (e.g., size, shape) of the cerebral cortex.

cortical evoked potential

cortical evoked potential an evoked potential observed in the cerebral cortex. Also called cortical evoked response.

cortical hearing loss

cortical hearing loss hearing loss associated with auditory disorders due to damage to the higher neurological centers of the brain.

cortical inhibition

cortical inhibition inhibition of activity originating in the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex.

cortical lamina

cortical lamina any of the layers of cells in the cerebral cortex. See Brodmann’s area.

cortical layers

cortical layers the layers of neurons that constitute the structure of the cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex. In the cerebral cortex the number of layers varies, reaching a maximum of six in the neocortex. These six layers, identified by Roman numerals and starting from the outer surface, are I, the plexiform molecular layer, a narrow band of myelinated fibers; II, the external granular layer, containing granule cells and pyramidal cells; III, the external pyramidal layer, with medium-sized pyramidal cells in the outer zone and larger pyramidal cells in the inner zone; IV, the internal granular layer, which contains synapses of layer-III cells along with stellate cells categorized as granule cells; V, the ganglionic (or internal pyramidal) layer, which includes large pyramidal cells and the giant Betz cells; and VI, the polymorphic fusiform (or multiform) layer, which contains cells of many shapes but mainly spindle-shaped and pyramidal cells.

cortical lesion

cortical lesion a pathological change in the cerebral cortex of the brain, which may be congenital or acquired and due to any cause.

cortical localization

cortical localization see localization of function.

cortical magnification factor

cortical magnification factor the population density of the neurons in a cortical map with respect to degrees of visual angle. Visuotopical maps in the brain contain topographical representations of the visual field. Earlier maps of this kind preserved point-to-point correspondence with the retina and are therefore called retinotopic maps. In such maps the cortical magnification factor can be expressed in terms of the number of square millimeters of cortical surface needed to represent each degree of visual angle. At the center of gaze, the retinal fovea centralis (2°–4° of visual angle) has a high cortical magnification factor compared to the periphery. Also called magnification factor.

cortical map

cortical map a topographical representation of arrays of sensory receptors or motor effectors (muscle units) in the cerebral cortex. Examples are the topographical maps of visual point features such as light, contrast, spatial frequency (size), color, movement, and so forth in the visual cortex (see retinotopic map) and the sound frequency maps of the auditory cortex (see tonotopic organization). See also localization of function; topographic organization.

cortical neuron

cortical neuron a nerve cell that has its cell body in the cerebral cortex.

cortical potential

cortical potential an electric potential that originates in neurons of the cerebral cortex. See brain waves; electroencephalography.

cortical process

cortical process any of the mechanisms of the cerebral cortex that are involved in cognition. The early stages of cognitive input analysis are called early cortical processes; the later, more complex mechanisms are called higher cortical processes. See also executive functions.

cortical sensory aphasia

cortical sensory aphasia see Wernicke’s aphasia.

cortical-arousal factor

cortical-arousal factor in psychological aesthetics, a response to a work of art that is associated with ratings that are high on the drowsy–alert and weak–powerful scales. Compare uncertainty-arousal factor. [proposed by Daniel E. Berlyne]

cortical–subcortical motor loop

cortical–subcortical motor loop a loop, made up of projections between the motor cortex and structures in the basal ganglia and the thalamus, that monitors and sequences ongoing motor behaviors.

corticalization

corticalization n. see encephalization.

cortico-

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corticobasal ganglionic degeneration (CBGD)

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corticobulbar fiber

corticobulbar fiber see corticonuclear fiber.

corticofugal

corticofugal adj. describing nerve fibers or tracts that exit from the cerebral or cerebellar cortex. Corticofugal nerve fibers from the cerebral cortex include corticospinal, corticonuclear, and corticopontine fibers. Compare corticopetal.

corticomedial group

corticomedial group one of the two main groups of nuclei in the amygdala within the brain. It includes the central nucleus and receives mainly olfactory and pheromonal information; its output, via the stria terminalis, is to the hypothalamus and the basomedial forebrain. See also basolateral group.

corticonuclear fiber

corticonuclear fiber any of a group of fibers forming part of the pyramidal tract that extend from the cerebral cortex to nuclei in the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. Also called corticobulbar fiber.

corticopetal

corticopetal adj. describing nerve fibers or tracts that are directed toward the cerebral or cerebellar cortex. Compare corticofugal.

corticopontine

corticopontine adj. relating to or connecting the cerebral cortex and the pons in the brain.

corticospinal fiber

corticospinal fiber a nerve fiber of the corticospinal tract.

corticospinal tract

corticospinal tract a major motor pathway that originates in the cerebral cortex (see motor cortex), passes through the pyramid of the medulla oblongata, and descends to terminate in the spinal cord. At the pyramid, most of its fibers cross over to form the lateral corticospinal tract; the remaining fibers, forming the smaller anterior corticospinal tract, descend anteriorly in the white matter of the spinal cord to terminate in the anterior horns. See also pyramidal tract.

corticosteroid

corticosteroid n. any of the steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex, the outer layer of the adrenal gland. They include the glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol), which are involved in carbohydrate metabolism; and the mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone), which have a role in electrolyte balance and sodium retention. Also called adrenocorticoid.

corticosteroid therapy

corticosteroid therapy medical treatment that involves the use of corticosteroid drugs. Both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids may be used as replacement therapy in patients whose secretion of the natural hormones is deficient, either through disease or surgical removal of one or both adrenal glands. However, glucocorticoids are most widely used as anti-inflammatory agents; they are also used in the treatment of asthma, dermatologic conditions, and seasonal rhinitis.

corticosterone

corticosterone n. a corticosteroid hormone with glucocorticoid functions that include regulating the metabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into energy sources for body cells. The concentration of corticosterone in the plasma is used as an index of stress.

corticostriatonigral degeneration

corticostriatonigral degeneration see corticobasal ganglionic degeneration.

corticotropin

corticotropin n. a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, particularly when a person experiences stress. It stimulates the release of various other hormones (primarily corticosteroids) from the adrenal cortex, the outer layer of the adrenal gland. Also called adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); adrenocorticotropin.

corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)

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cortisol

cortisol n. a corticosteroid hormone whose glucocorticoid activity increases blood sugar levels. Blood levels of cortisol in humans vary according to sleep–wake cycles (generally being highest around 9:00 a.m. and lowest around midnight) and other factors; for example, they increase with lack of sleep and during pregnancy but decrease with diseases of the liver and kidneys. Cortisol is considered the primary stress hormone: In response to stress or injury, blood cortisol levels, and therefore glucose levels, increase, as does blood pressure, whereas activity of the immune system decreases and release of inflammatory substances in the body is contained. Cortisol thus improves the body’s ability to manage stress and to repair itself, and, since 1963, it and its synthetic analogs have been administered in the treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. Exposure to prolonged stress, however, can lead to excessive levels of cortisol, which can have deleterious effects on the body (e.g., hyperglycemia). Cortisol has also been implicated in intrauterine growth retardation of the fetuses of pregnant women exposed to profound environmental stress (e.g., trauma, industrial or natural disasters). Also called hydrocortisone.

cortisone

cortisone n. a corticosteroid that is produced naturally by the adrenal cortex or synthetically. Cortisone is biologically inactive but is converted to the active hormone cortisol in the liver and other organs. It is used therapeutically in the management of disorders caused by corticosteroid deficiency.

corumination

corumination n. in conversations between friends or other individuals in a dyadic relationship, an excessive focus on personal problems and negative affect to the exclusion of any other topic of conversation. [proposed in 2002 by U.S. psychologist Amanda J. Rose]

coryza

coryza n. the common cold, usually with nasal discharge (runny nose).

COSC

COSC abbreviation for combat and operational stress control.

cosleeping

cosleeping n. a practice in which one or both parents sleep in the same room with their infant, near enough for them to touch. Cosleeping arrangements may include three-sided bassinets that attach to the adult bed or cribs placed next to the bed. These arrangements are thought to promote bonding, encourage breastfeeding, and improve infant sleep. See also bed-sharing.

cosmetic surgery

cosmetic surgery a general category of multiple specific surgical procedures designed to improve or enhance some aspect of physical appearance. See plastic surgery.

cosmic consciousness

cosmic consciousness as originally conceived by Canadian psychiatrist Richard M. Bucke (1837–1902), the highest level of consciousness that can be attained by humans, experienced as a sense of the order, totality, and “living presence” of the universe and accompanied by intellectual enlightenment, moral exaltation, and a “consciousness of eternal life” or immortality. Bucke arrived at his coinage and understanding of the term initially through a mystical experience that he had at the age of 36. His best known book on the subject, Cosmic Consciousness: A Study in the Evolution of the Human Mind, was published in 1901. The term has since become more restrictively described as a sense of the totality of the universe and more broadly associated not only with mystical ecstasy but also with peak experiences, with the use of hallucinogenic drugs, and with such techniques as meditation, yoga, breathing exercises, fasting, and dwelling on certain paradoxical sayings (see Zen Buddhism). See also altered state of consciousness; mysticism.

COSR

COSR abbreviation for combat and operational stress reaction. See combat stress reaction.

cost analysis

cost analysis a systematic determination of the costs associated with the implementation of a program’s services. These include direct personnel, material, and administrative costs, calculated from the perspective of a given purchaser (e.g., government agency, client), budgetary category, and time period. Once determined, these costs are utilized further in cost–benefit analysis or cost-effectiveness analysis.

cost containment

cost containment a program goal that seeks to control the costs involved in managing and delivering the program outcome. In health administration, a range of fiscal strategies is used to prevent health care costs from increasing. See also cost analysis.

cost of concurrence

cost of concurrence the decrease that occurs in performance of a task that is placed in a dual-task context, even when the instructions are to emphasize that task. This cost is measured in terms of changes in reaction time or accuracy and is estimated from an analysis of a performance-operating characteristic.

cost-effectiveness analysis

cost-effectiveness analysis a measure of program efficacy or economic efficiency expressed in terms of the cost of achieving a unit of program outcome. Cost-effectiveness analysis measures the monetary value of resources used with clinical health effects (e.g., death rate, test performance), whereas in a cost–benefit analysis the economic return (e.g., reduced future use of health services) is expected to exceed the treatment cost (e.g., providing vaccinations). Cost-effectiveness analysis is most appropriate when programs have one main identifiable evaluation outcome, when future costs are not confounded with changes in outcome, or when outcomes are not directly reducible to monetary payoffs. See also cost-offset analysis.

cost-offset analysis

cost-offset analysis a measure of economic efficiency expressed in terms of interventions that save money independent of their health benefits. This saving is related to reduced health care utilization and costs (e.g., the use of generic vs. nongeneric pharmaceuticals) and may be a component included in cost–benefit analysis or cost-effectiveness analysis.

cost–benefit analysis

cost–benefit analysis 1. an analytic procedure that attempts to determine and compare the economic efficiency of different programs. Costs and benefits are reduced to their monetary value and expressed in a cost–benefit (or benefit–cost) ratio. Compare cost-effectiveness analysis. See also cost-offset analysis. 2. in behavioral ecology, a method of predicting which behavioral strategies are likely to be adaptive by comparing the potential costs and potential benefits of each possible behavior. Those behaviors that will lead to greater benefits relative to costs will be those that survive through natural selection. 3. see cost–reward analysis.

cost–reward analysis

cost–reward analysis in social psychology, a model that attempts to explain helping behavior in terms of the reinforcements and costs associated with specific helping actions. A helping act that possesses either high reinforcement value or very low cost value is more likely to be performed than a low-reinforcement, high-cost act. Also called cost–benefit analysis.

cot death

cot death see sudden infant death syndrome.

Cotard’s syndrome

Cotard’s syndrome a psychotic condition characterized by severe depression and intense nihilistic delusions (see nihilism) in which individuals insist that their bodies or parts thereof, and in some cases the whole of reality, have disintegrated or ceased to exist. [first reported in 1880 by Jules Cotard (1840–1887), French neurologist, who called it délire de négation (“delirium of negation”)]

cotherapy

cotherapy n. therapy by two therapists working with a client, pair of clients (e.g., a couple), family, or group to enhance understanding and to change behavior and relationships during treatment.

cotwin control

cotwin control see twin control.

couch

couch n. in psychoanalysis, the article of furniture on which the patient reclines. The use of the couch is based on the theory that this posture will facilitate free association, encourage the patient to direct attention inward to his or her world of feeling and fantasy, and enable the patient to access his or her unconscious mind. The expression “on the couch” is sometimes used popularly to indicate psychoanalytic treatment. Also called analytic couch.

cough suppressant

cough suppressant see antitussive.

coulrophobia

coulrophobia n. an excessive, persistent, and irrational fear of clowns. Situations in which clowns may be encountered (e.g., at birthday parties, circuses) are often avoided or else endured with intense anxiety or distress.

counseling

counseling n. professional assistance in coping with personal problems, including emotional, behavioral, vocational, marital, educational, rehabilitation, and life-stage (e.g., retirement) problems. The counselor makes use of such techniques as active listening, guidance, advice, discussion, clarification, and the administration of tests.

counseling process

counseling process the interpersonal process engaged in by counselor and client as they attempt to define, address, and resolve specific problems of the client in face-to-face interviews. See also counseling.

counseling psychology

counseling psychology the branch of psychology that specializes in facilitating personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan. Counseling psychology focuses on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns—such as improving well-being, alleviating distress and maladjustment, and resolving crises—and addresses issues from individual, family, group, systems, and organizational perspectives. The counseling psychologist has received professional education and training in one or more counseling areas, such as educational, vocational, employee, aging, personal, marriage, or rehabilitation counseling. In contrast to a clinical psychologist (see clinical psychology), who usually emphasizes origins of maladaptations, a counseling psychologist emphasizes adaptation, adjustment, and more efficient use of the individual’s available resources.

counseling relationship

counseling relationship the interaction between counselor and client in which the relationship is professional yet also characterized by empathic warmth and authenticity, with the counselor bringing professional training, experience, and personal insight to bear on the problems revealed by the client. The relationship is considered to be of central importance in bringing about desired change.

counseling services

counseling services professional help provided by a government, social service, or mental health agency to individuals, families, and groups. Services are typically provided by licensed counselors, psychologists, social workers, and nurses. See also counseling.

counselor

counselor n. an individual professionally trained in counseling, psychology, social work, or nursing who specializes in one or more counseling areas, such as vocational, rehabilitation, educational, substance abuse, marriage, relationship, or family counseling. A counselor provides professional evaluations, information, and suggestions designed to enhance the client’s ability to solve problems, make decisions, and effect desired changes in attitude and behavior.

counterargument

counterargument n. the contradiction of specific points in a formal argument, of information in a persuasive message, or of content in an internal thought.

counterattitudinal advocacy

counterattitudinal advocacy a persuasive message that contradicts a person’s current attitude.

counterattitudinal behavior

counterattitudinal behavior behavior that is inconsistent with an attitude. Having a negative attitude toward a political candidate but agreeing to donate money to that candidate’s political campaign is an example of counterattitudinal behavior. See also attitude–behavior consistency. Compare proattitudinal behavior.

counterattitudinal role play

counterattitudinal role play a technique used in psychodrama or role play in which the individuals taking part are directed to express opinions contrary to those in which they believe.

counterbalancing

counterbalancing n. arranging a series of experimental conditions or treatments in such a way as to minimize the influence of extraneous factors, such as practice or fatigue, on experimental results. In other words, counterbalancing is an attempt to reduce or avoid carryover effects and order effects. A simple form of counterbalancing would be to administer experimental conditions in the order A-B to half of the participants and in the order B-A to the other half; a Latin square would be a more complex form.

countercathexis

countercathexis n. see anticathexis.

countercompulsion

countercompulsion n. a compulsion that is secondarily developed to resist the original compulsion when the latter cannot be continued. The new compulsion then replaces the original so that the compulsive behavior can continue.

counterconditioning

counterconditioning n. an experimental procedure in which a nonhuman animal, already conditioned to respond to a stimulus in a particular way, is trained to produce a different response to the same stimulus that is incompatible with the original response. This same principle underlies many of the techniques used in behavior therapy to eliminate unwanted behavior in people.

counterconformity

counterconformity n. see anticonformity.

counterculture

counterculture n. a social movement that maintains its own alternative mores and values in opposition to prevailing cultural norms. The term is historically associated with the hippie movement and attendant drug culture of the late 1960s and early 1970s, which rejected such societal norms as the work ethic and the traditional family unit. See also subculture; youth culture. —countercultural adj.

counterfactual

counterfactual n. in linguistics, a conditional statement that is contrary to fact, as in If the Japanese had not bombed Pearl Harbor, the United States would not have become engaged in World War II. See conditional clause.

counterfactual thinking

counterfactual thinking 1. imagining ways in which events in one’s life might have turned out differently. This often involves feelings of regret or disappointment (e.g., If only I hadn’t been so hasty) but may also involve a sense of relief, as at a narrow escape (e.g., If I had been standing three feet to the left…). 2. any process of reasoning based on a conditional statement of the type “If X, then Y” where X is known to be contrary to fact, impossible, or incapable of empirical verification. Counterfactual thinking of the first sort is common in such historical speculations as If Hitler had been killed in July 1944, then … . Counterfactual thinking of the second and third types can play a useful role in evaluating the implications of a theory or heuristic and in thought experiments. See also as-if hypothesis; conditional reasoning.

counteridentification

counteridentification n. see concordant identification.

countermeasure

countermeasure n. in polygraph testing, any effort on the part of an individual to avoid being classified as deceitful or dishonest. Typically, individuals may use either drugs to reduce their level of physiological arousal or physical means (e.g., biting their tongue) to increase arousal to questions unrelated to the issue of interest.

countermeasure-intervention program

countermeasure-intervention program see social reform program.

counterphobic character

counterphobic character a personality that takes pleasure in pursuing risky or dangerous activities that other people would normally find anxiety provoking. In psychoanalytic theory, this is explained as a manic defense that achieves satisfaction from the feeling of mastering anxiety.

counterproductive work behavior (CWB)

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countershading

countershading n. a form of camouflage that involves using differential light and dark areas on the body to minimize the ability of predators to detect the organism. For example, fish often have dark-colored backs and light-colored bellies. A predator from below has difficulty discriminating the fish from the sky above, and a predator from above has difficulty discriminating the fish from the dark substrate below.

countershock

countershock n. a mild electric shock administered to a patient undergoing electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for 1 minute after the convulsive shock. The countershock is intended to relieve some of the common aftereffects of ECT, such as postconvulsion confusion or amnesia.

countershock phase

countershock phase see general adaptation syndrome.

countersuggestion

countersuggestion n. in psychotherapy, a suggestion by the therapist that contradicts or opposes a previous suggestion or a particular fixed idea. This strategy is used to decrease the influence of the previous suggestion or idea, provide an alternative, or both.

countertransference

countertransference n. the therapist’s unconscious (and often conscious) reactions to the patient and to the patient’s transference. These thoughts and feelings are based on the therapist’s own psychological needs and conflicts and may be unexpressed or revealed through conscious responses to patient behavior. The term was originally used to describe this process in psychoanalysis but has since become part of the common lexicon in other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy and in other therapies. In classical psychoanalysis, countertransference was viewed as a hindrance to the analyst’s understanding of the patient, but to modern analysts and therapists, it may serve as a source of insight into the patient’s effect on other people. In either case, the analyst or therapist must be aware of, and analyze, countertransference so that it can be used productively within the therapeutic process. See also control analysis.

coupled oscillators

coupled oscillators a dynamic system model used to represent many aspects of rhythmical movements, such as those of the lower limbs during locomotion. See also central pattern generator.

couples counseling

couples counseling counseling in which guidance and advice focus on issues confronting relationships between partners. Couples counseling is short-term and problem oriented; it may include a variety of approaches to such difficult areas as shared responsibilities, expectations for the future, and loyalties.

couples therapy

couples therapy therapy in which both partners in a committed relationship are treated at the same time by the same therapist or therapists. Couples therapy is concerned with problems within and between the individuals that affect the relationship. For example, one partner may have undiagnosed depression that is affecting the relationship, or both partners may have trouble communicating effectively with one another. Individual sessions may be provided separately to each partner, particularly at the beginning of therapy; most of the course of therapy, however, is provided to both partners together. Couples therapy for married couples is known as marital therapy.

coupon-return technique

coupon-return technique a method of testing advertising effectiveness in a printed medium, such as a magazine or newspaper, by inducing the reader to return a coupon by mail. The technique is sometimes used on a split-run basis in which the coupon is offered only to one part of the publication’s readership; alternatively, variations of an advertisement may be tested in different demographic areas in which the publication is sold. Some publications cooperate with advertisers using the coupon-return technique by charging for advertising space on a per-inquiry (p.i.) basis, each coupon returned counting as an inquiry.

courage

courage n. the ability to meet a difficult challenge despite the physical, psychological, or moral risks involved in doing so. Examples of acts of courage include saving another’s or one’s own life against a meaningful threat; coping with a painful, debilitating, or terminal illness; overcoming a destructive habit; and voicing an unpopular opinion. Also called bravery; valor. —courageous adj.

course

course n. the length of time a disorder, illness, or treatment typically lasts, its natural progression; and (if applicable) its recurrence over time.

course modifier

course modifier a pattern that develops in a disorder (e.g., recurrence, seasonal variation) that helps to predict its future course or may serve to alter its usual course.

court-ordered treatment

court-ordered treatment any assessment, treatment, consultation, or other service for defendants, plaintiffs, or criminal offenders that is mandated by a judge or magistrate.

courtesan fantasy

courtesan fantasy see hetaeral fantasy.

courtship

courtship n. the process of attracting a partner as part of sexual behavior, a period critical to reproductive success in many species. Animal courtship involves such activities as identifying and evaluating a potential mate, locating and defending appropriate sites for nests or dens, synchronizing the hormones involved in reproduction and engaging in other physiological preparations, and at times forming or strengthening pair bonds. Human courtship enables couples to develop mutual commitment, which has marriage as its goal, although it may take widely different forms in different cultures. For example, in some societies bodily contact between courting couples may be forbidden, whereas in others it may be accepted and even encouraged; or a man may be required in certain societies to obtain parents’ permission before asking a woman to marry him yet in others such a practice may be considered unnecessary or even impolite. See also mate selection.

couvade

couvade n. 1. a custom in some cultures in which the father takes to bed before or after his child is born, as if he himself suffered the pain of childbirth. 2. abdominal pain or other somatic symptoms appearing in male partners of pregnant women, usually presumed to be psychogenic in origin. Also called couvade syndrome.

covariance

covariance n. a scale-dependent measure of the relationship between two variables such that corresponding pairs of values of the variables are studied with regard to their relative distance from their respective means. A positive covariance results when values of one variable that lie above the mean of that variable tend to be paired with values of the second variable that also lie above the mean of that variable. A negative covariance results when values of one variable that lie above the mean tend to be paired with values of the second variable that lie below the mean.

covariance matrix

covariance matrix a square matrix that represents how variance in each variable in a set is related to variance in all other variables in the set. The covariances between pairs of variables are located at the intersection of the row and column that correspond to the two variables. The quantities along the diagonal of the matrix are variances rather than covariances. Also called dispersion matrix; variance–covariance matrix.

covariate

covariate n. a variable that exhibits covariation with a measured outcome or dependent variable: It is often included in an analysis so that its effect may be taken into account when interpreting the effects of the independent variables of interest. For example, covariates are used in analyses of covariance to statistically adjust groups so that they are equivalent with regard to these variables; they may also be used in multiple regression to minimize error that may arise from omitting any noncentral but potentially influential variables. Also called concomitant variable.

covariation

covariation n. a relationship between two quantitative variables such that as one variable tends to increase (or decrease) in value, the corresponding values of the other variable tend to also increase (or decrease). For example, if a person’s weight consistently rises as he or she grows older, then the two variables would be exhibiting covariation. See also illusory covariation. —covary vb.

covariation principle

covariation principle see attribution theory.

covenant marriage

covenant marriage a legal innovation in American marriage, first enacted in Louisiana in 1997 but not available in all states, in which heterosexual couples agree to participate in premarital counseling and to accept significantly more restricted grounds for divorce. Covenant marriage laws were designed to reduce the likelihood of divorce by strengthening marriages while making divorces more difficult to obtain. More symbolically, covenant marriage laws allow spouses to signal to each other and to their families and social networks that they view their marital vows as especially meaningful and permanent. Covenant marriage laws are usually written without regard to religion, but in practice, couples who choose a covenant marriage tend to be religious. Thus, although covenant marriage is associated with a lower risk of divorce, this may be attributable to the spouses’ religious beliefs and practices rather than to the covenant marriage per se.

cover memory

cover memory see screen memory.

cover story

cover story a plausible but false statement about the purpose of a research study given to research participants to avoid disclosing to them the true hypothesis being investigated. Such deception may be practiced when the participants’ behavior in the study is apt to be affected by knowledge of the experiment’s true purpose. For ethical reasons, the deception should not flagrantly violate the participants’ right to know what they will be getting into by taking part in the investigation; that is, the deception should not lead participants into harmful, embarrassing, risky, or otherwise compromising behavior. Participants should be debriefed about the cover story as soon as is feasible. See deception research.

coverage

coverage n. health care benefits and services provided within a given health plan.

covering-law model

covering-law model a model for scientific explanation positing that a phenomenon is explained only if it can be deduced from a set of statements among which is at least one general scientific law. Thus, a phenomenon can be explained only if it can be predicted. See also deductive-nomological model. [proposed by German philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel (1905–1997)]

covert

covert adj. denoting anything that is hidden or that is not directly observable, open to view, or publicly known, whether by happenstance or by deliberate design. Compare overt.

covert attention

covert attention attention directed to a location that is different from that on which the eyes are fixated. See covert orienting.

covert behavior

covert behavior behavior that is not directly observable and can only be inferred by the observer or reported by the subject. For example, imagining something is covert behavior. See also private event.

covert conditioning

covert conditioning a technique of behavior therapy that relies on the use of imagination and assumes that overt and covert behaviors are associated, that each affects the other, and that both forms of behavior depend on the laws of learning. The individual imagines performing a desired behavior in a problematic real-life situation, rewards himself or herself for mentally engaging in the behavior, and finally achieves an actual change in behavior. Also called covert behavioral reinforcement. [developed in 1966 by U.S. psychologist Joseph R. Cautela (1927–1999)]

covert desensitization

covert desensitization a form of desensitization therapy in which an individual is helped to overcome a fear or anxiety by learning to relax while imagining an anxiety-producing stimulus. A hierarchy is devised with a sequence of items that range from the least to the most anxiety-producing aspects of the stimulus. The individual then uses relaxation techniques while progressively imagining items on the hierarchy until able to imagine the stimulus without feeling anxious. Compare in vivo desensitization. See also systematic desensitization.

covert extinction

covert extinction a covert conditioning procedure in which the client first imagines performing an unwanted behavior and then imagines failing to be rewarded or to receive reinforcement for the behavior. See also covert positive reinforcement.

covert incest

covert incest 1. a form of emotional abuse in which a parent turns to his or her child as a surrogate partner, seeking from the child the emotional support that would more appropriately be provided by the person’s spouse or another adult. 2. see emotional incest. [concept developed by U.S. psychologist Kenneth M. Adams]

covert modeling

covert modeling a covert conditioning procedure in which the client pictures a role model, imagines behaving as this person might, and then visualizes specific favorable consequences of the behavior. See also covert positive reinforcement.

covert negative reinforcement

covert negative reinforcement in behavior therapy, a technique in which the client first imagines an aversive event and then switches to imagining engaging in a behavior that reverses the adversiveness of the event. For example, a client might imagine that he or she is alone at a restaurant, feeling insecure and unhappy, and then switches the imaginary scene to one in which he or she is asking another person for a date and that person says yes. Compare covert positive reinforcement.

covert orienting

covert orienting the shifting of attentional focus independently of the direction of gaze. Covert orienting can be shown by improved detection or identification of target stimuli at a cued location in the absence of eye movements. See covert attention.

covert positive reinforcement

covert positive reinforcement in behavior therapy, a technique in which a person imagines performing a desired behavior that is followed by a pleasant consequence and subsequently rehearsing the behavior in the hope that it will eventually be adopted. Also called covert reinforcement. Compare covert negative reinforcement.

covert rehearsal

covert rehearsal a technique in which rote repetition in one’s mind of words or behaviors is used to improve memory or to prepare for overt speech or behavior. See also behavior rehearsal.

covert reinforcement

covert reinforcement see covert positive reinforcement.

covert response

covert response any generally unobservable response, such as a thought, image, emotion, or internal physiological reaction, the existence of which is typically inferred or measured indirectly. For example, covert preparation for physical responses can be observed in an electric brain potential called the lateralized readiness potential and in electromyographic measures of muscle activity. Also called implicit response. Compare overt response.

covert sensitization

covert sensitization a behavior therapy technique for reducing an undesired behavior in which the client imagines performing the undesired behavior (e.g., overeating) and then imagines an unpleasant consequence (e.g., vomiting).

covert speech

covert speech talking to oneself. Covert speech is usually seen as the externalization of a person’s inner voice: Some explanations have equated it with thought itself. See also subvocal speech.

COWAT

COWAT abbreviation for Controlled Oral Word Association Test.

Cowper’s glands

Cowper’s glands see bulbourethral glands. [William Cowper (1660–1709), English surgeon]

Cox regression analysis

Cox regression analysis a statistical technique used to build multivariate models that relate one or more continuous or categorical variables to survival times, without requiring researchers to specify in advance the form or nature of such relationships. For example, one might use Cox regression to determine how likely it is that alcoholics who are abstinent at 3 months and at 6 months will relapse. A key methodological concept in Cox regression analysis is the hazard, that is, the immediate potential or “risk,” of event occurrence. There are two types of Cox regression: the simpler standard Cox regression model (or proportional hazards model) and a more complex generalization known as the extended Cox regression model. The standard model is used when the risk of event occurrence for the reference and comparison groups remains constant relative to one another over all time points, whereas the extended model is used when the effect of particular variables upon the occurrence of the event of interest changes over time. [David R. Cox (1924– ), British statistician]

CP

CP abbreviation for cerebral palsy.

CPA

CPA abbreviation for Canadian Psychological Association.

CPI

CPI abbreviation for California Psychological Inventory.

CPP

CPP abbreviation for conditioned place preference.

CPQ

CPQ abbreviation for Children’s Personality Questionnaire.

CPR fees

CPR fees abbreviation for customary, prevailing, and reasonable fees.

CPRT

CPRT abbreviation for child–parent relationship therapy.

CPS

CPS abbreviation for Comrey Personality Scales.

CPT

CPT 1. abbreviation for cognitive processing therapy. 2. abbreviation for continuous performance test.

CPZ

CPZ abbreviation for chlorpromazine.

CQT

CQT abbreviation for control question test.

CR

CR abbreviation for conditioned response.

CR10 scale

CR10 scale see Borg scale.

crack

crack n. a dried mixture of cocaine and baking soda that can be smoked. It produces a rapid, short-lived high. It is less pure than freebase cocaine and therefore less expensive and more accessible.

crack baby

crack baby slang for an infant whose mother used crack cocaine during pregnancy. In utero exposure to cocaine has been associated with negative effects on learning and functioning, although such effects are now believed to be less drastic than feared during the height of the crack epidemic in the 1980s.

cracking facades

cracking facades the process of encouraging people to reveal their true selves. It is associated with Carl Rogers’s encounter-group work.

Cramér’s V

Cramér’s V (symbol: V; φc) a measure of the degree of association between two variables that have two or more unordered response categories. More specifically, it is an omnibus effect size that quantifies the overall association among the rows and columns in a contingency table. Also called Cramér’s phi. [Harald Cramér (1893–1985), Swedish mathematician]

cramp

cramp n. a painful muscle spasm (contraction). See also dystonia.

cranial

cranial adj. referring or relating to the cranium.

cranial anomaly

cranial anomaly an abnormal head due to a congenital defect. The head may be abnormally large (as in hydrocephalus), abnormally small (as in microcephaly), or square shaped (as in some cases of osteopetrosis), or it may have sutures that fail to close. The defect is often related to a chromosome abnormality. Chromosomes 17 and 18 are often involved through trisomy or other aberrations.

cranial bifida

cranial bifida a neural tube defect closely related to spina bifida, resulting from a failure of the two sides of the head to fuse normally during prenatal development and resulting in either anencephaly or encephalocele. Also called cranium bifidum.

cranial capacity

cranial capacity the volume of the skull.

cranial diameter

cranial diameter the maximal width of the skull.

cranial division

cranial division the part of the parasympathetic nervous system whose fibers extend from cranial nerves. Compare sacral division.

cranial electrical stimulation

cranial electrical stimulation see electrosleep therapy.

cranial index

cranial index see cephalic index.

cranial nerve

cranial nerve any of the 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and are distributed mainly to structures in the head and neck. Some of the cranial nerves are sensory, some are motor, and some are mixed (i.e., both sensory and motor). Cranial nerves are designated by Roman numerals, as follows: I, olfactory nerve; II, optic nerve; III, oculomotor nerve; IV, trochlear nerve; V, trigeminal nerve; VI, abducens nerve; VII, facial nerve; VIII, vestibulocochlear nerve; IX, glossopharyngeal nerve; X, vagus nerve; XI, accessory nerve; and XII, hypoglossal nerve.

cranial pia mater

cranial pia mater see pia mater.

cranial reflex

cranial reflex a reflex mediated by one of the cranial nerves, such as the blink reflex in response to a bright light or to a touch to the cornea.

craniofacial anomaly

craniofacial anomaly a structural deformity, usually congenital, that involves the face and cranium. Disorders characterized by such anomalies include Treacher Collins syndrome, Crouzon’s syndrome, and Hurler’s syndrome (see gargoylism).

craniofacial dysostosis

craniofacial dysostosis see Crouzon syndrome.

craniography

craniography n. the study of the skull using photographs and drawings made from measurements of the configuration of the skull and the relations of its angles and craniometric points. The technique is not widely used now.

craniology

craniology n. 1. the scientific study of the size, shape, and other characteristics of the human skull. 2. see phrenology.

craniometry

craniometry n. the scientific measurement of the skull. —craniometric adj.

craniosacral system

craniosacral system a less common name for the parasympathetic nervous system.

craniostenosis

craniostenosis n. a skull deformity caused by premature closing of the cranial sutures. The condition restricts normal development of brain structures and usually results in intellectual disability.

craniosynostosis syndrome

craniosynostosis syndrome a condition caused by premature fusion of cranial bones, resulting in a skull deformity. The sagittal suture along the top of the skull is most often involved. Premature closing of one suture is unlikely to affect brain growth or intelligence, but premature fusion of multiple sutures increases the risk of neurological disorders.

craniotelencephalic dysplasia

craniotelencephalic dysplasia premature closure of some of the cranial sutures (see craniosynostosis syndrome) accompanied by protrusion of the frontal skull bone and intellectual disability, with or without encephalocele (brain herniation through the skull).

craniotomy

craniotomy n. the surgical opening of the skull, a procedure that may be performed, for example, to administer surgical treatment or to release pressure when the brain is expanding due to hydrocephalus or cerebral edema. Craniotomy is one of the oldest types of surgery: Evidence of it has been found in prehistoric skulls in nearly every part of the world. See also trephination.

cranium

cranium n. 1. the skull. 2. the portion of the skull that encloses the brain.

crank

crank n. a street name for smokable methamphetamine.

crash

crash n. 1. the withdrawal symptoms, usually dominated by feelings of severe depression, that occur following a lengthy period of amphetamine intoxication. The user may sleep for several days more or less continuously, displaying signs of exhaustion and irritation during waking periods. See amphetamine withdrawal. 2. the period following the “rush” or “high” produced by intravenous cocaine administration. As feelings of euphoria wear off, they are replaced by irritability, depression, and anxiety, as well as strong craving for another dose. See cocaine withdrawal.

craving

craving n. an unrelenting desire, urge, or yearning. It is often a criterion for the diagnosis of drug addiction or alcoholism.

craze

craze n. see fad.

CRB

CRB abbreviation for clinically relevant behavior. See functional analytic psychotherapy.

creatine kinase (CK)

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creationism

creationism n. 1. in its most general sense, the view that the universe was created out of nothing by a higher intelligence, in contrast to the view that it came into being without any such intervention, or that it has existed forever. Although most varieties of this view are religious, all need not be. 2. in a more restricted sense, a family of views that reject evolutionary theories in favor of a literal acceptance of the biblical creation story, holding (among other things) that the world was created by God in six days (or fairly short time periods) and that each species of animal (including humans) was created by a separate act of God. See also intelligent design. —creationist adj., n.

creative arts therapy

creative arts therapy therapeutic interventions that use artistic endeavors or mediums, such as music, poetry, dance, and drama, to facilitate communication and emotional expression, enhance self-awareness, and foster health and change. See also art therapy; dance therapy; drama therapy; music therapy; poetry therapy.

creative dramatics

creative dramatics the use, especially with children, of spontaneous drama-oriented play (“pretending”) as a therapeutic technique designed to enhance creativity and imagination, improve communication and social skills, and foster health. The emphasis in creative dramatics is not on the end product (e.g., performance) but rather on the creative process itself.

creative genius

creative genius see exceptional creativity.

creative imagination

creative imagination the faculty by which new, uncommon ideas emerge, especially when emergence does not seem explicable by the mere combination of existing ideas. The operations of the creative imagination are sometimes explained by the interaction of dormant or nonconscious elements with active, conscious thoughts. See also creative thinking; creativity; divergent thinking; imagination.

creative intelligence

creative intelligence in the triarchic theory of intelligence, the set of skills used to create, invent, discover, explore, imagine, and suppose. This set of skills is alleged to be relatively (although not wholly) distinctive with respect to analytical and practical skills. Compare analytical intelligence; practical intelligence.

creative synthesis

creative synthesis the combination of several ideas, images, or associations into a new whole that differs fundamentally from any of its components. See also mental synthesis. [coined by Wilhelm Wundt]

creative thinking

creative thinking the mental processes leading to a new invention, solution, or synthesis in any area. A creative solution may use preexisting elements (e.g., objects, ideas) but creates a new relationship between them. Products of creative thinking include, for example, new machines, social ideas, scientific theories, and artistic works. Compare critical thinking. See also divergent thinking.

creativity

creativity n. the ability to produce or develop original work, theories, techniques, or thoughts. A creative individual typically displays originality, imagination, and expressiveness. Analyses have failed to ascertain why one individual is more creative than another, but creativity does appear to be a very durable trait. See also creative imagination; creative thinking; divergent thinking. —creative adj.

creativity measurement

creativity measurement any psychological testing that is designed to identify creativity or divergent thinking. Existing tests focus on a variety of factors, such as an individual’s fluency with words and ideas or ability to generate original associations; tasks may involve finding solutions to practical problems, suggesting different endings to stories, or listing unusual uses for objects (see alternate-uses test). See also ARP tests; Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.

credentialing

credentialing n. the administrative process of reviewing a health care provider’s qualifications, practice history, and medical certification or license to determine if criteria for clinical privileges are met. See also professional licensing.

credible interval

credible interval in Bayesian methods, a range within which a particular value of a population characteristic has a specified probability of falling. It is the Bayesian equivalent of the confidence interval used in frequentist approaches. Also called credible region.

cremasteric reflex

cremasteric reflex the contraction of the cremaster muscle, which causes retraction of the testes toward the abdomen, caused by cold temperature or by stroking the skin on the inside of the thigh.

creole

creole n. a language that has evolved from profound and prolonged contact between two or more languages and both shares features of the present languages and evolves altogether novel features. Although typically developing from a pidgin, a creole becomes stable over time and will usually have a fully developed grammatical system. See also decreolization.

crepitation

crepitation n. 1. a soft, crackling sound heard on auscultation of the chest, which indicates disease of the lungs or airways. 2. the sound of bones or damaged cartilage surfaces rubbing against each other, as occurs in arthritis and other degenerative skeletal conditions.

crepuscular animals

crepuscular animals animals that are most active in a dimly lighted environment, for example, at dawn or dusk.

Crespi effect

Crespi effect in conditioning, an increase (or decrease) in a response that is disproportionate to the reinforcement. This occurs when there is a sudden shift in the amount of reinforcement; for example, if the amount of food given as reinforcement is suddenly increased from 1 g to 6 g, the level of performance is higher than if 6 g of food had been the only reinforcement given. Compare behavioral contrast. [Leo P. Crespi (1916–2008), U.S. psychologist]

cretinism

cretinism n. a condition associated with thyroid deficiency that, if untreated, results in delayed physical growth and intellectual disability. The term is derived from the French word chrétien, (Christian) because many early victims were children of an Alpine Christian sect whose diet was deficient in iodine, a necessary element for the synthesis of thyroid hormone. See athyreosis; congenital hypothyroidism. [first described in 1657 by Austrian physician Wolfgang Hoefer]

Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD)

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CRF

CRF 1. abbreviation for continuous reinforcement. 2. abbreviation for corticotropin-releasing factor.

CRH

CRH abbreviation for corticotropin-releasing hormone. See corticotropin-releasing factor.

cri du chat syndrome

cri du chat syndrome a chromosomal disorder involving deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5 and characterized by intellectual disability and developmental delays, walking and talking difficulty or inability, and an anomaly of the epiglottis and larynx that causes in infants a high-pitched wailing cry like that of a cat. Almost all affected individuals have very small heads (see microcephaly). The disorder is hereditary in only 10% of cases and more often results from a random event during early fetal development. Also called cat-cry syndrome; chromosome 5, deletion of short arm; crying-cat syndrome; Lejeune syndrome; monosomy 5p.

crib death

crib death see sudden infant death syndrome.

cribriform plate

cribriform plate a sievelike layer in the skull that supports the olfactory bulb and permits olfactory receptor fibers to extend through its holes to the olfactory epithelium.

crime control model

crime control model a view of legal process that places a premium on upholding law and order, the protection and safety of the public, and the apprehension and efficient processing of criminals. Compare due process model.

criminal anthropology

criminal anthropology an early positivist approach to criminology (see positivist criminology) associated with the theories of Italian criminologist and psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909). It embraced the notion of the “born criminal” or criminal type, based on the belief that criminals had certain physical characteristics (e.g., sloping forehead, large ears) that distinguished them from noncriminals. Lombroso identified these characteristics as “atavistic anomalies… that bring man closer to the inferior animals,” then developed a hypothesis that linked delinquency to constitutional anomalies and attributed the primal cause of crime to hereditary flaws.

criminal commitment

criminal commitment the confinement of people in mental institutions either because they have been found not guilty by reason of insanity or to establish their competency to stand trial as responsible defendants.

criminal conviction

criminal conviction a court declaration finding a person guilty and responsible for a criminal offense.

criminal intent

criminal intent see mens rea.

criminal profiling

criminal profiling techniques used to narrow a criminal investigation to suspects with certain personality and behavioral traits that might be inferred from the way a crime was committed, where it occurred, and other information such as the background of the victim or victims (i.e., victimology). Psychologists have played a central role in studying and developing these techniques. Although some research validates profiling as a tool that helps police concentrate their investigations, there is also controversy regarding such issues as hasty identifications that ignore or foreclose other leads, methodological flaws, and the like.

criminal psychopath

criminal psychopath a person with antisocial personality disorder who repeatedly violates the law.

criminal responsibility

criminal responsibility a defendant’s ability to formulate criminal intent (see mens rea) at the time of the crime with which he or she is charged; it must be proved in court before the person can be convicted. Criminal responsibility may be excluded for reason of insanity (see Durham rule; irresistible impulse rule; M’Naghten rule) or mitigated for a number of other reasons (see diminished capacity; diminished responsibility).

criminal type

criminal type a classification of individuals who repeatedly engage in criminal or illegal acts, supposedly because of a genetic predisposition to do so.

criminally insane

criminally insane describing defendants who are judged to have a mental illness or defect that absolves them of legal responsibility for the criminal acts they are alleged to have committed. The term is now seldom used.

criminology

criminology n. the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior, which includes its causes, prevention, and punishment. See also positivist criminology. —criminologist n.

crisis

crisis n. (pl. crises) 1. a situation (e.g., a traumatic change) that produces significant cognitive or emotional stress in those involved in it. 2. a turning point for better or worse in the course of an illness. 3. a state of affairs marked by instability and the possibility of impending change for the worse, for example, in a political or social situation. 4. in the analysis of scientific revolutions by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996), the situation that occurs when a particular theoretical system is overcome by so many anomalies that it is perceived to be failing and a search for a better theoretical system is under way.

crisis center

crisis center a facility established for emergency therapy or referral, sometimes staffed by medical and mental health professionals and paraprofessionals. See drop-in center.

crisis counseling

crisis counseling immediate drop-in, phone-in, or on-site professional counseling provided following a trauma or sudden stressful event, often for emergency situations or in the aftermath of a disaster. See disaster counseling; hotline.

crisis intervention

crisis intervention 1. the brief ameliorative, rather than specifically curative, use of psychotherapy or counseling to aid individuals, families, and groups who have undergone a highly disruptive experience, such as an unexpected bereavement or a disaster. Crisis intervention may prevent more serious consequences of the experience, such as posttraumatic stress disorder. See also emergency intervention. 2. psychological intervention provided on a short-term, emergency basis for individuals experiencing mental health crises, such as an acute psychotic episode or attempted suicide.

crisis intervention service

crisis intervention service any of the services provided (usually by governmental or social agencies) during emergencies, disasters, and personal crises. Such services include hotlines, drop-in services, and on-site intervention at the scene of a disaster.

crisis management

crisis management the organization and mobilization of resources to overcome the difficulties presented by a sudden and unexpected threat, such as widespread food contamination or a financial catastrophe. The psychological stress produced by a crisis can reduce the information-processing capacities of those affected, which should be taken into account by crisis managers when considering possible solutions.

crisis team

crisis team a group of professionals and paraprofessionals trained to help individuals cope with psychological reactions during and following emergencies or mental health crises, such as natural disasters or suicide threats or attempts.

crisis theory

crisis theory the body of concepts that deals with the nature, precipitants, prevention, and resolution of, as well as the behavior associated with, a crisis.

crista (crysta)

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criteria of evaluation

criteria of evaluation the criteria used to specify or measure program impact or, often, program outcome as stated in the evaluation objectives of a study.

criteria of the psychic

criteria of the psychic a proposed set of signs or indicators that would allow one to be confident in concluding that an organism possesses consciousness, or that a behavior arises from consciousness as opposed to purely physiological sources. The idea that such criteria could be formulated was proposed by Robert M. Yerkes. Yerkes’s structural criteria were general morphology, neural organization, and neural specialization; his proposed functional criteria were discrimination, modifiability of reaction, and variability of reaction.

criterion

criterion n. (pl. criteria) a standard against which a judgment, evaluation, or comparison can be made. For example, a well-validated test of creativity might be used as the criterion to develop new tests of creativity.

criterion contamination

criterion contamination a situation in which a response measure (the criterion) is influenced by factors that are not related to the concept being measured. Evidence of this may be observed through correlations of the response measure with variables that are conceptually distinct from that measure. For example, performance discrepancies (in dollars sold) among insurance agents may arise not from any actual differences in ability but rather from socioeconomic differences in territories assigned to the salespeople.

criterion cutoff

criterion cutoff see cutoff score.

criterion data

criterion data information obtained from supervisors or other sources, such as absence records, that may be used in measuring the performance of employees in a job. See job criterion; job performance.

criterion dimensions

criterion dimensions in industrial and organizational psychology, multiple standards or variables used to evaluate the overall job performance of an employee. These may include such aspects of performance as productivity, effectiveness, absences, errors, and accidents. Multiple criteria are often preferred over the use of a single criterion because an individual may be outstanding in one aspect of job performance but below average in another.

criterion group

criterion group a group tested for traits its members are already known to possess, usually for the purpose of demonstrating that responses to a test represent the traits they were intended to represent. For example, a group of children with diagnosed visual disabilities may be given a visual test to assess its validity as a means of evaluating the presence of visual disabilities.

criterion problem

criterion problem see particularism.

criterion score

criterion score 1. a score on a variable that serves as a standard against which other scores may be judged in a criterion-referenced test. 2. in regression analysis, a predicted score on an attribute or variable.

criterion validity

criterion validity an index of how well a test correlates with an established standard of comparison (i.e., a criterion). Criterion validity is divided into three types: predictive validity, concurrent validity, and retrospective validity. For example, if a measure of criminal behavior is valid, then it should be possible to use it to predict whether an individual (a) will be arrested in the future for a criminal violation, (b) is currently breaking the law, and (c) has a previous criminal record. Also called criterion-referenced validity; criterion-related validity.

criterion variable

criterion variable see dependent variable.

criterion-based content analysis (CBCA)

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criterion-referenced test

criterion-referenced test an exam from which decisions are made about an individual’s absolute level of accomplishment (i.e., mastery or nonmastery) of the material covered in that exam according to some standard reference point. For example, if a student obtains a score of 70% on a reading exam and a passing score is 65%, then he or she has done acceptably well. Also called content-referenced test. See also domain-referenced test; norm-referenced test.

critical

critical adj. 1. essential or necessary as an attribute or as a part of some process. A critical period, for example, is an essential stage in the developmental process. 2. emphasizing real or imagined faults. 3. characterized by or denoting thorough, impartial evaluation or review.

critical band

critical band the band of frequencies in a masking noise that are effective in masking a tone of a given frequency (see auditory masking). The width of this band, in hertz (Hz), is the critical bandwidth. For example, in detecting a 1 kHz tone in white noise, only frequency components in the noise between 920 Hz and 1080 Hz contribute significantly to the masking: The critical band is from 920 Hz to 1080 Hz, and the critical bandwidth is 160 Hz. In psychoacoustics there are many manifestations of critical-band “filtering,” including spectral effects in loudness summation and monaural phase effects. See also auditory filter; frequency selectivity. [first described in 1940 by U.S. physicist Harvey Fletcher (1884–1981)]

critical care unit (CCU)

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critical flicker frequency (CFF)

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critical life event

critical life event an event in life that requires major adjustment and adaptive behavior. Such events may be regarded in retrospect as unusually formative or pivotal in shaping attitudes and beliefs. Common critical life events include the death of a loved one, divorce, and unemployment. See also life events.

critical period

critical period 1. an early stage in life when an organism is especially open to specific learning, emotional, or socializing experiences that occur as part of normal development and will not recur at a later stage. For example, the first 3 days of life are thought to constitute a critical period for imprinting in ducks, and there may be a critical period for language acquisition in human infants. See also sensitive period. 2. in vision, the period of time after birth, varying from weeks (in cats) to months (in humans), in which full, binocular visual stimulation is necessary for the structural and functional maturation of the visual system. See also monocular rearing.

critical point

critical point a point in the course of psychotherapy at which the client sees his or her problem clearly and decides on an appropriate course of action to handle or resolve it.

critical range

critical range the range within which a particular biological measure must remain to ensure good health. See also set zone.

critical region

critical region a range of values that may be obtained from a statistical procedure that would lead to rejecting a specific claim about a population. More specifically, it is the portion of a probability distribution containing the values for a test statistic that would result in rejection of a null hypothesis in favor of its corresponding alternative hypothesis. Also called rejection region. Compare acceptance region.

critical thinking

critical thinking a form of directed, problem-focused thinking in which the individual tests ideas or possible solutions for errors or drawbacks. It is essential to such activities as examining the validity of a hypothesis or interpreting the meaning of research results. Compare creative thinking. See convergent thinking.

critical value

critical value a value used to make decisions about whether a test result is statistically meaningful. For example, to evaluate the result of a t test to determine whether a sample mean is significantly different from the hypothesized population mean, a researcher would compare the obtained test statistic to the values from a t distribution at a given probability level. If the statistic exceeds the critical value within that distribution, the null hypothesis is rejected and the result is considered significant. Also called rejection value. See also critical region.

critical-incident stress debriefing (CISD)

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critical-incident technique (CIT)

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CRM

CRM abbreviation for customer relationship management.

Cro-Magnon

Cro-Magnon n. an early form of modern human (Homo sapiens) inhabiting Europe in the late Paleolithic period, so named because the first skeletal remains were found in the Cro-Magnon cave in southern France.

Crocker–Henderson odor system

Crocker–Henderson odor system a theory that posits four primary odor qualities: acid, burnt, caprylic, and fragrant. The presence of each primary in an odor is assessed via a 9-point scale (0–8) indicating the relative intensity of each quality. See also Henning’s odor prism. [Ernest C. Crocker (1888–1964) and Lloyd F. Henderson, U.S. chemists]

Cronbach’s alpha

Cronbach’s alpha a measure of the average strength of association between all possible pairs of items contained within a set of items. It is a commonly used index of the internal consistency of a test and ranges in value from 0, indicating no internal consistency, to 1, indicating perfect internal consistency. Also called alpha coefficient; coefficient alpha. [Lee J. Cronbach]

cross section

cross section n. a slice cut through any plane of an object or organ for examination. See coronal section; horizontal section. —cross-sectional adj.

cross-activation theory

cross-activation theory see synesthesia.

cross-adaptation

cross-adaptation n. the change in sensitivity to one stimulus caused by adaptation to another. See cross-nasal adaptation.

cross-addiction

cross-addiction n. see cross-dependence.

cross-classification

cross-classification n. the placing of observations or individuals into classes based on the features of two or more variables. More specifically, it is a system of classification used in experimentation in which each person or other sampling unit is assigned to the intersection of a row category and a column category. This is usually carried out by means of a contingency table.

cross-classification table

cross-classification table see contingency table.

cross-conditioning

cross-conditioning n. conditioning to a neutral stimulus when this stimulus by coincidence occurs simultaneously with an unconditioned stimulus.

cross-correlation

cross-correlation n. a measure of the degree of association between corresponding values from a series of values for two or more variables.

cross-correlation mechanism

cross-correlation mechanism the auditory mechanism thought to underlie sound localization based on interaural time differences (see binaural cue).

cross-correspondence

cross-correspondence n. in spiritualism and parapsychology, the situation in which two or more mediums, who claim to be in touch with the same spirit source but not with each other, produce similar or complementary messages. To the believer, cross-correspondence provides firm evidence for the objective reality of spirit messages (or, at the very least, for some form of telepathy between the mediums). A more mundane explanation might stress (a) the mediums’ access to the same biographical facts about the dead person and the same information regarding his or her interests, tastes, and opinions and (b) the mediums’ knowledge of the same spiritualist texts concerning the nature of the afterlife and the spirit world.

cross-cuing

cross-cuing n. the use of one sense modality to identify an object when another, more direct sense modality is not available. For example, commissurotomy (the split-brain technique) has revealed that auditory information may be used to name a visual object when visual information is not available to the cerebral hemisphere mainly responsible for speech.

cross-cultural approach

cross-cultural approach a research method in which specific social practices, such as courtship behavior, child-rearing practices, or therapeutic attitudes and techniques, are studied and compared across a number of different cultures. Also called cross-cultural method.

cross-cultural psychology

cross-cultural psychology a branch of psychology that studies similarities and variances in human behavior across different cultures and identifies the different psychological constructs and explanatory models used by these cultures. It has been influenced by anthropology and emphasizes social psychological analyses of international differences. See also ethnic psychology; multicultural psychology.

cross-cultural research

cross-cultural research the systematic study of human psychological processes and behavior across multiple cultures, involving the observation of similarities and differences in values, practices, and so forth between different societies. Cross-cultural research offers many potential advantages, informing theories that accommodate both individual and social sources of variation, but also involves numerous risks, notable among them the production of cultural knowledge that is incorrect because of flawed methodology. Indeed, there are a host of methodological concerns that go beyond monocultural studies, including issues concerning translation, measurement, equivalence, sampling, data analytic techniques, and data reporting. Also called cross-cultural method; cross-cultural study.

cross-cultural testing

cross-cultural testing the assessment of individuals from different cultural backgrounds. The use of instruments that are free of bias is essential to valid cross-cultural testing, as it provides for the measurement equivalency necessary to ensure that outcomes have the same meaning across diverse populations of interest. For example, scores on a coping questionnaire that possesses bias may be a legitimate measure of coping if they are compared within a single cultural group, whereas cross-cultural differences identified on the basis of this questionnaire may be influenced by other factors, such as translation issues, item inappropriateness, or differential response styles. See also culture-fair test.

cross-cultural treatment

cross-cultural treatment treatment in situations in which therapist and client differ in terms of race, ethnicity, language, or lifestyle. Mental health providers should be attentive to cultural differences with clients for the following (among other) reasons: (a) Social and cultural beliefs influence diagnosis and treatment; (b) diagnosis differs across cultures; (c) symptoms are expressed differently across cultures; (d) formal diagnostic categories reflect majority cultural values; and (e) most providers are from the majority culture.

cross-dependence

cross-dependence n. 1. the ability of one substance to prevent withdrawal symptoms from a different substance of the same class or with a similar effect. This is the pharmacological mechanism behind substitution pharmacotherapy: Cross-dependence allows the substitution of a less dangerous drug as treatment for substance dependence, as in the substitution of methadone for heroin. 2. the condition of becoming rapidly dependent on a substance that is related to one for which there is already dependence. 3. the condition of being simultaneously dependent on more than one substance. Also called cross-addiction. Compare cross-tolerance.

cross-dimension attitude consistency

cross-dimension attitude consistency the extent to which the dimensions (i.e., distinct categories of information) underlying attitude-relevant knowledge are evaluatively consistent with one another. For example, if the information related to one dimension is extremely positive and the information related to a second dimension is extremely negative, cross-dimension attitude consistency is low. Also called between-dimension consistency. See also ambivalence of an attitude; complexity of an attitude; within-dimension attitude consistency.

cross-dressing

cross-dressing n. the process or habit of putting on the clothes of the opposite sex. It is done for a variety of reasons, for example, as part of a performance, as social commentary, or for sexual pleasure. See transvestic fetishism; transvestism.

cross-education

cross-education n. see cross-training.

cross-eye

cross-eye n. a type of strabismus (squint) in which there is a deviation of one or both eyes toward the other. The condition usually begins in infancy and is caused by deficient activity of one or more extrinsic eye muscles. Uncorrected cross-eye results in double visual images or functional amblyopia. Cross-eye can be treated surgically in most cases. Also called convergent strabismus; esotropia.

cross-fostering

cross-fostering n. 1. in animal behavior studies, the exchange of offspring between litters as a means of separating the effects of genetics from early experience. Wild rats reared by laboratory rats display less aggressive behavior, and mice from a polygynous species with low levels of territorial aggression that are cross-fostered to monogamous territorial mice display increased aggression and have patterns of brain neuropeptides more similar to their foster parents than to their natural parents. See also sexual imprinting. 2. a similar technique used for investigating the effect of genetic factors in the development of a disorder. It involves either (a) having the offspring of biological parents who do not show the disorder reared by adoptive parents who do or (b) having offspring of parents who show the disorder reared by parents who do not. Children cross-fostered in this manner are called index adoptees, whereas control adoptees are children whose biological parents and adoptive parents do not show the disorder.

cross-functional team

cross-functional team in business, a work group composed of members of diverse departments across the organization and different levels of authority. Each member of the team brings specific functional expertise necessary to handle a specific product, issue, or customer. Also called project team. See also subject-matter expert.

cross-gender behavior

cross-gender behavior the process or habit of assuming the role of the opposite gender by adopting the clothes, hair style, and manner of speaking and gesturing that society considers characteristic of that gender. See cross-dressing.

cross-lagged panel design

cross-lagged panel design a study of the relationships between two or more variables across time in which one variable measured at an earlier point in time is examined with regard to a second variable measured at a later point in time, and vice versa. For example, suppose an organizational researcher measures job satisfaction and job performance at the beginning of one fiscal year and at the beginning of a second fiscal year. Examining the correlations between satisfaction and performance at the different times provides information about their possible causal association: If the correlation between high performance at Time 1 and satisfaction at Time 2 is significantly stronger than the correlation between satisfaction at Time 1 and performance at Time 2, it is potentially the case that those who perform better are the ones who subsequently are more satisfied with their jobs.

cross-linkage theory

cross-linkage theory the concept that biological aging results from functional deterioration of body tissues due to the molecular cross-linkages of and subsequent structural changes in collagen and other proteins. [proposed in 1942 by Finnish-born U.S. chemist Johan Bjorksten (1907–1995)]

cross-modal association

cross-modal association 1. the coordination of sensory inputs involving different brain regions. It is usually required in tasks that involve matching auditory and visual inputs, tactile and visual inputs, or a similar combination of cognitive functions. Lesions in the temporal, parietal, or occipital lobes may be diagnosed by cross-modal association testing. See perceptual synthesis; sensory interaction. 2. a phenomenon in which the input to one sense reliably generates an additional sensory output that is usually generated by the input to a separate sense.

cross-modal matching

cross-modal matching the ability to recognize an object initially inspected with one modality (e.g., touch) via another modality (e.g., vision). Also called intermodal matching.

cross-modal perception

cross-modal perception see intersensory perception.

cross-modal transfer

cross-modal transfer recognition of an object through a sense other than the sense through which the object was originally encountered.

cross-modality matching

cross-modality matching a direct scaling method of matching the magnitude of a stimulus (e.g., the brightness of a light) to the magnitude of another stimulus to which a different sense responds (e.g., the loudness of a sound).

cross-nasal adaptation

cross-nasal adaptation olfactory adaptation in one side of the nose after presenting a stimulus to the other side of the nose. Typically, cross-nasal adaptation is less pronounced than the adaptation in the side of the nose that receives the stimulus.

cross-product

cross-product n. the set of values obtained by multiplying each value of one variable (x) by each value of a second variable (y).

cross-sectional analysis

cross-sectional analysis the examination of data that have been collected at a single point in time. For example, a researcher might conduct a cross-sectional analysis after measuring the income of people in different professions at the end of a particular year. Compare time-series analysis.

cross-sectional design

cross-sectional design a research design in which individuals, typically of different ages or developmental levels, are compared at a single point in time. An example is a study that involves a direct comparison of 5-year-olds with 8-year-olds. Given its snapshot nature, however, it is difficult to determine causal relationships using a cross-sectional design. Moreover, a cross-sectional study is not suitable for measuring changes over time, for which a longitudinal design is required. See also cross-sectional analysis.

cross-sectional sampling

cross-sectional sampling a sampling method in which scores are obtained at a single point in time. For example, cross-sectional sampling may involve collecting data from individuals of various ages or developmental levels so as to study behavioral or other differences among them.

cross-sequential design

cross-sequential design a study in which two or more groups of individuals of different ages are directly compared over a period of time. It is thus a combination of a cross-sectional design and a longitudinal design. For example, an investigator using a cross-sequential design to evaluate children’s mathematical skills might measure a group of 5-year-olds and a group of 10-year-olds at the beginning of the research and then subsequently reassess the same children every 6 months for the next 5 years. Also called cross-sequential study.

cross-situational consistency

cross-situational consistency the degree to which a psychological attribute, such as a personal disposition or a cognitive style, is displayed in the same, or a functionally equivalent, manner in different social environments.

cross-tabulation

cross-tabulation n. the number, proportion, or percentage of cases that have specific combinations of values on two variables that each have multiple categories. Such information may be presented visually in a cross-tabulation table. For example, a cross-tabulation table could be used to show the number of study participants according to both their sex and marital status.

cross-talk

cross-talk n. a pattern of errors that occurs during the concurrent performance of tasks when the components of one task impinge on those of the other task, for example, when performing a different task with each hand. See dual-task performance.

cross-tolerance

cross-tolerance n. a condition in which tolerance to one drug results in a lessened response (i.e., increased tolerance) to a related drug. Cross-tolerance may be seen with amphetamines, benzodiazepines, hallucinogens, and opiates, among other drugs. Compare cross-dependence.

cross-training

cross-training n. 1. training employees in a variety of tasks or jobs that are outside their specialty areas so that they can substitute for one another when unforeseen absences occur. Cross-training is used to develop employee skills and to increase the flexibility with which a group or organization can deal with work demands. 2. improvement in skill performance of one part of the body (e.g., the left hand) as a result of practice with another part of the body (e.g., the right hand). Also called cross-education. 3. in sport, combining different sport or fitness activities to improve such areas as performance, endurance, flexibility, or weight loss. Combinations such as running (track), swimming, and weightlifting are typical. —cross-train vb.

cross-validation

cross-validation n. a procedure used to assess the utility or stability of a statistical model. A data set is randomly divided into two subsets, the first of which (the derivation sample) is used to develop the model and the second of which (the cross-validation sample) is used to test it. In regression analysis, for example, the first subset would be analyzed in order to develop a regression equation, which would then be applied to the remaining subset to see how well it predicts the scores that were actually observed.

crossbreeding

crossbreeding n. see outbreeding.

crossed aphasia

crossed aphasia aphasia resulting from damage to the right hemisphere of the brain rather than the left hemisphere, which is more common.

crossed disparity

crossed disparity see uncrossed disparity.

crossed dominance

crossed dominance the tendency for some right-handed people to have a stronger or dominant left eye, and vice versa for the left-handed.

crossed reflex

crossed reflex a reflex that occurs on the opposite side of the body from the part stimulated, such as the crossed-extension reflex.

crossed-extension reflex

crossed-extension reflex a reflexive action by a contralateral limb to compensate for loss of support when the ipsilateral limb withdraws from a painful stimulus. The reflex, which helps shift the burden of body weight, is also associated with the coordination of legs in walking by flexing muscles on the left side when those on the right are extending, and vice versa.

crossed-factor design

crossed-factor design a study that involves two or more conditions or treatments in which each level of one condition or treatment is combined with each level of every other condition or treatment. For instance, a pharmaceutical treatment (Drug A vs. Drug B) may be combined with a biofeedback treatment (biofeedback vs. no biofeedback) so that each drug is combined with each type of biofeedback to form four possible interventions or treatment plans. The individual conditions being manipulated are known as crossed factors or crossed treatments. Also called crossed design.

crossing over

crossing over in genetics, see recombination.

crossover design

crossover design a study in which different treatments are applied to the same individuals but in different sequences. In the most basic crossover design, a group of participants receives Treatment A followed by Treatment B whereas a second group receives Treatment B followed by Treatment A. For example, a researcher could use such a design to assess the effect of attending a day service on stroke survivors, randomly assigning participants to one of two groups, the first of which would attend the service for 6 months and then not attend for 6 months, and the second of which would not attend the service for 6 months and then would attend for 6 months. As with within-subjects designs, the benefit of this design is the reduction in error variance. Also called crossover study; crossover trial. Compare parallel-groups design. See also Graeco-Latin square; Latin square.

Crouzon syndrome

Crouzon syndrome a condition in which a wide skull with a protrusion near the anterior fontanel (on top of the head, at the front) is associated with a beaked nose and ocular abnormalities (see craniosynostosis syndrome). The latter may include atrophy, divergent strabismus, and blindness. Neurological disorders may result from intracranial pressure, and intellectual disability may occur in some cases. Also called craniofacial dysostosis. See also Apert syndrome. [described in 1912 by Octave Crouzon (1874–1938), French neurologist]

crowd

crowd n. a sizable gathering of people who temporarily share a common focus and a single location. Crowds vary in shape, size, and type; some common types include casual crowds and milling crowds that form in the street, audiences, queues, and mobs.

crowd behavior

crowd behavior the activities or conduct of a group of people who congregate temporarily while their attention is focused on the same object or event. Such behavior may differ depending on the nature of the crowd. For example, an audience tends to be relatively passive (smiling, laughing, applauding), whereas a street or milling crowd typically moves without apparent aim and a mob may act violently. See also collective behavior.

crowd psychology

crowd psychology 1. the mental and emotional states and processes unique to individuals when they are members of street crowds, mobs, and other such collectives. 2. the scientific study of these phenomena. See also collective psychology.

crowding

crowding n. 1. psychological tension produced in environments of high population density, especially when individuals feel that the amount of space available to them is insufficient for their needs. Crowding may have a damaging effect on mental health and may result in poor performance of complex tasks, stressor aftereffects, and increased physiological stress. In nonhuman animals, crowding can lead to impaired reproduction, decreased life expectancy, and a variety of pathological behaviors. Two key mechanisms underlying crowding are lack of control over social interaction (i.e., privacy) and the deterioration of socially supportive relationships. See also behavioral sink; density. 2. a phenomenon in which the perception of a suprathreshold target is impaired by nearby distractors, reflecting a fundamental limitation on visual spatial resolution. In reading, for example, letter recognition is reduced by crowding from adjacent letters. Also called crowding effect.

CRS

CRS abbreviation for Conners’ Rating Scales.

crus

crus n. (pl. crura) 1. the portion of the leg between the knee and the ankle. 2. a leglike part of the body, such as the ventral portion of a cerebral peduncle. —crural adj.

crus cerebri

crus cerebri see cerebral peduncle.

crutch

crutch n. 1. a device, usually made of metal or wood, designed to provide ambulatory support to people with disabilities or other problems affecting the lower limbs. 2. colloquially, a nonspecific coping or support mechanism, which may be of a psychological, medicinal, or other nature. 3. a learning aid.

crying-cat syndrome

crying-cat syndrome see cri du chat syndrome.

cryo-

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cryogenics

cryogenics n. the branch of physics concerned with the study of extremely low temperatures and resulting phenomena. It has diagnostic and therapeutic application, as when certain immunoglobulins associated with a variety of diseases are detected in the blood by reducing the temperature of a blood sample to the point at which the substances separate from the blood serum. Cryogenic methods are also used to freeze tissue samples to be sliced for microscopic examination or to be destroyed, as in cryogenic surgery, which selectively destroys diseased tissue by freezing it.

cryonic suspension

cryonic suspension the attempt to preserve a corpse with the intention of subsequent revival and restoration to healthy life. Dr. James H. Bedford, a retired professor of psychology who died on January 12, 1967, is thought to have been the first person to be placed in cryonic suspension (in a stainless steel chamber filled with liquid nitrogen). An estimated 250 people have since undergone the procedure upon their death. No human resuscitations from cryonic suspension have yet been reported or, as far as is known, even attempted.

cryostat

cryostat n. a device for cutting thin, frozen sections (slices) of tissue, used, for example, in preparing brain and other tissue sections for microscopic examination. Compare microtome.

crypsis

crypsis n. the ability to remain inconspicuous through immobility and other behavior or through the use of camouflage. —cryptic adj.

cryptarithmetic

cryptarithmetic n. in studies of problem solving, an arithmetic problem in which the digits are replaced with letters. The participant must determine which digit is represented by each letter. See also code test; cryptogram.

cryptesthesia (cryptaesthesia)

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cryptic female choice

cryptic female choice a practice in which females mate with several males but “choose” which one’s sperm will fertilize their eggs, concealing these decisions from the males. This practice allows females more choice in mate selection. In studies demonstrating cryptic female choice, it is the sperm that is genetically most compatible that fertilizes the female’s eggs, rather than sperm from the most attractive males.

crypto- (crypt-)

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cryptogram

cryptogram n. in studies of problem solving, a short quip or quotation whose letters are randomly assigned to replace one another (e.g., s stands for a, a stands for n, and so on). The participant must determine the letter correspondences used in the cryptogram and thus decode the message. See also code test; cryptarithmetic.

cryptomnesia

cryptomnesia n. an implicit memory phenomenon in which people mistakenly believe that a current thought or idea is a product of their own creation when, in fact, they have encountered it previously and then forgotten it. Cryptomnesia can occur in any creative enterprise, as for example when an investigator develops a research idea that he or she believes is original whereas in actuality it can be documented that he or she saw or heard the idea at some earlier point in time. Also called inadvertent plagiarism; unconscious plagiarism.

cryptophasia

cryptophasia n. secret or incomprehensible language, especially the peculiar communication patterns that are sometimes developed between twins and are understandable only to them.

cryptophoric symbolism

cryptophoric symbolism a type of representation expressed indirectly in the form of a metaphor. For example, a person may describe a difficult relationship in terms of an illegible map or a stuck door. In metaphor therapy, patients are encouraged to alter their attitudes or perceptions by finding new metaphors. Also called metaphoric symbolism. [described by U.S. psychotherapist Richard R. Kopp (1942–2012)]

cryptophthalmos syndrome

cryptophthalmos syndrome a familial or hereditary disorder in which a child is born with skin covering the eyes. The anomaly may occur on one side or both. The eyes are usually present under the facial skin but abnormal; eyelids, eyelashes, and, usually, tear ducts are lacking. The individual may be able to discern light and colors. Hearing loss is common, as are ear anomalies. Intellectual disability, malformations in the genitals, and syndactyly (fused fingers or toes) can also occur. Also called Fraser–François syndrome; Fraser syndrome.

cryptorchidism

cryptorchidism n. the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. It is not unusual and does not interfere with male hormonal function, but spermatogenesis is unlikely if the individual with this condition is not treated in childhood. The untreated condition is also associated with an increased incidence of testicular cancer in later life. Also called arrested testis; undescended testicle. See also ectopic testis; hypermobile testes; monorchidism. —cryptorchid adj., n.

crysta

crysta n. see crista.

crystal gazing

crystal gazing 1. in certain alternative therapies, a technique in which an individual is instructed to visualize significant experiences or produce associations while staring into a glass ball, light bulb, mirror, or other shiny or transparent object. 2. the occult practice in which a fortune teller or clairvoyant looks into a crystal ball to “see” visions of future or hidden events, usually in the life of a particular client. It is a form of scrying.

crystal healing

crystal healing a pseudoscientific medical practice in which the alleged power of certain crystals to affect the human energy field is used to treat physical or mental ailments. See Reichenbach phenomenon. See also faith healing; psychic healing.

crystallization

crystallization n. in social psychology, attitude strength or, more specifically, the level of persistence of an attitude over time and the level of resistance to active attempts to change it.

crystallized intelligence (crystallized ability)

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Cs

Cs abbreviation for conscious. CS abbreviation for conditioned stimulus.

CS

Cs abbreviation for conscious. CS abbreviation for conditioned stimulus.

CS–US interval

CS–US interval abbreviation for conditioned stimulus–unconditioned stimulus interval.

CSA

CSA abbreviation for Controlled Substances Act.

CSAI

CSAI abbreviation for Competitive State Anxiety Inventory.

CSERP

CSERP abbreviation for chemosensory event-related potential.

CSES

CSES abbreviation for Collective Self-Esteem Scale.

CSF

CSF 1. abbreviation for cerebrospinal fluid. 2. abbreviation for contrast-sensitivity function.

CSI effect

CSI effect a presumed phenomenon in which popular television crime shows are thought to raise jurors’ expectations about forensic science and influence their verdicts if the evidence they hear at trial does not meet those expectations. This effect, according to observations from attorneys, judges, and journalists, is manifested as jurors tending to believe they understand the manner in which investigators collect, analyze, and interpret crime scene evidence; to insist on large amounts of often highly technical evidence in determining defendant guilt; and to overvalue the conclusiveness of DNA testing—that is, to have forensic presumptions of the sort that are the stock and trade of popular crime dramas on television. Despite the amount of media attention devoted to the CSI effect, preliminary research on its existence has produced mixed results. [coined from CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, the name of a popular U.S. forensics-based television program that began in 2000, as well as its spin-offs]

CSR

CSR 1. abbreviation for combat stress reaction. 2. abbreviation for continued-stay review.

CSS

CSS abbreviation for Contention Scheduling System.

CT

CT 1. abbreviation for cognitive therapy. 2. abbreviation for computed tomography. 3. abbreviation for conduction time.

CT scan

CT scan abbreviation for computed tomography scan.

CTD

CTD abbreviation for cumulative trauma disorder (see repetitive strain injury).

CTI

CTI abbreviation for Constructive Thinking Inventory.

CTS

CTS abbreviation for carpal tunnel syndrome.

CTT

CTT abbreviation for classical test theory.

CTZ

CTZ abbreviation for chemoreceptor trigger zone.

cube model

cube model a three-dimensional model of the information cues that determine causal attributions. The cues are consistency (the extent to which observed behavior agrees with previous behavior), distinctiveness (the contextual, or situational, variability surrounding the behavior), and consensus (the extent to which others act similarly in the same situations). See attribution theory.

cubic difference tone

cubic difference tone see combination tone.

cubicle etiquette

cubicle etiquette a set of workplace social norms for the behavior of employees in partitioned cubicles, governing such issues as privacy, noise, odors, and workspace cleanliness.

cuckoldry

cuckoldry n. sexual behavior in which a pair-bonded female mates with a male other than her partner. Only about 10% of bird species that are socially monogamous are genetically monogamous as well (see monogamy). Males whose mates engage in extrapair mating assist in the rearing of the unrelated offspring. Females practicing cuckoldry may benefit from having progeny from genetically higher quality males; for example, female blackbirds that do this have more surviving offspring than monogamous blackbirds.

cuddling

cuddling n. holding close; a form of attachment behavior between individuals that is intended to convey affection or give comfort. In developmental psychology, it typically refers to such behavior between a parent or caregiver and a child.

cue

cue n. a stimulus, event, or object that serves to guide behavior, such as a retrieval cue, or that signals the presentation of another stimulus, event, or object, such as an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement.

cue exposure

cue exposure a behavior therapy technique in which a client is exposed to stimuli that induce cravings for substances (e.g., alcohol, tobacco) while the therapist uses other techniques to reduce or eliminate the craving. This technique is most frequently used in substance abuse and smoking cessation programs. See also exposure therapy.

cue reversal

cue reversal changing the outcome of a stimulus so that it signals the opposite of that with which it was first associated. For example, after learning that Stimulus A signals food and Stimulus B does not, during cue reversal the outcomes are exchanged, and the individual must now learn that Stimulus B signals food and Stimulus A does not.

cue-controlled relaxation

cue-controlled relaxation a technique in which a client is taught to associate a cue word with the practice of relaxing. See also applied relaxation.

cue-dependent forgetting

cue-dependent forgetting forgetting caused by the absence at testing of a stimulus (or cue) that was present when the learning occurred. See also context-specific learning; mood-dependent memory; state-dependent learning.

cue-overload principle

cue-overload principle the principle that a retrieval cue starts to lose its effectiveness in aiding recall as items associated with that particular cue increase in number.

cued panic attack

cued panic attack a panic attack that occurs almost invariably upon exposure to, or in anticipation of, a specific situational trigger. For example, an individual with social phobia may have a panic attack as a result of just thinking about an upcoming presentation. Also called situationally bound panic attack. See also situationally predisposed panic attack. Compare uncued panic attack.

cued recall

cued recall a type of memory task in which an item to be remembered is presented for study along with a cue and the participant subsequently attempts to recall the item when given the cue.

cued speech

cued speech speech that is supplemented with manual gestures for the benefit of people with hearing impairment. Hand positions are used to indicate certain phonemic distinctions that are not visible. For example, the distinction between /p/ and /t/ when spoken is visible, whereas the distinction between /t/ and /d/ is not. Unlike sign language and fingerspelling, the hand positions are not adequate to convey communication without the accompanying speech.

cul-de-sac

cul-de-sac n. see blind alley.

culpability

culpability n. in law, the state of being found criminally responsible for one’s actions and subject to legal sanctions. See criminal responsibility. —culpable adj.

cult

cult n. 1. a religious or quasi-religious group characterized by unusual or atypical beliefs, seclusion from the outside world, and an authoritarian structure. Cults tend to be highly cohesive, well organized, secretive, and hostile to nonmembers. 2. the system of beliefs and rituals specific to a particular religious group.

cult of personality

cult of personality exaggerated devotion to a charismatic political, religious, or other leader, often fomented by authoritarian figures or regimes as a means of maintaining their power. Also called personality cult.

cultural absolutism

cultural absolutism see cultural universalism.

cultural adaptability

cultural adaptability the ability of individuals or groups to adjust and become accustomed to the values, traditions, and other characteristics of a different society, such as those of a new community to which they have migrated. See acculturation.

cultural anthropology

cultural anthropology see anthropology.

cultural assimilation

cultural assimilation see acculturation strategies.

cultural bias

cultural bias the tendency to interpret and judge phenomena in terms of the distinctive values, beliefs, and other characteristics of the society or community to which one belongs. This sometimes leads people to form opinions and make decisions about others in advance of any actual experience with them (see prejudice). Cultural bias has become a significant concern in many areas, including psychometrics, ergonomics, and clinical psychology. See also culture-fair test; culture-free test; ethnocentrism.

cultural blindness

cultural blindness the inability to understand how particular matters might be viewed by people of a different culture because of a rigid adherence to the views, attitudes, and values of one’s own culture or because the perspective of one’s own culture is sufficiently limiting to make it difficult to see alternatives.

cultural competence

cultural competence 1. possession of the skills and knowledge that are appropriate for and specific to a given culture. 2. the capacity to function effectively in cultural settings other than one’s own. This usually involves a recognition of the diversity both between and within cultures, a capacity for cultural self-assessment, and a willingness to adapt personal behaviors and practices. Cultural competence has become a central concept in health care, with educators and practitioners focused on recognizing the cultural variation in clients’ health-related beliefs and activities in order to improve cross-cultural communication and health outcomes. See also cultural sensitivity.

cultural conserve

cultural conserve anything (e.g., a legend, tradition, or artifact) that has the effect of preserving valuable cultural memories, such as skills, discoveries, concepts, or moral values. See also cultural heritage. [introduced by Jacob L. Moreno]

cultural deprivation

cultural deprivation 1. lack of opportunity to participate in the cultural offerings of the larger society due to such factors as economic deprivation, substandard living conditions, or discrimination. See pseudoretardation. 2. loss of identification with one’s cultural heritage as a result of assimilation into a larger or dominant culture. See deculturation. 3. lack of culturally stimulating phenomena in one’s environment.

cultural determinism

cultural determinism the theory or premise that individual and group characteristics and behavior patterns are produced largely by a given society’s economic, social, political, and religious organization. See national character. See also social determinism.

cultural diversity

cultural diversity 1. the existence of societies, communities, or subcultures that differ substantially from one another. 2. communities or subcultures that function within a larger society while maintaining their distinct culture traits. See also multiculturalism.

cultural drift

cultural drift the gradual, uncontrolled changing of a culture, with its distinctive norms, values, and patterns of behavior, over time. Also called culture drift. See also culture change; social change; social evolution.

cultural epoch theory

cultural epoch theory the theory, formerly influential but now largely discredited, that all human cultures pass through the same stages of social and economic organization in the same order. In most versions of the theory, this involves progress from a hunting-based society through pastoral, agricultural, and early industrial epochs to the modern developed world, with each stage being seen as more complex, organized, and secular than previous stages. See modernization; primitive; recapitulation theory; social Darwinism.

cultural ergonomics

cultural ergonomics a specialty area of ergonomics that focuses on cultural factors relevant to human performance and the design and evaluation of work systems. Such factors as national culture, ethnicity, gender, and class are assessed as part of the task of creating systems that can be used efficiently and safely by a particular culture or subculture. See also indigenous researcher; population stereotype.

cultural genocide

cultural genocide destruction of a culture’s heritage, values, and practices, usually by another, dominant cultural group.

cultural heritage

cultural heritage the customs, language, values, and skills that are handed down from each generation to the next in a particular cultural group and that help to maintain its sense of identity. The cultural heritage also includes specific technological or artistic achievements. See social heritage; social transmission.

cultural learning

cultural learning the transmission, with a high degree of fidelity, of acquired information and behavior both within and across generations. Cultural learning theory proposes three stagelike levels of cultural learning: imitative learning, instructed learning, and collaborative learning. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Michael Tomasello (1950– ) and colleagues]

cultural memory

cultural memory see collective memory.

cultural monism

cultural monism a view or perspective holding that multiculturalism operates against social cohesion and that ethnic and other minorities should therefore be encouraged to assimilate with the dominant culture.

cultural neuroscience

cultural neuroscience an emerging discipline that uses brain-imaging technology to show how environment and beliefs can shape mental function. One study found, for example, that reward circuitry fired in the limbic system of American participants when they viewed silhouettes of humans in dominant poses but did not fire when they viewed silhouettes in submissive poses, whereas the brains of Japanese participants responded in the opposite manner: Their reward circuitry fired in response to submissive, but not dominant, silhouettes. The study suggests that even as people perceive the same stimulus, their brains may activate differently, showing neural responses that reflect their cultural values. See also social neuroscience.

cultural norm

cultural norm a societal rule, value, or standard that delineates an accepted and appropriate behavior within a culture. See also normative influence; social norm.

cultural parallelism

cultural parallelism in anthropology, the development of analogous cultural patterns, such as sun worship, in geographically separate groups assumed to have had no communication with each other.

cultural pluralism

cultural pluralism see multiculturalism.

cultural process

cultural process the manner in which ethnic and social values are transmitted across generations and modified by the influences prevailing over each.

cultural psychology

cultural psychology an interdisciplinary extension of general psychology concerned with those psychological processes that are inherently organized by culture. It is a heterogeneous class of perspectives that focus on explaining how human psychological functions are culturally constituted through various forms of relations between people and their social contexts. As a discipline, cultural psychology relates to cultural anthropology, sociology, semiotics, language philosophy, and culture studies. Within psychology, it relates most closely to cultural, social, developmental, and cognitive issues. See also cross-cultural psychology; ethnic psychology.

cultural relativism

cultural relativism the view that attitudes, behaviors, values, concepts, and achievements must be understood in the light of their own cultural milieu and not judged according to the standards of a different culture. In psychology, the relativist position questions the universal application of psychological theory, research, therapeutic techniques, and clinical approaches, because those used or developed in one culture may not be appropriate or applicable to another. Compare cultural universalism.

cultural residue

cultural residue see culture lag.

cultural sensitivity

cultural sensitivity awareness and appreciation of the values, norms, and beliefs characteristic of a cultural, ethnic, racial, or other group that is not one’s own, accompanied by a willingness to adapt one’s behavior accordingly. See cultural competence.

cultural specificity of emotions

cultural specificity of emotions the finding that the elicitors and the expressions of emotions differ dramatically in members of different cultures and societies. Compare universality of emotions.

cultural tailoring

cultural tailoring adapting a questionnaire, intervention, or the like for the particular cultural population in which it will be used, with an awareness of the population’s values, attitudes, history, and other influences on behavior. Cultural tailoring is intended to maximize rates of participant recruitment for studies, increase rates of completion for surveys and other instruments, enhance accuracy in language and understanding in communications, and increase positive outcomes from treatment.

cultural test bias

cultural test bias partiality of a test in favor of individuals from certain backgrounds at the expense of individuals from other backgrounds. The partiality may be in the content of the items, in the format of the items, or in the very act of taking a test itself. For example, suppose a verbal comprehension exam was delivered on a computer and incorporated passages, pictures, and questions drawn from American literature. The exam is likely to favor individuals who grew up in American families that could afford to have computers and a variety of books at home. In contrast, poorer individuals who emigrated to America and were without computers or many books in the home might find that the exam had some degree of cultural test bias. See also culturally loaded item; test bias.

cultural transmission

cultural transmission the processes by which customs, beliefs, rites, and knowledge are imparted to successive generations within a society.

cultural turn

cultural turn 1. a general trend toward considering culture when analyzing and framing psychological, educational, sociological, political, and other issues. 2. a movement within postmodernism that gained traction among social science scholars and historians in the 1970s, in which culture was considered when analyzing behavior and events.

cultural universalism

cultural universalism the view that the values, concepts, and behaviors characteristic of diverse cultures can be viewed, understood, and judged according to universal standards. Such a view involves the rejection, at least in part, of cultural relativism. Also called cultural absolutism.

culturally loaded item

culturally loaded item in testing and assessment, a question that is more relevant to the background and experience of the individual who wrote the question than to the individual who is trying to answer the question, such that the response may not be a fair indication of the responder’s knowledge. For example, if a question included content about a particular religious tradition it might be perceived as being a culturally loaded item if the test taker were and atheist or of a completely different religion. See culture-fair test.

culture

culture n. 1. the distinctive customs, values, beliefs, knowledge, art, and language of a society or a community. These values and concepts are passed on from generation to generation, and they are the basis for everyday behaviors and practices. 2. the characteristic attitudes and behaviors of a particular group within society, such as a profession, social class, or age group. See also counterculture; subculture; youth culture. —cultural adj.

culture bound

culture bound describing attitudes, practices, or behaviors that are the products of a particular culture and that are not widely found in other cultures.

culture change

culture change modification of a community’s culture, whether gradually over time (see cultural drift) or more rapidly as the result of contact with other cultures (see acculturation; deculturation). Also called cultural change. See also social change.

culture clash

culture clash a situation in which the diverging attitudes, morals, opinions, or customs of two dissimilar cultures or subcultures are revealed. This may occur, for example, when people in different professions, such as academics and business people, collaborate on a project. See also culture conflict; culture shock.

culture complex

culture complex a distinctive pattern of activities, beliefs, rites, and traditions associated with one central feature of life in a particular culture. An example is the cluster of activities, ceremonies, folklore, songs, and stories associated with the hunting and use of the buffalo by Native American peoples. Also called culture pattern. Compare culture trait.

culture conflict

culture conflict 1. tension or competition between different cultures. It often results in the weakening of a minority group’s adherence to cultural practices and beliefs as these are superseded by those of a dominant or adjoining culture. 2. the conflicting loyalties experienced by individuals who endorse the cultural beliefs of their subgroup but are also drawn to the practices and beliefs of the dominant culture. Also called internal culture conflict. See culture shock.

culture lag

culture lag 1. the tendency for some aspects of a culture to change at a slower rate than others, resulting in the retention of beliefs, customs, and values that no longer seem appropriate to altered economic or technological conditions. 2. a specific cultural survival of this kind. Compare culture lead. Also called cultural lag; cultural residue.

culture lead

culture lead a particular aspect of a culture that appears to be changing faster than the culture as a whole. Technological and economic changes are often of this kind. Compare culture lag.

culture of children

culture of children the customs, values, beliefs, and rituals of children that distinguish them from adults. Rules and norms of behavior are initially passed down from older children to younger children, but in later childhood and adolescence, norms are maintained by means of peer pressure.

culture of honor

culture of honor a cultural norm in a region, nation, or ethnic group prescribing immediate, definitive retribution as the preferred reaction to an insult or other transgression, particularly one that threatens a person’s reputation. Ethnographic studies suggest that cultures that subsist by herding typically attach more importance to honor and reputation than do people from agrarian societies, since a person in a herding culture who vociferously defends against threats is less likely to have his or her livelihood taken away by rustlers. This phenomenon seems to apply to the translocated descendants of such cultures as well. For example, Whites in the southern United States, who derive historically from Scotch-Irish herding societies, have been found to be more likely to hold values about honor and reputation and to respond to insults with swift action than are northern Whites descended from agrarian societies. A related concept is the subculture of violence, used by U.S. criminologist Marvin Wolfgang (1924–1998) and Italian criminologist Franco Ferracuti to explain the relatively high rates of violent crime among certain minority populations in impoverished urban areas.

culture pattern

culture pattern see culture complex.

culture shock

culture shock loneliness, anxiety, and confusion experienced by an individual or group that has been suddenly thrust into an alien culture or otherwise encounters radical cultural change. For example, a Filipino student studying at an American university may experience culture shock, as may a businessperson traveling abroad.

culture trait

culture trait any basic belief, practice, technique, or object that can be said to identify a given culture in some aspect of its economic, political, social, or religious organization, such as a specific agricultural practice, law, ritual, belief about child-rearing, or architectural design. Compare culture complex.

culture-bias theory

culture-bias theory the theory that measurements of intelligence may be biased in favor of members of certain cultural groups and against members of other cultural groups.

culture-bound syndrome

culture-bound syndrome a pattern of mental illness and abnormal behavior that is unique to a specific ethnic or cultural population and does not conform to standard classifications of psychiatric disorders. Culture-bound syndromes include, among others, amok, amurakh, bangungut, hsieh-ping, imu, jumping Frenchmen of Maine syndrome, koro, latah, mal de pelea, myriachit, piblokto, susto, voodoo death, and windigo psychosis. Also called culture-specific syndrome.

culture-fair test

culture-fair test a test based on common human experience and considered to be relatively unbiased with respect to special background influences. Unlike some standardized intelligence assessments, which may reflect predominantly middle-class experience, a culture-fair test is designed to apply across social lines and to permit equitable comparisons among people from different backgrounds. Nonverbal, nonacademic items are used, such as matching identical forms, selecting a design that completes a given series, or drawing human figures. Studies have shown, however, that any assessment reflects certain socioethnic norms to some degree and hence may tend to favor people with certain backgrounds rather than others. For example, an item that included the phrase “bad rap” could be unclear, as the phrase could refer to unjust criticism or to rap music that was either not very good or rather good, depending on an individual’s common use of the word “bad.” See also cross-cultural testing.

culture-free test

culture-free test an intelligence test designed to eliminate cultural bias completely by constructing questions that contain either no environmental influences or no environmental influences that reflect any specific culture. However, the creation of such a test is probably impossible, and psychometricians instead generally seek to develop culture-fair tests.

culture-relevant tests

culture-relevant tests tests that are designed specifically to be relevant to a given cultural context. These tests typically differ at least somewhat from one culture to another beyond mere differences in language, and they have been carefully screened for appropriateness.

culture-specific syndrome

culture-specific syndrome see culture-bound syndrome.

cumulant

cumulant n. one of a set of values that describes the basic nature of a distribution. A cumulant is similar to and a logarithmic function of a moment of a distribution, especially for the first few values. The first cumulant (like the first moment) is concerned with the mean or average of a set of numbers, the second cumulant (like the second moment) refers to the variance or degree of spread in a set of numbers, and the third cumulant (like the third moment) indicates the skewness or degree of lopsidedness in a set of numbers. Cumulants and moments may differ beyond these initial values, and statistical methods generally are concerned only with the first three cumulants or moments of a distribution, as well as the fourth moment, kurtosis.

cumulative continuity

cumulative continuity the process by which an individual’s actions produce results that accumulate over time and move him or her along specific life trajectories.

cumulative distribution function (CDF)

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cumulative educational advantage

cumulative educational advantage an advantageous position that is achieved as the result of knowledge acquired over a period of time.

cumulative frequency (CF)

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cumulative frequency distribution

cumulative frequency distribution a table with three columns where the first column (labeled X) lists the possible values for a variable, the second column (labeled f, for frequency) lists the number of scores that occur at each of the possible values given in the first column, and the third column (labeled CF, for cumulative frequency) gives the running total of each of the values in the second column. This type of table is useful in descriptive statistics to depict the number of scores at or below each score level, and to provide an organized display of data that could also be graphed in a cumulative frequency polygon or cumulative curve. Also called cumulative distribution; cumulative frequency table.

cumulative percentage

cumulative percentage a running total of the percentage values occurring across a set of responses. The total will either remain the same or increase, reaching the highest value of 100% after totaling all of the previous percentages. For example, if the percentage of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors among all of the students at a college were 40%, 25%, 20%, and 15%, respectively, the cumulative percentage values would be 40%, 65%, 85%, and 100% when summing from the percentage of freshman up to the percentage of seniors.

cumulative probability

cumulative probability a running total of the chance of a score occurring at or below a certain point, where the largest running total is a value of 1.0. For example, a college teacher may want to know the cumulative probability values showing the chance that a grade selected from the entire set of grades on a recently given test would be an F, D, C, B, or A. If there were 8.3% Fs, 16.7% Ds, 33.3% Cs, 25% Bs, and 16.7% As, the cumulative probability values would be .083, .250, .583, .833, and 1.000, respectively, when totaling from the F to the A values.

cumulative probability distribution

cumulative probability distribution a graphical representation of a set of data that displays along the vertical y-axis the chance that a case picked at random from that set will have a value less than or equal to the corresponding value on the horizontal x-axis. When the variable of interest has discrete or categorical whole-integer values, as with the number of students in a class, the cumulative probability distribution also may be called a cumulative probability function.

cumulative record

cumulative record a continuous tally or graph to which new data are added. In conditioning, for example, a cumulative record is a graph showing the cumulative number of responses over a continuous period of time. It is often used in such contexts to display performance of free-operant behavior under a schedule of reinforcement and provides a direct and continuous indicator of the rate of response.

cumulative rehearsal

cumulative rehearsal a strategy for retaining information in short-term memory in which a person repeats the most recently presented item (e.g., a word) and then rehearses it (see rehearsal) with all the items that have been presented before it, thus reviewing earlier items upon each presentation of a new item. Cumulative rehearsal is associated with higher levels of free-recall performance than is passive rehearsal. Also called active rehearsal.

cumulative relative frequency

cumulative relative frequency a running sum of the proportion of times specific scores occur compared to the total number of individual score occurrences in a set of data. For example, a teacher may find that there was just one score of F out of a total of 12 scores, such that the first cumulative relative frequency distribution value was .083 (i.e., 1/12). If there were two scores of D added to the one score of F, the second value would be .250 (i.e., 1/12 + 2/12 = 3/12); and so on up through the values to a score of A, which would equal 1.0 as all of the scores would be taken into account at that point (i.e., 12/12 = 1.0). A collection or table of cumulative relative frequencies is called a cumulative relative frequency distribution,and a plot of the values is called a cumulative relative frequency curve, cumulative relative frequency diagram, or cumulative relative frequency graph. Also called cumulative proportion.

cumulative response curve

cumulative response curve a cumulative record, in the form of a graph, of the responses in a conditioning experiment. Lack of response is indicated by a flat horizontal line, whereas faster responses are indicated by steeper slopes away from the horizontal. Also called cumulative response record.

cumulative scale

cumulative scale see Guttman scale.

cumulative trauma disorder (CTD)

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cuneate

cuneate adj. wedge-shaped. See cuneus.

cuneate fasciculus

cuneate fasciculus the lateral portion of either of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, which is wedge-shaped in transverse section. It is composed of ascending fibers that terminate in the nucleus cuneatus of the medulla oblongata. Also called fasciculus cuneatus. See also gracile fasciculus.

cuneate nucleus

cuneate nucleus see nucleus cuneatus.

cuneate tubercle

cuneate tubercle a swelling at the upper end of the cuneate fasciculus that contains the nucleus cuneatus, which receives fibers from sensory nerves of the upper part of the body. The cuneate tubercle is the largest of the three nuclear swellings on the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata; together with the gracile tubercle, it forms the origin of the medial lemniscus.

cuneus

cuneus n. (pl. cunei) the wedge-shaped portion of the occipital lobe on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere above the posterior calcarine fissure.

cunnilingus

cunnilingus n. stimulation of the external female genital organs (i.e., the clitoris and vulva) with the mouth or tongue. Also called cunnilinctio; cunnilinction; cunnilinctus; cunnilingam. See also orogenital activity.

cupula

cupula n. a gelatinous cap that forms part of the crista within the ampulla at the end of a semicircular canal.

curare

curare n. any of various toxic plant extracts, especially extracts from plants of the genus Strychnos. Curare and related compounds exert their effects by blocking the activity of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions, resulting in paralysis. Curare has a long ethnopharmacological history among indigenous peoples of the Amazon and Orinoco river basins, where it was applied to the tips of arrows to paralyze prey. It was brought to Europe in the 16th century by explorers of South America, but it was not introduced into clinical use until the 1930s, when it was used to treat patients with tetanus and other spastic disorders. It has also been used in experiments showing that stimulus–response associations can be formed in paralyzed animals. The development of neuromuscular blocking agents with more predictable pharmacological profiles led to the abandonment of curare as a clinical agent.

curative damages

curative damages a sum of money awarded to a charity on behalf of the plaintiff in a civil lawsuit. Conceptually similar to split recovery, curative damages were first invoked in the United States in a 1995 Ohio case in which the parents of a son who died when his car collided with a train sued the railroad and then donated their monetary award to an organization promoting railroad crossing safety. The intent is thus to “cure” a problem by achieving a social good that offsets the harm done by the defendant, rather than to punish the defendant (as in punitive damages) or to make amends to the plaintiff (as in compensatory damages).

curative factors

curative factors see therapeutic factors.

curiosity

curiosity n. the impulse or desire to investigate, observe, or gather information, particularly when the material is novel or interesting. This drive appears spontaneously in nonhuman animals and in young children, who use sensory exploration and motor manipulation to inspect, bite, handle, taste, or smell practically everything in the immediate environment. See exploratory drive. —curious adj.

current material

current material information about a client’s present feelings, interpersonal relationships, and life events that is used in understanding that person’s psychodynamics.

curricular field experience

curricular field experience knowledge gained from on-the-job activity or observation in a specific area of professional interest or academic pursuit. It often fulfills partial requirements for a course of study or an academic course. See also cooperative training.

curriculum

curriculum n. 1. a set of required or prescribed courses of study, across many subjects or within a specific subject area, that a student must fulfill in order to meet the requirements of a particular degree or educational program. 2. all of the coursework available at an educational institution or within a department of that institution. 3. the total combined unit of coursework constituting a specialized major or minor area of emphasis, most often in a college setting.

curriculum development

curriculum development the process of designing materials for instruction that will be used within a particular school district, school, or classroom. This process takes account of several important factors: The curriculum must not conflict with the standard practice adopted by similar programs of study; it must identify and articulate core concepts; and it must include an empirical base as a foundation for the actual learning content, thus facilitating teaching strategies, assessment, and accountability.

curriculum-based assessment

curriculum-based assessment 1. a complete, broad evaluation profile that reveals the degree of student mastery of a given defined body of content. The evaluation includes teacher-based testing (see curriculum-based measurement), classroom observation and interactions, standardized tests when relevant, and any other method of evaluation that yields data that can contribute to the overall assessment profile. 2. data that help determine specific standards, such as those involved in individualized educational planning, direct performance referrals, and other forms of systematic planning relative to student progress.

curriculum-based measurement

curriculum-based measurement a narrow evaluation of student performance based on the material that has actually been taught, as opposed to curriculum-based assessments, which are much broader and compare students to state, national, or other standard norms.

curve fitting

curve fitting any of various statistical techniques for obtaining a function that graphically represents a given set of data as closely as possible, with minimal error. A simple example of curve fitting occurs in linear regression, where a straight line function is said to provide the closest approximation to the expected values of the outcome with a specific predictor and have the fewest discrepancies between the predicted values and the actual, observed values.

curvilinear

curvilinear adj. describing an association between variables that does not consistently follow an increasing or decreasing pattern but rather changes direction after a certain point (i.e., it involves a curve in the set of data points). For example, the relationship between anxiety and achievement often has a curvilinear pattern of increasing achievement with increasing anxiety (i.e., motivation to study) up to a certain point when there is so much anxiety that achievement tends to decrease. Thus, individuals who are not at all anxious and those who are extremely anxious would both be expected to have poor performance, whereas moderately anxious individuals would be expected to have reasonably high performance. See also nonlinear.

curvilinear regression

curvilinear regression see nonlinear regression.

Cushing’s syndrome

Cushing’s syndrome a group of signs and symptoms related to a chronic overproduction of corticosteroid hormones, mainly cortisol, by the adrenal cortex. The condition occurs most commonly in women and is usually associated with a tumor of the adrenal or pituitary gland. Cushing’s syndrome is characterized by a “moon face” due to fat deposits, “buffalo hump” fat pads on the trunk, hypertension, glucose intolerance, and psychiatric disturbances. [Harvey W. Cushing (1869–1939), U.S. surgeon]

cusp catastrophe model

cusp catastrophe model see catastrophe theory.

custodial care

custodial care 1. care rendered to a patient with prolonged mental or physical disability that includes assisted daily living (e.g., the regular feeding and washing of bedridden patients) but typically not mental health services themselves. 2. confinement in such institutions as prisons and military correctional facilities that place restrictions on individuals’ liberty under the rules of law and that protect and monitor the individual or protect others from the individual’s violent and harmful tendencies or potential.

custodial case

custodial case a court case concerning who should maintain legal custody of a child. See child custody.

custom

custom n. a traditional behavior, ritual, or action that is transmitted through the generations and is defined by a culture as appropriate or desirable for a particular situation. An example is the Chinese practice of maternal “confinement” or “doing-the-month” after childbirth, which involves formalized social support and recognition of the status of motherhood and has been presumed in anthropological literature to protect mothers of newborns from postpartum depression.

customary, prevailing, and reasonable fees (CPR fees)

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customer relationship management (CRM)

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cutaneous

cutaneous adj. relating to or affecting the skin. For example, a cutaneous receptor, such as a Pacinian corpuscle, is a specialized cell in the skin that detects and responds to specific external stimuli.

cutaneous experience

cutaneous experience a sensation resulting from the stimulation of receptors in the skin. Such sensations include warmth, coldness, tickle, itch, pinprick (see prick experience), sharp pain, and dull pain. Also called cutaneous sensation; dermal sensation.

cutaneous perception

cutaneous perception perception of stimuli via activation of receptors in the skin. See cutaneous sense.

cutaneous perception of color

cutaneous perception of color see dermo-optical perception.

cutaneous rabbit illusion

cutaneous rabbit illusion the false perception that one has been tapped in the middle of the forearm after being tapped rapidly at the wrist and then the elbow: The taps seem to move along the forearm’s length much like a hopping rabbit. This illusion is consistently evoked as long as the tapping span does not cross the midline of the body. Slight variations in the timing of taps on the skin can produce wide fluctuations in the taps’ perceived locations, and evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging has revealed that the phantom sensations are associated with activity in the primary somatosensory area, the same brain region initially activated by real tactile sensations. See also saltation. [first described in 1972 by U.S. psychologists Frank Arthur Geldard (1904–1984) and Carl Edwin Sherrick (1924–2005)]

cutaneous receptive field

cutaneous receptive field the area of skin being supplied by specific peripheral nerves and localized synaptic distribution in the central nervous system. See also receptive field.

cutaneous receptor

cutaneous receptor a receptor organ in the skin that is responsible for cutaneous experience. Cutaneous receptors include Pacinian corpuscles, basket endings, Meissner’s corpuscles, and Merkel’s tactile disks.

cutaneous sense

cutaneous sense any of the senses that are dependent on receptors in the skin sensitive to contact, pressure, vibration, temperature, or pain. Also called skin sense. See pressure sense; temperature sense; touch sense.

cutaneous-pupillary reflex

cutaneous-pupillary reflex dilation of the pupil caused by scratching the skin of the cheek or chin. Also called pupillary-skin reflex.

cutoff score

cutoff score a value or criterion that is held to mark the lowest point at which a certain status or category is attained. For example, the cutoff score for passing a course is often 60%. Similarly, the cutoff score for being considered overweight is a body mass index of 25 to 29. Also called cutoff point; criterion cutoff.

cutting

cutting n. the act of cutting oneself, usually on the wrist or inside of the forearm. Often accompanied by a sense of heightened arousal and little sensation of pain, it occurs most frequently in the context of borderline personality disorder and major depressive episodes. See also deliberate self-harm.

cutting off reflected failure (CORFing)

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CV

CV 1. abbreviation for cardiovascular. 2. abbreviation for curriculum vitae.

CVA

CVA abbreviation for cerebrovascular accident.

CVLT

CVLT abbreviation for California Verbal Learning Test.

CVS

CVS abbreviation for chorionic villus sampling.

CWB

CWB abbreviation for counterproductive work behavior.

cyanopsia

cyanopsia n. see chromatopsia.

cyberbullying

cyberbullying n. see bullying.

cybernetic epistemology

cybernetic epistemology a study that addresses the philosophical issues of epistemology in terms of cybernetics, often by making use of computational knowledge representation and other techniques of artificial intelligence. Grounding (how a system incorporates meaning into its problem solving), scaffolding (how a system uses its world as an essential component of its problem solving), and embodiment (how a system is defined as part of, and integrated into, an environment) are essential components of this study.

cybernetic theory

cybernetic theory the study of how machines or other artificial systems can be made to regulate and guide themselves in the manner of living organisms. Its main application is the design of computer-controlled automated systems in manufacturing, transport, telecommunications, and other fields. The most widely used aspect of cybernetic theory is the self-regulatory model known as the feedback loop. [developed by U.S. mathematician Norbert Wiener (1894–1964)]

cybernetics

cybernetics n. the scientific study of communication and control as applied to machines and living organisms. It includes the study of self-regulation mechanisms, as in thermostats or feedback circuits in the nervous system, as well as transmission and self-correction of information in both computers and human communications. Cybernetics was formerly used to denote research in artificial intelligence. [first defined in 1948 by U.S. mathematician Norbert Wiener (1894–1964)] —cybernetic adj.

cycle

cycle n. a distinct pattern within a time series of data for a specific variable. The pattern can be evenly spaced (e.g., as with seven-day weekly sales figures) or irregular (e.g., as with shifts in sales due to weather changes or economic factors).

cycle of violence

cycle of violence a conceptual framework for understanding the persistence of battering relationships. The cycle has three phases: (a) a “honeymoon phase,” in which the batterer treats the partner lovingly; (b) a tension build-up phase, in which the batterer begins to display irritability and anger toward the partner; and (c) the violence phase, in which battering occurs. The phases are then proposed to recycle. As a battering relationship persists over time, the honeymoon phases shorten, and the tension-building and violence phases lengthen. Also called cycle of abuse. [proposed in 1979 by U.S. clinical and forensic psychologist Lenore E. Walker (1942– )]

cyclic

cyclic adj. characterized by alternating phases. For example, an individual with bipolar disorder involving alternating depressive and manic episodes may be said to have a cyclic illness. Also called cyclical.

cyclic adenosine monophosphate

cyclic adenosine monophosphate see cyclic AMP.

cyclic AMP (cAMP; cyclic adenosine monophosphate)

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cyclic data

cyclic data a set of information, especially a time series, in which a recurring distinct pattern is identifiable. For example, a psychologist may note that patients tend to require more visits during regular time periods around holidays or the anniversary of the death of a loved one.

cyclic GMP (cGMP; cyclic guanosine monophosphate)

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cyclic nucleotide

cyclic nucleotide a substance, such as cyclic AMP or cyclic GMP, that functions as a second messenger in cells to transduce an incoming signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into specific activity within the cell.

cyclical vomiting syndrome

cyclical vomiting syndrome recurrent, severe episodes of vomiting that may last for hours or days but are separated by intervals of completely normal health. Stress may be an important precipitant of cyclical vomiting, which occurs frequently in children.

cyclobenzaprine

cyclobenzaprine n. a drug used for the treatment of acute skeletal muscle spasm (see muscle relaxant). Structurally related to the tricyclic antidepressants, it has many features in common with them, including sedation and significant anticholinergic effects. Low doses are moderately effective in treating fibromyalgia. Because of its resemblance to the tricyclic drugs, cyclobenzaprine should not be taken concurrently with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. U.S. trade name: Flexeril.

cycloid psychosis

cycloid psychosis an atypical and controversial psychiatric disorder with several forms (e.g., confusional psychosis). Symptoms, which resemble those of a schizoaffective disorder, follow a phasically recurring course and may change rapidly. [as modified in 1957 by German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard (1904–1988) from the original 1924 conceptualization of German neuropsychiatrist Karl Kleist (1879–1960)]

cyclopean eye

cyclopean eye a theoretical eye, located on the midline between the real eyes, that has access to the functions of both eyes and is used in descriptions of space perception and eye movements.

cyclophoria

cyclophoria n. an imbalance of the extrinsic eye muscles in which one eye deviates when not focused on an object.

cyclopia

cyclopia n. a congenital disorder characterized by the merging of the two eye orbits into a single cavity that contains one eye. Cyclopia is associated with trisomy 13.

cyclosporine (cyclosporin)

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cyclothymic disorder

cyclothymic disorder a mood disorder characterized by periods of hypomanic symptoms and periods of depressive symptoms that occur over the course of at least 2 years. The number, duration, and severity of these symptoms do not meet the full criteria for a major depressive episode or a hypomanic episode. It often is considered to be a mild bipolar disorder. Also called cyclothymia.

cyclotropia

cyclotropia n. see strabismus.

Cylert

Cylert n. a former trade name for pemoline.

CYP

CYP abbreviation for cytochrome P450.

cyproheptadine

cyproheptadine n. a drug that acts as a antihistamine and serotonin antagonist and is used for the treatment of allergic symptoms (e.g., runny nose and watery eyes), loss of appetite, migraine headaches, and serotonin syndrome. U.S. trade name (among others): Periactin.

cystathionine synthetase deficiency

cystathionine synthetase deficiency see homocystinuria.

cystathioninuria

cystathioninuria n. an inherited disorder of amino acid metabolism marked by deficiency of the enzyme cystathionase. The effects include vascular, skeletal, and ocular abnormalities. Intellectual disability occurs in less than 50% of cases, often accompanied by behavioral disorders. Also called gamma-cystathionase deficiency.

cyto-

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cytoarchitecture

cytoarchitecture n. the arrangement of cells in organs and tissues, particularly those in the neocortex. The different types of cortical cells are organized in cortical layers and zones. The number of layers varies in different brain areas, but a typical section of neocortex shows six distinct layers. Differences in cytoarchitecture have been used to divide the neocortex into 50 or more regions, many of which differ in function. The scientific study of the cytoarchitecture of an organ is called cytoarchitectonics. Also called architectonic structure. See also Brodmann’s area. —cytoarchitectural adj.

cytochrome oxidase

cytochrome oxidase an enzyme that occurs in the inner membrane of mitochondria and is important in aerobic respiration. “Blobs” of cytochrome oxidase activity have been demonstrated in the visual cortex.

cytochrome oxidase blob (CO blob)

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cytochrome P450 (CYP)

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cytogenetic map

cytogenetic map a type of chromosome map that depicts and enumerates the pattern of differentially staining bands produced when the chromosomes are treated with certain cytological stains. These bands are correlated with the physical location of particular genes.

cytokine

cytokine n. any of a variety of small proteins or peptides that are released by cells as signals to those or other cells. Each type stimulates a target cell that has a specific receptor for that cytokine. Cytokines mediate many immune responses, including proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes, inflammation, allergies, and fever.

cytology

cytology n. the branch of biology that deals with the development, structure, and function of cells. —cytological adj. —cytologist n.

cytomegalovirus

cytomegalovirus n. a virus of the herpes group. Infection usually causes no symptoms and no long-term health implications, but if acquired during pregnancy it may have serious consequences for the fetus, such as microcephaly, jaundice, liver and spleen infection, pneumonia, deafness, psychomotor retardation, and intellectual disability.

Cytomel

Cytomel n. a trade name for liothyronine.

cytoplasm

cytoplasm n. the contents of a cell excluding the nucleus. —cytoplasmic adj.

cytosine

cytosine (symbol: C) n. a pyrimidine compound present in the nucleotides of living organisms. It is one of the four bases in DNA and RNA constituting the genetic code, the others being adenine, guanine, and thymine or uracil.

cytoskeleton

cytoskeleton n. an internal framework or “scaffolding” present in all cells. Composed of a network of filaments and microtubules, it maintains the cell shape and plays an important role in cell movement, growth, division, and differentiation, as well as in intracellular transport (e.g., the movement of vesicles).

Psychology Terms Starting With 'C'