Terms Starting with "I"

1142 terms

I

I pron. the nominative pronoun referring to the self. In William James’s psychology, the “I” is the nominative self.

I statement

I statement a communication tool in which the first person pronoun is used in talking about relationship issues. Therapists may coach clients to use “I” instead of “you” in statements, such as, “I am bothered by your habit” rather than “You have a bad habit” (which is a you statement). I statements tend to reduce the negativity and blame directed toward the other person and put the ownership of the issue with the speaker, not the listener.

I–It

I–It adj. describing a relationship in which a subject (“I”) treats something or someone else exclusively as an impersonal object (“It”) to be used or controlled. German Jewish philosopher Martin Buber (1878–1965), who originated the term, maintained that this type of relationship between people stands in the way of human warmth, mutuality, trust, and group cohesiveness. Compare I–Thou.

I–Thou

I–Thou adj. denoting a relationship in which a subject (“I”) treats someone or something else as another unique subject (“Thou”). German Jewish philosopher Martin Buber (1878–1965), who introduced the term, held that the I–Thou relationship allows for full empathy between subjects that can be transformative, in contrast to the I–It relationship, which objectifies the other. Buber also held that a person’s relationship with God is the ultimate I–Thou relationship, because God is quintessentially Thou. In forms of existential–humanistic therapy especially, I–Thou moments are prized and denote a significant contact and understanding between client and therapist.

I/E ratio

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I/O psychology

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IAAP

IAAP abbreviation for International Association of Applied Psychology.

IACUC

IACUC acronym for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

IADLs

IADLs abbreviation for instrumental activities of daily living.

IAT

IAT abbreviation for Implicit Association Test.

iatro-

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iatrochemical school of thought

iatrochemical school of thought a school of thought, active from the early 16th to the mid-17th centuries, which held that disease resulted from chemical imbalances in the body and that, conversely, health and longevity resulted from the proper balance of chemicals. It also held that disease was to be treated chemically and that drugs could be chemically produced. This view was heavily influenced by the work of Swiss chemist and physician Paracelsus (1493–1541) and developed in opposition to the theories of Galen, still prevalent at that time, holding that diseases resulted from an imbalance of bodily humors. The iatrochemical school provided the impetus for the development of modern pharmaceutical laboratories and modern chemotherapy. See also iatrophysical school of thought.

iatrogenic

iatrogenic adj. denoting or relating to a pathological condition that is inadvertently induced or aggravated in a patient by a health care provider. It may be due to the behavior of the provider (e.g., the manner in which he or she examined the patient) or be a result of the treatment he or she prescribed. For example, an iatrogenic addiction is a dependence on a substance, most often a painkiller or minor tranquilizer, originally prescribed by a physician to treat a physical or psychological disorder. The process of developing an iatrogenic condition is called iatrogenesis (or iatrogeny).

iatrogenic schizophrenia

iatrogenic schizophrenia see tardive dysmentia.

iatrophysical school of thought

iatrophysical school of thought a 17th-century school of thought that sought to apply the principles of mathematics and mechanics to medicine. Early examples include the development of the thermometer as an instrument of medical diagnosis and the invention of other mechanical and measurement devices to impart knowledge of physiological processes. This concept, at least in its early development, was based on the Cartesian view that the physical body is essentially a machine (see Cartesian dualism). Many early proponents of this school also practiced iatrochemistry (see iatrochemical school of thought). Also called iatromathematics; iatromechanism.

ibogaine

ibogaine n. a hallucinogenic agent found in the root of the African forest plant Tabernanthe iboga. It is used mainly by adherents of the Bwiti (or Bouiti) religion in rituals or as a stimulant, although data suggest that ibogaine may have potential clinical use in the treatment of substance dependence and management of withdrawal symptoms it blocks serotonin reuptake and is also an agonist at kappa opioid receptors.

ibotenic acid

ibotenic acid an agent that enhances the action of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate: It is an agonist at NMDA receptors. Ibotenic acid and its metabolic product, muscimol (a GABA agonist), are found in some mushrooms of the genus Amanita (see fly agaric).

IBS

IBS abbreviation for irritable bowel syndrome.

ICC

ICC 1. abbreviation for intraclass correlation coefficient. 2. abbreviation for item characteristic curve.

ICD

ICD abbreviation for International Classification of Diseases.

ice

ice n. slang for illicitly manufactured methamphetamine, a common drug of abuse, especially the free-base, concentrated, smokable form of methamphetamine. It has an intense, persistent action; chronic use may lead to serious psychiatric, metabolic, cardiovascular, and neuromuscular changes.

iceberg metaphor

iceberg metaphor the notion that conscious events, like the proverbial tip of the iceberg, represent only a small and accessible aspect of a larger domain of unconscious psychological functioning. Although this metaphor is commonly attributed to Sigmund Freud, it appears nowhere in his published works.

iceberg principle

iceberg principle the principle that the more obvious reasons for a behavior or opinion are almost never a complete explanation: Much of the real explanation lies below the surface, requiring extensive interviews or other research techniques to uncover.

iceberg profile

iceberg profile a pattern of response to the Profile of Mood States questionnaire in which vigor scores are above the 50th T score and all other scales (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion) are below that level. Successful elite athletes have been shown to exhibit this mental health profile.

ICF

ICF abbreviation for intermediate care facility.

icon (ikon)

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iconic content

iconic content in Jerome Seymour Bruner’s theory of cognitive development, mental images or pictures of particular aspects of reality, such as a child’s mental representation of a doll.

iconic gesture

iconic gesture a gesture that has some physical resemblance to the meaning or idea that it stands for, such as holding up the hand with the thumb and forefinger very close together to signify that something is very small.

iconic memory

iconic memory the brief retention of an image of a visual stimulus beyond cessation of the stimulus. This iconic image usually lasts less than a second. In a multistore model of memory, iconic memory precedes short-term memory. Also called visual sensory memory.

iconic representation

iconic representation 1. the mental representation of visual stimuli in raw, unprocessed form. 2. in Jerome Seymour Bruner’s theory of cognitive development, the representation of objects and experiences as images based on sensory impressions. The process underlying this form of knowledge acquisition, which begins to develop in early infancy and is dominant in the preschool years, is called the iconic mode (or iconic stage). Compare enactive representation; symbolic representation.

iconic symbol

iconic symbol a linguistic sign (written or spoken word) that has a physical resemblance, rather than an arbitrary relation, to its referent. Examples include onomatopoeic coinages, such as choo-choo (train), and the signs used in pictographic languages. With these few exceptions, linguistic signs are held to be arbitrary in most modern thinking on language. The contrary view, which holds that there is a general if hidden correspondence between the sounds of words and their referents, is known as the theory of phonetic symbolism. Compare arbitrary symbol.

iconicity

iconicity n. an association between form and meaning in which a resemblance between two objects, images, or events allows one to be a sign or symbol for the other.

iconoclast

iconoclast n. 1. one who challenges or seeks to overthrow established ideas, traditions, or practices. 2. in religion, one who opposes iconolatry or, more generally, the use of physical images in worship. —iconoclastic adj.

iconolatry

iconolatry n. the veneration of certain holy images as channels of the divine, as practiced by the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic (Uniate) Churches. This is distinguished from worship of the images themselves, which would be idolatry.

iconomania

iconomania n. a pathological impulse to collect and worship images.

ICP

ICP abbreviation for intracranial pressure.

ICS

ICS abbreviation for intracranial stimulation.

ICSH

ICSH abbreviation for interstitial cell-stimulating hormone. See luteinizing hormone.

icterus

icterus n. see jaundice.

ictus

ictus n. a sudden event, particularly a seizure.

ICU

ICU abbreviation for intensive care unit.

id

id 1. n. in psychoanalytic theory, the component of the personality that contains the instinctual, biological drives that supply the psyche with its basic energy or libido. Sigmund Freud conceived of the id as the most primitive component of the personality, located in the deepest level of the unconscious; it has no inner organization and operates in obedience to the pleasure principle. Thus, the infant’s life is dominated by the desire for immediate gratification of instincts, such as hunger and sex, until the ego begins to develop and operate in accordance with reality. See also primary process; structural model. 2. abbreviation for intradermal.

id anxiety

id anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety deriving from instinctual drives. This is the main cause of primary anxiety. Compare ego anxiety; superego anxiety.

id psychology

id psychology in psychoanalysis, an approach that focuses on the unorganized, instinctual impulses contained in the id that seek immediate pleasurable gratification of primitive needs. The id is believed to dominate the lives of infants and is frequently described as primitive and irrational until it is disciplined by the other two major components of the personality: the ego and the superego. Compare ego psychology.

id resistance

id resistance in psychoanalysis, a form of resistance to therapy that is motivated by unconscious id impulses, whose underlying motive is the repetition compulsion. Compare repression resistance; superego resistance.

IDA

IDA abbreviation for initial data analysis.

IDDM

IDDM abbreviation for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

idea

idea n. 1. in cognitive psychology, a mental image or cognition that is ultimately derived from experience but that may occur without direct reference to perception or sensory processes. 2. in the writings of René Descartes and the British empiricist philosophers (see empiricism), a mental event that may correspond to something outside the mind but that is itself the immediate object of thought or perception. Descartes made a celebrated and much disputed distinction between derived ideas and innate ideas. See also association of ideas. 3. in the thought of Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), the abstract or intellectual form of something regarded as its true reality. See Platonic idealism; theory of forms. IDEA abbreviation for Individuals With Disabilities Education Act.

IDEA

idea of influence

idea of influence see delusion of influence.

idea of reference

idea of reference the sense that events or the actions of others (e.g., talking, whispering, smiling) relate particularly to oneself. In an extreme degree, it is a delusion of reference.

ideal observer

ideal observer a hypothetical person whose sensory and perceptual systems operate without error or bias. The concept of the ideal observer is used most commonly in the context of psychophysical testing, particularly signal detection theory. Performance of the ideal observer can be simulated and compared with actual human performance.

ideal performance state (IPS)

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ideal self

ideal self in models of self-concept, a mental representation of an exemplary set of psychological attributes that one strives or wishes to possess.

idealism

idealism n. 1. in philosophy, the position that reality, including the natural world, is not independent of mind. Positions range from strong forms, holding that mind constitutes the things of reality, to weaker forms, holding that reality is correlated with the workings of the mind. There is also a range of positions as to the nature of mind, from those holding that mind must be conceived of as absolute, universal, and apart from nature itself to those holding that mind may be conceived of as individual minds. See absolute idealism; idealistic monism; subjective idealism. See also mind–body problem. 2. commitment to moral, political, or religious ideals. 3. see Platonic idealism. Compare materialism. —idealist n. —idealistic adj.

idealistic monism

idealistic monism the position that all reality consists of a single substance, that substance being mind or spirit. See idealism; monism. Compare natural monism. See also mind–body problem.

idealization

idealization n. 1. the exaggeration of the positive attributes and minimization of the imperfections or failings associated with a person, place, thing, or situation, so that it is viewed as perfect or nearly perfect. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism that protects the individual from conscious feelings of ambivalence toward the idealized object. Idealization of parents and other important figures plays a role in the development of the ego-ideal. —idealize vb.

idealizing transference

idealizing transference in self psychology, a narcissistic transference that, when activated in treatment, results in the patient experiencing the analyst or therapist as a powerful and benevolent parental figure. When engaged in this form of transference, the patient feels protected and able to share in the power and capabilities of the therapist, much as a young child idealizes his or her parents and feels protected by them. Compare mirror transference; twinship transference. [first described by Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)]

ideation

ideation n. the process of forming ideas and images. —ideate vb. —ideational adj.

ideational agnosia

ideational agnosia a form of agnosia characterized by an inability to form an association between the idea or purpose of an object and the object itself. This inability cannot be attributed to impairment of a primary sensory modality.

ideational apraxia

ideational apraxia see apraxia.

idée fixe

idée fixe 1. a firmly held, irrational idea or belief that is maintained despite evidence to the contrary. It may take the form of a delusion and become an obsession. Also called fixed belief; fixed idea. 2. a subconscious unit of mental processing (see automatism) that has become split off or dissociated from consciousness and, as a result, interferes with the normal processing of information. In some theories, this is considered a primary mechanism for the symptoms of hysteria. [proposed by Pierre Janet]

identical elements theory

identical elements theory the concept that the ability to learn a new task is enhanced to the extent that it contains elements of previously mastered tasks. Also called identical components theory.

identical points

identical points points on the retinas of the left and right eyes that receive identical images from the same object at a specified distance.

identical twins

identical twins see monozygotic twins.

identifiable neuron

identifiable neuron a large neuron that is similar from one individual to the next, enabling investigators to recognize it and give it a code name. Identifiable neurons are common in invertebrates but uncommon in vertebrates.

identification

identification n. 1. the process of associating the self closely with other individuals and their characteristics or views. This process takes many forms: The infant feels part of his or her mother; the child gradually adopts the attitudes, standards, and personality traits of the parents; the adolescent takes on the characteristics of the peer group; the adult identifies with a particular profession or political party. Identification operates largely on a nonconscious or preconscious level. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which the individual incorporates aspects of his or her objects inside the ego to alleviate the anxiety associated with object loss or to reduce hostility between himself or herself and the object. 3. in confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling, a situation in which the model contains a sufficient number of both fixed and free parameters to result in unique estimates from the observed data. A model is said to be identified or identifiable if a unique set of its parameter values can be determined from observations. Overidentification occurs when there are more knowns than free parameters, and underidentification occurs when it is not possible to estimate all of the model’s parameters.

identification test

identification test a verbal intelligence test in which the participant identifies objects or parts of objects in a picture.

identification transference

identification transference in group therapy, the client’s identification with other members of the group and desire to emulate them. [first described by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

identification with the aggressor

identification with the aggressor an unconscious mechanism in which an individual identifies with someone who poses a threat or with an opponent who cannot be mastered. The identification may involve adopting the aggression or emulating other characteristics of the aggressor. This has been observed in cases of hostage taking and in other extreme situations such as concentration camps. In psychoanalytic theory, it occurs on a developmental level when the child identifies with a rival, the father or mother, toward the end of the oedipal phase. It was first described by Anna Freud in 1936. See also defensive identification; Stockholm syndrome.

identification–production distinction

identification–production distinction a hypothesis about priming that amends the distinction commonly made for tests of implicit memory—that is, between perceptual tests that tap perceptual processing of the surface features of a stimulus and conceptual tests that tap conceptual processing of meaning or semantic information. Instead, it proposes a distinction that emphasizes different processing demands between tests that require the production of a response and those that require identification or verification regarding some property of an item. For example, word-stem completion (a perceptual test) and the category production test (a conceptual test) require, respectively, that participants produce a whole word (e.g., strong) from a word stem (e.g., str__) or produce an item (e.g., strawberry) that belongs to a given category (e.g., types of fruit). In contrast, perceptual identification (a perceptual test) and category verification (a conceptual test) require, respectively, that participants identify a physical property of a stimulus or verify whether items are members of a given category. Also called identification–production hypothesis. See implicit memory test). [proposed by U.S. psychologist John D. E. Gabrieli and colleagues]

identified patient

identified patient a member of a structured group (especially a family) who exhibits the symptoms of a mental disorder and for whom treatment may be sought by the other group members. Clinical investigation may reveal that there is a complex and seriously maladaptive behavioral pattern among members of the group as a whole but that the psychological stigma has fallen primarily on one person, the identified patient. Also called symptom bearer. See also dysfunctional family.

identity

identity n. 1. an individual’s sense of self defined by (a) a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and (b) a range of affiliations (e.g., ethnicity) and social roles. Identity involves a sense of continuity, or the feeling that one is the same person today that one was yesterday or last year (despite physical or other changes). Such a sense is derived from one’s body sensations; one’s body image; and the feeling that one’s memories, goals, values, expectations, and beliefs belong to the self. Also called personal identity. 2. in cognitive development, awareness that an object is the same even though it may undergo transformations. For example, a coffee cup remains the same object despite differences in distance, size, color, lighting, orientation, and even shape. Also called object identity.

identity achievement status

identity achievement status see identity status model.

identity confusion

identity confusion uncertainty regarding one’s identity, which often occurs during adolescence but may also occur at a later stage of life. See identity versus identity confusion.

identity crisis

identity crisis a phase of life marked by experimentation; changing, conflicting, or newly emerging values; and a lack of commitment to one’s usual roles in society (especially in work and family relationships). Erik Erikson claimed that it is natural and desirable for adolescents to go through a period of identity crisis and that greater maturity results from the experience. The concept has been expanded to refer to adult midlife crises and other periods marked by change or uncertainty about the self. See ego identity.

identity diffusion

identity diffusion 1. lack of stability or focus in the view of the self or in any of the elements of an individual’s identity. It is common especially in borderline personality disorder. 2. in the ego psychology of Erik Erikson, a possible outcome of the identity versus identity confusion stage; whereby the individual emerges with an uncertain sense of identity and confusion about his or her wishes, attitudes, and goals. See also identity status model.

identity disorder

identity disorder see dissociative identity disorder; gender identity disorder.

identity foreclosure

identity foreclosure premature commitment to an identity: the unquestioning acceptance by individuals (usually adolescents) of the role, values, and goals that others (e.g., parents, close friends, teachers, athletic coaches) have chosen for them. The individual’s commitment to the foreclosed identity—for example, that of an athlete—occurs without exploring its value or contemplating alternative roles that might be more appropriate for him or her. See also identity status model; separation–individuation.

identity matrix

identity matrix (symbol: I) a square matrix with values of 1 along its main diagonal and 0s elsewhere. Identity matrices are used in factor analysis solutions and matrix algebra.

identity need

identity need in the theory of Erich Fromm, the need to achieve a sense of uniqueness, individuality, and selfhood. Psychological autonomy and the severing of incestuous ties are considered essential for healthy individuality. Unhealthy, spurious individuality is expressed in conformity, a manifestation of the escape from freedom. Compare rootedness.

identity politics

identity politics 1. political activity or theorizing that derives from individuals’ sense of belonging to particular ethnic, sexual, or other identity-based groups, rather than from traditional party or ideological commitments. 2. the interpersonal processes involved in establishing, maintaining, and negotiating both one’s own personal and social identity and the identities of others in the social setting.

identity principle

identity principle 1. in logic, the principle that where X is known to be identical to Y, any statement about X (or Y) will have the same meaning and truth value as the same statement about Y (or X). So, for example, any statement made about Paris will have the same meaning, and be equally true or false, as the same statement made about the capital of France. See also laws of thought. 2. in the theory of Jean Piaget, the principle underlying a child’s awareness of the conservation of physical quantities.

identity status model

identity status model an expansion of identity versus identity confusion, the fifth stage in Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. The model posits four possible identity statuses that an individual might assume, particularly during adolescence, each characterized by a different level of exploration of and commitment to a specific identity. Ideally, development moves toward identity achievement status, characterized by evidence of both identity exploration and commitment; this status is related to stable self-esteem and healthy psychological functioning. The other three identity statuses are moratorium status, which (as in Erikson’s moratorium period) is characterized by evidence of identity exploration but a lack of commitment; foreclosure status, depicted by commitment to an identity that adults have set forth for an individual but by failure to explore different options before that commitment is made; and diffusion status, characterized by the lack of both identity exploration and commitment (compare Erikson’s identity diffusion). [first proposed in 1966 by Canadian psychologist James E. Marcia]

identity style

identity style an adolescent’s characteristic mode of approaching problems and decisions that are relevant to his or her personal identity or sense of self. Differences in style reflect differences in the social-cognitive processes that individuals use to construct a sense of identity. Three basic identity styles are recognized: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. Information-oriented individuals actively seek out, evaluate, and use self-relevant information. They are skeptical about their self-constructions and willing to test and revise aspects of their self-identity when confronted with discrepant feedback. Normative individuals deal with identity questions and decisional situations by conforming to the prescriptions and expectations of significant others. Diffuse-avoidant-oriented individuals are reluctant to face up to and confront personal problems and decisions. [introduced in 1988 by U.S. psychologist Michael David Berzonsky (1943– )]

identity theory

identity theory the theory that mental states are identical with brain states. In token identity theory, identical mental and brain states occur within the individual. Type identity theory extends this to theorize that when two or more people share a mental state (e.g., the belief that ice is cold) they also have the same brain state. Also called central state theory; identity theory of the mind. See also eliminativism; epiphenomenalism; materialism; mind–body problem; physicalism; reductionism.

identity versus identity confusion

identity versus identity confusion the fifth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the individual may experience a psychosocial moratorium, a period of time that permits experimentation with social roles. The individual may “try on” different roles and identify with different groups before forming a cohesive, positive identity that allows him or her to contribute to society; alternatively, the individual may identify with outgroups to form a negative identity or may remain confused about his or her sense of identity, a state Erikson calls identity diffusion. See also identity status model.

identity, negation, reciprocal, and correlative operations (INRC group)

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ideogram

ideogram n. a picture or symbol used to represent an object or idea. For example, ideograms are often used in computer interfaces to represent actions that can be selected by pointing to and clicking on them with a mouse. In this context, they are usually referred to as icons. Also called ideograph. See also logographic.

ideology

ideology n. 1. a more or less systematic ordering of ideas with associated doctrines, attitudes, beliefs, and symbols that together form a more or less coherent philosophy or Weltanschauung for a person, group, or sociopolitical movement. 2. in Marxism, any philosophy or set of ideas regarded as false and distorting, usually because it ignores or tries to disguise the material basis of society. —ideological adj.

ideomotor activity

ideomotor activity movement, in some cases elaborate, related to ongoing thoughts but produced without volition. Ideomotor activity explains a variety of phenomena, including gestures during conversations. Also called ideomotor action. [first identified in 1852 by British physiologist and psychologist William Benjamin Carpenter (1813–1885)]

ideomotor apraxia

ideomotor apraxia see apraxia.

ideomotor compatibility

ideomotor compatibility the extent to which stimuli resemble the sensory feedback from their assigned responses. For example, if the stimulus is the speech sound [a] and the response is to say the letter aloud, stimulus and response have high ideomotor compatibility. Ideomotor compatibility minimizes the difficulty of response selection.

ideomotor principle

ideomotor principle see psychoneuromuscular theory.

ideomotor suggestion

ideomotor suggestion an idea suggested by a hypnotist that brings about an apparently automatic muscular response in the hypnotized individual. The cue is usually a simple statement or command, such as Your arm is becoming lighter or Your head feels tired. See ideomotor theory. See also challenge suggestion; hypnotic rigidity.

ideomotor theory

ideomotor theory the hypothesis that actions are evoked impulsively by mental representations and are carried out spontaneously in the absence of inhibition. Ideomotor theory is the basis of most early theories of hypnotic suggestion. [introduced by British physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter (1813–1885)]

idio-

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idiocentric

idiocentric 1. adj. denoting interest in or focus on one’s self rather than on other objects or people. 2. n. an individual who is dispositionally predisposed to put his or her personal interests and motivations before the interests and goals of other people and other groups. Idiocentrics are more likely to describe themselves in terms of personal qualities and traits rather than memberships and roles. See also egocentrism; individualism. Compare allocentric. —idiocentrism n.

idiocy

idiocy n. an obsolete name for profound mental retardation.

idiodynamics

idiodynamics n. 1. the concept that the individual is primarily responsible for selecting stimuli and organizing responses. Individuals attend to those aspects of the environment they deem relevant, rather than responding to whatever stimuli are present and detectable. 2. a personality theory that emphasizes one’s unique life experiences (one’s idioverse), the relevance of psychodynamic factors, and the role of creativity in one’s search for personal integration. [proposed by Saul Rosenzweig]

idiogamist

idiogamist n. a person who is capable of full sexual response only with his or her spouse and is sexually incapable or inadequate with other partners. An idiogamist is usually a man who cannot obtain or maintain penile erection with any partner other than his wife (or, sometimes, women who resemble his wife).

idiogenesis

idiogenesis n. origin without evident cause, particularly the origin of an idiopathic disease.

idioglossia

idioglossia n. 1. a synonym for cryptophasia. 2. the omission, substitution, and distortion of so many sounds that speech is rendered unintelligible. Also called idiolalia.

idiographic

idiographic adj. relating to the description and understanding of an individual case, as opposed to the formulation of nomothetic general laws describing the average case that can then be applied to the single case. U.S. psychologists Kenneth MacCorquadale (1919–1986) and Paul Everett Meehl identified these as two contrasting traditions in explaining psychological phenomena. An idiographic approach involves the thorough, intensive study of a single person or case in order to obtain an in-depth understanding of that person or case, as contrasted with a study of the universal aspects of groups of people or cases. In those areas of psychology in which the individual person is the unit of analysis (e.g., in personality, developmental, or clinical psychology), the idiographic approach has appeal because it seeks to characterize a particular individual, emphasizing that individual’s characteristic traits (i.e., idiographic traits or unique traits) and the uniqueness of the individual’s behavior and adjustment, rather than to produce a universal set of psychological constructs that might be applicable to a population.

idiolalia

idiolalia n. see idioglossia.

idiolect

idiolect n. a dialect spoken at the level of an individual. In one sense, all speakers have an idiolect because no two people use their native language in the same way. In another, the term is reserved for the most idiosyncratic forms of personal language use, especially those involving eccentricities of construction or vocabulary. An idiolect of this kind may be developed by a person who acquires a second language unsystematically, especially if this occurs in an unusual or isolated learning environment (see interlanguage; fossilization). Some poets and writers also develop distinctive idiolects in their writings. —idiolectal adj.

idiom

idiom n. a fixed phrase established by usage whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its individual words, such as to kick the bucket, meaning “to die.” Idioms are sometimes known as frozen forms because they have a fixed structure that cannot be varied according to the usual grammatical rules. For example, The old man kicked the bucket cannot be changed to The bucket was kicked by the old man without losing the idiomatic sense.

idiopathic

idiopathic adj. without known cause or of spontaneous origin. The term usually denotes diseases whose etiology is obscure, such as some forms of epilepsy.

idiopathic epilepsy

idiopathic epilepsy see epilepsy.

idiophrenic

idiophrenic adj. denoting a mental disorder that is caused by a disease of the brain.

idioretinal light

idioretinal light an illusion of shades of gray observed in a dark environment. The effect is caused by chemical changes in the retina or brain cells rather than by the wavelength of visible light.

idiosyncrasy

idiosyncrasy n. 1. a habit or quality of body or mind peculiar to an individual. 2. an abnormal response to an agent (e.g., a drug) that is peculiar to an individual. —idiosyncratic adj.

idiosyncrasy-credit model

idiosyncrasy-credit model an explanation of the leniency that groups sometimes display when high-status members violate group norms. This model assumes that such individuals, by contributing to the group in significant ways and expressing loyalty to it, build up idiosyncrasy credits, which they “spend” whenever they make errors or deviate from the group’s norms. So long as their actions do not completely deplete their supply of credits, their infractions will not undermine their status in the group. [developed by U.S. psychologist Edwin P. Hollander (1927– )]

idiosyncratic classification

idiosyncratic classification in classification tasks, the grouping of items that do not appear to share physical or conceptual characteristics. Also called random classification. Compare complementary classification; conceptual classification; perceptual classification.

idiosyncratic intoxication

idiosyncratic intoxication a condition characterized by sudden and extreme changes in personality, mood, and behavior following the ingestion of an amount of alcohol usually considered to be too little to account for the degree of the changes. It may include extreme excitement, impulsive and aggressive behavior (at times to the point of extreme violence), persecutory ideas, disorientation, and hallucinations. The episode ends when the individual falls into a deep sleep, after which there is often complete loss of memory for it. Some researchers believe that the condition may be related to stress or may be due in part to a psychomotor seizure triggered by alcohol. Also called mania a potu; pathological intoxication. See also furor.

idiosyncratic reaction

idiosyncratic reaction an unexpected reaction to a drug, resulting in effects that may be contrary to the anticipated results. The term generally refers to an extreme sensitivity or an extreme insensitivity to a particular agent. Such reactions may be genetically mediated.

idiot

idiot n. an obsolete name for a person with profound mental retardation. —idiotic adj.

idiot savant

idiot savant (pl. idiots savants or, less often, idiot savants) see savant. [French, “learned idiot”]

idioverse

idioverse n. in postmodern discourse (see postmodernism), the totality of a person’s unique sensations, perceptions, and understandings; that is, a person’s unique lived world.

IDRA

IDRA abbreviation for Insanity Defense Reform Act.

IDS

IDS abbreviation for integrated delivery system.

IEP

IEP abbreviation for individualized education program.

if…then profiles

if…then profiles a methodology for describing personal dispositions in which within-person variations across social contexts are charted in terms of the behaviors evoked by particular situations. [developed by Austrian-born U.S. personality psychologist Walter Mischel (1930– ) and Japanese-born U.S. psychologist Yuichi Shoda]

IFSP

IFSP abbreviation for Individual Family Service Plan.

IGT

IGT abbreviation for Iowa Gambling Task.

IHS

IHS abbreviation for Indian Health Service.

iich’aa

iich’aa n. a culture-bound syndrome found in Navaho communities, with symptoms similar to those of amok.

IKBS

IKBS abbreviation for intelligence knowledge-based system.

ikota

ikota n. see myriachit.

ILD

ILD abbreviation for interaural level differences. See binaural cue.

iliohypogastric nerve

iliohypogastric nerve one of the nerves that extend from the spinal cord in the lumbar region, with branches that innervate the skin of the gluteal and lower abdominal regions.

ilioinguinal nerve

ilioinguinal nerve a nerve with branches that extend into the genitalia. In the male, the ilioinguinal nerve follows the spermatic cord through the inguinal ring and sends branches into the penis and scrotum. In the female, this nerve extends to the mons pubis and the labia majora.

illegitimacy

illegitimacy n. 1. the status of a child whose parents were unmarried at the time of birth. In Western societies, the term has fallen into virtual disuse with changing family structures (e.g., cohabiting but unmarried parents, single mothers by choice), the fading of the stigma formerly attached to illegitimacy, and the disappearance of most legal distinctions between legitimate and illegitimate children. 2. the state of being unlawful, improper, or contrary to reason and logic. —illegitimate adj.

illicit

illicit adj. illegal: particularly referring to psychoactive drugs that have few or no legitimate medical uses or that are not legally available to the person using them. The term may also refer to substance use and other behavior that is contrary to social convention or custom or is otherwise prohibited or disapproved of, as in an illicit sexual relationship.

Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA)

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illiteracy

illiteracy n. 1. an inability to read, write, or both. Functional illiteracy is a reading and writing skill level that is inadequate for performing normal tasks of daily living. 2. a lack of education or knowledge in a particular field of education or, more generally, evidence of social and educational ineptitude. —illiterate adj.

illness

illness n. the experience of sickness or lack of well-being of body or mind.

illness anxiety disorder

illness anxiety disorder in DSM–5, a disorder characterized by high anxiety about one’s health, by excessive preoccupation with having an illness or acquiring it, and by behaviors associated with the presumed or feared condition (e.g., repeatedly checking oneself for possible signs of illness), yet with no significant somatic symptoms that would warrant such concern. One of two replacement diagnoses for hypochondriasis, illness anxiety disorder is determined based only on this set of criteria and does not also apply to the presence of both high health anxiety and significant somatic symptoms. See somatic symptom disorder.

illness behavior

illness behavior behaviors, attitudes, and emotions exhibited by individuals during the course of a physical or mental illness. It includes the perception of feeling ill, the expression of illness-related concerns to others, changes in functioning, and utilization of health care services.

illocutionary act

illocutionary act in the theory of speech acts, the act that is performed by saying something (e.g., asking, ordering, threatening), as opposed to the act of speaking itself (the locutionary act) or the act of causing a particular effect on others (e.g., persuading, amusing, inspiring) as a result of speech (the perlocutionary act). In practice, most utterances involve the performance of all three acts simultaneously. See also performative. [first described by British philosopher John Longshaw Austin (1911–1960)]

illogicality

illogicality n. a tendency to make unwarranted or faulty inferences, often characteristic of delusional thinking and speech. —illogical adj.

illuminance

illuminance n. (symbol: E) the light (luminous flux) falling on a unit area of a surface. The standard unit of illuminance is the lux.

illumination

illumination n. 1. the act of lighting or casting light or the state of being lighted. 2. a moment of insight, such as the nature and processes of an interpersonal relationship, the solution to a problem, or about the understanding of an event. See also aha experience; epiphany.

illumination conditions

illumination conditions the types of illumination (taking into account such factors as intensity and absence of glare) available within an environment, particularly as related to suitability for certain tasks and the comfort of those performing them.

illumination standards

illumination standards the amounts of illumination recommended for effective performance of certain tasks, as determined by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. The illumination standards were formerly expressed in foot-candles but are now expressed in lux.

illumination unit

illumination unit formerly, the amount of light produced by one foot-candle: now replaced by the lux.

illuminism

illuminism n. an exalted hallucinatory state in which the person carries on conversations with imaginary, often supernatural, beings.

illusion

illusion n. 1. a false sensory percept. Illusions of the senses, such as visual illusions, result from the misinterpretation of sensory stimuli. For example, parallel railroad tracks appear to meet in the distance (see alley problem; linear perspective). Other examples of visual illusions are apparent movement, contrast illusions, distortion illusions (such as the Hering illusion, Müller-Lyer illusion, Poggendorf illusion, Ponzo illusion, and Zöllner illusion), and the Panum phenomenon. Illusions involving other senses include Aristotle’s illusion. All of these illusions occur under ordinary conditions. The distorted percepts that may accompany abnormal conditions, such as delirium and schizophrenia, or that occur in those taking mind-altering drugs are more properly called hallucinations. 2. a distortion in memory (see memory illusion), such as déjà vu. 3. more generally, any false belief or mistaken idea. —illusory adj.

illusion of agency

illusion of agency the illusion of controlling an event that is not actually under one’s control. Also called illusion of will. [defined by U.S. psychologist Daniel M. Wegner (1948– )]

illusion of control

illusion of control a false belief that external events result from or are governed by one’s own actions or choices. A sports fan who wears the same “lucky” shirt for each home game in order to give his or her team an edge provides an example. See positive illusion. [coined in 1975 by U.S. social and clinical psychologist Ellen Langer (1947– )]

illusion of doubles

illusion of doubles see Capgras syndrome.

illusion of orientation

illusion of orientation misidentification of environmental or other stimuli, such as confusion about one’s location or the identity of people, due to impaired consciousness (e.g., during delirium).

illusion of unique invulnerability

illusion of unique invulnerability the false belief that one is somehow safeguarded from the dangers and misfortunes that afflict other people. The illusion may cause people to disregard such safety measures as seat belts or condoms. [coined in 1983 by U.S. social psychologist Linda Perloff (1955– )]

illusion of will

illusion of will see illusion of agency.

illusory conjunction

illusory conjunction the attribution of a characteristic of one stimulus to another stimulus when the stimuli are presented only briefly. Illusory conjunctions are most common with visual stimuli when, for example, the color of one form can be attributed to a different form. However, illusory conjunctions can also occur for other sensory stimuli.

illusory contour

illusory contour see subjective contour.

illusory correlation

illusory correlation 1. the appearance of a relationship that in reality does not exist. 2. an overestimation of the degree of relationship (i.e., correlation) between two variables. For example, if an unusual action occurred at the same time that an adolescent was present in a group of adults, the assumption that the action was carried out by the adolescent would be an illusory correlation.

illusory covariation

illusory covariation an apparent predictable or systematic correlation between two phenomena (objects or events) that in fact does not exist. See co-occurrence; covariation.

illusory memory

illusory memory see false memory.

illusory movement

illusory movement see apparent movement.

illy (illie)

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iloperidone

iloperidone n. an atypical antipsychotic agent of the benzisoxazole class that is active at a range of receptors. Its efficacy is thought to result particularly from its dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonism. Its wide-ranging receptor activity is thought to confer antipsychotic activity with fewer extrapyramidal symptoms and with a somewhat more favorable metabolic profile than is seen with other atypical antipsychotics. U.S. trade name: Fanapt.

im

im abbreviation for intramuscular.

image

image n. 1. a likeness or cognitive representation of an earlier sensory experience recalled without external stimulation. For example, remembering the shape of a horse or the sound of a jet airplane brings to mind an image derived from earlier experiences with these stimuli. 2. a representation of an object produced by an optical system. See also retinal image.

imageless thought

imageless thought thinking that occurs without the aid of images or sensory content. The Würzburg school upheld the existence of imageless thought on the basis of introspective reports, such as experimental participants’ stated ability to name a piece of fruit without picturing it. Edward Bradford Titchener and others in the structural school opposed this view (see structuralism). See Bewusstseinslage.

imagery

imagery n. 1. cognitive generation of sensory input from the five senses, individually or collectively, which is recalled from experience or self-generated in a nonexperienced form. 2. mental images considered collectively, or the particular type of imagery characteristic of an individual, such as visual imagery. See imagery cue; imagery training; kinesthetic imagery.

imagery code

imagery code the encoding of an object, idea, or impression in terms of its visual imagery. For example, the item “typewriter” might be remembered as a mental picture of a typewriter, rather than as the word typewriter. Compare semantic code.

imagery cue

imagery cue a cognitively created signal used to direct behavior. Examples are mental images of a stop sign when one has negative thoughts or of a butterfly when one wants to exhibit delicate, free-flowing motion in a skating routine. See also thought stopping.

imagery effect

imagery effect the finding that imaging the referent of a word (e.g., envisioning an airplane when asked to study the word airplane) produces better memory for the word than does simply reading it.

imagery rehearsal therapy

imagery rehearsal therapy a short-term cognitive behavior intervention for individuals experiencing chronic nightmares (particularly veterans with trauma-related sleep problems) in which participants write about their recurring nightmares, edit these stories (or scripts) to include more positive images, and then rehearse the images from the new, more positive scripts. Rehearsal is both self-guided (e.g., 5–20 minutes daily) and therapist-guided, and the new script eventually replaces or transforms the nightmare. Imagery rehearsal therapy typically is conducted in a small-group format over two 3-hour sessions, but variations in the number of sessions and duration of treatment are common. Use of the technique is associated with reduced nightmare frequency and intensity, decreased distress and anxiety, and enhanced sleep quality. [developed in 2001 by U.S. physician and sleep disorders specialist Barry Krakow]

imagery technique

imagery technique the use of imagined scenes as a therapeutic technique, often in hypnotherapy but also in therapies that use breathing and relaxation techniques to reduce stress or anxiety. For example, an anxious client may be directed to imagine a placid scene recalled from memory, such as sitting, relaxed and calm, on a beach. The technique may be used by an individual in stressful situations, such as a nervous passenger in an aircraft. See also guided imagery; guided affective imagery.

imagery training

imagery training a series of exercises to improve the clarity, vividness, and controllability of the images from the five senses, first individually, then in combination.

imaginal exposure

imaginal exposure a type of exposure therapy used for treating individuals with anxiety disorders (e.g., phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder). Vivid imagery evoked through speech is used by the therapist to expose the client mentally to an anxiety-evoking stimulus. Compare in vivo exposure.

Imaginary

Imaginary n. the realm of images: one of three aspects of the psychoanalytic field defined by French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981). The Imaginary is that state of being in which the infant has no sense of being a subject distinct from other people or the external world and no sense of his or her place in human culture. After the infant’s entry into the Symbolic (the world of language, culture, and morality), he or she can return to the wholeness of the Imaginary only in fantasy. See also Real.

imaginary audience

imaginary audience the belief of an adolescent that others are constantly focusing attention on him or her, scrutinizing behaviors, appearance, and the like. The adolescent feels as though he or she is continually the central topic of interest to a group of spectators (i.e., an audience) when in fact this is not the case (i.e., an imaginary audience). It is an early adolescent construct reflective of acute self-consciousness and is considered an expression of adolescent egocentrism. [first described by U.S. developmental psychologist David Elkind (1931– )]

imaginary companion

imaginary companion a fictitious person, animal, or object created by a child or adolescent. The individual gives the imaginary companion a name, talks to it, shares feelings, pretends to play with it, and may use it as a scapegoat for his or her misdeeds. The phenomenon is considered an elaborate but common form of symbolic play. Also called invisible playmate.

imagination

imagination n. the faculty that produces ideas and images in the absence of direct sensory data, often by combining fragments of previous sensory experiences into new syntheses. See also creative imagination. —imaginary adj. —imagine vb.

imagination inflation

imagination inflation the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event as having actually occurred (e.g., during childhood) when he or she imagines the event before making such a judgment.

imaging

imaging n. 1. the process of scanning the brain or other organs or tissues to obtain an optical image that can be used for medical and research purposes, such as locating abnormalities or studying anatomy and function. Techniques used include computed tomography, positron emission tomography (PET), anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (aMRI), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The imaging may be either static or dynamic. See also brain imaging; nuclear imaging. 2. in therapy, the use of suggested mental images to control body function, including the easing of pain. See also imagery technique; visualization.

imago

imago n. an unconscious mental image of another person, especially the mother or father, that influences the way in which an individual relates to others. The imago is typically formed in infancy and childhood and is generally an idealized or otherwise not completely accurate representation. The term was originally used by Sigmund Freud and the early psychoanalysts, and its meaning has carried over into other schools of psychology and psychotherapy.

imago therapy

imago therapy a type of therapy for relationship problems based on the theory that people carry unconscious composite images (see imago) of the character traits and behaviors of their primary childhood caretakers that impel them to select certain partners and to behave in ways that are meant to heal earlier emotional wounds but that actually create relationship problems. Structured exercises, either in groups or in couples therapy, reveal the imago and help individuals learn to become less defensive and more compassionate toward partners as well as themselves.

imbecility

imbecility n. formerly, a moderate to severe level of intellectual disability characterized by an IQ between 25 and 50 to 55 and social and practical skills similar to those of 2- to 7-year-olds.

imipramine

imipramine n. a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) with a tertiary amine molecular structure. It was originally synthesized in the hope of creating an effective antipsychotic but was observed to be ineffective in reducing psychotic symptoms. It did, however, seem to help individuals with severe depression and was subsequently marketed as an antidepressant. It is considered the prototype TCA, and like all tricyclic agents, its use as an antidepressant has been largely supplanted by less toxic drugs. It retains a therapeutic role as a sedative and adjunct in the management of neuromuscular or musculoskeletal pain. U.S. trade name: Tofranil.

imitation

imitation n. the process of copying the behavior of another person, group, or object, intentionally or unintentionally. It is a basic form of learning that accounts for many human skills, gestures, interests, attitudes, role behaviors, social customs, and verbal expressions, but it can also take pathological form, as in echolalia and echopraxia. Some theorists propose that true imitation requires that an observer be able to take the perspective of the model. This contrasts with other forms of social learning, such as emulation, local enhancement, and mimicry. There is controversy concerning whether true imitation occurs in nonhuman animals or whether they either merely emulate the actions of others or are attracted to the location of others and by chance appear to show imitation. —imitate vb.

imitation game

imitation game see Turing test.

imitative learning

imitative learning the first stage of cultural learning, which occurs when the learner internalizes aspects of the model’s behavioral strategies and intentions for executing the behavior. According to cultural learning theory, imitative learning is followed by instructed learning and collaborative learning. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Michael Tomasello (1950– ) and colleagues]

immanent justice

immanent justice the belief that rules are fixed and immutable and that punishment automatically follows misdeeds regardless of extenuating circumstances. Children up to the age of 8 equate the morality of an act only with its consequences; not until later do they develop the capacity to judge motive and subjective considerations. See moral absolutism; moral realism. Compare distributive justice. [postulated by Jean Piaget]

immaterialism

immaterialism n. the philosophical position that denies the independent existence of matter as a substance in which qualities (see primary quality; secondary quality) might inhere. Sensible objects are held to exist as the sum of the qualities they produce in the perceiving mind, with no material substratum. The best known philosophy of this kind is that of George Berkeley. It is difficult to distinguish such a position from idealism, which holds that mind is essential to all reality and that things and qualities exist only as perceived. Compare materialism.

immature science

immature science a science that has not advanced to the stage of development characteristic of a preparadigmatic science or a normal science. [proposed by U.S. philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996)]

immaturity

immaturity n. a state of incomplete growth or development (e.g., neural immaturity). The term, however, is often used to describe childish, maladaptive, or otherwise inappropriate behaviors, particularly when indicative of a lack of age-relevant skills.

immediacy behavior

immediacy behavior any action, movement, or physical stance that indicates comfort, intimacy, or a close relationship between two people, for example, eye contact or touching.

immediate experience

immediate experience see mediate experience.

immediate gratification

immediate gratification the experience of satisfaction or receipt of reward as soon as a response is made. See also pleasure principle. Compare delay of gratification.

immediate memory

immediate memory a type or stage of memory in which an individual recalls information recently presented, such as a street address or telephone number, although this information may be forgotten after its immediate use. Immediate memory is frequently tested in assessing intelligence or neurological impairment. See also short-term memory.

immediate recall test

immediate recall test a test in which the participant is tested for recall (reproduction) of stimuli immediately after the stimuli are presented.

immobility

immobility n. a condition in which an organism shows no signs of motion, as in death feigning or freezing behavior. This may occur in response to sudden stimuli that might be associated with a predator, or it may be elicited in a fear-conditioning study as a learned response to an aversively conditioned signal. —immobile adj.

immune response

immune response the response of the immune system to invasion of the body by foreign substances (antigens). Nonspecific immune responses include inflammation (with the release of histamine) and phagocytosis of invading microbes, tissues, and so forth by leukocytes (white blood cells). The two types of specific immune response are humoral immunity, in which B lymphocytes produce antibodies that either directly destroy antigens or enhance the destruction of antigens by other cells; and cell-mediated immunity, mediated by T lymphocytes, which attack antigens directly and specifically. See also antigen–antibody reaction.

immune system

immune system a complex system in vertebrates that helps protect the body against pathological effects of foreign substances (antigens), such as viruses and bacteria. The organs involved include the bone marrow and thymus, in which lymphocytes—the principal agents responsible for specific immune responses—are produced, together with the spleen, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid tissues and various chemicals (e.g., cytokines) that mediate the immune response. The immune system interacts with both the nervous system and the endocrine system. See also psychoneuroimmunology.

immunity

immunity n. the ability of the body to resist infection, based on the actions of the immune system in mounting immune responses. Active immunity arises when immune cells (see lymphocyte) produce, and remain able to produce, appropriate antibodies following infection or deliberate stimulation (immunization). Passive immunity is conferred by the introduction of antibodies from another organism (e.g., via colostrum). Innate immunity does not require prior contact with invading microorganisms or tissues and involves nonspecific immune responses. See also antigen–antibody reaction.

immunization

immunization n. the process of conferring immunity by other than natural means. Active immunity is acquired by inoculation or vaccination, which involves the injection of a specific, prepared antigen to induce the production of natural antibodies by the body’s immune system. Passive immunity, which is short-lived (1–6 months), is acquired by the injection of prepared antibodies obtained from an animal or human already immune to the disease in question.

immunocytochemistry

immunocytochemistry n. techniques that use labeled antibodies specific to particular proteins to localize those proteins in cells or tissues. The label creates a visible mark, thus enabling visualization and localization of the component. Also called immunohistochemistry.

immunology

immunology n. the branch of medicine that specializes in the study of immunity and immune reactions (e.g., allergies and hypersensitivities). —immunological adj. —immunologist n.

Imodium

Imodium n. a trade name for loperamide.

impact analysis

impact analysis a quantitative analytic procedure used to assess the net success or failure of a program, usually through controlled experimentation. It is appropriate only if the program’s objectives are specifiable and measurable, the program is well implemented for its intended participants, and the outcome measures are reliable and valid. Also called impact assessment. See also outcome evaluation; summative evaluation.

impaired judgment

impaired judgment difficulty in forming evaluative opinions or reaching conclusions concerning available evidence, often about people and courses of action. Impaired judgment may lead to seemingly irrational actions and risk-taking behaviors. It has been thought of as both a diagnostic and a predictive criterion for delirium, dementia, and substance-related disorders, but its diagnosis and measurement are hindered by the lack of an agreed operational definition. Various fields have contributed research on this issue, including developmental and industrial psychology, experimental psychology (perception), medicine, and legal decision making.

impairment

impairment n. a decrement in the body’s typical physiological or psychological functioning.

impairment index

impairment index a measure of impairment on a series of cognitive tests. The best known such index is the Halstead–Reitan Impairment Index, which reflects the percentage of tests in the impaired range; the higher the percentage, the greater the likelihood of brain damage or dysfunction. This index may also be affected by poor effort, dissimulation, or psychogenic states.

impeachment evidence

impeachment evidence evidence used to attack or discredit testimony given by an individual in court.

imperative

imperative n. 1. any demand that is critical or pressing. See categorical imperative; ethical imperative. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a demand of the superego that represents the commanding voice of parental or social rule and operates on an unconscious level to direct the behavior of the individual. 3. in linguistics, the mood of a verb used to issue commands or make requests, as in Get off! or Please come back. Compare indicative; interrogative; subjunctive.

imperceptible

imperceptible adj. below threshold. For example, an imperceptible difference is a physical difference between two stimulus events that is below an observer’s difference threshold. This results in the two events being judged as the same psychologically when they are not the same physically.

impersonation

impersonation n. 1. the deliberate assumption of another person’s identity, usually as a means of gaining status or other advantage. See also impostor syndrome. 2. the imitation of another person’s behavior or mannerisms, which is sometimes done for its corrective or therapeutic effect on one’s own behavior (e.g., to gain insight).

impingement

impingement n. 1. in the object relations theory of British psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1896–1971), an experience in the infant’s maternal environment that is felt to be disturbing. Such experiences are posited to lead to the development of a false self because the infant may develop through a series of reactions to impingements rather than becoming aware of his or her true tendencies and capacities by discovering the environment on his or her own terms. 2. in perception, impact or contact with a sensory receptor. —impinge vb.

implantation

implantation n. 1. the attachment of a fertilized ovum to the uterine wall at the blastocyst stage of development, 6 to 8 days after ovulation. 2. the placing of a drug (e.g., a subcutaneous implant) or an object (e.g., an artificial pacemaker) within the tissues of the body.

implanted memory

implanted memory a person’s apparent recollection of an event that never occurred but that someone else has convinced the person did occur. See false memory.

implemental mind-set

implemental mind-set see mind-set.

implementation evaluation

implementation evaluation an evaluation approach that focuses on the way a program was delivered and whether it reached its intended recipients.

implicature

implicature n. in linguistics, a proposition that is not stated explicitly in an utterance and is not a condition for its truth but can nevertheless be inferred from it. The types of implicature recognized in pragmatics and discourse analysis go beyond those recognized as valid in formal logic. For example, the statement Mary is my dad’s wife would imply in most contexts Mary is not my mother, even though the first proposition cannot be said to entail the second. Compare presupposition. See also conversational inference; indirect speech act. —implicative adj.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

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implicit attitude

implicit attitude a relatively enduring and general evaluative response of which a person has little or no conscious awareness. Compare explicit attitude.

implicit attitude measure

implicit attitude measure any procedure for evaluating attitudes in which a person is not consciously aware of the fact that his or her attitude toward something or someone is being assessed. Measures of this type are generally indirect attitude measures. Compare explicit attitude measure.

implicit behavior

implicit behavior 1. behavior that cannot be observed directly, such as a cognitive process or emotional reaction. 2. behavior that cannot be observed without the aid of instruments, such as subtle physiological responses. 3. behavior of which the individual is not consciously aware.

implicit causality

implicit causality the property of verbs such that causality is implicit either in the agent or the patient of the verb.

implicit cognition

implicit cognition any knowledge or information processing of which an individual is not explicitly aware.

implicit emotion regulation

implicit emotion regulation see emotion regulation.

implicit knowledge

implicit knowledge see tacit knowledge.

implicit leadership theories

implicit leadership theories perceivers’ general assumptions about the traits, characteristics, and qualities that distinguish leaders from the people they lead. Like the leadership theories developed by psychologists, these cognitive frameworks tend to include lawlike generalities about leadership and more specific hypotheses about the types of qualities that characterize most leaders. However, unlike scientific theories, they are based on intuition and personal experience and are usually not stated openly. See also attribution theory of leadership; leader categorization theory; leader prototype.

implicit learning

implicit learning learning of a cognitive or behavioral task that occurs without intention to learn or awareness of what has been learned. Implicit learning is evidenced by improved task performance rather than as a response to an explicit request to remember. See also implicit memory.

implicit measure

implicit measure a measurement of a psychological construct that is obtained while the individual being assessed is unaware that the measurement is taking place, often used to assess attitudes, stereotypes, and emotions in social cognition research. Typically, an implicit measure is assessed as a response outcome of an experimental procedure in which the participant is engaged in a cognitive task. For example, a word-stem completion task might be employed to assess emotion implicitly such that jo_ could be completed to form a positive emotional word (e.g., joy) or a neutral word (e.g., jog).

implicit memory

implicit memory memory for a previous event or experience that is produced indirectly, without an explicit request to recall the event and without awareness that memory is involved. For instance, after seeing the word store in one context, a person would complete the word fragment st_r_ as store rather than stare, even without remembering that store had been recently encountered. Implicit memory can exist when conscious or explicit memory fails, as occurs in amnesia and brain disease. This term, proposed in 1985 by Canadian psychologist Peter Graf and U.S. psychologist Daniel L. Schacter (1952– ), is used interchangeably with nondeclarative memory.

implicit memory test

implicit memory test a memory test that elicits nonconscious memories by instructing participants to respond with whatever first comes to mind. Despite the participants’ lack of conscious recollection of prior events, the tests show the effects of these events in terms of the speed of participant response or the content of the memories they retrieve. The tests are often organized into three categories: perceptual, conceptual, and procedural. They can also be verbal or nonverbal. Examples of implicit memory tests include word-stem completion (perceptual, verbal); picture-fragment identification (perceptual, nonverbal); general knowledge tests and category production tests (conceptual, verbal); object categorization (conceptual, nonverbal); reading inverted text (procedural, verbal); and mirror drawing (procedural, nonverbal). Also called indirect memory test. Compare explicit memory test. See also conceptual test; identification–production distinction; perceptual test.

implicit personality theories

implicit personality theories see naive personality theories.

implicit prejudice

implicit prejudice a negative attitude, of which one is not consciously aware, against a specific social group. Compare explicit prejudice.

implicit process

implicit process a cognitive process that is not available to introspection and cannot be described accurately, even under optimal conditions. Compare explicit process.

implicit response

implicit response see covert response.

implicit self theory

implicit self theory the proposal that people hold a self-belief that psychological attributes (e.g., personality, emotion, intelligence) are either fixed, essential qualities that are impossible to control (entity theory) or are more malleable, controllable, and able to be developed gradually (incremental theory). These self-beliefs imply certain expectancies, which in turn guide behavior. In particular, beliefs about controllability guide the way people construe their reality and influence their motivation to engage in self-regulation. [formulated by U.S. personality psychologist Carol S. Dweck (1946– ) in her analysis of cognition, personality, and motivation]

implosive therapy

implosive therapy a technique in behavior therapy that is similar to flooding but distinct in generally involving imagined stimuli and in attempting to enhance anxiety arousal by adding imaginary exposure cues believed by the therapist to be relevant to the client’s fear. Also called implosion therapy. [developed by U.S. psychologists Thomas G. Stampfl (1923–2005) and Donald J. Levis (1936– )]

importance of an attitude

importance of an attitude the extent to which an individual personally cares about an attitude object or attaches psychological significance to it. Importance is related to attitude strength. See also centrality of an attitude; ego involvement.

impossible figure

impossible figure a shape or form in which different components produce conflicting and mutually exclusive interpretations.

impostor phenomenon

impostor phenomenon the situation in which highly accomplished, successful individuals paradoxically believe they are frauds who ultimately will fail and be unmasked as incompetent. The phenomenon originally was described in relation to a group of female college students who, despite stellar grades and test scores, nonetheless felt that most or all of their achievements had somehow been the result of chance or error. Follow-up studies showed that men as well as women are susceptible to impostor feelings and that early family conflict and lack of parental support may play an etiological role. Clinical symptoms often are associated with the phenomenon as well, including generalized anxiety, depression, and diminished self-esteem and self-confidence. Several instruments to measure the phenomenon exist: The Harvey Impostor Phenomenon Scale (HIPS), developed in 1981 by U. S. clinical psychologist Joan C. Harvey, contains 14 self-descriptive statements to which participants respond using a 7-point Likert scale of 0 (not at all true) to 6 (very true); the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), developed in 1985 by U.S. clinical psychologist Pauline Rose Clance, comprises 20 self-descriptive statements to which participants respond using a 5-point Likert scale of 1 (not at all true) to 5 (very true); and the Perceived Fraudulence Scale (PFS), developed in 1991 by U.S. psychologists John Kolligian and Robert J. Sternberg (1949– ), includes 51 items and also uses a 7-point Likert-scale response format. Also called impostor syndrome. [introduced in 1978 by U.S. clinical psychologists Pauline Rose Clance and Suzanne A. Imes]

impostor syndrome

impostor syndrome 1. a personality pattern characterized by pathological lying, which takes the form of fabricating an identity or a series of identities in an effort to gain recognition and status. See impersonation. 2. see impostor phenomenon.

impotence

impotence n. the inability of a man to complete the sex act due to partial or complete failure to achieve or maintain erection. This condition is called male erectile disorder in psychiatric contexts and erectile dysfunction in other clinical contexts. Impotence may also denote premature ejaculation, limited interest in sex, orgasm without pleasure, or coitus without ejaculation. —impotent adj.

impoverished

impoverished adj. 1. describing a stimulus that is lacking in complexity or information value. 2. deficient in or deprived of certain qualities or lacking in richness because something essential is missing. For example, an impoverished environment offers few opportunities to engage in activity and does not provide adequate sensory and intellectual stimulation. See also intellectual impoverishment. —impoverishment n.

impression

impression n. 1. the presumed effect of stimulation on the brain. 2. a vague or unanalyzed judgment or reaction.

impression formation

impression formation the process in which an individual develops a schema of some object, person, or group. Early research on impression formation demonstrated that impressions were often influenced by the primacy effect; more recent studies have focused on the roles played in the process by such factors as the perceiver’s cognitive processes (e.g., how readily some types of ideas come to mind) and feelings (e.g., anger can predispose the perceiver to stereotype an individual).

impression management

impression management behaviors intended to control how others perceive oneself, especially by guiding them to attribute desirable traits to oneself. Typically, it is assumed that people attempt to present favorable images of themselves as a means of obtaining social rewards and enhancing self-esteem. Impression management has been offered as an alternative explanation for some phenomena that traditionally have been interpreted in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. Some psychologists distinguish impression management from self-presentation by proposing that impression management involves only deliberate, conscious strategies. [first described in 1959 by Canadian-born U.S. sociologist Erving Goffman (1922–1982)]

impressionism factor

impressionism factor in psychological aesthetics, a dimension of artistic style characterized by an emphasis on surface qualities and textures, such as effects of light or color. In studies of perceptions of art by Daniel E. Berlyne, the impressionism factor is reflected in evaluation ratings that are highly positive for surface qualities and highly negative for beliefs, imagination, and lines.

imprinting

imprinting n. a simple yet profound and highly effective learning process that occurs during a critical period in the life of some animals. It was first described in 1873 by British naturalist Douglas A. Spalding (1840–1877) when he observed that newly hatched chicks tended to follow the first moving object, human or animal, that caught their attention. The term itself was introduced by Konrad Lorenz in 1937. Some investigators believe that such processes are instinctual; others regard them as a form of preparedness.

improvement rate

improvement rate see discharge rate.

improvisation

improvisation n. in psychodrama, the spontaneous acting out of problems and situations without prior preparation.

IMPS

IMPS abbreviation for Inpatient Multidimensional Psychiatric Scale.

impuberism

impuberism n. 1. a state of not having reached puberty because of age or delayed development. 2. the continuation of childhood characteristics into adolescence or adulthood. Also called impuberty.

impulse

impulse n. 1. a sudden and compelling urge to act, often resulting in action without deliberation. Also called impulsion. See also impulse-control disorder; impulsive. 2. see nerve impulse. 3. in psychoanalytic theory, the expression of psychic energy from instinctual drives, such as sex and hunger.

impulse control

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impulse-control disorder

impulse-control disorder a disorder characterized by a failure to resist impulses, drives, or temptations to commit acts that are harmful to oneself or to others. Examples include intermittent explosive disorder, kleptomania, pathological gambling, pyromania, and trichotillomania. Other disorders that may involve problems of impulse control include substance use disorders, paraphilias, conduct disorders, and mood disorders.

impulse-timing model

impulse-timing model a model for the organization of a motor program in which the movement trajectory is determined by the amplitude and timing of force impulses produced by the agonist and antagonist muscles. See also equilibrium-point model.

impulsion

impulsion n. see impulse.

impulsive

impulsive adj. describing or displaying behavior characterized by little or no forethought, reflection, or consideration of the consequences of an action, particularly one that involves taking risks. Compare reflective. See also reflection–impulsivity; self-control. —impulsiveness or impulsivity n.

impulsive character

impulsive character a personality pattern marked by a tendency to act hastily and without adequate reflection on the possible consequences.

imputation

imputation n. a procedure for filling in missing values in a data set before analyzing the resultant completed data set. There are several methods of imputation, including cold-deck imputation, hot-deck imputation, and multiple imputation.

imu

imu n. a culture-bound syndrome resembling latah, observed among the Ainu and Sakhalin women of Japan. It is characterized by an extreme startle response involving automatic movements, imitative behavior, infantile reactions, and obedience to command. See also jumping Frenchmen of Maine syndrome; myriachit.

Imuran

Imuran n. a trade name for azathioprine.

in absentia

in absentia referring to legal proceedings against people conducted in their absence. [Latin, “in the absence”]

in re Gault

in re Gault a 1967 U.S. Supreme Court decision that fundamentally changed the rights of juveniles in legal proceedings by establishing that minors have many of the same due process rights as adults.

in situ hybridization

in situ hybridization a method for detecting particular nucleotide sequences within DNA or RNA in tissue sections by providing a labeled nucleotide probe that is complementary to, and will therefore hybridize with, the sequence of interest.

in utero

in utero in the uterus; that is, before birth.

in vitro

in vitro referring to biological conditions or processes that occur or are made to occur outside of a living body, usually in a laboratory test tube; an example is in vitro fertilization. Compare ex vivo; in vivo. [Latin, literally: “in glass”]

in vitro fertilization (IVF)

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in vivo

in vivo 1. referring to biological conditions or processes that occur or are observed within the living organism. Compare ex vivo; in vitro. 2. denoting a condition or process that approximates a real-life environment, often created for an experiment or research study. [Latin, literally: “in life”]

in vivo desensitization

in vivo desensitization a technique used in behavior therapy, usually to reduce or eliminate phobias, in which the client is exposed to stimuli that induce anxiety. The therapist, in discussion with the client, produces a hierarchy of anxiety-invoking events or items relating to the anxiety-producing stimulus or phobia. The client is then exposed to the actual stimuli in the hierarchy, rather than asked simply to imagine them. Success depends on the client overcoming anxiety as the events or items are encountered. Compare covert desensitization. See also systematic desensitization. [first developed by Mary Cover Jones]

in vivo exposure

in vivo exposure a type of exposure therapy, generally used for treating individuals with phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and other anxiety disorders, in which the client directly experiences anxiety-provoking situations or stimuli in real-world conditions. For example, a client who fears flying could be accompanied by a therapist to the airport to simulate boarding a plane while practicing anxiety-decreasing techniques, such as deep breathing. Compare imaginal exposure.

in-basket test

in-basket test a work-sample test used in management training and selection. The participant is given an assortment of items (letters, memos, reports) that might be found in a typical office in-basket and must take action on them as if he or she were on the job.

in-home respite

in-home respite see respite care.

in-house evaluation

in-house evaluation an organization’s internal program assessments, conducted by an internal evaluator, as opposed to evaluation conducted by an external evaluator.

inaccessibility

inaccessibility n. 1. the state of being impossible to reach, approach, or use. 2. unresponsiveness to external stimuli, most commonly associated with the state of withdrawal sometimes seen in autism and schizophrenia. —inaccessible adj.

inadvertent plagiarism

inadvertent plagiarism see cryptomnesia.

inanimate noun

inanimate noun see animate noun.

inappetence

inappetence n. impaired appetite or desire, which is a frequent symptom of depression.

inappropriate affect

inappropriate affect emotional responses that are not in keeping with the situation or are incompatible with expressed thoughts or wishes, such as smiling when told about the death of a friend. Extreme inappropriate affect is a defining characteristic of disorganized schizophrenia.

inappropriate stimulus

inappropriate stimulus a stimulus or condition that elicits a response not normally triggered by that stimulus. For example, pressing against one’s closed eyelid elicits perception of lights; that is, a mechanical stimulus elicits a response in photoreceptors that typically respond to light.

Inapsine

Inapsine n. a trade name for droperidol.

inattention

inattention n. a state in which there is a lack of concentrated or focused attention or in which attention drifts back and forth. See also selective inattention; perceptual extinction.

inattentional blindness

inattentional blindness a failure to notice unexpected but perceptible stimuli in a visual scene while one’s attention is focused on something else in the scene. This phenomenon occurs even when items are visible for several seconds. In two classic experiments, many participants focusing on judging the line lengths of a cross failed to notice a simultaneously presented square, and many focusing on counting the number of passes made by a basketball team failed to notice a person dressed in a gorilla suit walk by. Real-world examples are also common, such as magic tricks in which observers fail to see the magician’s sleight of hand in front of them and accidents in which drivers fail to see others on the road. Various factors affect the rate of inattentional blindness, including the visual relationship of the unexpected item to other items, the meaningfulness of the unexpected item, and—most significantly—the observer’s attentional set and cognitive load: Inattentional blindness is especially pronounced for task-irrelevant stimuli and in situations with high task-processing demands. Some researchers have suggested that inattentional blindness is in fact a kind of inattentional amnesia, in which people consciously perceive unattended objects but quickly forget them. In this view, attention is critical not for engaging the perceptual processes but rather for encoding the products of those processes into short-term memory. See also attentional blindness; change blindness; repetition blindness; selective perception. [term coined in 1998 by U.S. psychologists Arien Mack (1931– ) and Irvin Rock (1922–1995)]

inborn

inborn adj. see innate.

inborn error of metabolism

inborn error of metabolism any biochemical disorder caused by a genetic defect. It may be expressed as a defect or deficiency in the structure or enzymatic function of a protein molecule or in the transport of a vital substance across a cell membrane. Examples of such errors include diabetes mellitus, gout, phenylketonuria, and Tay–Sachs disease. Also called metabolic anomaly.

inbreeding

inbreeding n. the mating of individuals that are closely related. Inbreeding increases the risk of perpetuating certain genetic defects in the family, as in consanguineous marriages. Inbreeding within small populations, such as geographically isolated populations, leads to increased frequency of particular mutations within such groups. This fact has been used to demonstrate the founder effect for certain cancers and other disorders. Inbreeding studies have contributed to efforts to identify and test for mutations predisposing to disease in some groups of people. Compare outbreeding.

inbreeding avoidance

inbreeding avoidance the avoidance of breeding with close relatives in order to maintain genetic diversity. Several mechanisms that promote inbreeding avoidance have been identified. In some species, olfactory or vocal signals may provide information about genetic relatedness, but most often individuals simply avoid breeding with those who are most familiar. Some studies of mate selection provide evidence of optimal outbreeding: Neither closely related individuals nor those that differ greatly are chosen; those that are different enough to avoid inbreeding but not too different are regarded as optimal mates.

incantation

incantation n. ritualistic chanting, singing, or speaking. The incantation of certain prescribed phrases forms an important part of many religious and magical rituals. —incant vb.

incendiarism

incendiarism n. an older name for pyromania.

incentive

incentive n. an external stimulus, such as a condition or an object, that enhances or serves as a motive for behavior.

incentive motivation

incentive motivation 1. in Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning, an inducement, such as the expectation of a reward or punishment, that serves as an intervening variable or mediator to influence response strength. See also stimulus-intensity dynamism. 2. more generally, any motivation induced by a positive reinforcer.

incentive system

incentive system in organizational settings, a set of rewards and rules for their disbursement that is designed to influence future performance. Incentives vary in motivating power from group to group. As well as increased pay, common incentives include pensions, gainsharing schemes, performance-related bonuses, employee stock shares, gym memberships, and corporate entertainment (e.g., tickets for sports events). See also disincentive; work motivation.

incentive theory

incentive theory the theory that motivation arousal depends on the interaction between environmental incentives (i.e., stimulus objects)—both positive and negative—and an organism’s psychological and physiological states (e.g., drive states).

incentive value

incentive value the perceived value of a motivating stimulus or condition, which varies among individuals.

incest

incest n. sexual activity between family members, whether related by blood or not. Some form of incest taboo, or prohibition in custom or law against incest between first-degree relatives (e.g., father–daughter, mother–son, brother–sister), is found in nearly every society. In some societies, sexual intercourse between cousins, uncles and nieces, or aunts and nephews is also prohibited; in others, it is permitted. —incestuous adj.

incest barrier

incest barrier in psychoanalytic theory, an ego defense against incestuous impulses and fantasies. The barrier is the result of the introjection of social laws and customs. These internal and external prohibitions free the libido to make an external object choice.

incestuous ties

incestuous ties in psychoanalytic theory, the condition in which an individual remains psychologically dependent on the mother, family, or symbolic substitute to the extent that healthy involvement with others and with society is inhibited or precluded. According to Erich Fromm, who introduced the term, incestuous ties represent the negative resolution of the search for rootedness. See also identity need.

incidence

incidence n. the rate of occurrence of new cases of a given event or condition (e.g., a disorder, disease, symptom, or injury) in a particular population in a given period. An incidence rate is normally expressed as the number of cases per some standard proportion (1,000 or 100,000 are commonly used) of the entire population at risk per year. See also prevalence.

incident process

incident process 1. a systematic sequence of actions or steps that is approved for use in a potentially dangerous situation, such as a fire, severe weather, or the presence of bombs or guns. In a school setting, these measures are often practiced as a drill to familiarize students with the appropriate procedure. 2. a system in which learners begin with inadequate data and ask questions to gain additional information. The instructor has all the data and reveals a limited amount at the beginning, then discloses more in response to specific questions so that the group can reach decisions. The system is designed to teach the skills of analysis, synthesis, and interrogation that are relevant to problem solving and investigative techniques.

incidental learning

incidental learning learning that is not premeditated, deliberate, or intentional and that is acquired as a result of some other, possibly unrelated, mental activity. Some theorists believe that much learning takes place without any intention to learn, occurring incidentally to other cognitive processing of information. Also called nonintentional learning. See also latent learning. Compare intentional learning.

incidental memory

incidental memory a memory that is acquired without conscious effort or intention to remember.

inclusion

inclusion n. the practice of teaching students with disabilities in the same classroom as other students to the fullest extent possible, via the provision of appropriate supportive services. See also full inclusion.

inclusion–exclusion criteria

inclusion–exclusion criteria in clinical research, criteria used to determine which individuals are eligible to participate in a particular study. Inclusion criteria might specify, for example, age range, whereas exclusion criteria might specify, for example, the existence of more than one illness or psychological disorder.

inclusion/exclusion model

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inclusive fitness

inclusive fitness the reproductive success not only of an individual but also of all of that individual’s relatives in proportion to their coefficient of relatedness. In calculating estimates of reproductive success, it is assumed that parents, offspring, and siblings have an average of 50% of their genes in common; that grandparents and grand-offspring, as well as uncles or aunts and nieces or nephews, share 25% of genes; and that first cousins share 12.5% of genes.

inclusiveness

inclusiveness n. one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that there is a tendency to perceive only the larger figure when a smaller figure is completely encompassed within it. Also called law (or principle) of inclusiveness.

incoherence

incoherence n. inability to express oneself in a clear and orderly manner, most commonly manifested as disjointed and unintelligible speech. This may be an expression of disorganized and impaired thinking. —incoherent adj.

incompatibility

incompatibility n. 1. the state in which two or more people are unable to interact harmoniously with each other. Compare compatibility. 2. in philosophy, the position that free will and determinism are incompatible and cannot coexist in any form or sense. Compare compatibility. See also hard determinism. —incompatible adj.

incompatible response

incompatible response a response or action that conflicts with another or occurs simultaneously with another. For example, a state of anxiety is incompatible with a state of relaxation.

incompatible response method

incompatible response method a technique used to break bad habits in which an undesirable response is replaced by a more acceptable one that cannot coexist with the undesirable response.

incompetence

incompetence n. 1. the inability to carry out a required task or activity adequately. 2. in law, the inability of a defendant to participate meaningfully in criminal proceedings, which include all elements of the criminal justice system, from initial interrogation to sentencing. Defendants who do not have the ability to communicate with attorneys or understand the proceedings may be ruled incompetent to stand trial (see competency to stand trial). See also Dusky standard. 3. in law, the inability to make sound judgments regarding one’s transactions or personal affairs. See legal capacity. Also called incompetency. Compare competence. —incompetent adj.

incompetency plea

incompetency plea the plea, in a court of law, that the defendant, because of mental illness, mental defect, or other reasons, does not understand the nature and objective of the proceedings; cannot appreciate or comprehend his or her own condition in relation to the proceedings; or is unable, for some other reason, to assist the attorney in his or her own defense. See also competency to stand trial.

incompetent reservoir

incompetent reservoir see dilution effect.

incomplete block design

incomplete block design an experimental design in which treatments are grouped into sets or “blocks,” not all of which include every treatment, and each block is administered to a different group of participants. Incomplete block designs often are employed to avoid administering too many treatment conditions to the same group of participants, which may contribute to undesirable error. For instance, the following arrangement of four treatments (A, B, C, D) is an incomplete block design: Block 1 = A-B-C; Block 2 = A-B-D; Block 3 = A-C-D; and Block 4 = B-C-D. In this particular design, each block contains three treatments, each treatment occurs three times across all blocks, and each pair of treatments occurs together two times across all blocks. Compare complete block design. See block design.

incomplete counterbalancing

incomplete counterbalancing an experimental design that controls for order effects by using a limited number of possible sequences of treatments administered in such a way that each treatment appears equally often in each position. For instance, the following arrangement of sequences of three treatments (A, B, C), each assigned to a different subgroup of participants, demonstrates incomplete counterbalancing: A-B-C to Subgroup 1, B-C-A to Subgroup 2, and C-A-B to Subgroup 3. Compare complete counterbalancing. See also Latin square.

incomplete factorial design

incomplete factorial design see fractional factorial design.

incomplete spinal cord injury

incomplete spinal cord injury damage to the spinal cord that results in partial loss of motor or sensory function below the site of the injury. See also spinal cord injury.

incomplete-pictures test

incomplete-pictures test a test of visual recognition and interpretation in which drawings in varying degrees of completion are presented, and the participant attempts to identify the object as early in the series as possible. See also picture-completion test.

incomplete-sentence test

incomplete-sentence test see sentence-completion test.

incongruence

incongruence n. 1. lack of consistency or appropriateness, as in inappropriate affect or as when one’s subjective evaluation of a situation is at odds with reality. 2. as defined by Carl Rogers, a lack of alignment between the real self and the ideal self. See real–ideal self congruence. 3. in Rogerian client-centered therapy, a lack of genuineness, honesty, or open expression on the part of the therapist in his or her interactions with a client. —incongruent adj.

incongruity

incongruity n. the quality of being inconsistent, incompatible, not harmonious, or otherwise in disagreement with an accepted mode or standard. Perception experiments may include tests of incongruity in which, for example, a deck of playing cards may contain incongruous colors and suits, such as black hearts or purple spades.

incongruity theory of humor

incongruity theory of humor an explanation of the ability of humor to elicit laughter that emphasizes the juxtaposition of incompatible or contradictory elements. For example, British-born U.S. comedian Bob Hope (1903–2003) once quipped in regard to a place he was visiting: “The mosquitoes here are huge. Last night I shot one in my pajamas. They were tight on him too.” Such theories have roots in the work of Immanuel Kant, Arthur Schopenhauer, Herbert Spencer, and Sigmund Freud. See also release theory of humor.

incontinence

incontinence n. 1. an inability to control basic body functions, such as urination and defecation (see fecal incontinence; urinary incontinence). Incontinence is often caused by bodily and neurological injury or damage or physical abnormalities and changes. 2. an inability to restrain sexual impulses. —incontinent adj.

incoordination

incoordination n. a lack of harmony or organization of movement.

incorporation

incorporation n. in psychoanalytic theory, the fantasy that one has ingested an external object, which is felt to be physically present inside the body. According to the theory, it first occurs in the oral stage, when the infant fantasizes that he or she has ingested the mother’s breast. Incorporation is thought to be an early form of, and is often confused with, identification and introjection. —incorporate vb.

incorporation dream

incorporation dream see dream incorporation.

incremental

incremental adj. describing or relating to changes that take place in small, cumulative steps rather than in large jumps.

incremental learning

incremental learning see all-or-none learning.

incremental theory

incremental theory see implicit self theory.

incremental validity

incremental validity the improvement obtained by adding a particular procedure or technique to an existing combination of assessment methods. In other words, incremental validity reflects the value of each measure or piece of information to the process and outcome of assessment. The standards for evaluating incremental validity depend on the goal of the assessment, such as whether one wishes to gather unique information, predict a criterion, make a diagnosis, or choose a treatment. For example, teacher observations of the daily frequency of a child’s vocal tic may not add critical information in diagnosing a tic disorder but may contribute significantly when the purpose of the assessment is to monitor treatment progress.

incubation

incubation n. 1. the provision of warmth and protection for eggs that develop outside the female’s body. In birds, incubation can be undertaken by either or both parents and is essential for hatching of the eggs. 2. the gradual generation of a solution to a problem at a nonconscious or semiconscious level, often after an attempt at a conscious, deliberate solution has failed. 3. in microbiology, the growth of cultures in a controlled environment. 4. the maintenance of an artificial environment for a premature or hypoxic infant. 5. the asymptomatic stage of development of an infection. —incubate vb. —incubator n.

incubation of anxiety

incubation of anxiety the increase in a conditioned anxiety response that occurs with repeated unreinforced presentation of a conditioned stimulus. For example, a person with a spider phobia might become more afraid of spiders each time he or she encounters one, even if no encounter is paired with a traumatic event, such as the spider biting. [first proposed by Hans Eysenck as the basis of his conditioning theory of neurosis]

incubus

incubus n. 1. a demon or evil spirit in male form believed to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women. Compare succubus. 2. a person or thing that is oppressive or an encumbrance.

incus

incus n. see ossicles.

indecency

indecency n. behavior considered offensive, obscene, improper, or immoral according to the norms of a particular culture, especially in relation to sexual matters. —indecent adj.

indefinite article

indefinite article in linguistics, an article (a or an in English) used with a noun phrase to indicate a nonspecific entity or one not previously defined, as in A dog is a wonderful companion or A dog started barking. Compare definite article.

indemnity plan

indemnity plan a system of health insurance in which the insurer pays for the costs of covered services after care has been given. Such plans are typically based on fee-for-service and offer participants considerable freedom to choose their own health care providers.

independence

independence n. 1. freedom from the influence or control of other individuals or groups. 2. complete lack of relationship between two or more events, sampling units, or variables, such that none is influenced by any other and that changes in one have no implication for changes in any other. For example, a standard assumption in analysis of variance, multiple regression, and many other statistical analyses is independence of observations, or the fact that the occurrence of one observation does not influence the occurrence of any others. See also statistical independence. —independent adj., n.

independent events

independent events the situation in which observing one event does not provide any additional information about the occurrence or outcome of another event. For example, the outcome of a coin flip and the Dow Jones Industrial Average are independent events, whereas the temperatures of two consecutive days are not necessarily independent. Formally, two events, A and B, are independent if the probability of event A is the same as the conditional probability of event A given event B, that is, P(A) = P(A|B), or equivalently, P(B) = P(B|A). Compare dependent events.

independent groups

independent groups see independent samples.

independent living

independent living 1. the ability of an individual to perform—without assistance from others—all or most of the daily functions typically required to be self-sufficient, including those tasks essential to personal care (see activities of daily living) and to maintaining a home and job. 2. a philosophy and civil reform movement promoting the rights of people with disabilities to determine the course of their lives and be full, productive members of society with access to the same social and political freedoms and opportunities as individuals without disabilities. Central to the philosophy are the concepts of self-determination and self-worth, peer support, consumer-controlled assistance and support services, and political and social reform. Centers for Independent Living (CILs), nonresidential, nonprofit organizations that are staffed and operated by individuals with disabilities, encourage self-sufficiency and self-determination in all aspects of life for individuals with disabilities by providing information and referral services, peer counseling, and independent living support (e.g., help with assistive technology, budgeting, meal preparation, transportation arrangements, employment searches, and gaining access to housing and health care). CILs also advocate for legislative and social change aimed at benefiting individuals with disabilities.

independent phenomena

independent phenomena any phenomena that appear to occur independently of a human agent. In parapsychology, the term refers to apparently paranormal phenomena that cannot be ascribed to telepathy or psychokinesis. These might include video or audio recordings of poltergeist activity made in an empty house.

independent practice association (IPA)

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independent random sampling

independent random sampling see simple random sampling.

independent random variables

independent random variables random variables that exhibit a complete lack of relationship, such that no information about one variable, x, conveys any information about another variable, y. Any events related to these variables are independent events.

independent samples

independent samples groups of individuals or sets of data that are unrelated to one other. For example, experimental groups consisting of different and unrelated participants are independent samples, as are the data sets obtained from these groups. Also called independent groups. Compare dependent samples.

independent sampling

independent sampling a process for selecting a sample of study participants from a larger potential group of individuals such that the probability of each person being selected for inclusion is not influenced by which people have been chosen already. The resulting samples will be independent samples.

independent self-construal

independent self-construal a view of the self (self-construal) that emphasizes one’s separateness and unique traits and accomplishments and that downplays one’s embeddedness in a network of social relationships. Compare interdependent self-construal.

independent variable (IV)

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independent-groups design

independent-groups design see between-subjects design.

independent-living aid

independent-living aid see assistive technology.

independent-living program

independent-living program 1. a system of community-based services and support designed to help individuals with disabilities achieve their highest level of personal functioning without the need to depend on others. Independent-living programs are administered by state vocational rehabilitation agencies. See also independent living. 2. a federally funded, state-administered program to prepare foster care youth who are 16 to 21 years old for the transition to independence.

independent-samples t test

independent-samples t test a t test used to analyze data from a between-subjects design, in which the different groups of individuals or other entities measured are not associated with one another. In the independent-samples t test, one calculates the value of the test statistic t from the means, standard deviations, and sizes of the two groups of interest, then compares its value to a t distribution for a given degree of freedom under the assumptions of normality and independence of observations, among others. Also called independent-measures t test. Compare dependent-samples t test.

Inderal

Inderal n. a trade name for propranolol.

indeterminacy

indeterminacy n. 1. the inability to uniquely determine the form or magnitude of a relationship. 2. the inability to arrive at a unique solution to a problem or mathematical form. 3. in factor analysis, the inability to form a unique representation of the factor structure.

indeterminacy principle

indeterminacy principle see uncertainty principle.

indeterminate sentencing

indeterminate sentencing a punishment in which the judge mandates confinement of an offender over a time range (e.g., between 5 and 10 years) rather than a fixed period (e.g., 7 years). This practice allows greater discretion of the parole board to establish the specific time of release.

indeterminism

indeterminism n. 1. in psychology, the doctrine that humans have free will and are able to act independently of antecedent or current situations, as in making choices. Compare determinism. See also hard determinism; soft determinism. 2. in philosophy, the position that events do not have necessary and sufficient causes. —indeterminist adj.

index

index 1. n. a reference point, standard, or indicator. 2. n. a variable that is employed to indicate the presence of another phenomenon or event. 3. n. a number formed from a combination of other measures to represent another, more general entity. For example, an index of a person’s graduate school potential might be formed from his or her undergraduate grade point average and score on an admissions test. 4. vb. to act as an index of.

index adoptees

index adoptees see cross-fostering.

index case

index case see proband.

index of discrimination

index of discrimination the degree to which a test or test item differentiates between individuals of different performance levels, often given as the percentage difference between high-performing and low-performing individuals who answer a target item correctly. Also called discrimination index.

index of reliability

index of reliability see reliability coefficient.

index of validity

index of validity see validity coefficient.

index of variability

index of variability see dispersion measure.

Indian Health Service (IHS)

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indicative

indicative n. in linguistics, the mood of a verb used to make ordinary declarative statements, rather than commands, questions, and so on. Compare imperative; interrogative; subjunctive.

indicator variable

indicator variable 1. see dummy variable. 2. see manifest variable.

indictment

indictment n. a formal accusation of criminal wrongdoing brought before the court by a grand jury, the group responsible for reviewing complaints of wrongdoing to determine whether a trial is warranted. —indict vb.

indifference of indicator

indifference of indicator the observation that, although items on tests of intelligence differ widely in appearance, almost all of them seem to measure general ability to a greater or lesser extent. The term indifference is used to signify that the items measure the same thing without regard to their specific appearance.

indigenous researcher

indigenous researcher in ergonomics, a researcher who originates from the same environment or community as the target users for a specific system or product design. Indigenous researchers are employed in task analysis and usability engineering among different ethnic and cultural groups. See also cultural ergonomics; population stereotype.

indirect agonist

indirect agonist a substance that acts to increase the activity of an agonist at a receptor in ways other than direct action at the receptor site. Indirect agonists may exert their effect by increasing the metabolism or release of agonist compounds or by displacing other substances that impair full binding of an agonist to its receptor site.

indirect associations

indirect associations a symptom of schizophrenia in which the association between ideas is not apparent and not expressed, such that the person’s statements seem bizarre and incoherent to others. See also loosening of associations.

indirect attitude measure

indirect attitude measure any procedure for assessing attitudes that does not require a person to provide a report of his or her attitude. Nontraditional approaches to attitude measurement, such as the lost letter procedure and the error-choice technique, are examples. See also explicit attitude measure; implicit attitude measure. Compare direct attitude measure.

indirect measurement

indirect measurement a method in which a researcher gathers data about one variable (or a combination of variables) as a means of representing a second variable of interest that cannot be assessed in a more straightforward manner. See proxy variable.

indirect memory test

indirect memory test see implicit memory test.

indirect method of therapy

indirect method of therapy a method of conducting therapy, particularly exemplified by client-centered therapy, in which the therapist does not attempt to direct the client’s communication or evaluate the client’s remarks, although he or she may refer back to the client’s remarks or restate them (see restatement).

indirect object

indirect object see object.

indirect odor effect

indirect odor effect see direct odor effect.

indirect relationship

indirect relationship in structural equation modeling, a correlation between two variables that involves an intervening variable or mediator. For example, age may affect rate of pay, which in turn may affect job satisfaction: This being so, the correlation between age and job satisfaction would be an indirect relationship. The term is often used incorrectly to denote a negative relationship. Compare direct relationship.

indirect scaling

indirect scaling see direct scaling.

indirect speech act

indirect speech act a speech act whose purpose is not explicit from the form or content of the utterance but must be inferred. For example, the apparent observation It’s so cold in here! may well be intended as a request that someone close the window. See conversational inference; form–function distinction; implicature.

indirect suggestibility

indirect suggestibility see secondary suggestibility.

individual accuracy

individual accuracy see social relations model.

individual differences

individual differences traits or other characteristics by which individuals may be distinguished from one another. This is the focus of differential psychology, for which the term individual differences psychology increasingly is used.

Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP)

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individual program

individual program an instructional method in which students are responsible for developing and carrying out their own program. This method is most often used for children who possess a high level of motivation and cognitive development. Compare command style.

individual psychology

individual psychology 1. the psychological theory of Alfred Adler, which is based on the idea that throughout life individuals strive for a sense of mastery, completeness, and belonging and are governed by a conscious drive to overcome their sense of inferiority by developing to their fullest potential, obtaining their life goals, and creating their own styles of life. This is opposed to the view that human beings are dominated by “blind,” irrational instincts operating on an unconscious level. Also called Adlerian psychology. 2. historically, a synonym for differential psychology.

individual psychotherapy

individual psychotherapy see individual therapy.

individual response stereotypy

individual response stereotypy see autonomic reactivity.

individual selection

individual selection an aspect of natural selection in which those traits of an individual that lead to increased reproductive success are more likely to appear in subsequent generations. The focus of individual selection is on the direct benefits to the individual; this contrasts with kin selection, in which those who assist their relatives receive indirect benefits.

Individual Service Plan (ISP)

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individual therapy

individual therapy treatment of psychological problems that is conducted on a one-to-one basis. One therapist sees one client at a time, tailoring the process to his or her unique needs in the exploration of contributory factors and alleviation of symptoms. Also called dyadic therapy; individual psychotherapy. Compare group therapy.

individual-differences scaling (INDSCAL)

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individualism

individualism n. 1. a social or cultural tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals. Compare collectivism. 2. in ethical and political theory, the view that individuals have intrinsic value. This implies that the unique values, desires, and perspectives of individuals should also be valued in their own right. Thus, individualism often manifests itself as an approach to life that emphasizes the essential right to be oneself and to seek fulfillment of one’s own needs and desires. —individualist n. —individualistic adj.

individualist feminism

individualist feminism a perspective within feminist thought that is closely related to individualism. The position values female autonomy, emphasizes individual rights and freedom of action, and upholds diversity as an inherent good. See feminism.

individualistic reward structure

individualistic reward structure a performance setting structured in such a way that rewards are assigned on the basis of individual achievement and the success or failure of each person is independent of the success or failure of any other individual. Compare competitive reward structure; cooperative reward structure.

individuality

individuality n. the uniqueness of each individual’s personality.

individualization

individualization n. any process in which an individual becomes distinguishable, in one of multiple ways, from one or more other members of the same species, sex, or other category. —individualize vb.

individualized education program (IEP)

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individualized instruction

individualized instruction a method of instruction characterized by one-to-one teaching and self-paced learning directed toward progressive goals that reflect course or curriculum objectives. Teachers assist students in identifying skills that need development or knowledge that needs to be acquired. Group projects are also incorporated in the program.

individualized reading

individualized reading a method of teaching reading that makes use of the child’s interests and of a variety of books specifically focused on the child’s level of skills.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

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individuation

individuation n. 1. generally, the physiological, psychological, and sociocultural processes by which a person attains status as an individual human being and exerts himself or herself as such in the world. 2. in the psychoanalytic theory of Carl Jung, the gradual development of a unified, integrated personality that incorporates greater and greater amounts of the unconscious, both personal and collective, and resolves any conflicts that exist, such as those between introverted and extraverted tendencies. 3. a phase of development, occurring between the 18th and 36th months, in which infants become less dependent on their mothers and begin to satisfy their own wishes and fend for themselves. [postulated by Hungarian-born U.S. child psychoanalyst Margaret Schönberger Mahler (1897–1985)]

indoctrination

indoctrination n. the social inculcation of beliefs, especially by individuals in positions of power or authority. —indoctrinate vb.

indole

indole n. a compound that is the basis of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) and many substances involved in nervous system activity, including serotonin, melatonin, and tryptophan.

indolealkylamine

indolealkylamine n. see hallucinogen.

indoleamine

indoleamine n. any of a class of biogenic amines formed by an indole molecule, which is produced as a breakdown metabolite of tryptophan, and an amine group. Indoleamines include the neurotransmitter serotonin and the hormone melatonin.

INDSCAL

INDSCAL abbreviation for individual-differences scaling.

induced abortion

induced abortion the deliberate, premature removal of the fetus from the uterus prior to the stage of viability (ability to live outside the uterus) by artificial means, such as drugs or mechanical devices. See also abortion; therapeutic abortion.

induced aggression

induced aggression a state of violence or hostile behavior caused by drugs, electrical stimulation of a brain area, or aversive stimuli.

induced color

induced color a color change in a visual field resulting from stimulation of a neighboring area, rather than from stimulation of the part of the field in which the change appears.

induced compliance effect

induced compliance effect see forced compliance effect.

induced hallucination

induced hallucination a hallucination evoked by hypnotic suggestion in susceptible individuals.

induced hypothermia

induced hypothermia the gradual reduction of body temperature by artificial means, usually for medical reasons. It is used, for example, in some surgical procedures (especially those involving the heart), to decrease the body’s need for oxygen, and in the treatment of neurological diseases causing a fever.

induced movement

induced movement an illusion of movement that occurs when a small stationary stimulus is surrounded by a large moving stimulus. The small object appears to move, while the large object appears to be still. An example is the haunted swing illusion. Also called vection.

induced psychotic disorder

induced psychotic disorder see shared psychotic disorder.

induced tonus

induced tonus sustained muscle tension brought about by a movement of another body part.

induction

induction n. 1. a general conclusion, principle, or explanation derived by reasoning from particular instances or observations. See inductive reasoning. Compare deduction. 2. the process of inductive reasoning itself. 3. in conditioning, the phenomenon in which reinforcement of some forms of behavior results in an increased probability not only of those forms but also of similar but nonreinforced forms. For example, if lever presses with forces between 0.2 and 0.3 N are reinforced, presses with forces less than 0.2 N or greater than 0.3 N will increase in frequency although they are never explicitly reinforced. Also called response generalization. 4. in developmental biology, the process by which one set of cells influences the fate of neighboring cells, usually by secreting a chemical factor that changes gene expression in the target cells. 5. the act or process of producing or causing to occur. —inductive adj.

induction test

induction test a series of test items in which the participant must apply inductive reasoning to derive or formulate a general law, rule, or principle based on several relevant facts or cases.

inductive problem solving

inductive problem solving a learning technique in which the student is asked to identify relevant relationships between given facts and events and explain the general principles that underlie these relationships.

inductive reasoning

inductive reasoning the form of reasoning in which inferences and general principles are drawn from specific observations and cases. Inductive reasoning is a cornerstone of the scientific method (see Baconian method) in that it underlies the process of developing hypotheses from particular facts and observations. Compare deductive reasoning. See also generalization.

inductive statistics

inductive statistics see inferential statistics.

inductive teaching model

inductive teaching model an approach in education that strongly emphasizes the role of inductive reasoning and inductive problem solving in cognitive development. Also called inquiry training model.

industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology)

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industrial democracy

industrial democracy a system of managing an organization in which employees participate in important decisions. An example would be the use of autonomous work groups in which employees determine their work procedures and assignments and are responsible for evaluating and rewarding performance. See also participative decision making; quality circle; Scanlon plan.

industrial efficiency

industrial efficiency see efficiency.

industrial ergonomics

industrial ergonomics a specialty area of ergonomics that applies knowledge of human physical capabilities and limitations to the design of industrial work systems, including work processes.

industrial psychology

industrial psychology see industrial and organizational psychology.

industrial psychopath

industrial psychopath an individual in a work setting who displays a pattern of behavior regarded as typical of antisocial personality disorder. Such individuals act without regard for others and use manipulation to effectively manage both supporters and detractors, often resulting in career advancement. This type of individual is most likely to find success in organizations undergoing rapid changes.

industrial relations

industrial relations see labor relations.

industriousness

industriousness n. see conscientiousness.

industry versus inferiority

industry versus inferiority the fourth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, occurring from ages 6 to 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of his or her efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent.

ineffability

ineffability n. the quality of certain experiences that makes them indescribable. This quality is often associated with spiritual, aesthetic, or emotional experiences. See also qualia. —ineffable adj.

infancy

infancy n. the earliest period of postnatal life, in humans generally denoting the time from birth through the first year. —infant n.

infant and preschool tests

infant and preschool tests individually administered tests designed to assess the development of infants (from birth to 18 months) and preschool children (from 18 to 60 months). Important tests include the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence.

infant at risk

infant at risk an infant whose development may be threatened by complications at the time of birth, such as conditions that reduce the supply of oxygen to brain tissue, or by conditions after birth, such as malnutrition during the first months of life.

Infant Behavior Record

Infant Behavior Record the former name for the Behavior Rating scale. See Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development.

infant consciousness

infant consciousness sensory awareness, volitional action, and other aspects of phenomenal experience in newborns and older infants. Investigations of infant consciousness suggest that it begins in early gestation with the formation of anatomical, physiological, and neural structures that will serve an individual’s conscious experience in postnatal life; develops in late gestation into a fetus’s latent engagement with sensed surroundings in and ex utero; becomes nascently experienced in early postnatal life, as a newborn begins to explore the world outside his or her own body; and emerges increasingly as a distinct experience with the achievement of developmental milestones in later infancy and childhood.

infant massage therapy

infant massage therapy the systematic gentle touching, stroking, and kneading of the body of a baby. Therapeutic benefits include helping the baby relax and inducing sounder, longer sleep.

infant reflex

infant reflex see primitive reflex.

infant states of arousal

infant states of arousal the behavioral states experienced by infants in fairly even alternation, including (a) regular, periodic, and irregular sleep; (b) crying; (c) waking activity; and (d) alert inactivity.

infant test

infant test see infant and preschool tests.

infant-directed speech

infant-directed speech the specialized style of speech that adults and older children use when talking specifically to infants, which usually includes much inflection and repetition. See also child-directed speech.

infanticide

infanticide n. the killing of an infant or child. Although now predominantly considered both immoral and criminal, in the past infanticide was an accepted practice in some societies, often as a response to scarcity or overpopulation or as a means of eliminating offspring deemed unfit. Infants (particularly female infants) are still at risk in some cultures. Infanticide has been observed in many nonhuman animal species. It is thought to be advantageous for a new male taking over a group, which thus avoids the need to care for unrelated young; moreover, females that lose offspring will stop lactation and be able to reproduce sooner. Infanticide has also been observed in cooperative-breeding species when two females give birth at around the same time and there is competition for helpers to provide care for the young. —infanticidal adj.

infantile amnesia

infantile amnesia see childhood amnesia.

infantile autism

infantile autism see autism.

infantile myxedema

infantile myxedema see Brissaud’s infantilism.

infantile paralysis

infantile paralysis see poliomyelitis.

infantile sexuality

infantile sexuality in psychoanalytic theory, the concept that psychic energy or libido concentrated in various organs of the body throughout infancy gives rise to erotic pleasure. This is manifested in sucking the mother’s breast during the oral stage of psychosexual development, in defecating during the anal stage, and in self-stimulating activities during the early genital stage. The term and concept, first enunciated by Sigmund Freud, proved highly controversial from the start, and it is more in line with subsequent thought to emphasize the sensual nature of breast-feeding, defecation, and discovery of the body in childhood and the role of the pleasurable feelings so obtained in the origin and development of sexual feelings.

infantile speech

infantile speech speech or verbalizations using the sounds and forms characteristic of infants or very young children beyond the stage when such speech is normal.

infantilism

infantilism n. behavior, physical characteristics, or mental functioning in older children or adults that is characteristic of that of infants or young children. See regression.

infantilization

infantilization n. the encouragement of infantile or childish behavior in a more mature individual. —infantilize vb.

infarction

infarction n. 1. an area of dead tissue resulting from obstruction of a supplying artery. Infarction of brain tissue can have effects ranging from mild to severe, depending on the extent of the dead tissue and its location in the brain (see cerebral infarction). A myocardial infarction (heart attack) involves death of a segment of the heart muscle, usually due to obstruction of a coronary artery, and is a common cause of death. 2. a sudden shortfall in the blood supply to a particular tissue, organ, or part resulting from obstruction of a supplying artery, due, for example, to thrombosis or embolism. Also called infarct. See stroke.

infecundity

infecundity n. inability to produce offspring.

inference

inference n. 1. a conclusion deduced from an earlier premise or premises according to valid rules of inference, or the process of drawing such a conclusion. Some hold that an inference, as contrasted with a mere conclusion, requires that the person making it actually believe that the inference and the premises from which it is drawn are true. Also called logical inference. 2. in statistical analysis, a conclusion about a population based on logical reasoning from data gathered about a smaller sample (see inferential statistics). The most common example of this type of inference is statistical hypothesis testing (see inferential test). —inferential adj.

inferential statistics

inferential statistics a broad class of statistical techniques that allow inferences about characteristics of a population to be drawn from a sample of data from that population while controlling (at least partially) the extent to which errors of inference may be made. These techniques include approaches for testing hypotheses, estimating the value of parameters, and selecting among a set of competing models. Also called inductive statistics. Compare descriptive statistics.

inferential test

inferential test any statistical procedure used to evaluate hypotheses about differences between sample and population distributions. Examples include the chi-square test, the F test, and the t test. Inferential tests more commonly are known as significance tests (see significance testing).

inferential validity

inferential validity the extent to which causal inferences made in a laboratory setting are applicable to the real-life experiences they are meant to represent. See also external validity.

inferior

inferior adj. in anatomy, lower, below, or toward the feet. Compare superior.

inferior colliculus

inferior colliculus either of the caudal pair of colliculi. They receive and process auditory nerve impulses and relay these to the medial geniculate nuclei.

inferior frontal gyrus

inferior frontal gyrus an anatomically poorly defined region of the frontal lobe that includes Broca’s area and is involved in language production, risk aversion, and empathetic response to facial expressions.

inferior function

inferior function in the analytic psychology of Carl Jung, one of the three nondominant, unconscious functions of the personality that are dominated by the superior function in a particular functional type.

inferior longitudinal fasciculus

inferior longitudinal fasciculus a bundle of association fibers that extends from the occipital to the temporal pole of each cerebral hemisphere.

inferior oblique

inferior oblique the extrinsic eye muscle that rotates the eyeball upward if it contracts when the eye is pointing toward the nose and contributes to upward motion (together with the inferior rectus) if it contracts when the eye is pointing straight ahead.

inferior olivary complex (inferior olivary nucleus; inferior olive)

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inferior rectus

inferior rectus the extrinsic eye muscle that rotates the eyeball upward if it contracts when the eye is pointing toward the side of the head and contributes to upward motion (together with the inferior oblique) if it contracts when the eye is pointing straight ahead.

inferior temporal gyrus

inferior temporal gyrus a ridge (gyrus) that extends along the lower surface of the temporal lobe of the brain, bounded above by the middle temporal sulcus. It has a role in language, semantic memory, visual processing, and sensory integration.

inferiority

inferiority n. in Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, see industry versus inferiority.

inferiority complex

inferiority complex a basic feeling of inadequacy and insecurity, deriving from actual or imagined physical or psychological deficiency, that may result in behavioral expression ranging from the withdrawal of immobilizing timidity to the overcompensation of excessive competition and aggression. Compare superiority complex. [introduced in 1907 by Alfred Adler]

inferotemporal cortex (IT cortex)

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infertility

infertility n. inability to produce offspring due to a low fertility level in the male partner, the female partner, or both. Infertility is caused by physical problems; no evidence clearly shows a psychological cause, although maternal stress has been suggested as a factor. See also artificial insemination; in vitro fertilization. —infertile adj.

infibulation

infibulation n. the removal of the entire clitoris and most of the labia and sewing together the remaining tissue, leaving a small opening for menstruation and urination. It is practiced in some cultures as the most severe form of female genital mutilation, usually done during early childhood or the prepubertal years.

infidelity

infidelity n. 1. the situation in which one partner in a marriage or intimate relationship becomes sexually or emotionally involved with a person other than the partner’s spouse or girlfriend or boyfriend. The infidelity, also called cheating, usually transpires in secrecy between those in the extradyadic relationship; however, online infidelity, in which the extradyadic intimacy occurs on social networks and other Internet-based sites that may be only marginally private, is becoming widespread. Regardless of its method of pursuit, its effects can be harmful: Infidelity has been linked to significant adverse emotional and behavioral consequences, especially for the individual who is cheated on, including decreased self-esteem and increased risk of depression and suicide. Additionally, it is cited as a common cause of divorce or relationship dissolution. See also adultery. 2. more generally, any disloyalty or lack of faith.

infinite-valued logic

infinite-valued logic a system of logic that differs from classical logic, which permits only two truth categories to be assigned to a proposition (true or false), by allowing for multiple categories or degrees of truthfulness. For example, whereas the statement Smith is a professor is either true or false, the statement Smith is depressed might have varying degrees of truthfulness. Thus, the intersection of the categories “Smith” and “depressed” has “fuzzy” as opposed to “crisp” boundaries. Infinite-valued logic is related to fuzzy logic. See also bivalence.

infix

infix n. an element inserted medially within a word to modify the word’s meaning. The only known examples in English are swear words, as in fan-fucking-tastic. Compare prefix; suffix.

inflection

inflection n. in linguistics, a modification in the form of a word, often by the addition of a suffix, that signals a change in tense, person, number, or case. Common inflections in English are the addition of -ed or -ing to signal the past tense or present participle of a verb and the addition of -s or -’s to signal the plural or possessive form of a noun. See morphology. —inflectional adj.

influence analysis

influence analysis a set of techniques that allows one to determine the degree to which specific data points affect the overall result of a statistical procedure. For example, in regression analysis it is used to examine which observations have a disproportionate influence on the proposed regression equation.

influence tactics

influence tactics the specific actions taken by one person to change the behavior or attitudes of another.

influencing machine

influencing machine the subject of a delusion of persecution in which the individual feels controlled by a machine that serves as the instrument of persecution.

informal communications

informal communications in organizational settings, communications among employees that do not occur through the formally prescribed channels of communication. Informal communications often serve important functions that are instrumental in achieving organizational objectives, such as fostering innovation and problem solving.

informal fallacy

informal fallacy see fallacy.

informant

informant n. an expert who is consulted in ethnographic and related research. The researcher obtains information from the informant regarding the individual, group, and cultural characteristics and behaviors of the unit (e.g., group, tribe, society) about which the informant has knowledge.

informatics

informatics n. the science of using technology to collect, process, analyze, utilize, classify, store, and generally manage data and knowledge. Informatics is used in computer design, databases, and human interface design. See bioinformatics.

information

information n. 1. knowledge about facts or ideas gained through investigation, experience, or practice. 2. in information theory, a message that reduces uncertainty; that is, information tells us something we do not already know. The bit is the common unit of information in information theory.

information feedback

information feedback responses that inform an individual about the correctness, physical effect, or social or emotional impact of his or her behavior or thinking. The concept is similar to the principle behind knowledge of results, namely, that immediate feedback is beneficial to learning. In interpersonal relations and psychotherapy, information feedback gives an individual insight into other people’s experience of him or her. In behavior therapy, information feedback is intended to help change and shape behavior directly.

information hypothesis

information hypothesis the claim that conscious sensory processes may be modeled and explained by reference to the formal concepts of information theory.

information overload

information overload the state that occurs when the amount or intensity of information exceeds the individual’s processing capacity, leading to anxiety, poor decision making, and other undesirable consequences. Different people respond differently to information overload, and individuals with conditions such as autism can be especially sensitive to it. Thus, the subjective condition of the person is as important as the absolute amount of informational stimulation he or she encounters. See also cognitive overload; communication overload; sensory overload; stimulus overload.

information processing (IP)

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information science

information science the field of study concerned with the representation, storage, retrieval, and transmission of information. Information science usually includes computer science and communication science. See information theory.

information systems

information systems technology used to collect, manage, store, and report data. An example of such technology is a healthcare information system (HIS) designed to integrate the management of all aspects of a patient’s medical records with a hospital’s administrative and financial processes. Reports generated from the combined data collected by the system’s database can serve to document and account for many program services, costs, and outcomes.

information technology (IT)

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information test

information test a test that measures a person’s general knowledge in different areas and at different levels of complexity.

information theory

information theory the principles relating to the communication or transmission of information, which is defined as any message that reduces uncertainty. These principles deal with such areas as the encoding and decoding of messages, types of channels of communication and their capacity to throughput information, the application of mathematical methods to the process, the problem of noise (distortion), and the relative effectiveness of various kinds of feedback.

information-error technique

information-error technique see error-choice technique.

information-processing model

information-processing model any conceptualization of memory as involving the progressive transfer of information through a system, much as a computer manipulates information in order to store, retrieve, and generate responses to it. The most popular model is that proposed in 1968 by U.S. cognitive psychologists Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffrin (1942– ). Sometimes also referred to as the multistore model or the three-stage model, their theory views memory as a system with three distinct components—sensory memory, which collects and transforms material; short-term memory, which temporarily holds material; and long-term memory, which more permanently retains material and recalls it as needed—that sequentially process information through the stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Each component differs in how much material it can hold and for how long, as well as the mechanisms by which it operates. Control processes govern informational flow, memory search, output of responses, and so forth. Compare connectionist model.

informational cascade

informational cascade in decision making and risk management, the tendency for individuals to ignore their private knowledge and act as others do, assuming that these others must have better information; the result is an ever-increasing uniformity of behavior. Stock market bubbles and bank panics are examples.

informational influence

informational influence 1. those interpersonal processes that challenge the correctness of an individual’s beliefs or the appropriateness of his or her behavior, thereby promoting change. Such influence may occur directly, as a result of communication and persuasion, or indirectly, through exposure to information and comparison of oneself with others (see social comparison theory). Also called informational social influence. Compare interpersonal influence; normative influence. 2. the degree to which a person’s judgments or opinions about an unclear situation are accepted by others as correct.

informational power

informational power a capacity to influence others that is based on one’s knowledge of facts relevant to the situation.

informed consent

informed consent a person’s voluntary agreement to participate in a procedure on the basis of his or her understanding of its nature, its potential benefits and possible risks, and available alternatives. Informed consent is a fundamental requirement of research with humans and typically involves having participants sign documents, prior to the start of a study, that describe specifically what their involvement would entail and noting that they are free to decline participation or to withdraw from the research at any time. In therapeutic contexts, the principle of informed consent has provided a foundation for do not resuscitate (DNR) orders and other advance directives and for the natural-death acts that have been passed into law throughout the United States. See also institutional review board.

infra-

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infradian rhythm

infradian rhythm any periodic variation in physiological or psychological function (see biological rhythm) recurring in a cycle of less than 24 hours, such as the breathing rhythm. Compare circadian rhythm; ultradian rhythm.

infrahuman

infrahuman adj. an obsolete term describing all species “below” humans (i.e., nonhumans). This reflects the earlier concept of a “chain of being” that culminates in humans.

infrared

infrared n. that part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between about 0.8 μm and 1 mm. The near-infrared part of the range (0.8–3 μm) is experienced as heat. Infrared cameras are sensitive to thermal emissions from objects and can therefore produce photography in the dark.

infrared theory of smell

infrared theory of smell a theory that the olfactory sense organ functions as an infrared spectrometer. It assumes that odorants each have a unique infrared absorption spectrum, which produces transient cooling of the cilia in the olfactory epithelium. The theory is called into question by the fact that isomers of some odorants have identical infrared absorption spectrums but produce different odors.

infrasonic communication

infrasonic communication among some nonhuman animals, the use of sound frequencies below the range of human hearing (i.e., below 20 Hz) for communication. Both elephants and whales use infrasonic communication extensively. The low frequencies have very long wavelengths that are transmitted for very long distances: They have been shown to coordinate activity between individuals over distances of several kilometers. Compare ultrasonic communication. [discovered in the 1980s by Cornell University researcher Katharine Boynton Payne (1937– )]

infrasound

infrasound n. sound whose frequency is too low to be detected by human hearing, generally encompassing the range of 20 Hz to .001 Hz. The scientific study of infrasound is known as infrasonics. Able to cover long distances and circumvent or penetrate obstacles without dispersing, infrasonic waves are used by many nonhuman animals to communicate (see infrasonic communication) and have a variety of applications in geological monitoring (e.g., prediction of volcanic eruptions, detection of earthquakes). Compare ultrasound.

infundibulum

infundibulum n. (pl. infundibula) a funnel-shaped anatomical structure, in particular the stalk of the pituitary gland, situated just below the third ventricle of the brain and above the sphenoid sinus at the base of the skull.

ingenuity

ingenuity n. cleverness at solving routine problems of daily life (at work, home, etc.): everyday creativity. —ingenious adj.

ingratiation

ingratiation n. efforts to win the liking and approval of other people, especially by deliberate impression management. Ingratiation is usually regarded as strategic, insincere, and manipulative. —ingratiate vb.

ingroup

ingroup n. 1. in general, any group to which one belongs or with which one identifies, but particularly a group judged to be different from other groups (outgroups). 2. a group characterized by intense bonds of affiliation such that each member feels a sense of kinship and some degree of loyalty to other members by virtue of their common group membership. Also called we-group. [defined in 1906 by U.S. sociologist William G. Sumner (1840–1910)]

ingroup bias

ingroup bias the tendency to favor one’s own group, its members, its characteristics, and its products, particularly in reference to other groups. The favoring of the ingroup tends to be more pronounced than the rejection of the outgroup, but both tendencies become more pronounced during periods of intergroup contact. At the regional, cultural, or national level, this bias is often termed ethnocentrism. Also called ingroup favoritism. See also group-serving bias.

ingroup extremity effect

ingroup extremity effect the tendency to describe and evaluate ingroup members, their actions, and their products in exaggeratedly positive ways. Compare outgroup extremity effect. See also ingroup bias; linguistic intergroup bias.

inguinal

inguinal adj. referring to the groin (inguen).

INH

INH abbreviation for isonicotinic acid hydrazide. See isoniazid.

inhabitance

inhabitance n. the idea that ghosts or spirits can occupy particular locations, as in hauntings, or take control of people, animals, or things, as in cases of alleged possession. See exorcism.

inhalant

inhalant n. any of a variety of volatile substances that can be inhaled to produce intoxicating effects. Anesthetic gases (e.g., ether, chloroform, nitrous oxide), industrial solvents (e.g., toluene, gasoline, trichloroethylene, various aerosol propellants), and organic nitrites (e.g., amyl nitrite) are common inhalants. Anesthetic gases may cause asphyxiation, and chloroform has been associated with damage to the liver and kidneys. Industrial solvents are generally toxic, associated with damage to the kidneys, liver, and both central and peripheral nervous systems. Organic nitrites are less toxic but may cause arrhythmias in individuals with heart conditions. Household products, such as model airplane glue, nail polish remover, spray paint, fabric protector, cooking spray, and correction fluid, are also used as inhalants, especially by adolescents. See also inhalation of drugs.

inhalant abuse

inhalant abuse in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of inhalant use marked by recurrent significant adverse consequences related to the repeated ingestion of these substances. This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of inhalant dependence: If the criteria for inhalant abuse and inhalant dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given. In DSM–5, however, both have been subsumed into the category inhalant use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance abuse.

inhalant dependence

inhalant dependence in DSM–IV–TR, a pattern of repeated or compulsive use of inhalants despite significant inhalant-related behavioral, physiological, and psychosocial problems and tolerance and characteristic withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended. In DSM–5, inhalant dependence and inhalant abuse have been subsumed into inhalant use disorder and are no longer considered distinct diagnoses. See also substance dependence.

inhalant intoxication

inhalant intoxication in DSM–IV–TR and DSM–5, a reversible syndrome resulting from the recent ingestion of inhalants. It includes clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., confusion, belligerence, assaultiveness, apathy, impaired judgment, impaired social or occupational functioning), as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement (e.g., dizziness, visual disturbances, involuntary eye movements, incoordination, slurred speech, unsteady gait, tremor). At higher doses, lethargy, psychomotor retardation, generalized muscle weakness, depressed reflexes, stupor, or coma may develop. See also substance intoxication.

inhalation of drugs

inhalation of drugs a means of administering a drug—often in the form of a gas or aerosol—via the mouth or the nose (insufflation), enabling it to reach the body tissues rapidly. Anesthetics for major surgery are administered by inhalation, which permits almost instant contact with the blood supplying the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs. Oral or nasal inhalation is also a means of self-administration of abused substances, including cannabis, nicotine, cocaine, and volatile hydrocarbons (see inhalant).

inheritance

inheritance n. the transmission of physical or psychological traits from parents to their offspring. See also Mendelian inheritance; multifactorial inheritance.

inheritance of acquired characteristics

inheritance of acquired characteristics see Lamarckism.

inherited disorder

inherited disorder see genetic disorder.

inhibition

inhibition n. 1. the process of restraining one’s impulses or behavior, either consciously or unconsciously, due to factors such as lack of confidence, fear of consequences, or moral qualms. 2. in response selection, the suppression of covert responses in order to prevent incorrect responses. 3. in conditioning, the active blocking or delay of a response to a stimulus. 4. in psychoanalysis, an unconscious mechanism by which the superego controls instinctive impulses that would threaten the ego if allowed conscious expression or, in some psychoanalytic theories, might jeopardize attachment. For example, inhibited sexual desire may result from unconscious feelings of guilt implanted by parents. See also reactive inhibition; reciprocal inhibition. —inhibit vb. —inhibited adj.

inhibition mechanisms

inhibition mechanisms a series of neural mechanisms that restrict the flow of excitatory impulses. They include presynaptic and postsynaptic influences and hyperpolarization of cells.

inhibition of delay

inhibition of delay in delay conditioning, a reduction in the magnitude of the conditioned response (CR) during the early part of the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, if a 15 second tone (the CS) precedes delivery of food (the unconditioned stimulus) to a dog, salivation (the CR) will eventually occur only after the tone has been on for a few seconds, not when it first comes on. See also temporal discrimination.

inhibition of return (IOR)

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inhibitor

inhibitor n. a mechanism or stimulus that slows or suppresses an activity, process, or behavior.

inhibitory aftereffect

inhibitory aftereffect see inhibition of return.

inhibitory conditioning

inhibitory conditioning classical conditioning in which the presence of a conditioned stimulus denotes the absence of an unconditioned stimulus that has a preexisting excitatory context. That is, the unconditioned stimulus must be one to which the organism has been exposed previously; otherwise, its absence would have no importance. Compare excitatory conditioning.

inhibitory gradient (inhibition gradient)

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inhibitory neurotransmitter

inhibitory neurotransmitter see neurotransmitter.

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

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inhibitory potential

inhibitory potential a hypothesized temporary state in which reactive inhibition and conditioned inhibition result from responding to a stimulus, causing a reduction in the potential of recurrence of that response. [proposed by Clark L. Hull]

inhibitory process

inhibitory process 1. any phenomenon in human or nonhuman animal behavior that prevents or blocks actions that are problematic for the individual. See excitatory–inhibitory processes. 2. in memory, a mechanism that acts on situations requiring voluntary control to avoid intrusions from unwanted information (e.g., directed forgetting). 3. in neurocognition, an automatic mechanism triggered whenever irrelevant information is activated and competes with relevant information. See retrieval block.

inhibitory synapse

inhibitory synapse a specialized type of junction at which activity from one neuron (in the form of an action potential) reduces the probability of activity in an adjacent neuron by initiating an inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Compare excitatory synapse.

initial cry

initial cry see epileptic cry.

initial data analysis (IDA)

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initial insomnia

initial insomnia difficulty in falling asleep. Some people with initial insomnia become so worried about being unable to fall asleep or about the effects of loss of sleep that they cannot relax sufficiently to induce sleep. Initial insomnia may be a symptom of a major depressive episode. Also called onset insomnia; sleep-onset insomnia. Compare middle insomnia; terminal insomnia.

initial interview

initial interview in psychotherapy, the first interview with a client, which has some or all of the following goals: to establish a positive relationship, to listen to the client’s problem described in his or her own words, to make a tentative diagnosis, to set treatment goals, and to formulate a plan for diagnostic tests, possible treatment, or referral.

initial link

initial link see concurrent-chains procedure.

initial spurt

initial spurt the high productivity or performance frequently noted at the start of a job, task, or series of trials. The initial spurt is more common with new tasks than tasks already familiar to the individual. Compare end spurt.

Initial Teaching Alphabet (ITA)

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initial value dependency

initial value dependency see law of initial values.

initial values law

initial values law see law of initial values.

initiating structure

initiating structure a function of effective leadership that involves organizing the group for its work, typically by setting standards and objectives, identifying roles and positioning members in those roles, developing standard operating procedures, criticizing poor work, and defining the relationship between leaders and subordinates. Compare consideration.

initiation deficit

initiation deficit see abulia.

initiative versus guilt

initiative versus guilt the third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during the child’s 3rd through 5th years. In planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in his or her ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt.

injunctive norm

injunctive norm any of various socially determined consensual standards (social norms) that describe how people should act, feel, and think in a given situation, irrespective of how people typically respond in the setting. Individuals who violate these standards are often judged negatively. Also called prescriptive norm. Compare descriptive norm.

injury deceitfulness

injury deceitfulness in sport, failure to disclose the presence of an injury in order to join or retain one’s position on a team, to exercise, or to avoid benching or some other consequence.

injury denial

injury denial failure to acknowledge the existence or severity of an injury.

injury feigning

injury feigning behavior used by some birds to fool potential predators and lure them away from a nest. The bird pretends to have an injury (e.g., a broken wing) at some distance from the nest, thus distracting the attention of an approaching predator by presenting itself as easy prey.

inkblot test

inkblot test see Rorschach Inkblot Test.

INL

INL abbreviation for inner nuclear layer.

inlier

inlier n. an incorrect value in a data set. Inliers may arise from systematic error, respondent error, or processing error. For example, a researcher may inadvertently report a value in the wrong unit, such as including a raw score in a distribution of standardized scores.

innate

innate adj. 1. denoting a capability or characteristic existing in an organism from birth, belonging to the original or essential constitution of the body or mind. Innate processes should be distinguished from those that develop later in infancy and childhood under maturational control. 2. in philosophy, denoting an idea that is knowable by reason alone and that does not need to be established or confirmed by experience. Also called inborn; native.

innate behavior

innate behavior behavior that appears to be developed and expressed with no specific training or experience and thus has a strong genetic basis. It is generally accepted that most behavior is neither purely innate nor purely due to learning or experience. See epigenesis; nature–nurture.

innate ideas

innate ideas ideas that are held to be present in the mind prior to any experience. Innate ideas are usually taken to be those ideas that are so intuitively obvious as to require no proof, such as the axioms of geometry or the “contradiction principle” (X is not non-X) in logic. For René Descartes, who is often cited as the originator of the concept, innate ideas referred not so much to particular ideas as to the capacities and processes of rationality that allow such ideas to be immediately intuited as true. The notion of innate ideas later came under attack from John Locke and other thinkers in the empiricist tradition (see empiricism). Compare derived ideas.

innate releasing mechanism (IRM)

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inner audience

inner audience an imagined listener to one’s own silent, inner speech, often associated in psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory with an authority figure. The sense of an inner audience may be important in the early development of self-regulation.

inner conflict

inner conflict see intrapsychic conflict.

inner dialogue

inner dialogue a mental debate that an individual may engage in about any issue. In some systems of psychotherapy, clients are encouraged to express their inner dialogue aloud in words during sessions.

inner ear

inner ear the part of the ear that comprises the bony and membranous labyrinths and contains the sense organs responsible for hearing and balance. For hearing, the major structure is the cochlea (see also labyrinth). For the sense of balance, the major structures are the semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle (see also vestibular apparatus).

inner estrangement

inner estrangement the feeling that external objects are unfamiliar and unreal. [defined by Austrian psychoanalyst Paul Federn (1871–1950)]

inner hair cells

inner hair cells see hair cell.

inner language

inner language 1. the visual, auditory, and kinesthetic mental imagery of words and concepts. 2. speech spoken to oneself without vocalization. According to Lev Vygotsky, inner language follows egocentric speech and represents the child’s recruitment of language in his or her reasoning efforts. Also called inner speech. See also internalized speech; verbal thought.

inner nuclear layer (INL)

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inner plexiform layer (IPL)

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inner psychophysics

inner psychophysics a systematic attempt to relate experience in the mind to states of excitation in the sensory apparatus. Compare outer psychophysics. See psychophysical law. [introduced by Gustav Theodor Fechner]

inner scribe

inner scribe see visuospatial sketchpad.

inner speech

inner speech see inner language.

inner-directed

inner-directed adj. describing or relating to an individual who is self-motivated and not easily influenced by the opinions, values, or pressures of other people. Compare other-directed; tradition-directed. [introduced by U.S. sociologist David Riesman (1909–2002)]

innervation

innervation n. the supply of nerves to an organ (e.g., muscle or gland) or a body region. —innervate vb.

innervation ratio

innervation ratio the ratio expressing the number of muscle fibers innervated by a single motor axon. It may vary from 3 muscle fibers per axon for small muscles in the fingers to 150 muscle fibers per axon for large muscle bundles of the arms and legs. The lower the ratio, the finer is the control of movements.

innovation diffusion

innovation diffusion the gradual spread of a new technology to populations or population segments. Rates of diffusion are determined by the adoption and successful use of the technology. Innovation includes both tangible technologies, such as computer-based systems, and intangible technologies, such as processes or ways of thinking. See also product champion.

innovative therapies

innovative therapies loosely, psychological treatments or techniques that are new and different from traditional therapies and often have not yet been empirically validated.

inoculation theory

inoculation theory a theory postulating that resistance to persuasion can be created by exposing people to weak persuasive attacks that are easily refuted. This helps people practice defending their attitudes as well as make them aware that their attitudes can be challenged, which thereby creates resistance to subsequent stronger messages. [originally proposed by William J. McGuire]

Inocybe

Inocybe n. a genus of mushrooms, some species of which are poisonous because they contain the toxic alkaloid muscarine. Symptoms of poisoning include salivation, perspiration, and lacrimation (tears); at higher doses, these symptoms may be followed by abdominal pains, severe nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, visual disturbances, labored breathing, and bradycardia (slowed heart rate), which may potentially result in death from cardiac or respiratory failure. Treatment is with atropine.

inositol

inositol n. a compound similar to glucose that occurs in many foods and is sometimes classed as a vitamin. It is a component of cell-membrane phospholipids and plasma lipoproteins, and phosphorylated derivatives (see inositol phosphates) function as second messengers in cells.

inositol phosphates

inositol phosphates derivatives of inositol that contain one or more phosphate groups, some of which are second messengers in cells, serving to relay signals from receptors at the cell surface to other parts of the cell. The most studied of these second messengers is inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). The action of lithium salts, used to treat bipolar disorders, may be linked to their inhibition of the enzyme inositol monophosphatase, which is involved in the recycling of inositol from the inositol phosphates. It has been hypothesized that this inhibition thus leads to a deficiency of inositol and a corresponding excess of inositol phosphates.

inpatient

inpatient n. a person who has been formally admitted to a hospital for a period of at least 24 hours for observation, diagnosis, or treatment, as distinguished from an outpatient or an emergency-room patient.

Inpatient Multidimensional Psychiatric Scale (IMPS)

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inpatient services

inpatient services diagnostic and treatment services available to hospitalized patients and usually unavailable or only partially available in outpatient facilities. Examples are continuous supervision; medical treatment and nursing care; specialized treatment techniques, such as rehabilitational, occupational, movement, or recreation therapy; and social work services.

input

input n. the signals fed into a communication channel together with the energy put into a system. In the context of the interaction between a person and a computer, input usually refers to data or instructions fed into the computer. Compare output.

input-process-output model (IPO model)

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input–output mechanism

input–output mechanism a simple model of information processing in which a given input automatically produces a given output. An input–output mechanism is a closed system in which information is subjected to a fixed sequence of preset operations and there is no interaction with the environment during throughput. Some behaviorist theories have been criticized as reducing the human organism to an input–output mechanism.

inquiry training model

inquiry training model see inductive teaching model.

inquisitorial system

inquisitorial system see adversarial system.

INRC group

INRC group abbreviation for identity, negation, reciprocal, and correlative operations.

insane asylum

insane asylum a former (19th-century) name for a residential institution for the treatment of people with severe mental illness. Also called lunatic asylum. See asylum.

insanity

insanity n. in law, a condition of the mind that renders a person incapable of being responsible for his or her criminal acts. Defendants who are found to be not guilty by reason of insanity therefore lack criminal responsibility for their conduct. Whether a person is insane, in this legal sense, is determined by judges and juries, not psychologists or psychiatrists. Numerous legal standards for determining criminal responsibility, the central issue in an insanity defense, have been used at various times in many jurisdictions. These include the Durham rule, the American Law Institute Model Penal Code insanity test, and the M’Naghten rule. See also partial insanity. —insane adj.

insanity defense

insanity defense in criminal law, the defense plea that an individual lacks criminal responsibility for his or her conduct. See also diminished responsibility.

Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA)

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insect phobia

insect phobia see animal phobia; specific phobia.

insecure attachment

insecure attachment in the Strange Situation, one of several patterns of a generally negative parent–child relationship in which the child fails to display confidence when the parent is present, sometimes shows distress when the parent leaves, and reacts to the returning parent by avoidance (see avoidant attachment) or with ambivalence (see ambivalent attachment). See also anxious–avoidant attachment; anxious–resistant attachment; disorganized attachment. Compare secure attachment.

insecurity

insecurity n. a feeling of inadequacy, lack of self-confidence, and inability to cope, accompanied by general uncertainty and anxiety about one’s goals, abilities, or relationships with others. —insecure adj.

insemination

insemination n. the deposition of semen within the vagina, either during coitus or by other means (see artificial insemination).

insensible

insensible adj. 1. without sensation or consciousness. 2. lacking emotional responsiveness. —insensibility n.

insert headphone

insert headphone a device for presenting sound in a sealed ear canal. Typically, the transducer is located remotely and sound is routed via a thin tube, which is embedded at its terminus in a soft foam plug; the earplug and tube are inserted in the ear canal. Such a system provides better acoustic isolation than do typical headphones and perhaps better control of the sound impinging on the tympanic membrane.

insight

insight n. 1. the clear and often sudden discernment of a solution to a problem by means that are not obvious and may never become so, even after one has tried hard to work out how one has arrived at the solution. There are many different theories of how insights are formed and of the kinds of insights that exist. For example, in the 1990s, U.S. psychologists Robert J. Sternberg (1949– ) and Janet Davidson proposed a theory in which there are three main kinds of insights: (a) selective encoding insights, which are used to distinguish relevant from irrelevant information; (b) selective comparison insights, which are used to distinguish what information already stored in long-term memory is relevant for one’s purposes; and (c) selective combination insights, which are used to put together the available information so as to formulate a solution to a given problem. 2. in psychotherapy, an awareness of underlying sources of emotional, cognitive, or behavioral responses and difficulties in oneself or another person. See also aha experience; epiphany.

insight learning

insight learning a cognitive form of learning involving the mental rearrangement or restructuring of the elements in a problem to achieve a sudden understanding of the problem and arrive at a solution. Insight learning was described by Wolfgang Köhler in the 1920s, based on his observations of apes stacking boxes or using sticks to retrieve food, and was offered as an alternative to trial-and-error learning.

insight therapy

insight therapy any form of psychotherapy based on the theory that a client’s problems cannot be resolved without his or her gaining self-understanding and thus becoming aware of their origins. This approach—characteristic, for example, of psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy—contrasts with therapies directed toward removal of symptoms or behavior modification.

insomnia

insomnia n. difficulty in initiating or maintaining a restorative sleep, which results in fatigue, the severity or persistence of which causes clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. Such sleeplessness may be caused by a transient or chronic physical condition or psychological disturbance. Also called agrypnia; ahypnia; ahypnosia; anhypnia. See disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep; fatal familial insomnia; initial insomnia; intermittent insomnia; middle insomnia; primary insomnia; pseudoinsomnia; terminal insomnia. —insomniac n.

insomnia disorder

insomnia disorder see disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep; primary insomnia.

inspection time (IT)

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inspectionalism

inspectionalism n. see voyeurism.

inspective exploration

inspective exploration exploratory behavior used as a means of reducing anxiety, fear, or uncertainty associated with novel stimuli and thus decreasing arousal. Also called specific exploration. Compare diversive exploration. [defined by Daniel E. Berlyne]

inspiration

inspiration n. 1. the act of drawing air into the lungs. 2. in cognitive psychology, a sudden insight or leap in understanding that produces new, creative ideas or approaches to a problem. See aha experience; discontinuity hypothesis. 3. the process of being aroused or stimulated to do something, or the quality of being so aroused, as in Her speech gave us the inspiration we needed. —inspirational adj. —inspire vb. —inspired adj.

inspiration–expiration ratio (I/E ratio)

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inspirational motivation

inspirational motivation a goal-directed state aroused by exposure to high-performing, successful, or admired models.

instability

instability n. in psychology, a tendency toward lack of self-control, erratic behavior, shifting attitudes and beliefs, and rapidly changing or excessive emotions. —unstable adj.

instance theory

instance theory see exemplar theory.

instant gratification

instant gratification the meeting or satisfying of one’s needs or wishes without delay. Therapy may be important to help reduce the desire for instant gratification when postponing needs and tolerating delays would be realistic or in the best interests of the client.

instigation therapy

instigation therapy behavior therapy in which the therapist provides a positive model and reinforces the client’s progress toward self-regulation and self-evaluation.

instinct

instinct n. 1. an innate, species-specific biological force that impels an organism to do something, particularly to perform a certain act or respond in a certain manner to specific stimuli. See also hormic psychology. 2. in classical psychoanalytic theory, a basic biological drive (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex, aggression) that must be fulfilled in order to maintain physical and psychological equilibrium. Sigmund Freud classified instincts into two types: those derived from the life instinct and those derived from the death instinct. See also component instinct; erotic instinct; libido; satisfaction of instincts; sexual instinct. 3. in popular usage, any inherent or unlearned predisposition (behavioral or otherwise) or motivational force. —instinctive or instinctual adj.

instinctive behavior

instinctive behavior stereotyped, unlearned, largely stimulus-bound adaptive behavior limited in its expression by the inherent properties of the nervous system and genetic factors. It is species specific and involves complex activity patterns rather than simple reflexes. See fixed action pattern; innate releasing mechanism; modal action pattern; releaser.

instinctive drift

instinctive drift the tendency of learned, reinforced behavior to gradually return to a more innate behavior. For example, raccoons trained to drop coins into a container will eventually begin to dip the coins into the container, pull them back out, rub them together, and dip them in again. The learned behavior of dropping coins becomes more representative of the innate behavior of food washing. Also called instinctual drift. [proposed in 1961 by U.S. psychologists Keller Breland (1915–1965) and Marian Breland (1920–2001)]

instinctive knowledge

instinctive knowledge unlearned and generally unalterable behavior, observable when a new stimulus (i.e., one not previously encountered) elicits an affective response indicative of genetic influences. An example is fear of and flight from certain predators in the absence of previous exposure to these animals.

instinctual aim

instinctual aim see aim of the instinct.

instinctual drive

instinctual drive see instinct.

instinctualization of smell

instinctualization of smell 1. the capacity of smell to play a part in coprophilia or anal fixations. 2. the role of body odors as arousal factors in sexual foreplay. See also component instinct.

institution

institution n. 1. an established practice, tradition, behavior, or system of roles and relationships, such as marriage, that is considered a normative structure or arrangement within a society. Sociologists usually distinguish between four main types of institutions: political (e.g., monarchy), economic (e.g., capitalism), cultural (e.g., media, education, religion), and social (e.g., family organization, race, gender). 2. a large, often publicly funded organization, such as a university, museum, or charitable foundation, or the building that houses such an organization. 3. a building or building complex in which individuals are cared for or confined for extended periods of time, especially a psychiatric hospital or a prison. —institutional adj.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

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institutional care

institutional care medical or mental health care services received by an inpatient in a hospital, nursing home, or other residential institution.

institutional neurosis

institutional neurosis see social breakdown syndrome.

institutional release

institutional release see release.

institutional research

institutional research a study conducted to obtain information about an academic setting. For example, a university may research its faculty, staff, students, finances, technology, campus climate, and other characteristics so as to facilitate better decision making.

institutional review board (IRB)

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institutionalism

institutionalism n. see social breakdown syndrome.

institutionalization

institutionalization n. 1. placement of an individual in an institution for therapeutic or correctional purposes or when he or she is incapable of living independently, often as a result of a physical or mental condition. 2. an individual’s gradual adaptation to institutional life over a long period, especially when this is seen as rendering him or her passive, dependent, and generally unsuited to life outside the institution. —institutionalize vb.

institutionalized racism

institutionalized racism differential treatment of individuals on the basis of their racial group by religious organizations, governments, businesses, the media, educational institutions, and other large social entities. Examples include discrimination in hiring, promotion, and advancement at work; restrictive housing regulations that promote segregation; unfair portrayal of minority members in newspapers and magazines; and legal statutes that restrict the civil liberties of the members of specific racial categories. A parallel phenomenon exists for sexism. Also called institutional racism.

instructed learning

instructed learning the second stage of cultural learning, in which a more accomplished person instructs a less accomplished person. The process requires that learners grasp the instructor’s understanding of the task and then compare it with their own understanding. See also collaborative learning; imitative learning. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Michael Tomasello (1950– ) and colleagues]

instructional set

instructional set the attitude toward a task or test that is communicated (intentionally or unintentionally) by the experimenter to the participants. It conveys information on how they should approach the task or testsuch as whether that speed is more (or less) important than accuracy.

instructional theory of development

instructional theory of development the theory that the development of unorganized neural elements into differentiated neural structures is shaped by environmental factors.

instructional treatment

instructional treatment any educational intervention designed, implemented, and evaluated by an instructor to increase learning or enhance various kinds of performance.

instrument

instrument n. 1. any tool, device, or other means by which researchers assess or gather data about study participants. Examples include tests, interviews, questionnaires, surveys, rating scales, and reaction-time apparatus. See also assessment instrument. 2. in general, an implement used in performing specific operations, such as cutting or writing.

instrument drift

instrument drift changes in an instrument, usually gradual and often predictable, that can threaten the validity of conclusions drawn from the data obtained with that instrument. An example would be the stretching of spring scales. Periodic recalibration of the measuring device helps minimize or rectify instrument drift. Also called instrument decay. See also observer drift.

instrumental

instrumental n. in some languages, such as Sanskrit, a case of nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases identifying entities that are used by the agent to perform the action of a verb. The instrumental is also used as a category in case grammar; in The crowbar pried open the door, for example, the inanimate noun crowbar is said to be the instrument rather than the agent (here unidentified). See also experiencer; patient.

instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs)

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instrumental aggression

instrumental aggression see aggression.

instrumental behavior

instrumental behavior 1. behavior that is learned and elicited via positive or negative reinforcement of target (rather than instinctive) responses. The term is used synonymously with operant behavior, usually for describing behavior during conditioning procedures that involves long sequences of activity, such as solving a puzzle box. 2. actions that directly affect or manage the behavior of others. Among nonhuman animals, for example, a subordinate adult may engage in infantile behavior to inhibit others’ threatening or aggressive actions. Some animals use alarm calls to distract other group members so they can make use of a valued resource without interference.

instrumental conditioning

instrumental conditioning any form of conditioning in which the correct response is essential for reinforcement. Instrumental conditioning is similar to operant conditioning and usually involves complex activities in order to reach a goal, such as when a rat is trained to navigate a maze to obtain food. It contrasts with classical conditioning, in which reinforcement is given regardless of the response. Also called instrumental learning; Type II conditioning; Type R conditioning.

instrumental dependence

instrumental dependence the tendency to rely on others for accomplishing tasks.

Instrumental Enrichment

Instrumental Enrichment a program for helping people improve their intellectual performance by developing the metacognitive and cognitive skills essential to successful performance of intellectual tasks. First used for pupils with intellectual disabilities, Instrumental Enrichment was later applied to performers at all ages and intellectual levels. The program involves solving puzzles, some of which are similar to the kinds of problems found on conventional intelligence tests, as well as bridging, which involves relating performance on these puzzles to the solution of real-world problems. Results of evaluations are mixed but suggest at least some benefits for performers with intellectual disabilities (who tend to be weak in metacognitive skills). [formulated in the 1970s by Romanian-born Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein (1921–2014) and his collaborators]

instrumental learning

instrumental learning see instrumental conditioning.

instrumental orientation

instrumental orientation the tendency of an individual or group to focus on assigned tasks and goals and the tangible benefits of achieving them (e.g., increased pay) rather than on the interpersonal relationships involved in achieving them. See also task-motivated; task-oriented group.

instrumental relativist orientation

instrumental relativist orientation see preconventional level.

instrumental response

instrumental response any response that achieves a goal or contributes to its achievement, such as a response that is effective in gaining a reward or avoiding pain (e.g., a rat pressing a bar to obtain food).

instrumentalism

instrumentalism n. 1. in the philosophy of science, the position that theories are not to be considered as either true or false but as instruments of explanation that allow observations of the world to be meaningfully ordered. This view is related to Machian positivism. 2. a theory of knowledge that emphasizes the pragmatic value, rather than the truth value, of ideas. In this view, the value of an idea, concept, or judgment lies in its ability to explain, predict, and control one’s concrete functional interactions with the experienced world. This view is related to pragmatism. [developed by John Dewey] 3. the view or attitude that the primary motivation for social interaction is the attainment of some positive advantage or good for the self, so that others are regarded and used as instruments in acquiring such advantage. —instrumentalist adj., n.

instrumentality theory

instrumentality theory the theory that a person’s attitude toward an event will depend on his or her perception of its function as an instrument in bringing about desirable or undesirable consequences. See also valence–instrumentality–expectancy theory.

instrumentation

instrumentation n. the creation and use of equipment and devices (including psychological tests) for the measurement of some attribute or the control of experiments (e.g., automation of stimulus presentation and data collection). It is important that a measurement instrument not only be trustworthy and reliable but also properly maintained and consistently administered so as to ensure internal validity.

instrumentation effect

instrumentation effect any change in the dependent variable in a study that arises from changes in the measuring instrument used. For example, an experimenter may subtly but unintentionally alter his or her testing method across sessions, such that a pretest and a posttest are administered differently. Instrumentation effects pose a threat to internal validity.

insufficient justification effect

insufficient justification effect the finding that in some situations people are more likely to undertake a task that goes against their character or personal beliefs when offered a small reward versus a larger reward, and similarly more likely to decline a desired activity when presented with a mild threat versus a more serious threat. For example, in a classic 1959 study by psychologists Leon Festinger and James M. Carlsmith, participants were offered money to lie about their interest in a particular task: Those who received $1 were more motivated to lie than those who received $20. The theory is that when extrinsic motivation is low, people are motivated to reduce the cognitive dissonance they experience by finding an intrinsic motivation for their behavior (e.g., by telling themselves they had no wish to break that particular rule anyway). Compare overjustification effect.

insufflation

insufflation n. 1. the act of breathing or blowing into something. 2. the nasal inhalation of a drug, as in snorting cocaine. —insufflate vb.

insula

insula n. (pl. insulae) a region of the cerebral cortex of primate brains that is buried in a cleft near the lower end of the lateral sulcus. It is thought to play a major role in emotion (particularly negative emotions, such as disgust), taste, self-awareness, and motor control of functions such as swallowing and speech articulation. It may also be involved in addictive cravings and the regulation of procedural memory. Also called central lobe; insular cortex; island of Reil. [from Latin, “island”; first described by German physician Johann Reil (1759–1813)]

insulin

insulin n. a hormone, secreted by the B cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, that facilitates the transfer of glucose molecules through cell membranes. Together with glucagon, it plays a key role in regulating blood sugar and carbohydrate metabolism. In the absence of sufficient concentrations of insulin, glucose accumulates in the blood and is excreted, as in diabetes mellitus (see also hyperglycemia). Excessive concentrations of insulin (resulting, e.g., from insulin overdosage or an insulin-secreting tumor) give rise to hypoglycemia.

insulin lipodystrophy

insulin lipodystrophy see lipodystrophy.

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)

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insulin-shock therapy

insulin-shock therapy a treatment for schizophrenia, rarely used after 1960, in which hypoglycemia was induced by intramuscular injection of insulin to produce a temporary coma. Inductions might last for 15 to 60 minutes, and a full course of treatment typically involved numerous coma inductions over a given period. Also called coma therapy; insulin-coma therapy. [introduced in 1927 by Austrian-born U.S. psychiatrist Manfred J. Sakel (1900–1957)]

intake interview

intake interview 1. the initial interview with a client by a therapist or counselor to obtain both information regarding the issues or problems that have brought the client into therapy or counseling and preliminary information regarding personal and family history. 2. the initial interview with a patient who is being admitted into a psychiatric hospital, day treatment program, or inpatient substance abuse facility. Intake interviews are also common in government-funded mental health services, such as those provided at community mental health centers, in determining eligibility and appropriateness of the client for services offered. An intake interview may be carried out by a specialist who may not necessarily treat the patient, with the information obtained used to determine the best course of treatment and the appropriate therapist to provide it.

integral

integral n. 1. a whole number (e.g., 2, 9, 11), as opposed to numbers that are fractions (e.g., 1/4, 1.5). 2. the area underneath a curve plotted on an x-axis and y-axis between two points, a and b. It is one of two main concepts—the other being the derivative—applied within calculus to the study of change and area.

integrated care

integrated care a consistent, systematic, and coordinated set of health care services that are developed, managed, and delivered to individual patients over a range of organizations and by a variety of associated professionals and other care providers. The approach seeks to reduce fragmented care (i.e., diagnosis and treatment by multiple unconnected and minimally communicating doctors and caregivers); to improve clinical outcomes, quality of life, patient satisfaction, effectiveness, and efficiency (ideally using evidence-based practice guidelines); and to reduce costs. The complexities underlying development of such approaches include establishing a common philosophy of assessment and treatment, developing partnership relationships, linking and planning information systems, coordinating patient flow among providers, and so forth. The efficacy of integrated care is often viewed and measured from two perspectives: that of the patient and that of the organizations and individual service providers. Although primarily associated with medicine proper, services may include mental health components (e.g., psychosocial assessment and treatment). Also called integrated medicine.

integrated delivery system (IDS)

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integrated display

integrated display in ergonomics, a machine display designed on the principle that similar categories of information should be grouped together. Compare separated display.

integrated model

integrated model in evaluation research, an administrative relationship (used in formative evaluation) between a program director and multiple production units made up of writers, designers, and evaluators who are all involved in program development as well as program evaluation. Members of these units do not necessarily share equal importance or equal access to the program director. Also called dependent model. Compare segregated model.

integrated system

integrated system a program allowing individuals with disabilities to manage computer functions, their environments, telephone communication, and powered mobility through a central control.

integration

integration n. 1. the coordination or unification of parts into a totality. This general meaning has been incorporated into a wide variety of psychological contexts and topics. For example, the integration of personality denotes the gradual bringing together of constituent traits, behavioral patterns, motives, and so forth to form an organized whole that functions effectively and with minimal effort or without conflict. 2. see acculturation strategies. 3. in attitude research, see complexity of an attitude.

integrative agnosia

integrative agnosia a form of visual agnosia in which individuals are able to perceive the elements of an object but find it difficult to combine them into a perceptual whole. Typically, symptoms of both apperceptive and associative agnosia are present. Individuals affected by this kind of agnosia can usually draw an object accurately but only through a laborious process.

integrative bargaining

integrative bargaining a form of bargaining in which the parties work together to achieve outcomes that benefit both sides. Compare distributive bargaining.

integrative behavioral couples therapy

integrative behavioral couples therapy a form of behavioral couples therapy that specifically focuses on helping partners to develop acceptance and greater emotional understanding of one another and to integrate that understanding with an effort to identify, address, and change problematic patterns in their relationship that bother them both. The therapy also helps couples to explore how experiences in their respective pasts may inform their relationship in the present. Compare cognitive behavioral couples therapy. [developed in the 1990s by U.S psychologists Andrew Christensen and Neil Jacobson (1949–1999)]

integrative complexity

integrative complexity the extent to which an attitude object is considered to have both positive and negative features and the extent to which these features are seen as related to one another. Low integrative complexity occurs when an attitude object is seen exclusively in positive or negative terms. Moderate integrative complexity occurs when the object is seen as having both positive and negative features, but these features are seen as having little relation to one another. High integrative complexity occurs when the positive and negative features are seen as related to one another.

integrative learning

integrative learning the process of learning tasks that involve simultaneous or successive functioning of several modalities, as in reading and writing.

integrative medicine

integrative medicine the combination of conventional medical treatments and complementary therapies that have demonstrated scientific merit with regard to safety and efficacy. See also complementary and alternative medicine.

integrative psychotherapy

integrative psychotherapy psychotherapy that selects theoretical models or techniques from various therapeutic schools to suit the client’s particular problems. For example, psychodynamic psychotherapy and gestalt therapy may be combined through the practice of interpretation of material in the here and now. The Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration (SEPI), founded in 1983, reflects the growing interest in, and the rapid development and use of, such combined therapeutic techniques. Also called psychotherapy integration. See also eclectic psychotherapy.

integrity

integrity n. the quality of moral consistency, honesty, and truthfulness with oneself and others.

integrity group psychotherapy

integrity group psychotherapy a type of group therapy in which openness and honesty are expected from all participants, and experienced members of the group serve as models of sincerity and involvement. [developed by O. Hobart Mowrer]

integrity testing

integrity testing procedures used to determine whether employees or applicants for employment are likely to engage in counterproductive work behavior. Overt integrity tests are inventories that directly ask people about their past behaviors and their attitudes toward unethical, illegal, and counterproductive behavior. Personality-based integrity tests are inventories measuring the character traits thought to be related to unethical, illegal, and counterproductive behavior. Integrity tests are sometimes called honesty tests.

integrity versus despair

integrity versus despair the eighth and final stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during old age. In this stage, the individual reflects on the life he or she has lived and may develop either integrity—a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity—or despair—a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death. Also called ego integrity versus despair.

intellect

intellect n. 1. the intellectual functions of the mind considered collectively. 2. an individual’s capacity for abstract, objective reasoning, especially as contrasted with his or her capacity for feeling, imagining, or acting. —intellectual adj.

intellectual detachment

intellectual detachment see detachment.

intellectual disability

intellectual disability a developmental disability characterized by mild to profound limitations in cognitive function (e.g., learning, problem solving, reasoning, planning) and in adaptive behavior, impairing one’s ability to acquire skills typical for one’s age group as a child or necessary for one’s later independent functioning as an adult. It is now the preferred term for mental retardation. In DSM–5, a diagnosis of intellectual disability, including its degree of severity, requires clinical assessment of an individual’s level of difficulty with conceptual skills (e.g., reading, writing, arithmetic), social skills (e.g., communication, emotion regulation), and practical skills (e.g., self-care, ability to manage activities of daily living). Deficits in cognitive function may be assessed with standardized intelligence tests, but an individual’s IQ as measured by such tests is less emphasized in the diagnostic criteria for intellectual disability than in the traditional criteria for mental retardation. Also called intellectual developmental disorder.

intellectual function

intellectual function any of the mental functions involved in acquiring, developing, and relating ideas, concepts, and hypotheses. Memory, imagination, and judgment can also be considered intellectual functions. Also called intellectual operation. See higher mental process.

intellectual impoverishment

intellectual impoverishment diminished intellectual capacity, such as problem-solving ability and concentration. This condition is observed in many people with schizophrenia, dementia, or depression and in individuals living in a deprived, unstimulating environment. See also poverty of ideas.

intellectual insight

intellectual insight in psychotherapy, an objective, rational awareness of experiences or relationships. Some theorists posit that intellectual insight by itself does not advance the therapeutic process and may even impede it because little or no feeling (i.e., emotional content) is involved.

intellectual maturity

intellectual maturity the adult stage of intellectual development, in which the individual typically has a high level of good judgment, often combined with wisdom.

intellectual operation

intellectual operation see intellectual function.

intellectual plasticity

intellectual plasticity the extent to which an individual’s intellectual abilities are modifiable and thus subject to various kinds of change.

intellectual stimulation

intellectual stimulation 1. the pleasurable sense of being challenged and provoked that can arise from an encounter with new, difficult, or interesting ideas. 2. the enhancement of cognitive processing—including creativity, discernment, and insight—that occurs when individuals exchange ideas and opinions during interpersonal or group discussion.

intellectual subaverage functioning

intellectual subaverage functioning an IQ more than two standard deviations below the mean obtained on an intelligence test.

intellectualism

intellectualism n. 1. in philosophy, a position consistent with idealism or rationalism that emphasizes the preeminence of mind or idea. 2. in psychology, the doctrine that cognitive functions are preeminent, so that emotive and motivational experiential states can be explained by, or originate from, more fundamental cognitive states. —intellectualist adj.

intellectualization

intellectualization n. in psychoanalysis, a defense mechanism in which conflicts or emotional problems are dealt with abstractly or concealed by excessive intellectual activity. —intellectualize vb.

intelligence

intelligence n. the ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason. See also IQ; measures of intelligence. —intelligent adj.

intelligence knowledge-based system (IKBS)

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intelligence measure

intelligence measure see intelligence test; measures of intelligence.

intelligence quotient

intelligence quotient see IQ.

intelligence test

intelligence test an individually administered test used to determine a person’s level of intelligence by measuring his or her ability to solve problems, form concepts, reason, acquire detail, and perform other intellectual tasks. It comprises mental, verbal, and performance tasks of graded difficulty that have been standardized by use on a representative sample of the population. Examples of intelligence tests include the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Also called intelligence scale. See IQ.

intelligent design

intelligent design a theoretical position, in opposition to the theory of evolution, that the universe with all its diversity is so ingeniously and complexly constructed and interrelated that it could only have been created by some intelligent force and that complex biological organisms could not have emerged through natural selection. In some contexts, the term has become synonymous with creationism.

intensional meaning

intensional meaning the meaning of a word or phrase as defined by listing the essential or salient properties of the thing or concept referred to. For example, the intensional meaning of sister is “female sibling.” Compare extensional meaning.

intensity

intensity n. 1. the quantitative value of a stimulus or sensation. 2. the strength of any behavior, such as an impulse or emotion. 3. the strength of an individual’s performance in some activity or field with reference to one or more of the following attributes: arousal, commitment, effort, assertiveness, and attentional focus. Also called performance intensity. —intense adj.

intensive care syndrome

intensive care syndrome a type of psychotic condition observed in some individuals in intensive care who are immobilized in an isolated, unfamiliar environment that may have the effect of sensory deprivation. Variable factors may include the mental and physical condition of the individual prior to the need for intensive care, the age of the individual, medical or surgical complications, and behavioral effects of drugs administered.

intensive care unit (ICU)

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intensive psychotherapy

intensive psychotherapy broad, thorough, and prolonged psychological treatment of an individual’s concerns and problems. The qualifier intensive indicates both the nature of the discussions, which typically involve extensive examination of the individual’s life history and conflicts, and the duration of the therapy. Compare brief psychotherapy.

intent analysis

intent analysis analysis of social interaction in which verbal content is classified according to intent (providing support, seeking approval, etc.).

intention

intention n. 1. a prior conscious decision to perform a behavior. In experiments, intention is often equated with the goals defined by the task instructions. 2. more generally, any directedness in one’s thoughts or behaviors, whether or not this involves conscious decision making. —intentional adj.

intention movement

intention movement a physical behavior that precipitates another physical response, so that the first behavior may signal the second. For example, when two people are talking, one may exhibit certain postural behaviors (e.g., changing stance, shifting weight) predictive of terminating the interaction before actually ending the conversation and walking away.

intention tremor

intention tremor see action tremor.

intentional accident

intentional accident see purposive accident.

intentional agent

intentional agent an individual whose behavior is based on what he or she knows and wants and who acts deliberately to achieve goals. In infants, the ability to distinguish intentional agents from inanimate objects begins by 9 months of age.

intentional behavior

intentional behavior goal-oriented behavior in which an individual uses strategies to achieve various ends or effects. According to the Piagetian theory of cognitive development, intentional behavior emerges in human infants between 8 and 12 months of age.

intentional forgetting

intentional forgetting inaccessibility of a memory that is due to repression or to an unconscious wish to forget.

intentional inexistence

intentional inexistence in act psychology and phenomenology, the principle that the object of perception or thought (the intentional object) exists within the act of perceiving or thinking. See intentionality. [developed by Franz Brentano]

intentional learning

intentional learning learning that is planned or deliberate and therefore consciously employs mnemonics or other strategies. Compare incidental learning.

intentional stance

intentional stance a strategy for interpreting and predicting behavior that views organisms as rational beings acting in a reasonable manner according to their beliefs and desires (i.e., their intentions). [proposed by U.S. philosopher Daniel C. Dennett (1942– )]

intentionality

intentionality n. a characteristic of an individual’s acts that requires the individual (a) to have goals, desires, and standards; (b) to select behaviors that are in the service of attaining the goal (e.g., means to an end); and (c) to call into conscious awareness a desired future state. Investigators differ as to whether (a) alone, (a) and (b) but not (c), or (a), (b), and (c) are required for intentionality to be attributable to an individual. The concept of intentionality, as developed by Franz Brentano, has been very influential in act psychology, phenomenology, and related approaches in hermeneutics.

interaction

interaction n. 1. a relationship between two or more systems, people, or groups that results in mutual or reciprocal influence. See also social interaction. 2. see interaction effect. —interact vb.

interaction analysis

interaction analysis a variety of methods used to describe, categorize, and evaluate instances of person–person interaction, person–system interaction, or team and group interaction. Interaction analysis is used in specialties such as human factors engineering, human–computer interaction, cultural studies, and communication studies.

interaction effect

interaction effect in a factorial design, the joint effect of two or more independent variables on a dependent variable above and beyond the sum of their individual effects: The independent variables combine to have a different (and multiplicative) effect, such that the value of one is contingent upon the value of another. This indicates that the relationship between the independent variables changes as their values change. For example, if a researcher is studying how gender (female vs. male) and dieting (Diet A vs. Diet B) influence weight loss, an interaction effect would occur if women using Diet A lost more weight than men using Diet A. Interaction effects contrast with—and may obscure—main effects. See also higher order interaction. Compare additive effect.

interaction process analysis (IPA)

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interactional model of anxiety

interactional model of anxiety a model proposing that state anxiety is determined by the interaction of factors relating to a situation and factors relating to an individual. See also diathesis–stress model.

interactional synchrony

interactional synchrony see synchrony.

interactional territory

interactional territory see group space.

interactionism

interactionism n. 1. the position that mind and body are distinct, incompatible substances that nevertheless interact, so that each has a causal influence on the other. This position is particularly associated with René Descartes. See Cartesian dualism; mind–body problem. 2. a set of approaches, particularly in personality psychology, in which behavior is explained not in terms of personality attributes or situational influences but by references to interactions that typify the behavior of a certain type of person in a certain type of setting. —interactionist adj.

interactionist view of intelligence

interactionist view of intelligence the view that intelligence always develops as an interaction between biological dispositions and environmental conditions and that it is difficult or impossible to separate the contributions of these two factors. Interactionists point out that genes always express themselves (manifest their effects in an individual) through a given set of environments and that the expression of the genes may be different as a function of the environment in which they are expressed.

interactive advertising

interactive advertising in Internet marketing, a promotional technique in which consumers are encouraged to interact with a website by entering information, such as by answering questions.

interactive group psychotherapy

interactive group psychotherapy see interpersonal group psychotherapy.

interactive sport

interactive sport a sport that requires the participants to integrate and coordinate their actions with those of other players. Football and basketball are examples of interactive sports. Compare coactive sport.

Interamerican Society of Psychology

Interamerican Society of Psychology Sociedad Interamericana de Psicologia (SIP): a professional organization founded in 1951 to promote communication and research among psychologists in North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean.

interattitudinal consistency

interattitudinal consistency the extent to which attitudes in an attitude system are evaluatively consistent with one another. High consistency occurs when each attitude implies the other attitudes in the system. Low consistency occurs when some attitudes in the system imply the opposite of others.

interaural difference

interaural difference see binaural cue.

interaural rivalry

interaural rivalry the competition within the auditory system to comprehend conflicting inputs received simultaneously in both ears. Interaural rivalry has been employed in the study of temporal lobe lesions: Patients typically recall less of the information heard in the left ear if a lesion is on the right side, and vice versa. See also dichotic listening.

interbehavioral psychology

interbehavioral psychology a system of psychology concerned with interactions between an organism and its environment. The focus is on the interaction of stimulus functions (the use or role of a stimulus) and response functions (the purpose served by a response) and how context and experience shape those interactions. Also called interbehaviorism. [proposed by Jacob Robert Kantor]

interblobs

interblobs pl. n. the regions of striate cortex that exist between the cytochrome oxidase blobs. Neurons in the interblobs are less sensitive to wavelength than are neurons in the blobs.

intercept

intercept n. the point at which either axis of a graph is intersected by a line plotted on the graph. For example, it is the value of y when x = 0 in an equation of the form y = a + bx, or the value of x where a regression line crosses the y-axis. See also x-intercept; y-intercept.

interclass correlation

interclass correlation the degree of bivariate relationship between two variables from different measurement classes (i.e., the variables have distinct metrics and variances). For example, one may use an interclass correlation to determine the relation of IQ points (a class of measurement representing aptitude) to grade point averages (a class of measurement representing achievement), or the relation of length (e.g., inches) to weight (e.g., pounds). Currently, the only interclass correlation in common use is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. Compare intraclass correlation.

intercoder reliability

intercoder reliability see interrater reliability.

intercorrelation

intercorrelation n. the correlation between each variable and every other variable in a group of variables.

intercourse

intercourse n. see coitus.

interdecile range

interdecile range the difference between the ninth and first deciles of a distribution (i.e., the number obtained by subtracting the 10th percentile score from the 90th percentile score). The interdecile range provides a measure of dispersion in a data set that is minimally affected by outliers (extreme values). See also interquartile range.

interdental

interdental 1. adj. denoting a speech sound made with the tongue placed between the upper and lower front teeth (e.g., [th]). 2. n. an interdental speech sound.

interdental lisp

interdental lisp see lisp.

interdependence

interdependence n. a state in which two or more people, situations, variables, or other entities rely on or react with one another such that one cannot change without affecting the other. Outcome interdependence is an example. Also called interdependency. —interdependent adj., n.

interdependence theory

interdependence theory an approach to analyzing social interactions and relationships that focuses on how each person’s outcomes depend on the actions of others. More specifically, interdependence theory identifies the most important characteristics of social situations and describes their implications for understanding how individuals make choices and take action. A central element of the theory is the proposition that people have standards against which they compare their current outcomes. When people’s actual experiences are inconsistent with their standards, they may act to alter the situation. See outcome interdependence. [introduced in 1959 by John W. Thibaut and Harold H. Kelley]

interdependent self-construal

interdependent self-construal a view of the self (self-construal) that emphasizes one’s embeddedness in a network of social relationships and that downplays one’s separateness and unique traits or accomplishments. Compare independent self-construal.

interdisciplinary approach

interdisciplinary approach a manner of dealing with psychological, medical, or other scientific questions in which individuals from different disciplines or professions collaborate to obtain a more thorough, detailed understanding of the nature of the questions and consequently develop more comprehensive answers. For example, an interdisciplinary approach to the treatment or rehabilitation of an individual who is ill, disabled, or experiencing distress or pain uses the talents and experiences of therapists from a number of appropriate medical and psychological specialties. Also called multidisciplinary approach.

interest

interest n. an attitude characterized by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area.

interest factors

interest factors in vocational guidance and personnel selection, an individual’s interests or preferences regarded as indicators of personality traits and therefore of suitability for a particular job or type of employment. Interest factors can be derived from interest tests and other self-report inventories or from hobbies, leisure-time activities, and previous jobs.

interest test

interest test a self-report inventory in which the participant is required to express likes or dislikes for a range of activities and attitudes. These are then compared with the interest patterns of successful members of different occupations as a means of assessing the participant’s suitability for different types of work. Important examples are the Kuder Preference Record and the Strong Interest Inventory. Also called interest inventory; occupational interest measure.

interestingness

interestingness n. in psychological aesthetics, that quality in a work of art that arouses interest rather than pleasure. Interestingness tends to increase with the levels of complexity and uncertainty in the work.

interfemoral sex

interfemoral sex coitus in which one places the penis between the thighs of another person. Heterosexual couples may do this as an attempted form of birth control or to maintain the woman’s virginity. It may also be part of male homosexual intercourse. Also called coitus inter femora.

interference

interference n. 1. the blocking of learning or of memory retrieval by the learning or remembering of other conflicting material. Interference has many sources, including prior learning (see proactive interference), subsequent learning (see retroactive interference), competition during recall (see output interference), and presentation of other material (see interpolated task). 2. the mutual effect on meeting of two or more light, sound, or other waves, the overlap of which produces a new pattern of waves. The term is used most frequently with reference to waves of the same or similar frequency, whose interference may be either constructive or destructive. In the former, the waves are in phase and the wave motions are reinforced, which results in alternating areas of increased and decreased wave amplitude (e.g., as light and dark lines or louder and softer sound); in the latter, the waves are out of phase and the wave motions are decreased or cancelled. 3. the distortion of a signal due to the presence of noise. 4. see language transfer.

interference sensitivity

interference sensitivity see resistance to interference.

interference theory

interference theory the hypothesis that forgetting is due to competition from other learning or other memories.

intergenerational trauma

intergenerational trauma a phenomenon in which the descendants of a person who has experienced a terrifying event show adverse emotional and behavioral reactions to the event that are similar to those of the person himself or herself. These reactions vary by generation but often include shame, increased anxiety and guilt, a heightened sense of vulnerability and helplessness, low self-esteem, depression, suicidality, substance abuse, dissociation, hypervigilance, intrusive thoughts, difficulty with relationships and attachment to others, difficulty in regulating aggression, and extreme reactivity to stress. The exact mechanisms of the phenomenon remain unknown but are believed to involve effects on relationship skills, personal behavior, and attitudes and beliefs that affect subsequent generations. The role of parental communication about the event and the nature of family functioning appear to be particularly important in trauma transmission. Research on intergenerational trauma concentrated initially on the children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren of survivors of the Holocaust and Japanese American internment camps, but it has now broadened to include American Indian tribes, the families of Vietnam War veterans, and others. Also called historical trauma; multigenerational trauma; secondary traumatization.

intergluteal sex

intergluteal sex coitus in which the penis is placed between the cheeks of the buttocks, without entry into the vagina or anus.

intergroup competition

intergroup competition see competition.

intergroup conflict

intergroup conflict disagreement or confrontation between two or more groups and their members, such as between work departments, entire companies, political parties, or nations. This may involve interpersonal discord, psychological tension, or physical violence. In many social species, intergroup conflict is a major factor affecting group-level movement patterns and space use and ultimately in shaping the evolution of group living and complex sociality. See also conflict resolution. Compare intragroup conflict.

intergroup dynamics

intergroup dynamics the processes that influence the shifting relationships between groups, including intergroup stereotyping, competition, conflict, and ingroup bias. See also group dynamics.

intergroup-contact hypothesis

intergroup-contact hypothesis see contact hypothesis.

interhemispheric fissure

interhemispheric fissure see longitudinal fissure.

interhemispheric interaction

interhemispheric interaction any neurophysiological, electrophysiological, or neurochemical exchange occurring between the cerebral hemispheres.

interhemispheric transfer

interhemispheric transfer the transfer of memory traces or learning experiences from one cerebral hemisphere to the other. Interhemispheric transfer can be demonstrated with experiments using laboratory animals and can be observed in humans who transfer handedness from the right to the left hand, or vice versa, following an injury or loss of a hand.

interim behavior

interim behavior behavior that occurs generally midway in time between successive stimuli. Compare adjunctive behavior; collateral behavior; mediating behavior.

interindividual differences

interindividual differences the variations between individuals in one or more traits, behaviors, or characteristics (e.g., variations in intelligence). See also individual differences.

interitem correlation

interitem correlation the degree of correlation between each test item in a set, used as a measure of the internal consistency of a test and thus of its reliability. For example, a participant’s responses to each item on a 10-item test could be correlated with his or her responses to every other item on the test to determine the extent to which the items reflect the same construct.

interitem interval

interitem interval the time interval between the presentation of items in a sequence. For instance, in a memory experiment, words in a list may be presented five seconds apart. See also interstimulus interval.

interjudge reliability

interjudge reliability see interrater reliability.

interlanguage

interlanguage n. in second-language acquisition, a state in which the learner has developed an internally consistent grammatical system with properties of both the native language and the target language. See fossilization; idiolect; language transfer.

interlocking pathologies

interlocking pathologies nonconscious and dysfunctional ways of acting that are present in a couple or other intimate dyad or in a family or other close social unit.

interlocking reinforcement schedule

interlocking reinforcement schedule a schedule of intermittent reinforcement in which the requirements of one schedule change depending on progress in another schedule. For example, in an interlocking fixed-interval, fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses and a fixed time, but this could be changed so that the number of responses required for reinforcement decreases as the interval between responses and reinforcement increases.

intermale aggression

intermale aggression among nonhuman animals, aggression occurring between males, usually to develop, maintain, or challenge their dominance relationship.

intermarriage

intermarriage n. 1. marriage between two individuals belonging to different racial, ethnic, or religious groups. See exogamy; miscegenation; outbreeding. 2. marriage between two closely related individuals, as in a consanguineous marriage. See inbreeding. —intermarry vb.

intermediary variable

intermediary variable see mediator.

intermediate care facility (ICF)

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intermediate cell

intermediate cell see Type III cell.

intermediate need

intermediate need in Maslow’s motivational hierarchy, a deficiency need that is psychologically based, such as the need for self-esteem, love, or security.

intermediate nerve

intermediate nerve see greater superficial petrosal nerve.

intermediate precentral area

intermediate precentral area see premotor area.

intermetamorphosis syndrome

intermetamorphosis syndrome a misidentification syndrome characterized by delusions that particular people have been transformed both physically and psychologically into other people.

intermission

intermission n. an asymptomatic period during the course of a chronic disorder. For example, an individual with bipolar disorder may experience an intermission between a manic episode and a major depressive episode. See also remission.

intermittent explosive disorder

intermittent explosive disorder an impulse-control disorder consisting of multiple episodes in which the individual fails to resist aggressive impulses and commits assaultive acts or destroys property. These aggressive acts are significantly out of proportion to any precipitating factors, are not caused by any other mental disorder or a general medical condition, and are not substance induced. DSM–5 also includes verbal aggression (e.g., frequent temper tantrums, arguments) and nondestructive physical aggression among the citeria for this disorder. Compare isolated explosive disorder.

intermittent insomnia

intermittent insomnia periods of sleeplessness occurring several times a night.

intermittent processing

intermittent processing see serial processing.

intermittent reinforcement

intermittent reinforcement in operant or instrumental conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement in which only some responses are reinforced. Also called partial reinforcement; partial schedule of reinforcement.

intermodal matching

intermodal matching see cross-modal matching.

intermodal perception

intermodal perception the coordination or integration of information from two or more senses, such as touch and vision.

internal aim

internal aim see object of instinct.

internal attribution

internal attribution see dispositional attribution.

internal boundary

internal boundary in psychoanalytic theory, the boundary between ego and id. Compare external boundary.

internal capsule

internal capsule a large band of nerve fibers in the corpus striatum (see basal ganglia) that extends between the caudate nucleus on its medial side and the globus pallidus and putamen on its lateral side. It contains afferent and efferent fibers from all parts of the cerebral cortex as they converge near the brainstem. See also external capsule; extreme capsule.

internal carotid artery

internal carotid artery one of the main arteries supplying blood to the neck and head. It begins as a bifurcation of the common carotid artery at about the level of the thyroid cartilage in the neck, on either side of the body, and enters the skull at about the level of the eye. Inside the skull, the internal carotid artery branches into the anterior cerebral artery and the middle cerebral artery.

internal clock

internal clock see biological clock.

internal conflict

internal conflict see intrapsychic conflict.

internal consistency

internal consistency the degree of interrelationship or homogeneity among the items on a test, such that they are consistent with one another and measuring the same thing. Internal consistency is an index of the reliability of a test. Also called internal consistency reliability; internal reliability. See also interitem correlation.

internal control

internal control see locus of control.

internal culture conflict

internal culture conflict see culture conflict.

internal environment

internal environment the conditions within the body, including temperature, blood pressure, blood-sugar level, and acid–base balance, as opposed to those in the external environment. The internal environment is maintained in a constant state, as required for the normal functioning of the body’s tissues and organs, by mechanisms of homeostasis. [proposed by Claude Bernard]

internal evaluator

internal evaluator an individual who conducts an evaluation of a service delivery program and is also a regular full-time staff member of the program being evaluated. Compare external evaluator.

internal fertilization

internal fertilization see fertilization.

internal frustration

internal frustration in classical psychoanalytic theory, denial of gratification of instinctual impulses due to internal factors (e.g., the superego), as opposed to external factors.

internal granular layer

internal granular layer see cortical layers.

internal inequity

internal inequity the situation in which employers compensate certain employees at levels that are unfair relative to other employees in the same organization. Compare external inequity. See equity theory.

internal locus of control

internal locus of control see locus of control.

internal object

internal object an image or representation of a person (particularly someone significant to the individual, such as a parent) that is experienced as an internalized “presence” within the mind. In her development of object relations theory, Melanie Klein saw the psyche as being made up of internal objects whose relations to each other and to the individual determine his or her personality and symptoms. See also part-object.

internal pyramidal layer

internal pyramidal layer see cortical layers.

internal respiration

internal respiration see respiration.

internal rhythm

internal rhythm see biological rhythm.

internal saboteur

internal saboteur see antilibidinal ego.

internal validity

internal validity the degree to which a study or experiment is free from flaws in its internal structure and its results can therefore be taken to represent the true nature of the phenomenon. In other words, internal validity pertains to the soundness of results obtained within the controlled conditions of a particular study, specifically with respect to whether one can draw reasonable conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships among variables. Compare external validity.

internal working model of attachment

internal working model of attachment a cognitive construction or set of assumptions about the workings of relationships, such as expectations of support or affection. The earliest relationships may form the template for this internal model, which may be positive or negative. See also attachment theory. [originally proposed by John Bowlby]

internal-state ratings

internal-state ratings one of several methods of evaluating a person’s reactions to a work of art. Internal-state ratings are based on the person’s mood while exposed to a pattern. Other types of rating scales include descriptive ratings and evaluative ratings. See stylistic ratings.

internalization

internalization n. 1. the nonconscious mental process by which the characteristics, beliefs, feelings, or attitudes of other individuals or groups are assimilated into the self and adopted as one’s own. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, the process of incorporating an object relationship inside the psyche, which reproduces the external relationship as an intrapsychic phenomenon. For example, through internalization the relationship between father and child is reproduced in the relationship between superego and ego or, in relational theory, between self and other. Internalization is often mistakenly used as a synonym for introjection. —internalize vb.

internalized speech

internalized speech silent speech in which one argues with oneself over a course of action, rehearses what one is going to do, or reassures oneself when feeling threatened. See also inner language; self-talk.

internalizing behavior

internalizing behavior see externalizing–internalizing.

International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP)

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International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

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International Council of Psychologists

International Council of Psychologists a professional organization founded in 1941 to advance psychology and its applications by facilitating communication and strengthening bonds between psychologists worldwide. In 1981, the council was recognized as a nongovernmental organization in consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.

International Military Testing Association

International Military Testing Association an organization that, since its founding in 1959, has held conferences on the job proficiency evaluation of enlisted military personnel and increasingly on research relevant to behavioral science as applied to the military (e.g., occupational analysis, leadership, organizational behavior, human factors, manpower analysis). Originally called the Military Testing Association, the organization changed its name in 1993 to reflect the increasing involvement of countries around the world. Participants include civilian as well as uniformed researchers and practitioners.

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

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International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia (IPSS)

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International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA)

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International Society for Sport Psychology (ISSP)

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International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS)

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Internet addiction

Internet addiction a behavioral pattern characterized by excessive or obsessive online and offline computer use that leads to distress and impairment. The condition, though controversial, has attracted increasing attention in the popular media and among health care professionals. Expanding research has identified various subtypes, including those involving excessive gaming, sexual preoccupations, and e-mail and text messaging.

Internet meme

Internet meme see meme.

interneuron

interneuron n. any neuron that is neither sensory nor motor but connects other neurons within the central nervous system. Also called connector neuron.

interobserver reliability

interobserver reliability see interrater reliability.

interoception

interoception n. sensitivity to stimuli inside the body, resulting from the response of specialized sensory cells called interoceptors to occurrences within the body (e.g., from the viscera). Compare exteroception.

interoceptive conditioning

interoceptive conditioning classical conditioning that requires direct access to internal organs, through fistulas, balloons inserted into the digestive tract, or implanted electrical devices, to present the conditioned stimulus.

interoceptive stimulus

interoceptive stimulus any stimulus arising from inside an organism. Examples include headaches, stomach aches, and hunger pangs. Compare exteroceptive stimulus; proprioceptive stimulus.

interoceptive system

interoceptive system the totality of sensory receptors and nerves that gather information from within the body.

interoceptor

interoceptor n. see interoception. —interoceptive adj.

interocular distance

interocular distance the distance between the pupils of the left and right eyes when the eyes are in normal fixation.

interocular transfer

interocular transfer the ability of an aftereffect to be produced by stimulation through only one eye but to be experienced by looking only through the other eye. The presence of interocular transfer implies that the afterimage is mediated by a postretinal structure, such as the cerebral cortex, since the two eyes have no direct communication prior to the activation of binocular cells in the striate cortex.

interpersonal

interpersonal adj. pertaining to actions, events, and feelings between two or more individuals. For example, interpersonal skill is an aptitude enabling a person to carry on effective interactions and relationships with others, such as the ability to communicate thought and feeling or to assume appropriate social responsibilities.

interpersonal accommodation

interpersonal accommodation the “give-and-take” process involved in developing satisfactory relationships, in which one must put aside personal preferences to maintain good relations with others.

interpersonal attraction

interpersonal attraction see attraction.

interpersonal competition

interpersonal competition see competition.

interpersonal concordance orientation

interpersonal concordance orientation see conventional level.

interpersonal conflict

interpersonal conflict disagreement or discord between people with respect to goals, values, or attitudes.

interpersonal distance

interpersonal distance the physical distance that individuals choose to maintain between themselves and others while interacting. Studies show that most individuals maintain a smaller interpersonal distance for friends than for strangers. The comfortable or optimal distance also varies with the type of interaction and setting as well as with differences in nationality, culture, personality, and other characteristics. See body buffer zone; bubble concept of personal space. See also proxemics.

interpersonal gap

interpersonal gap in communication, the difference between what a speaker intends to convey and the impact of the message on a listener. Many factors contribute to this gap, some related to the speaker’s encoding of the message and others to the listener’s decoding of it. Research has shown that speakers often assume that their intent is more transparent to listeners than it actually is, a tendency called the signal amplification bias, which may lead speakers to perceive that their listeners are less responsive than they would like them to be.

interpersonal group psychotherapy

interpersonal group psychotherapy a group approach to the treatment of psychological, behavioral, and emotional problems that emphasizes the curative influence of exploring the interactions of group members, including the analysis of group events, experiences, and relationships. In this approach, the group serves as a social microcosm that provides corrective emotional experiences in the here and now via a therapist who acts as both a participant and an observer. The goal of the approach is to enable group members to gain valuable insights while learning to relate to each other and then to apply those insights in their everyday lives outside of the group setting. Also called interactive group psychotherapy. See also interpersonal theory.

interpersonal influence

interpersonal influence direct social pressure exerted on a person or group by another person or group in the form of demands or threats on the one hand or promises of rewards or social approval on the other. Compare informational influence; normative influence.

interpersonal intelligence

interpersonal intelligence in the multiple-intelligences theory, the intelligence involved in understanding and relating to other people. Interpersonal intelligence is alleged to be relatively independent of other intelligences posited by the theory.

interpersonal learning group

interpersonal learning group any group formed to help individuals extend their self-understanding and improve their relationships with others, such as an experiential group, T-group, or growth group. See also structured learning group.

interpersonal perception

interpersonal perception see social perception.

interpersonal process recall (IPR)

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interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)

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interpersonal reconstructive psychotherapy

interpersonal reconstructive psychotherapy an integrative psychotherapy and method of symptom analysis that applies psychodynamic and cognitive behavior techniques to the treatment of individuals with personality disorders, specifically to their presenting problems and symptoms that relate to long-term interpersonal difficulties. Interventions are active and focused on attachment-based factors that maintain current dysfunction, with the goal of helping such individuals understand the source of and then modify their chronically self-destructive thoughts and maladaptive behavior. [developed by U.S. clinical psychologist Lorna Smith Benjamin (1934– )]

interpersonal relations

interpersonal relations 1. the connections and interactions, especially ones that are socially and emotionally significant, between two or more people. 2. the pattern or patterns observable in an individual’s dealings with other people.

interpersonal theory

interpersonal theory the theory of personality developed by Harry Stack Sullivan, which is based on the belief that people’s interactions with other people, especially significant others, determine their sense of security, sense of self, and the dynamisms that motivate their behavior. For Sullivan, personality is the product of a long series of stages in which the individual gradually develops “good feeling” toward others and a sense of a good me toward himself or herself. The individual also learns how to ward off anxiety and correct distorted perceptions of other people, learns to verify his or her ideas through consensual validation, and above all seeks to achieve effective interpersonal relationships on a mature level.

interpersonal zone

interpersonal zone see distance zone.

interphase

interphase n. the interval between cell divisions, when the nucleus has finished dividing, particularly in rapidly dividing tissues or during embryonic growth.

interpolated task

interpolated task an activity that is presented between two experimental tasks to fill time or to disguise the connection between the two critical tasks. For instance, an interpolated arithmetic task might be given between the study phase and test phase of a memory experiment. See also interference.

interpolation

interpolation n. a strategy for determining an unknown value given knowledge of surrounding data points. For example, if the average score on a test is 70 for a group of beginner students and the average score on the same test is 90 for an advanced group of students, one might use interpolation to estimate an average score of 80 on the test for an intermediate group of students.

interposition

interposition n. a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partly conceals the farther object. Also called relative position.

interpret

interpret vb. 1. to translate orally from one language into another. A distinction is sometimes made between interpreting, in which it is sufficient to convey the sense of the original, and translation, in which some attempt to replicate form and style will also usually be made. 2. in psychotherapy, to provide an interpretation. —interpreter n.

interpretation

interpretation n. 1. in psychotherapy, explanation by the therapist in terms that are meaningful to the client of the client’s issues, behaviors, or feelings. Interpretation typically is made along the lines of the conceptual framework or dynamic model of the particular therapy. In psychoanalysis, for example, the analyst uses the constructs of psychoanalytic theory to interpret the patient’s early experiences, dreams, character defenses, and resistance. Although interpretation exists to some extent in almost any form of therapy, it is a critical procedural step in psychoanalysis and in other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy. 2. an oral translation (see interpret).

interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)

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interpretive response

interpretive response a reply by a therapist intended to summarize or illuminate the essential meaning of or motive underlying a statement made by a client during therapy. See also interpretation.

interpretive therapy

interpretive therapy any form of psychotherapy in which the therapist elicits the client’s conflicts, repressions, dreams, and resistances, which are then interpreted or explained to the client in the light of his or her experiences. See also interpretation.

interpretivism

interpretivism n. in epistemology, the assertion that knowledge is deeply tied to the act of interpretation; there are multiple apprehendable and equally valid realities as opposed to a single objective reality. Interpretivism thus represents a form of relativism. See also constructivism.

interquartile range (IQR)

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interrater reliability

interrater reliability the extent to which independent evaluators produce similar ratings in judging the same abilities or characteristics in the same target person or object. It often is expressed as a correlation coefficient. If consistency is high, a researcher can be confident that similarly trained individuals would likely produce similar scores on targets of the same kind. If consistency is low, there is little confidence that the obtained scores could be reproduced with a different set of raters. Also called intercoder reliability; interjudge reliability; interobserver reliability; interscorer reliability.

interresponse time (IRT)

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interrogative

interrogative n. in linguistics, the form of a sentence used to pose a question rather than to make a statement, issue a command, and so on, or the mood of the verb used in such constructions. In English there are two main types of interrogative: yes/no questions (e.g., Are you going?) and wh- questions using what, when, where, who, and how (e.g., Where are you going?). Both types require the use of an auxiliary verb (usually be, have, or do). The structural relationships between the declarative and interrogative forms of a sentence are of major interest in generative grammar and psycholinguistics (see auxiliary inversion). Compare imperative; indicative; subjunctive.

interrogative suggestibility

interrogative suggestibility the degree to which an individual is susceptible to suggestive questioning. The level of suggestibility may be assessed in two ways: (a) yield, or the degree to which an individual will respond affirmatively to leading questions, and (b) shift, or the tendency to alter previous responses when receiving negative feedback.

interrogatories

interrogatories pl. n. formal written questions prepared for an official pretrial questioning of an individual who possesses information relevant to a case or used in the judicial examination of an individual or party.

interrole conflict

interrole conflict the form of role conflict that occurs when individuals have multiple roles and the expectations and behaviors associated with one role are not consistent with the expectations and behaviors associated with another. In organizational settings, for example, a common interrole conflict is that between work and family, whereby the role pressures from each domain may be mutually incompatible. Compare intrarole conflict.

interrupted time-series design

interrupted time-series design a quasi-experimental design in which the effects of an intervention are evaluated by comparing outcome measures obtained at several time intervals before and several time intervals after the intervention was introduced. Unlike traditional time-series designs, which make use of a continuous predictor variable, an interrupted time-series design uses a categorical predictor—the absence or presence of an intervention.

interscorer reliability

interscorer reliability see interrater reliability.

intersegmental arc reflex

intersegmental arc reflex a reflex arc formed by fibers of sensory neurons or interneurons that travel from one spinal segment to another to communicate with motor neurons.

intersegmental reflex

intersegmental reflex see spinal reflex.

intersegmental tract

intersegmental tract see ground bundle.

intersensory perception

intersensory perception the coordination of information presented through separate modalities into an integrated experience. Information from one sensory source is transmitted to the association cortex, where it can be integrated with information from another sensory source. Intersensory perception is required in tasks that coordinate two or more sensorimotor activities, such as playing a musical instrument according to the pattern of notes on a page of sheet music. Also called cross-modal perception. See perceptual synthesis; sensory interaction.

intersex

intersex n. 1. a modern and evolving term for hermaphroditism and pseudohermaphroditism, the condition of possessing the sexual characteristics of both sexes. Sometimes called intersexualism; intersexuality. 2. an individual who exhibits sexual characteristics of both sexes. However, using phrases such as “an intersex individual” or “a person with intersex conditions” is considered preferable. —intersex adj.

interspecies interaction

interspecies interaction all forms of interaction between species. Long-term interactions include parasitism, in which one species lives on or in another at a cost to the host; mutualism, in which both species benefit from the interaction; and commensalism, in which the species coexist with neither cost nor benefit. Short-term interspecies interactions include predator–prey relationships and the mixed flocking of birds to feed and give alarm calls together.

interstimulus interval (ISI)

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interstitial cell

interstitial cell any of the cells that fill the spaces between other tissues and structures. The interstitial cells of the testis surround the seminiferous tubules and secrete testosterone when stimulated by luteinizing hormone.

interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)

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interstripes

interstripes pl. n. regions of prestriate cortex that have low levels of cytochrome oxidase activity. They are connected to the interblobs in the striate cortex and have similar response properties.

intersubjectivity

intersubjectivity n. the sharing of subjective experience between two or more people. Intersubjectivity is seen as essential to language and the production of social meaning. The term is often applied to the relationship between a therapist and a client. —intersubjective adj.

interthalamic adhesion

interthalamic adhesion a mass of gray matter that extends in most individuals across the midline of the third ventricle of the brain from the medial surfaces of the two halves of the thalamus. Although sometimes called the middle commissure, the interthalamic adhesion has no particular commissural (i.e., connecting) function. Also called massa intermedia.

interval

interval n. a range of scores or values, such as a class interval or confidence interval.

interval data

interval data numerical values that indicate magnitude but lack a “natural” zero point. Interval data represent exact quantities of the variables under consideration, and when arranged consecutively they have equal differences among adjacent values (regardless of the specific values selected) that correspond to genuine differences between the physical quantities being measured. Temperature is an example of interval data: the difference between 50 °F and 49 °F is the same as the difference between 40 °F and 39 °F, but a temperature of 0 °F does not indicate that there is no temperature. Compare ratio data. See also interval scale.

interval estimate

interval estimate an estimated range of likely values for a given population parameter. For example, a researcher might use data from a sample to determine that the average score on a particular variable in the larger population falls between 20 and 25. Compare point estimate.

interval of uncertainty

interval of uncertainty the interval between the upper threshold (a just noticeable stimulus) and the lower threshold (a just imperceptible stimulus) when finding a difference threshold.

interval reinforcement

interval reinforcement the reinforcement of the first response to a stimulus after a predetermined interval has elapsed. Reinforcement may be given at uniform or variable intervals; the number of responses during the interval is irrelevant. Also called interval-reinforcement schedule. See also fixed-interval schedule; random-interval schedule; variable-interval schedule. Compare ratio reinforcement.

interval sampling

interval sampling a form of random sampling in which participants at uniformly separated points are selected for study and the starting point for selection is arbitrary. An example is choosing every 10th name from a list of candidates.

interval scale

interval scale a scale marked in equal intervals so that the difference between any two consecutive values on the scale is equivalent regardless of the two values selected. Interval scales lack a true, meaningful zero point, which is what distinguishes them from ratio scales. For example, Fahrenheit temperature uses an interval scale: The difference between 50 °F and 49 °F is the same as the difference between 40 °F and 39 °F, but a temperature of 0 °F does not indicate that there is no temperature. See also interval data.

interval variable

interval variable a variable that is measured using an interval scale. Because values on such a scale are equally spaced, the differences between values of an interval variable are meaningful. Compare ordinal variable.

intervening variable

intervening variable see mediator.

intervention

intervention n. 1. generally, any action intended to interfere with and stop or modify a process, as in treatment undertaken to halt, manage, or alter the course of the pathological process of a disease or disorder. 2. action on the part of a psychotherapist to deal with the issues and problems of a client. The selection of the intervention is guided by the nature of the problem, the orientation of the therapist, the setting, and the willingness and ability of the client to proceed with the treatment. Also called psychological intervention. 3. a technique in addictions counseling in which significant individuals in a client’s life meet with him or her, in the presence of a trained counselor, to express their observations and feelings about the client’s addiction and related problems. The session, typically a surprise to the client, may last several hours, after which the client has a choice of seeking a recommended treatment immediately (e.g., as an inpatient) or ignoring the intervention. If the client chooses not to seek treatment, participants state the interpersonal consequences; for example, a spouse may be request that the client move out, or the client’s employment may be terminated. 4. a similar confrontation between an individual and family and friends but outside of the formal structure of counseling or therapy, usually over similar issues and with the goal of urging the confronted individual to seek help with an attitudinal or behavioral problem. Also called family intervention. 5. in research design, an experimental manipulation. —intervene vb.

intervention program for children

intervention program for children any of a number of types of program intended to provide intellectual, emotional, nutritional, or medical benefits to children believed to be at risk for inadequate development. Target children are usually preschoolers and are often from homes judged to be economically or culturally disadvantaged.

intervention research

intervention research strategies and processes designed to measure the change in a situation or individual after a systematic modification (diet, therapeutic technique, etc.) has been imposed or to measure the effects of one type of intervention program as compared to those of another program. Experimentation is the most common type of intervention research, but clinical trials and qualitative studies may also be used. Also called intervention study.

interventionist

interventionist n. a physician, behavioral scientist, therapist, or other professional who modifies the conditions or symptoms of a patient.

interventricular foramen

interventricular foramen an opening that connects the third ventricle of the brain with either lateral ventricle. It permits the flow of cerebrospinal fluid through the ventricles. Also called foramen of Monro.

interview

interview n. a directed conversation in which a researcher, therapist, clinician, employer, or the like (the interviewer) intends to elicit specific information from an individual (the interviewee) for purposes of research, diagnosis, treatment, or employment. Conducted face to face, by telephone, or online, interviews may be either standardized, including set questions, or open ended, varying with material introduced in responses by the interviewee. Their reliability is of particular concern, and interviewers must be careful to minimize or eliminate personal judgment and biases in evaluating responses. See structured interview; unstructured interview. See also clinical interview; employment interview.

interview group psychotherapy

interview group psychotherapy a form of analytic group psychotherapy for adolescents and adults that focuses on fixations and difficulties of the libido and relies primarily upon catharsis, insight, and reality testing to effect personality change. A balanced therapeutic group is selected on the basis of common problems and personal characteristics, and participants are encouraged to reveal their attitudes, symptoms, and feelings. [developed by Russian-born U.S. psychotherapist Samuel Richard Slavson (1890–1981)]

interview schedule

interview schedule a script containing the questions an interviewer will ask.

interviewer effect

interviewer effect the influence of the characteristics of an interviewer upon the responses provided by an interviewee. The interviewer’s age, gender, and level of experience may affect the manner in which the interviewee responds, as may his or her general demeanor and nonverbal cues. For example, a person might discuss sensitive topics, such as sexual or drinking behavior, more openly and truthfully with an interviewer who is of the same gender. The term interviewer bias refers more specifically to an interviewer’s expectations, beliefs, and prejudices as they influence the interview process and the interpretation of the data it provides.

interviewer stereotype

interviewer stereotype in personnel psychology, an interviewer’s concept of the “ideal” job candidate, which becomes the standard against which actual job applicants are compared. Such a stereotype may obscure the genuine merits of applicants who deviate from it in some way. See also profile matching system.

interviewer training

interviewer training instructional methods employed in training individuals to be effective interviewers. These may include group discussions, role play, and the use of recordings of real or simulated interviews, in addition to instruction in the basic principles of interviewing.

intestinal lipodystrophy

intestinal lipodystrophy see lipodystrophy.

intimacy

intimacy n. an interpersonal state of extreme emotional closeness such that each party’s personal space can be entered by any of the other parties without causing discomfort to that person. Intimacy characterizes close, familiar, and usually affectionate or loving personal relationships and requires the parties to have a detailed knowledge or deep understanding of each other. —intimate adj.

intimacy problem

intimacy problem difficulty in forming close relationships and becoming intimate with others, whether physically or psychologically. The problem might involve difficulties with sexual contact, self-disclosure, trust, or commitment to a lasting relationship. See also fear of commitment.

intimacy versus isolation

intimacy versus isolation the sixth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which extends from late adolescence through courtship and early family life to early middle age. During this period, individuals must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated. The development of a cohesive identity in the previous stage (see identity versus identity confusion) provides the opportunity to achieve true intimacy, but the development of identity diffusion makes it harder for individuals to achieve a positive outcome at this stage.

intimate partner violence

intimate partner violence physical, psychological, or sexual abuse of one person by another in a close relationship. The couple may be heterosexual or same-sex, and they may be (or have been) dating, married, or living together. Apart from violence and threats of abuse, control is a hallmark of the abusive intimate partner relationship, with the aggressor controlling the partner’s access to family and friends, taking control of shared finances, and constantly monitoring the partner’s activities. If rejected, the perpetrator may also stalk the partner. Victims of intimate partner violence are at greater risk for developing depression, substance abuse, and other disorders. See also battered women; domestic violence.

intimate zone

intimate zone the small distance zone adopted by those in very close relationships, such as that of lovers or of mother and infant. Compare personal distance zone; public distance zone; social zone. See also proxemics.

intonation

intonation n. see tone.

intoxicant

intoxicant n. a substance capable of producing transient alterations in mental function. The nature of the intoxication depends on the psychoactive properties of the intoxicant. In general, mild intoxication is marked by minor perceptual changes or a sense of euphoria or well-being; more pronounced intoxication involves such changes as behavioral disinhibition, perceptual distortions, hallucinations, or delirium; and severe intoxication is marked by loss of motor control and cognitive and autonomic function, possibly progressing to coma or death.

intoxication

intoxication n. see substance intoxication.

intoxication defense

intoxication defense a defense that a crime was committed by a person who was intoxicated, which has been used to challenge a charge of criminal responsibility. If the intoxicant was taken involuntarily, it can negate criminal responsibility altogether. If the intoxicant was taken voluntarily, it may serve as a mitigating factor in reducing the penalty imposed, or it may be used to argue against premeditation in a first-degree murder charge. See diminished capacity.

intra-attitudinal consistency

intra-attitudinal consistency the extent to which evaluative responses underlying a single attitude are consistent with one another. Uniformly positive responses or uniformly negative responses constitute high consistency. The existence of both positive and negative responses reflects low consistency. See also ambivalence of an attitude.

intracarotid amobarbital procedure

intracarotid amobarbital procedure see Wada test.

intracarotid sodium Amytal test (ISA)

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intracellular fluid

intracellular fluid the fluid within the plasma membrane of an organism’s cells. Also called cellular fluid.

intracellular thirst

intracellular thirst see osmometric thirst.

intracerebral hemorrhage

intracerebral hemorrhage see cerebral hemorrhage.

intraclass correlation

intraclass correlation the degree of homogeneity among unordered members (people, items, etc.) of a group. For example, it may reflect the level of agreement among different judges rating a specific attribute. It is indexed by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), which ranges from 0 to 1 in value. A larger ICC indicates more homogeneity and thus that a correspondingly smaller proportion of the total variance in a dependent variable is attributable to individual differences within the group. Compare interclass correlation.

intraconscious personality

intraconscious personality a phenomenon of dissociative identity disorder in which one personality functioning on an unconscious level is aware of the thoughts and experiences of another personality functioning on a conscious level.

intracranial

intracranial adj. within the skull or cranium.

intracranial hemorrhage

intracranial hemorrhage bleeding within the skull. Hemorrhages of this type include cerebral hemorrhages and subarachnoid hemorrhages.

intracranial pressure (ICP)

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intracranial stimulation (ICS)

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intradimensional discrimination

intradimensional discrimination distinguishing between stimuli that are identical except for one aspect, such as size, color, or loudness. This is a form of expert performance.

intrafamily dynamics

intrafamily dynamics the processes by which family members influence each other’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and the changes in the family relationships that these processes bring. Also called family dynamics.

intrafusal fiber

intrafusal fiber a small muscle fiber, 2 to 12 of which are located within each muscle spindle. Intrafusal fibers are sensitive to stretching and muscle tension and are connected to the stretch receptors. Compare extrafusal fiber.

intragroup competition

intragroup competition see competition.

intragroup conflict

intragroup conflict disagreement or confrontation between two or more members of a single group, as when people on a work team have different opinions about how best to accomplish a specified goal. Intragroup conflict poses a significant challenge to effective team functioning and has been divided into three primary types. Process conflict pertains to the logistics of task accomplishment, relationship conflict involves interpersonal incompatibilities, and task conflict concerns disagreement about the content of the task itself. Compare intergroup conflict.

intragroup territorial behavior

intragroup territorial behavior see group territorial behavior.

intraindividual differences

intraindividual differences the variations between two or more traits, behaviors, or characteristics of a single person. For example, certain aptitude tests measure a testee’s strengths in mathematical, verbal, and analytic abilities; differences among the three standardized scores represent intraindividual differences. See also individual differences.

intralaminar nucleus

intralaminar nucleus any of certain nuclei located in the internal medullary lamina, a nearly vertical layer of white matter in the thalamus. The largest of these nuclei is the center median.

intralaminar system

intralaminar system a diffuse system of thalamic nerve cells associated with sleep and wakefulness and believed to be a part of the reticular formation.

intramaze cue

intramaze cue a cue that is within a maze, such as floor texture, wall color, or a scent.

intramuscular injection (im injection)

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intransitivity

intransitivity n. the quality of a relationship among elements such that relationships do not transfer across the elements (i.e., that relationships do not exhibit transitivity). For example, a transitive relationship would be the following: Given that a > b and that b > c, it must be the case that a > c. An intransitive relationship would be one in which such a conclusion did not necessarily follow. Such relationships appear to be illogical and inconsistent but are often found in matters of personal preference or other subjective judgments. For example, a person might prefer the color blue over red and red over green, but when given a choice, he or she might prefer green over blue. —intransitive adj.

intraocular pressure (IOP)

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intrapersonal

intrapersonal adj. describing factors operating or constructs occurring within the person, such as attitudes, decisions, self-concept, self-esteem, or self-regulation.

intrapersonal conflict

intrapersonal conflict see intrapsychic conflict.

intrapersonal intelligence

intrapersonal intelligence in the multiple-intelligences theory, the intelligence involved in self-understanding and in reflecting upon oneself, one’s skills, one’s motives, and so forth. Intrapersonal intelligence is alleged to be relatively independent of other intelligences posited by the theory.

intrapsychic

intrapsychic adj. pertaining to impulses, ideas, conflicts, or other psychological phenomena that arise or occur within the psyche or mind. Compare extrapsychic.

intrapsychic ataxia

intrapsychic ataxia lack of coordination of feelings, thoughts, and volition (e.g., laughing when depressed). The concept was introduced in 1904 by Austrian psychiatrist Erwin Stransky (1878–1962) in association with schizophrenia, but it has subsequently been seen in other disorders as well. Also called mental ataxia. See also inappropriate affect.

intrapsychic conflict

intrapsychic conflict in psychoanalytic theory, the clash of opposing forces within the psyche, such as conflicting drives, wishes, or agencies. Also called inner conflict; internal conflict; intrapersonal conflict; psychic conflict.

intrarole conflict

intrarole conflict the form of role conflict caused by incompatibility among the behaviors and expectations associated with a single role. These inconsistencies may result from the inherent complexity of the role itself, the ambiguity of the role, or a lack of consensus in defining the role and its demands. Compare interrole conflict.

intrauterine device (IUD)

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intravenous drug use

intravenous drug use a form of drug use in which the substance is injected directly into a vein with a hypodermic needle and syringe to speed up and maximize the effect. This typically involves self-administration of a psychoactive drug, often an opioid and especially heroin. Sharing or reusing needles or syringes increases the risk of acquiring and transmitting serious blood-borne infections, including hepatitis and HIV. See also needle exchange program.

intravenous injection (iv injection)

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intraverbal

intraverbal n. a verbal response occasioned by a preceding verbal stimulus. It illustrates chaining in the domain of verbal behavior.

intrinsic activity

intrinsic activity 1. the magnitude of a response to a drug regardless of dosage. 2. a measure of the efficacy of a drug-receptor complex in producing a pharmacological effect. Also called intrinsic efficacy. 3. the inborn readiness of babies to be inquisitive and to make contact with their environment. According to Jean Piaget, cognitive structures, by their very nature, seek to be active, predisposing the child to learn from experience with the environment.

intrinsic behavior

intrinsic behavior 1. a type of behavior expressed through a specific organ (e.g., smiling, the knee-jerk reflex). 2. behavior that is inherently rewarding. For example, reading a book is pleasurable for some individuals and so is intrinsically rewarding.

intrinsic eye muscles

intrinsic eye muscles see eye muscles.

intrinsic motivation

intrinsic motivation an incentive to engage in a specific activity that derives from pleasure in the activity itself (e.g., a genuine interest in a subject studied) rather than because of any external benefits that might be obtained (e.g., money, course credits). Compare extrinsic motivation.

intrinsic reinforcement

intrinsic reinforcement the obtainment of a positively valued outcome from the performance of an action. The outcome itself is inherent to the activity and called an intrinsic reinforcer. For example, blowing on a harmonica naturally produces sounds. If the sounds serve to reinforce blowing on the harmonica, then the sounds provide intrinsic reinforcement. Compare extrinsic reinforcement.

intrinsic religion

intrinsic religion a religious orientation in which religious practice is an end itself, rather than a means to other ends. Compare extrinsic religion. [introduced by Gordon W. Allport]

intrinsic reward

intrinsic reward a positively valued outcome that is implicit in an activity, such as the pleasure or satisfaction gained from developing a special skill. Intrinsic rewards originate directly from the task performance and do not originate from other people. Compare extrinsic reward.

introception

introception n. a personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is attentive to understanding the needs, motives, and experiences of himself or herself and others. —introceptive adj.

introitus

introitus n. an opening or entrance to a hollow organ or tube. For example, the anus is the introitus of the rectum, and the introitus vaginae is the entrance of the vagina.

introjection

introjection n. 1. a process in which an individual unconsciously incorporates aspects of external reality into the self, particularly the attitudes, values, and qualities of another person or a part of another person’s personality. Introjection may occur, for example, in the mourning process for a loved one. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, the process of absorbing the qualities of an external object into the psyche in the form of an internal object or mental representation (i.e., an introject), which then has an influence on behavior. This process is posited to be a normal part of development, as when introjection of parental values and attitudes forms the superego, but it may also be used as a defense mechanism in situations that arouse anxiety. Compare identification; incorporation. —introject vb. —introjective adj.

introjective depression

introjective depression self-critical depression: intense sadness and dysphoria involving punitive, relentless feelings of self-doubt, self-criticism, and self-loathing. The individual with introjective depression becomes involved in numerous activities in an attempt to compensate for his or her excessively high standards, constant drive to perform and achieve, and feelings of guilt and shame over not having lived up to expectations. See also autonomous depression. Compare anaclitic depression.

introjective personality

introjective personality according to some psychoanalytic theories, a line of personality development that is focused on achievement and evaluation and—if the personality fails to develop properly—may result in feelings of worthlessness, failure, and psychopathological self-criticism. Compare anaclitic personality.

intromission

intromission n. the act of putting one thing into something else, especially the insertion of the penis into the vagina. See also penetration. —intromissive adj.

intron

intron n. a sequence of DNA within a gene that does not encode any part of the gene’s ultimate product. Such sequences are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) but are then removed during formation of the mature mRNA, which instructs the cell to synthesize a protein. Compare exon.

intropunitive

intropunitive adj. referring to the punishment of oneself: tending to turn anger, blame, or hostility internally, against the self, in response to frustration. Compare extrapunitive. —intropunitiveness n.

introspection

introspection n. 1. the process of attempting to directly access one’s own internal psychological processes, judgments, perceptions, or states. 2. in the literature on attitudes, the process in which a person attempts to explain the reasons for holding a particular attitude, reaching a specific decision, or engaging in a particular behavior. —introspective adj.

introspectionism

introspectionism n. the doctrine that the basic method of psychological investigation is or should be introspection. Historically, such an approach is associated with the school of psychological structuralism. —introspectionist adj.

introspective method

introspective method an approach to research in which participants describe their conscious experiences.

introversion

introversion n. orientation toward the internal private world of one’s self and one’s inner thoughts and feelings, rather than toward the outer world of people and things. Introversion is a broad personality trait and, like extraversion, exists on a continuum of attitudes and behaviors. Introverts are relatively more withdrawn, retiring, reserved, quiet, and deliberate; they may tend to mute or guard expression of positive affect, adopt more skeptical views or positions, and prefer to work independently. [concept originated by Carl Jung for the study of personality types] —introversive adj. —introvert n. —introverted adj.

introversion–extraversion

introversion–extraversion n. the range, or continuum, of self-orientation from introversion, characterized by inward and self-directed concerns and behaviors, to extraversion, characterized by outward and social-directed concerns and behaviors. See also Eysenck’s dimensions; five-factor personality model. [concept originated by Carl Jung for the study of personality types]

intrusion error

intrusion error in a memory test, the recall of an item that was not among the material presented for remembering. Intrusion errors can be informative about the nature of forgetting, as when the intrusion is a synonym, rhyme, or associate of a correct item.

intrusive thoughts

intrusive thoughts mental events that interrupt the flow of task-related thoughts in spite of efforts to avoid them. Minor intrusions are normal and widespread (see mind wandering). Upsetting intrusions are common after trauma and in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

intuition

intuition n. immediate insight or perception, as contrasted with conscious reasoning or reflection. Intuitions have been characterized alternatively as quasi-mystical experiences or as the products of instinct, feeling, minimal sense impressions, or unconscious forces. —intuit vb. —intuitive adj.

intuitionism

intuitionism n. 1. the belief that knowledge is obtained primarily by means of intuition. 2. the tendency of people to prefer to think, reason, and remember by processing inexact memory representations rather than by working logically from exact representations. See fuzzy trace theory. [proposed by U.S. psychologists Charles Brainerd (1944– ) and Valerie Reyna (1955– )]

intuitive judgment

intuitive judgment a decision reached on the basis of subjective feelings that cannot easily be articulated and may not be fully conscious. See intuition; System 1.

intuitive knowledge

intuitive knowledge knowledge that appears to be based on subjective judgment or gut feeling rather than on specific learning. Intuitive knowledge is probably based on nonconsciously recalled information, such as implicit memory or procedural memory, both of which are forms of knowing that are not necessarily accompanied by verbal awareness of knowing.

intuitive stage

intuitive stage in Piagetian theory, the period during the preoperational stage, from about 4 to 7 years, in which children are able to think in terms of classes and to deal with number concepts, although their thinking is dominated by perception.

intuitive type

intuitive type in Carl Jung’s analytic psychology, a functional type characterized by an ability to adapt “by means of unconscious indications” and “a fine and sharpened perception and interpretation of faintly conscious stimuli.” The intuitive type is one of Jung’s two irrational types; the other is the sensation type. See also feeling type; thinking type.

Intuniv

Intuniv n. a trade name for guanfacine.

invalid

invalid 1. n. a person with a chronic illness or disability who is confined to the home or another environment. 2. adj. lacking validity.

invariance

invariance n. 1. in the theory of ecological perception, any property of an object that remains constant despite changes in the point of observation or surrounding conditions. 2. the property of being unchanged by a transformation. For example, after adding a constant value to each of a set of scores on a test, the degrees of difference among the scores will demonstrate invariance, being the same for the original and transformed set. —invariant adj.

invariant feature

invariant feature a characteristic of an object that does not change when the object is viewed under different circumstances. Because invariant features are unaffected by manipulations of the object or the observer, they are powerful cues for object recognition by humans or machines. For example, when solid objects of different orientation are compared, the volume of the objects is an invariant feature.

invariant sequence

invariant sequence in stage theories of development, such as Piagetian theory, the unchanging order in which the stages of development occur. Children must progress sequentially through these stages, none of which can be skipped.

invasive

invasive adj. 1. denoting procedures or tests that require puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body. 2. able to spread from one tissue to another, or having the capacity to spread, as in the case of an infection or a malignant tumor. Compare noninvasive.

invention of new means through mental combination

invention of new means through mental combination see mental combination.

inventory

inventory n. a list of items, often in question form, used in describing and studying behavior, interests, and attitudes.

inverse agonist

inverse agonist see agonist.

inverse correlation

inverse correlation see negative correlation.

inverse derivation

inverse derivation see back-formation.

inverse dynamics

inverse dynamics see inverse kinematics.

inverse factor analysis

inverse factor analysis see Q-technique factor analysis.

inverse kinematics

inverse kinematics the transformation necessary to go from movement goals, typically specified in terms of positions or trajectories in space, to the means of achieving those goals, described in terms of joint angles. Inverse dynamics expresses this transformation in terms of the forces exerted by muscles. Because of the degrees of freedom problem, each of these transformations has many possible solutions for any particular movement.

inverse relationship

inverse relationship see negative relationship.

inverse transformation

inverse transformation see reciprocal transformation.

inverse-square law

inverse-square law any law of physics stating that one variable decreases or increases in proportion to the reciprocal of the square of another variable. For example, the intensity of a sound is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.

Inversine

Inversine n. a trade name for mecamylamine.

inversion

inversion n. 1. in Piagetian theory, see negation. 2. in vision, a reversed image formed on the retina. 3. an old name for same-sex behavior or orientation or the assumption of the role of the opposite sex.

inversion of affect

inversion of affect see reversal of affect.

inverted retina

inverted retina the vertebrate retina, with reference to the fact that light must pass through all the cell layers of the retina before it reaches the photosensitive region of the photoreceptors, which is at the very back of the eye.

inverted U-shaped distribution

inverted U-shaped distribution see U-shaped distribution.

inverted-U hypothesis

inverted-U hypothesis a proposed correlation between motivation (or arousal) and performance such that performance is poorest when motivation or arousal is at very low or very high states. This function is typically referred to as the Yerkes–Dodson law. Emotional intensity (motivation) increases from a zero point to an optimal point, increasing the quality of performance; increase in intensity after this optimal point leads to performance deterioration and disorganization, forming an inverted U-shaped curve. The optimal point is reached sooner (i.e., at lower intensities) the less well learned or more complex the performance; increases in emotional intensity supposedly affect finer skills, finer discriminations, complex reasoning tasks, and recently acquired skills more readily than routine activities. However, the correlation is considered weak; at best, the inverted U-function represents an entire family of curves in which the peak of performance takes place at different levels of arousal.

investigatory behavior

investigatory behavior exploration of a new object or other aspect of the environment. Among nonhuman animals, investigatory behavior can be important in locating new food resources, detecting cryptic predators, extending home range, or finding shelter. In laboratory studies, investigatory behavior is often observed independent of any external rewards. See also curiosity.

investment

investment n. see cathexis. —invest vb.

investment model

investment model a theory explaining commitment to a relationship in terms of one’s satisfaction with, alternatives to, and investments in the relationship. According to the model, commitment is a function of not only a comparison of the relationship to the individual’s expectations but also the quality of the best available alternative and the magnitude of the individual’s investment in the relationship; the investment of resources serves to increase commitment by increasing the costs of leaving the relationship. Although originally developed in the context of romantic associations and friendships and used to explain why people stay in abusive relationships, the investment model has since been extended to a variety of other areas, including employment and education. [proposed in 1980 by U.S. social psychologist Caryl E. Rusbult (1952–2010)]

invincibility fable

invincibility fable see personal fable.

invisible displacement

invisible displacement see object permanence.

invisible playmate

invisible playmate see imaginary companion.

invisible support

invisible support any kind of assistance given by one person to another person that the recipient does not notice and is generally unaware of receiving. Invisible support can involve any of the typical forms of social support, such as material assistance, advice, or love and esteem. Although controversial, studies show that under certain circumstances, invisible support may be more effective than visible support, likely because visible support implies personal inadequacy for dealing with the circumstances at hand and may also create indebtedness to the helper. [coined by psychologist Niall Bolger (1958– )]

involuntary

involuntary adj. describing activity, movement, behavior, or other processes (e.g., reflexes) that occur without intention or volition, as opposed to those that are intentionally initiated. Compare voluntary.

involuntary attention

involuntary attention attention that is captured by a prominent or salient stimulus—for example, in the peripheral visual field—rather than deliberately applied or focused by the individual. Also called exogenous attention. Compare voluntary attention; postvoluntary attention. See also primary attention.

involuntary civil commitment

involuntary civil commitment commitment of an individual to a mental facility against his or her wishes. For individuals to be committed in this way, it must be established in court that the individuals pose a threat to themselves or others.

involuntary confession

involuntary confession see coerced confession.

involuntary hospitalization

involuntary hospitalization the confinement of a person with a serious mental illness to a mental hospital by medical authorization and legal direction (as in involuntary civil commitment). Individuals so hospitalized may be considered dangerous to themselves or others, may fail to recognize the severity of their illness and the need for treatment, or may be unable to have their daily living and treatment needs otherwise met in the community or to survive without medical attention. Compare voluntary admission.

involuntary muscle

involuntary muscle see smooth muscle.

involuntary nervous system

involuntary nervous system a less common name for the autonomic nervous system; that is, the neural circuits and pathways involved in involuntary bodily functions.

involuntary response

involuntary response a response that is not under conscious control, such as the reflex contraction of the pupils in response to bright light.

involuntary retrieval

involuntary retrieval the spontaneous retrieval of a memory into consciousness that occurs without an intention to retrieve it, in contrast to voluntary retrieval, which involves a deliberate search to retrieve a specific memory. Sometimes an autobiographical memory is involuntarily retrieved, as in the Proust phenomenon.

involuntary treatment

involuntary treatment see forced treatment.

involuntary turnover

involuntary turnover the number of employees who leave an organization or unit involuntarily during a given period. A distinction is usually made between uncontrollable involuntary turnover, as by death, retirement, or reductions in the workforce, and controllable involuntary turnover, as by work-related accidents or illness or by dismissal for poor performance or disciplinary violations. A high rate of controllable involuntary turnover is almost always a sign of serious organizational problems. Compare voluntary turnover. See turnover.

involutional

involutional adj. describing the decline of the body or any of its parts from an optimal level of functioning as a result of increasing age. —involution n.

involved grandparent

involved grandparent the type of grandparent who has a warm, loving relationship with his or her grandchildren and takes on some of the day-to-day responsibilities for them, such as after-school care or financial assistance. Compare companionate grandparent; remote grandparent.

iodopsin

iodopsin n. any one of three photopigments found in the retinal cones. Each consists of 11-cis-retinal combined with one of three different opsins, each of which confers a different wavelength sensitivity on the iodopsin. Also called cone opsin. See also rhodopsin.

ion

ion n. an atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge by gaining or losing one or more electrons. —ionic adj.

ion channel

ion channel a group of proteins forming a channel that spans a cell membrane, allowing the passage of ions between the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm of the cell. Ion channels are selective; allow passage of ions of a particular chemical nature, size, or electrostatic charge; and may be ungated (i.e., always open) or gated, opening and closing in response to chemical, electrical, or mechanical signals (see ligand-gated ion channel; voltage-gated ion channel). Ion channels are important in the transmission of neural signals between neurons at a synapse. The opening of sodium channels in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron permits an influx of sodium ions (Na+) into the neuron, which produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential. The opening of potassium channels or chloride channels allows potassium ions (K+) to leave the postsynaptic neuron or chloride ions (Cl–) to enter it, either of which produces an inhibitory postsynaptic potential. See also calcium channel.

ion pump

ion pump 1. a protein molecule that carries out active transport of ions across a cell membrane. See also sodium pump. 2. a type of vacuum pump that turns gases into solids to remove them from an environment.

Ionamin

Ionamin n. a trade name for phentermine.

ionotropic receptor

ionotropic receptor a receptor protein that includes an ion channel that is opened when the receptor is activated. See glutamate receptor. Compare metabotropic receptor.

IOP

IOP abbreviation for intraocular pressure.

IOR

IOR abbreviation for inhibition of return.

Iowa Gambling Task (IGT)

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Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS)

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ip

ip abbreviation for intraperitoneal. IP abbreviation for information processing.

IP

ip abbreviation for intraperitoneal. IP abbreviation for information processing.

IPA

IPA 1. abbreviation for independent practice association. 2. abbreviation for interaction process analysis. 3. abbreviation for International Phonetic Alphabet. 4. abbreviation for interpretive phenomenological analysis.

IPD

IPD abbreviation for interaural phase differences. See binaural cue.

IPL

IPL abbreviation for inner plexiform layer.

IPO model

IPO model abbreviation for input-process-output model.

IPPA

IPPA abbreviation for International Positive Psychology Association.

IPR

IPR abbreviation for interpersonal process recall.

iproniazid

iproniazid n. a monoamine oxidase inhibitor developed in the 1950s for the treatment of tuberculosis and later found to have therapeutic value in the treatment of mood disorders. Iproniazid was found to elevate the mood of tuberculosis patients, and clinical trials led to its widespread use as an antidepressant. However, it has now been replaced by other less toxic antidepressant drugs.

IPS

IPS abbreviation for ideal performance state.

ipsative

ipsative adj. referring back to the self. For example, ipsative analyses of personal characteristics involve assessing multiple psychological attributes and conducting within-person analyses of the degree to which an individual possesses one attribute versus another.

ipsative method

ipsative method a type of research procedure in which a person’s responses (e.g., scores) are compared only to other responses of that person rather than to the responses of other people. It is thus an idiographic approach rather than a normative one.

ipsative scale

ipsative scale a scale in which the points distributed to the various different items must sum to a specific total. In such a scale, all participants will have the same total score but the distribution of the points among the various items will differ for each individual. For example, a supervisor using an ipsative scale to indicate an employee’s strength in different areas initially might assign 20 points for communication, 30 for timeliness, and 50 for work quality but a few months later assign 30 points for communication, 30 for timeliness, and 40 for quality of work. The total number of points distributed in each case, however, is the same (100). Ipsative scales also may involve ranks: Respondents use the same numbers for ranking but may assign them differently. For example, two individuals indicating their preferences for 10 different restaurants will both use the ranks 1 through 10 but the restaurant chosen as #1 will not be the same for each person, the restaurant chosen as #2 will not be the same, and so on.

ipsilateral

ipsilateral adj. situated on or affecting the same side of the body. Compare contralateral. —ipsilaterally adv.

ipsilateral deficit

ipsilateral deficit a loss of normal function on the same side of the body as a brain lesion or brain damage. Usually, however, a lesion results in a contralateral deficit, or a loss of normal function on the opposite side of the body.

ipsilateral eye

ipsilateral eye the eye located on the same side of the body as another structure or object. For example, Layer 5 of the left lateral geniculate nucleus receives input from the retinal ganglion cell axons that originate in the left (i.e., ipsilateral) eye. Compare contralateral eye.

IPSP

IPSP abbreviation for inhibitory postsynaptic potential.

IPSS

IPSS abbreviation for International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia.

IPT

IPT abbreviation for interpersonal psychotherapy.

IQ

IQ intelligence quotient: a standard measure of an individual’s intelligence level based on psychological tests. In the early years of intelligence testing, IQ was calculated by dividing the mental age by the chronological age and multiplying by 100 to produce a ratio IQ. This concept has now mostly been replaced by the deviation IQ, computed as a function of the discrepancy of an individual score from the mean (or average) score. The mean IQ is customarily 100, with slightly more than two thirds of all scores falling within plus or minus 15 points of the mean (usually one standard deviation). More than 95% of all scores fall between 70 (two standard deviations below the mean) and 130 (two standard deviations above the mean). Some tests yield more specific IQ scores, such as a verbal IQ, which measures verbal intelligence, and a performance IQ, which measures nonverbal intelligence. Discrepancies between the two can be used diagnostically to detect learning disabilities or specific cognitive deficiencies. Additional data are often derived from IQ tests, such as performance speed, freedom from distractibility, verbal comprehension, and perceptual organization indices. There are critics who consider the concept of IQ (and other intelligence scales) to be flawed. They point out that the IQ test is more a measure of previously learned skills and knowledge than of underlying native ability and that many participants are simply not accustomed to sitting still and following orders (conditions that such tests require), although they function well in the real world. Critics also refer to cases of misrepresentation of facts in the history of IQ research. Nevertheless, these problems seem to apply to the interpretation of IQ scores rather than the validity of the scores themselves.

IQR

IQR abbreviation for interquartile range.

IRB

IRB abbreviation for institutional review board.

iridocyclitis

iridocyclitis n. inflammation of the iris and ciliary body of the eye. Heterochromic iridocyclitis is a form of the disorder that results in a loss of pigment in the iris.

iridology

iridology n. a highly controversial method of assessing health by examining the irises of an individual’s eyes. Patterns, color variations, and other characteristics of the connective tissue of the iris are thought to be related to specific body parts and indicate health, disorder, or disease. This method lacks sufficient supporting evidence and is not widely accepted among medical professionals.

iris

iris n. a muscular disk that surrounds the pupil of the eye and controls the amount of light entering the eye by contraction or relaxation. The stroma of the iris, which faces the cornea, contains a pigment that gives the eye its coloration; the back of the iris is lined with a dark pigment that restricts light entry to the pupil, regardless of the apparent color of the iris.

iris coloboma

iris coloboma a congenital defect of the iris that shows as a cleft or fissure (coloboma) extending outward from the edge of the pupil. A coloboma usually occurs in the lower portion of the iris. The defect may be one of several signs of a chromosomal anomaly.

irkunii

irkunii n. see myriachit.

IRM

IRM abbreviation for innate releasing mechanism.

ironic mental control

ironic mental control the phenomenon whereby the attempt to suppress unwanted thoughts results in an unexpectedly high level of awareness of them. Also called ironic monitoring process. [defined by U.S. psychologist Daniel M. Wegner (1948– )]

irradiation

irradiation n. 1. exposure of the body to radiation, usually ionizing radiation. See radiation therapy. 2. any outward diffusion of energy. 3. an outmoded concept of Ivan Pavlov that neural processes tend to spread across the cerebral cortex from one functional region to another. —irradiate vb.

irradiation effects

irradiation effects the results of exposure to ionizing radiation. Examples of conditions that may be related to irradiation effects include anencephaly, microcephaly, Down syndrome, cerebral atrophy, and intellectual disability. Irradiation effects on cells of the testes appear as abnormal cell divisions within 2 hours of exposure to radioactivity.

irradiation theory of learning

irradiation theory of learning the theory that each stimulus activates a specific set of cells in the brain, and this activation spreads (irradiates). Two stimuli become associated when their areas of activation overlap. Irradiation was hypothesized by Ivan Pavlov to be the neural basis for classical conditioning.

irrational

irrational adj. 1. lacking in reason or sound judgment: illogical or unreasonable. 2. lacking in usual mental clarity.

irrational belief

irrational belief an illogical, erroneous, or distorted idea, firmly held despite objective contradictory evidence. See nonrational. See also cognitive distortion. [attributed to Albert Ellis)]

irrational type

irrational type in Carl Jung’s analytic psychology, one of the two major categories of functional type: It comprises the intuitive type and the sensation type. Compare rational type.

irrationality

irrationality n. the state, condition, or quality of lacking rational thought. The term is typically used in relation to cognitive behavior (e.g., thinking, decision making) that is illogical or delusional.

irregular

irregular adj. in linguistics, denoting a word or a form of a word that does not follow the usual patterns of inflection in a language. For example, go has the irregular past tense went (not go-ed) and sheep has the irregular plural sheep (not sheeps). Compare regular.

irrelevant language

irrelevant language a language composed of sounds, phrases, or words that are usually understood only by the speaker, as observed in some individuals with schizophrenia or autism.

irresistible impulse rule

irresistible impulse rule formerly, a rule commonly used in U.S. courts of law for determining insanity, according to which defendants were judged to be insane and therefore absolved of criminal responsibility if they were unable to control their conduct, even if they were aware that it was wrong. This rule is no longer used.

irreversible coma

irreversible coma see brain death.

irreversible MAOI

irreversible MAOI see monoamine oxidase inhibitor.

irritability

irritability n. 1. a state of excessive, easily provoked anger, annoyance, or impatience. 2. in physiology, the ability of a cell or tissue to respond to stimuli (e.g., neural irritability). —irritable adj.

irritable aggression

irritable aggression see aggression.

irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

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IRT

IRT 1. abbreviation for interresponse time. 2. abbreviation for item response theory.

ISA

ISA abbreviation for intracarotid sodium Amytal test. See Wada test.

ischemia

ischemia n. deficiency of blood in an organ or tissue, due to functional constriction or actual obstruction of a blood vessel. See cerebral ischemia. —ischemic adj.

ischemic penumbra

ischemic penumbra an area of moderate tissue damage surrounding a focus of primary damage due to inadequate blood supply (see ischemia). Tissues in the penumbra may be partly preserved due to collateral (alternative) blood flow from neighboring normal areas.

Ishihara Test for Color Blindness

Ishihara Test for Color Blindness a color-blindness test using a series of plates (Ishihara plates) in which numbers or letters are formed by dots of a given color against a background of dots of varying degrees of brightness and saturation. A modification of the earlier Stilling Color Vision Test, the Ishihara test was devised in 1916 for use by the Japanese army. It first became available commercially in late 1917 and reportedly is now the most widely used color-blindness test. [Shinobu Ishihara (1879–1963), Japanese ophthalmologist]

ISI

ISI abbreviation for interstimulus interval.

island deafness

island deafness see tonal gap.

island of Reil

island of Reil see insula. [Johann Reil (1759–1813), German physician]

islands of knowledge

islands of knowledge separate, small domains of highly specialized knowledge. Such organization of knowledge is typically found in such fields as medicine and psychology, where there are numerous subspecialties.

islets of Langerhans

islets of Langerhans clusters of endocrine cells within the pancreas. The A (or alpha) cells secrete glucagon, the B (or beta) cells secrete insulin, and the D (or delta) cells secrete somatostatin. Together these hormones play a key role in regulating blood sugar and carbohydrate metabolism. [Paul Langerhans (1847–1888), German anatomist]

iso-

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isocarboxazid

isocarboxazid n. an irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor used as a second-line agent for treatment-resistant depression. Its use is limited by its potentially dangerous interactions with serotonergic and noradrenergic agents and with tyramine-containing foodstuffs (e.g., cheese). U.S. trade name: Marplan.

isochrony

isochrony n. an observed regularity in which the components of continuous, complex movements (e.g., drawing, speaking, handwriting, typing) are often produced at equal time intervals, even though the tasks being performed do not require this regularity. —isochronal adj. —isochronous adj.

isohedonic trap

isohedonic trap the flaw in Daniel E. Berlyne’s theory of aesthetic preference (see arousal potential) that stimuli producing equal amounts of arousal should be equally preferred. Given that equal amounts of arousal can be produced by pleasing or displeasing stimuli, this cannot be the case.

isolate

isolate 1. n. an individual who remains apart from others, either as a result of choosing to minimize his or her contact with others or through rejection and ostracism by other individuals or groups. For example, a person who is part of a work group but has no, very few, or very superficial social and personal relations with other group members would be an isolate. 2. n. in sociometry, any individual who is infrequently or never mentioned when group members report whom they like in their group. In measures of peer acceptance among children, an isolate typically is called a neglected child. See sociometric status. 3. vb. see isolation.

isolate monkey

isolate monkey a monkey that is separated from its mother at birth or at a very early age and raised in complete isolation.

isolated brain

isolated brain see cerveau isolé; encéphale isolé.

isolated explosive disorder

isolated explosive disorder an impulse-control disorder characterized by a single, discrete episode in which the individual commits a violent, catastrophic act, such as shooting strangers during a sudden fit of rage. The episode is out of all proportion to any precipitating stress, is not due to any other mental disorder or to a general medical condition, and is not substance induced. Also called catathymic crisis. Compare intermittent explosive disorder.

isolating language

isolating language a language in which each morpheme is typically a separate word, as in, for example, classical (but not modern) Chinese. Compare agglutinative language; fusional language.

isolating mechanism

isolating mechanism in evolution, a mechanism that prevents two populations from interbreeding and thus enables the populations to diverge enough to allow separate species to evolve. Isolating mechanisms may also prevent interbreeding between overlapping species. Geographic separation, behavioral differences, differences in physical features, and different seasons for reproduction all serve as isolating mechanisms.

isolation

isolation n. 1. the condition of being separated, such as in social isolation. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism that relies on keeping unwelcome thoughts and feelings from forming associative links with other thoughts and feelings, with the result that the unwelcome thought is rarely activated. See also compartmentalization. 3. in Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, see intimacy versus isolation. —isolate vb.

isolation effect

isolation effect see distinctiveness effect.

isolation experiment

isolation experiment the removal of a nonhuman animal from social or other contact with other members of its species in order to observe behavioral or other effects.

isolation of affect

isolation of affect in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which the individual screens out painful feelings by recalling a traumatic or painful event without experiencing the emotion associated with it.

isolation syndrome

isolation syndrome see mixed transcortical aphasia.

isolation tank

isolation tank see flotation tank.

isomerization

isomerization n. a change in the structural arrangement of a molecule without any change in its constituent atoms, which may alter the properties of the molecule. When photons are absorbed by the photopigment rhodopsin, for example, the 11-cis retinal component undergoes isomerization and triggers a biochemical cascade that ultimately results in a visual signal.

isomers

isomers pl. n. forms of molecules that are identical in chemical composition but differ in the spatial orientation of their atoms (i.e., they are stereoisomers). Enantiomers are stereoisomers that exist in pairs as mirror images. The two enantiomers of a pair rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions: L forms produce leftward or counterclockwise rotation (levorotation), whereas D forms produce rightward or clockwise rotation (dextrorotation). In general, L forms tend to have biological activity.

isometric contraction

isometric contraction a type of muscle contraction in which tension develops but the muscle does not shorten, as when a weightlifter grasps a barbell. Compare isotonic contraction.

isometric control

isometric control in ergonomics, a control device, such as a lever or handle, that incorporates a degree of resistance, so that it can be activated only by the application of a certain level of force. Compare isotonic control.

isometric tremor

isometric tremor see action tremor.

isomorphism

isomorphism n. 1. a one-to-one structural correspondence between two or more different entities or their constituent parts. 2. the concept, especially in Gestalt psychology, that there is a structural correspondence between perceptual experience and neural activity in the brain. —isomorph n. —isomorphic adj.

isoniazid

isoniazid n. a drug of choice for the treatment of tuberculosis. Use of the drug can cause a form of neuritis by blocking the function of pyridoxine (vitamin B6) in metabolizing glutamic acid to form the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Isoniazid is structurally related to a known monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), iproniazid, and was reputed to have some antidepressant activity, although it is not clinically used in this role and is not an MAOI. Also called isonicotinic acid hydrazide (INH).

isophilia

isophilia n. feelings of affection or affectionate behavior toward members of one’s own sex, but without the genital component characteristic of same-sex sexual behavior. [first described by Harry Stack Sullivan]

isopropyl alcohol

isopropyl alcohol an isomer of propyl alcohol used as a solvent, antiseptic, and cleaning fluid and as an ingredient in some cosmetics, disinfectants, and topical medications. If ingested, it has initial effects similar to those of ethanol, but it is extremely toxic.

Isopto Carpine

Isopto Carpine a trade name for pilocarpine.

Isopto Eserine

Isopto Eserine a trade name for physostigmine.

isosensitivity function

isosensitivity function see receiver-operating characteristic curve.

isotonic contraction

isotonic contraction a type of muscle contraction in which the muscle shortens and thickens, as when a person flexes the biceps muscle. Compare isometric contraction.

isotonic control

isotonic control in ergonomics, a control device, such as a button or switch, that is activated by displacement of the control from a neutral point. Isotonic controls have no resistance and their activation is not dependent on the level of force applied. Compare isometric control.

isotretinoin

isotretinoin n. an analog of vitamin A used in the treatment of severe acne that is resistant to other therapies. It is highly teratogenic (see teratogen) and therefore should not be used in pregnancy. More controversially, the use of isotretinoin has been linked with psychological disturbances, such as depression, psychosis, and suicide. The mechanism responsible for these side effects is unknown. U.S. trade name (among others): Accutane.

isotropy

isotropy n. the state of being the same, especially with respect to direction or orientation, symmetry of form, or uniformity of responses in the different parts of something. Compare anisotropy. —isotropic adj.

ISP

ISP abbreviation for Individual Service Plan.

ISSP

ISSP abbreviation for International Society for Sport Psychology.

issue-relevant knowledge

issue-relevant knowledge see attitude-relevant knowledge.

IT

IT 1. abbreviation for information technology. 2. abbreviation for inspection time.

IT cortex

IT cortex abbreviation for inferotemporal cortex.

ITA

ITA abbreviation for Initial Teaching Alphabet.

ITBS

ITBS abbreviation for Iowa Tests of Basic Skills.

itch

itch n. a cutaneous sensory experience related to pain. The associated nerve endings are the same as those sensitive to the prick-pain sensation (see prick experience): A rapidly repeated prick-pain sensation produces the itch reaction.

ITD

ITD abbreviation for interaural time differences. See binaural cue.

item analysis

item analysis a set of procedures used to evaluate the statistical merits of individual items comprising a psychological measure or test. These procedures may be used to select items for a test from a larger pool of initial items or to evaluate items on an established test. A variety of different statistics may be computed in item analyses, including difficulty values, indexes of discrimination, interitem correlations, and item discriminabilities.

item characteristic curve (ICC)

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item discriminability

item discriminability a statistical measure of how well an item on a test differentiates among subgroups of test takers, typically those individuals who possess a high degree of some ability versus those who possess a low degree of the ability. Item discriminabilities typically are given as correlation coefficients ranging from −1 to +1 in value, with the latter indicating a perfect discriminator. Interitem correlations also may be used in determining item discriminability. See item analysis.

item response theory (IRT)

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item scaling

item scaling the assignment of a test item to a scale position on some dimension, often that of item difficulty.

item validity

item validity the extent to which an individual item in a test or experiment measures what it purports to measure.

iterated bootstrapping

iterated bootstrapping a bootstrapping procedure in which samples are randomly drawn (with replacement) from an observed data set, values for different population characteristics are estimated, and the estimates averaged across the set of samples. Then, the samples created during this initial procedure are themselves sampled and their parameters estimated and averaged. The resampling and recalculating process continues until a stable parameter estimate is obtained. Iterated bootstrapping usually is less prone to error than is the use of a single set of bootstrapping samples.

iteration

iteration n. the repetition of a certain computational step until further repetition no longer changes the outcome or until the repetition meets some other predefined criterion.

iterative design

iterative design in ergonomics, the practice of using results from prior testing or formative evaluation to make design changes during the development cycle of a new or improved product. The process of iteration continuously feeds previous results into the next design of the product, which is tested or evaluated in its turn, leading to further design changes, and so on.

itinerancy

itinerancy n. see peregrination.

itinerant teacher

itinerant teacher a teacher who travels to several schools or classrooms, providing specialized instruction to children.

ITPA

ITPA abbreviation for Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities.

IUD

IUD abbreviation for intrauterine device.

IUPsyS

IUPsyS abbreviation for International Union of Psychological Science.

iv

iv abbreviation for intravenous. See intravenous injection. IV abbreviation for independent variable.

IV