Terms Starting with "E"

1279 terms

E

E symbol for expected value.

E trisomy

E trisomy see trisomy 18.

e-therapy

e-therapy n. an Internet-based form of distance therapy used to expand access to clinical services typically offered face-to-face. This therapy can be conducted via webcam, in real-time messaging, in chat rooms, and in e-mail messages. Also called online therapy.

EA

EA abbreviation for educational age.

EAHCA

EAHCA abbreviation for Education for All Handicapped Children Act.

EAP

EAP 1. abbreviation for employee assistance program. 2. abbreviation for equine-assisted psychotherapy.

ear

ear n. 1. the organ of hearing and balance. In humans and other mammals, the ear is divided into external, middle, and inner sections. The pinna of the external ear collects sounds that are then funneled through the external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane. The sounds are vibrations of air molecules that cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate, which in turn vibrates the ossicles, three tiny bones in the middle ear. The motion of the last of these bones produces pressure waves in the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear. The motion of the fluid in the cochlea is converted by specialized receptors called hair cells into neural signals that are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve. 2. the projecting part of the external ear. See auditory system.

ear canal

ear canal see external auditory meatus.

ear ossicles

ear ossicles see ossicles.

eardrum

eardrum n. see tympanic membrane.

Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment (EPSDT)

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early bilingualism

early bilingualism bilingualism attained early in life, either through the simultaneous acquisition of two languages at home or through early exposure to a second language before the completion of first-language acquisition at around age 5. This is often contrasted with late bilingualism, which refers to second-language acquisition after age 5 (or, in some definitions, after the onset of puberty). Early bilingualism is more likely to result in a nativelike command of phonology and grammar than is late bilingualism.

early experience

early experience experience acquired in the first 5 years of life, which is believed to have a significant influence on a child’s subsequent cognitive, social, and emotional development. Whereas theorists in the first half of the 20th century believed that early experience permanently determined a child’s development, subsequent research has indicated that later experience can modify the effects of early experience.

early immersion

early immersion see total immersion.

early infantile autism

early infantile autism see autism.

early intervention

early intervention a collection of specialized services provided to children from birth to 3 years of age with identified conditions placing them at risk of developmental disability or with evident signs of developmental delay. Services are designed to minimize the impact of the infant’s or toddler’s condition, and in addition to stimulatory, social, and therapeutic programs, they may include family training, screening, assessment, and health care.

early memory

early memory adult recollection of childhood events, which typically goes back only to the age of 3 or so, even though the capacity to learn is present at birth. The absence of earlier childhood memories, referred to as childhood amnesia, has been noted since the time of Sigmund Freud. Explanations include neural immaturity, absence of language or adult schemas to organize event memory, or different coding dimensions in infancy.

Early Years Cognitive Battery

Early Years Cognitive Battery see Differential Ability Scales.

Early Years of Marriage Project (EYM Project)

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early-morning awakening insomnia

early-morning awakening insomnia see terminal insomnia.

early-onset Alzheimer’s disease

early-onset Alzheimer’s disease see Alzheimer’s disease.

early-selection theory

early-selection theory any theory of attention proposing that selection of stimuli for processing occurs prior to stimulus identification. According to early-selection theory, unattended stimuli receive only a slight degree of processing that does not encompass meaning, whereas attended stimuli proceed through a significant degree of deep, meaningful analysis. Compare late-selection theory.

earwax

earwax n. see cerumen.

ease-of-learning judgment

ease-of-learning judgment an individual’s prediction of how easy it will be to acquire and retain certain items of information, given before any attempt is made to do so. In tests of learning and memory, participants’ pretest ease-of-learning judgments tend to be only weakly correlated with their performance on the test. Like feeling of knowing, ease-of-learning judgments are an important aspect of metacognition. Compare retrospective confidence judgment.

Easterbrook hypothesis

Easterbrook hypothesis the hypothesis that the range of cues attended to is inversely related to the degree of arousal; that is, in a state of increased arousal, attention narrows and fewer environmental stimuli are focused on. The hypothesis was proposed as an explanation of Yerkes–Dodson law, which describes the relationship between arousal and performance. [proposed in 1959 by J. A. Easterbrook, 20th-century Canadian psychologist]

eating aid

eating aid an assistive technology device that can be used by people with disabilities to feed themselves independently. Eating aids include metal or plastic devices for holding sandwiches; nonslip place mats, bowls, and dishes with suction cups attached to the bottom; handles that can swivel, are angled, or have extensions; and combination eating devices, such as knife–fork or fork–spoon combinations.

eating compulsion

eating compulsion an irresistible impulse leading to abnormal eating behavior. This is a primary symptom of a number of eating disorders, such as bulimia nervosa and food addictions. See also compulsive eating.

eating disorder

eating disorder any disorder characterized primarily by a pathological disturbance of attitudes and behaviors related to food, including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Other eating-related disorders include pica and rumination, which are usually diagnosed in infancy or early childhood.

Eating Disorders Awareness and Prevention, Inc.

Eating Disorders Awareness and Prevention, Inc. see National Eating Disorders Association.

Ebbinghaus curve

Ebbinghaus curve see forgetting curve. [Hermann Ebbinghaus]

Ebbinghaus illusion

Ebbinghaus illusion a size contrast illusion in which a concentric ring of large circles makes a medium-sized circle in the center of the ring look small, whereas the same circle in the center of a ring of smaller circles looks large. Also called Titchener circles; Titchener illusion. [introduced in the 1890s by Hermann Ebbinghaus but sometimes incorrectly attributed to Edward Bradford Titchener]

Ebonics

Ebonics n. see Black English. [a blend of the words ebony and phonics, coined by U.S. psychologist Robert Lee Williams II (1930– ) at a 1973 conference of Black scholars, “Cognitive and Language Development of the Black Child”]

EBP

EBP abbreviation for evidence-based practice.

EBV

EBV abbreviation for Epstein–Barr virus.

ECA Survey

ECA Survey abbreviation for Epidemiologic Catchment Area Survey.

eCB

eCB abbreviation for endogenous cannabinoid.

eccentric projection

eccentric projection the phenomenon of experiencing a stimulus as being in the external world (as in vision and hearing), rather than at the receptor stimulated (as in touch).

eccyesis

eccyesis n. see ectopic pregnancy.

ECF

ECF abbreviation for extended care facility. See extended care.

ECG

ECG abbreviation for electrocardiogram.

echinacea

echinacea n. an herbal agent derived from any of nine related plant species native to the United States and southern Canada, with Echinacea purpurea being the most commonly used and perhaps the most potent. Echinacea traditionally has been used in the belief that it stimulates the immune system and prevents or treats colds. Some studies have shown, however, that taking echinacea has no significant effects on preventing colds or reducing their severity or duration. Although it is generally considered safe and there are no known reports of toxicity, some people may experience hypersensitivity reactions to echinacea, such as rashes, increased asthma, and anaphylaxis. More common side effects include headache, dizziness, nausea, and constipation. People with autoimmune disorders (see autoimmunity), leukemia, multiple sclerosis, tuberculosis, and HIV infection should not take echinacea. Concurrent use with immunosuppressant agents should be avoided, and, as echinacea is believed to be metabolized by the cytochrome P450 3A4 enzyme, it accordingly has numerous potential interactions with psychotropic drugs metabolized via the same enzyme (e.g., clonidine, nefazodone, St. John’s wort).

echo

echo n. a reflected sound wave that is distinct from that directly transmitted from the source.

écho des pensées

écho des pensées an auditory hallucination in which an individual hears his or her own thoughts repeated in spoken form. Also called thought echoing.

echocardiography

echocardiography n. the production of a graphic record or image (echocardiogram) of the internal structures and beating of an individual’s heart with an ultrasound device that uses sonarlike reflections. Echocardiography enables the visualization and measurement of all the chambers and valves of the heart as well as the pumping efficiency of the organ.

echoencephalography

echoencephalography n. a method of mapping brain anatomy for diagnostic purposes by using ultrasonic waves. The waves are transmitted through the skull using an instrument called an echoencephalograph, and echoes of the waves from intracranial structures are recorded to produce a visual image called an echoencephalogram. The method, though still in use, is now considered outdated and has been largely superseded by such methods as transcranial Doppler ultrasonography.

echographia

echographia n. pathological writing that involves copying words and phrases without understanding them.

echoic memory

echoic memory the retention of auditory information for a brief period (2–3 seconds) after the end of the stimulus. Also called auditory sensory memory.

echolalia

echolalia n. mechanical repetition of words and phrases uttered by another individual. It is often a symptom of a neurological or developmental disorder, particularly catatonic schizophrenia or autism. Also called echophrasia.

echolocation

echolocation n. the ability to judge the direction and distance of objects or obstacles from reflected echoes made by acoustic signals, such as footsteps, the tapping of a cane, or traffic noises. People with visual impairment can learn to develop this ability to find their way and avoid obstacles. Among nonhuman animals, both bats and marine mammals (e.g., dolphins) can locate objects by emitting high-pitched sounds that are reflected from surfaces of the physical environment and prey objects. High-pitched sounds provide better spatial resolution of an object than sounds of lower pitch but require more energy to travel the same distance. Thus, a bat can locate a mosquito but only at a short range. See also ultrasonic communication.

echophrasia

echophrasia n. see echolalia.

echopraxia

echopraxia n. mechanical repetition of another person’s movements or gestures. It is often a symptom of a neurological disorder, particularly catatonic schizophrenia.

echovirus

echovirus n. enteric cytopathic human orphan virus: any of more than 30 types of viruses of the genus Enterovirus. Infection is asymptomatic in 90% of cases; in others, infection may cause a range of conditions, from mild fever and respiratory symptoms to severe, sometimes fatal conditions such as meningitis and encephalitis. Infection occurs most often during the summer and fall in temperate climates and year-round in tropical climates. When first discovered, the viruses were not a part of any known family of infectious agents (hence their labeling as “orphan”).

eclampsia

eclampsia n. convulsions that occur in pregnant women and are not associated with epilepsy or other cerebral disorders. They are preceded by preeclampsia. The convulsions, which can occur before, during, or after delivery of the child, are usually followed by unconsciousness or coma of varying lengths. —eclamptic adj.

eclectic behaviorism

eclectic behaviorism an approach to behavior therapy that does not adhere to one theoretical model but applies, as needed, any of several techniques, including classical conditioning, modeling, operant conditioning, self-control mechanisms, and cognitive restructuring.

eclectic counseling

eclectic counseling any counseling theory or practice that incorporates and combines doctrines, findings, and techniques selected from diverse theoretical systems.

eclectic psychotherapy

eclectic psychotherapy any psychotherapy that is based on a combination of theories or approaches or uses concepts and techniques from a number of different sources, including the integrated professional experiences of the therapist. With the more formalized prescriptive eclectic psychotherapy, the clinician attempts to customize psychological treatments and the therapeutic relationship to the specific needs of individual clients. This is done by drawing on effective methods from across theoretical camps and by matching those methods to particular cases on the basis of empirically supported guidelines.

eclecticism

eclecticism n. a theoretical or practical approach that blends, or attempts to blend, diverse conceptual formulations or techniques into an integrated approach. —eclectic adj.

eclima

eclima n. increased appetite or insatiable hunger, often associated with bulimia nervosa. Also called eclimia. See also hyperorexia; hyperphagia.

ECM

ECM abbreviation for external chemical messenger.

ecobehavioral assessment

ecobehavioral assessment an observational research method used in applied behavior analysis to measure moment-to-moment effects of multiple environmental events on an individual’s specific behaviors. These events include the behavior of others, task demands, time of day, and situational changes.

ECochG

ECochG abbreviation for electrocochleography. See electrophysiologic audiometry.

ecofeminism

ecofeminism n. a position that combines feminism with a commitment to environmentalism and environmental activism. It emphasizes a concomitance between the exploitation of nature and the exploitation of women, suggesting that there is a set of social, political, and philosophical attitudes that give rise to and maintain both. —ecofeminist n.

ECoG

ECoG abbreviation for electrocorticography.

ecological assessment

ecological assessment the gathering of observations in various environments to examine whether individuals or entities behave differently depending on the surroundings. For example, a teacher at a child-development center may investigate whether children demonstrate more or less problem behavior in various settings at the center. Findings from the ecological assessment may offer ideas on how to intervene to improve the overall behavior of the children in multiple settings.

ecological fallacy

ecological fallacy a mistaken conclusion drawn about individuals based on findings from groups to which they belong. For example, if a university administrator found that the correlation between faculty salary and number of publications at the departmental level was strong and positive (e.g., r = .60), it would be an ecological fallacy to assume that for any particular faculty member the correlation would be the same.

ecological momentary assessment (EMA)

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ecological niche

ecological niche 1. the function or position of an organism or a population within a physical and biological environment. 2. the particular area within a habitat occupied by an organism or a population.

ecological perception

ecological perception an organism’s detection of the affordances and invariances within its natural, real-world environment (i.e., its ecology as opposed to a laboratory setting), as mediated and guided by the organism’s immersion in and movement through that environment. James J. Gibson proposed that ecological perception is holistic (the organism and environment are a single inseparable system), that environmental properties are perceived as meaningful entities, and that perceptual patterns may be direct rather than concepts that require interpretation by higher brain centers from visual or other cues. See direct perception.

ecological perspective

ecological perspective a concept of community psychology in which a community (or any other social entity) is viewed in terms of the interrelations among people, roles, organizations, local events, resources, and problems. It accounts for complex reciprocal interactions of individuals and their environment. The premise of the ecological perspective is that intervention should contribute to the development of the entire community.

ecological psychology

ecological psychology 1. the analysis of behavior settings with the aim of predicting patterns of behavior that occur within certain settings. The focus is on the role of the physical and social elements of the setting in producing the behavior. According to behavior-setting theory, the behavior that will occur in a particular setting is largely prescribed by the roles that exist in that setting and the actions of those in such roles, irrespective of the personalities, age, gender, and other characteristics of the individuals present. In a place of worship, for example, one or more individuals have the role of leaders (the clergy), whereas a larger number of participants function as an audience (the congregation). Other factors that shape behavior are the size of the setting, the number of roles required to maintain it, its permeability (i.e., openness to outside influence or nonmembers), and the explicitness of rules and regulations relating to expected behavior there. 2. a less common name for the theoretical orientation embodied by James J. Gibson’s concepts of ecological perception and direct perception.

ecological study

ecological study 1. research into the mutual relations between organisms and their environments. See ecology. 2. in psychology, research that evaluates the influence of environmental factors on individual behavior and mental health. See human ecology; social ecology; urban ecology. 3. any study in which the statistical analyses are conducted at the population level rather than the individual level. See epidemiology.

ecological systems theory

ecological systems theory an evolving body of theory and research concerned with the processes and conditions that govern the course of human development in the actual environments in which human beings live. Originally focused on the environment as a context for child development (in terms of nested systems ranging from micro- to macro-), the theory is now known as the bioecological model, denoting a broader conception of human development as a process that is affected, across the lifespan and across successive generations, by both environmental context and individual biopsychological characteristics. See also chronosystem; ecosystemic approach; exosystem; macrosystem; mesosystem. [originally conceptualized by Urie Bronfenbrenner]

ecological validity

ecological validity 1. the degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are representative of conditions in the wider world. For example, psychological research carried out exclusively among university students might have a low ecological validity when applied to the population as a whole. Ecological validity may be threatened by experimenter bias, oversimplification of a real-world situation, or naive sampling strategies that produce an unrepresentative selection of participants. See also validity. [defined by Martin T. Orne on the basis of work by Egon Brunswik] 2. in perception, the degree to which a proximal stimulus (i.e., the stimulus as it impinges on the receptor) covaries with the distal stimulus (i.e., the actual stimulus in the physical environment). [originated by Egon Brunswik]

ecology

ecology n. the study of relationships between organisms and their physical and social environments. Behavioral ecology is a subfield that examines how the behavior of nonhuman animals is affected by physical and social factors. —ecological adj. —ecologist n.

ecomania

ecomania n. a morbid preoccupation with and pathological attitude toward members of one’s family, characterized by irritable and domineering behavior. It is often a factor in domestic violence and the cycle of violence. Also called oikomania.

economic model

economic model in psychoanalytic theory, the view that the psyche can be explained in terms of the amounts and distributions of psychic energy associated with particular mental states and processes. Compare dynamic model; topographic model.

Economo’s disease

Economo’s disease see encephalitis lethargica. [Constantin von Economo (1876–1931), Austrian neurologist]

economy

economy n. 1. any system of rules and regulations by which something is managed; for example, a token economy is one in which a behavioral system is managed according to the disbursement of tokens as rewards. 2. management of resources in order to maximize efficiency or returns (material or psychological) and to avoid waste.

economy of effort

economy of effort the tendency of an organism to act efficiently and minimize the expenditure of energy, such as by avoiding any unnecessary movements.

economy principle

economy principle see law of parsimony.

ecopathology

ecopathology n. the identification of people as abnormal by other members of their community. Behavior considered normal in some communities (i.e., conforming to the attitudes and beliefs of community members) may be regarded as eccentric or even psychotic in other communities.

ecopsychology

ecopsychology n. 1. a field that promotes a less egocentric mode of thinking in favor of a more ecocentric one. By encouraging humans to rethink their position in the natural world, some psychologists believe they can influence people to be more responsible stewards of nature. 2. an occasional synonym of environmental psychology.

ecosystem

ecosystem n. a self-contained unit comprising a community of individuals of different species and the environment they inhabit. There is an interdependent balance of predators, prey, food resources, and substrates such that a change in any one component is often followed by commensurate changes in the other components.

ecosystemic approach

ecosystemic approach an approach to therapy that emphasizes the interaction between the individual or family and larger social contexts, such as schools, workplaces, and social agencies. The approach emphasizes interrelatedness and interdependency and derives from diverse fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science. Family therapy in particular, has made use of this approach in designing interventions for complex families and systems. See also ecological systems theory. [developed in psychology by Urie Bronfenbrenner]

ecphory

ecphory n. 1. the activation of a memory, which involves the retrieval of a memory by a cue. A retrieval cue that matches information stored in memory results in access to that memory. Cues or conditions that were present when the memory was formed are stored with the memory; therefore, those same conditions need to be reinstated at retrieval to provoke ecphory. 2. the process in which a memory, emotion, or the like is revived in the mind by a stimulus. Also called ecphoria. [defined by German biologist Richard Semon (1859–1918)] —ecphoric adj.

ECS

ECS abbreviation for electroconvulsive shock. See electroconvulsive therapy.

ecstasy

ecstasy n. a feeling of intense pleasure and elation, including that experienced in some mystical states, during orgasm, with aesthetic reveries, and in drug-induced states. Such extreme euphoria also may occur in the context of a hypomanic episode or a manic episode. —ecstatic adj. Ecstasy n. the popular name for MDMA.

Ecstasy

ecstatic trance

ecstatic trance an altered state of consciousness characterized by joy and happiness. It is often associated with various religious practices, such as intense meditation or certain emotional styles of worship. See also mysticism; voodoo.

ECT

ECT 1. abbreviation for electroconvulsive therapy. 2. abbreviation for elementary cognitive task.

ECT-induced amnesia

ECT-induced amnesia amnesia that is a by-product of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Although ECT is effective in the relief of severe depression, memory deficits often arise, especially when the current is applied to both sides of the brain. Memory can be severely compromised in the hours or days following treatment, but new learning typically returns to normal by 6 months after treatment. Some impairment in the retrieval of events that occurred close to the time of treatment may remain.

ecto-

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ectoderm

ectoderm n. the outermost of the primary germ layers of a developing embryo. Structures derived from ectoderm include skin and nails, hair, glands, mucous membranes, the nervous system, and external sense organs (e.g., ears, eyes). —ectodermal adj.

ectohormone

ectohormone n. see pheromone.

ectomorph

ectomorph n. a constitutional type (somatotype) in Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality characterized by a thin, long, fragile physique, which—according to this theory—is highly correlated with cerebrotonia. Also called ectomorphic body type. —ectomorphic adj. —ectomorphy n.

ectopia

ectopia n. displacement or abnormal positioning of part of the body. For example, neurons are seen in unusual positions in the cerebral cortex of people with dyslexia. —ectopic adj.

ectopic pregnancy

ectopic pregnancy a pregnancy that develops outside the uterus, most commonly in a fallopian tube (a tubal pregnancy). Also called eccyesis; extrauterine pregnancy; paracyesis.

ectopic testis

ectopic testis a testis that descends improperly from the abdominal cavity and becomes lodged outside the scrotum, such as beneath the outer tissue layers of the thigh or in the perineum.

ectoplasm

ectoplasm n. 1. the relatively more dense cytoplasm found at the periphery of a cell. Compare endoplasm. 2. in spiritualism, a viscous substance said to emanate from a medium’s body during a seance. Also called teleplasm. See also materialization. —ectoplasmic adj.

ectotherm

ectotherm n. an animal whose body temperature is largely regulated by the environment, which is the source of most of its heat. Examples include snakes and bees. Such animals, formerly called poikilotherms, are popularly described as cold-blooded. Compare endotherm. —ectothermic adj.

ED

ED abbreviation for effective dose.

EDA

EDA abbreviation for exploratory data analysis.

edema

edema n. an accumulation of fluid in body cells, organs, or cavities resulting in swelling. Causes range from consuming too much salt or taking a long walk in hot weather to heart failure or kidney disease. See also cerebral edema. —edematous adj.

edge

edge n. 1. the border of an object. 2. the border between two elements in an image.

edge detector

edge detector any of various cells in the visual system or hypothetical processors in models of vision that respond best to a dark–light border or edge.

edge theory

edge theory a theory proposing that death anxiety has a survival function that emerges when individuals perceive themselves to be in life-threatening situations. Edge theory attempts to resolve the apparent discrepancy between other theoretical claims that death anxiety is a major motivational force and empirical studies that reveal only low to moderate levels of death anxiety in the general population. It suggests that death anxiety is the subjective or experiential side of a holistic preparation to deal with danger (symbolic of standing at the edge of the void). Heightened arousal is turned on by anxiety surges in emergency situations; psychological difficulties arise when the emergency response has permeated the individual’s everyday functioning. See also terror management theory. [introduced by Robert J. Kastenbaum]

EDI

EDI abbreviation for Emory Dyssemia Index.

Edinger–Westphal nucleus

Edinger–Westphal nucleus a collection of small nerve cells in the midbrain. It is part of the parasympathetic nervous system pathway to the ciliary muscle and the pupillary sphincter of the eye, which play a role in visual accommodation. [Ludwig Edinger (1855–1918), German neuroanatomist; Karl Friedrich Otto Westphal (1833–1890), German neurologist]

EDR

EDR abbreviation for electrodermal response. See galvanic skin response.

edrophonium

edrophonium n. an anticholinesterase (see cholinergic drug) characterized by a rapid onset and short duration of action. It is the drug of choice in the diagnosis of myasthenia gravis, and it may also be used in surgical anesthesia to reverse the effects of neuromuscular blocking agents. U.S. trade names: Enlon; Reversol.

educable

educable adj. having the potential for academic learning. —educability n.

educable mentally retarded (EMR)

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education

education n. 1. the process of teaching or acquiring knowledge, skills, and values. 2. a field of advanced teacher preparation that involves the practice of methods for teaching and learning. —educational adj.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA; EHA)

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educational acceleration

educational acceleration educational progress at a rate faster than usual through a variety of measures, such as strengthening or compacting the curriculum, accelerating instruction in particular subject areas, or grade skipping. These measures are designed to provide gifted students with work more ideally suited to their abilities. Grade acceleration is thought by some to represent a potential disadvantage if the student’s social and emotional development is lagging behind his or her intellectual development. Careful assessment of intellectual ability, educational achievement, and social, emotional, and physical development is essential prior to acceleration of one or more grades. Also called scholastic acceleration.

educational age (EA)

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educational attainment level

educational attainment level 1. the status of learning that has been achieved by a student or group of students. 2. the set of standards for acquired knowledge that a student must master before being considered for the next educational step, level, or grade. 3. the highest level of schooling completed. Research has linked higher educational attainment levels to greater income level, better health, and other positive outcomes.

educational counseling

educational counseling the counseling specialty concerned with providing advice and assistance to students in the development of their educational plans, choice of appropriate courses, and choice of college or technical school. Counseling may also be applied to improve study skills or provide assistance with school-related problems that interfere with performance (e.g., learning disabilities). Educational counseling is closely associated with vocational counseling because of the relationship between educational training and occupational choice. Also called educational guidance; student counseling. See also counseling psychology.

educational diagnosis

educational diagnosis 1. the process of analytically examining a learning problem, which may involve identification of cognitive, perceptual, emotional, and other factors that influence academic performance or school adjustment. 2. the conclusion reached as a result of the analytical examination of a learning problem.

educational guidance

educational guidance see educational counseling.

educational linguistics

educational linguistics a broad field of study concerned with language in education, particularly the use of linguistic theory in developing instructional methods and educational policy.

educational measurement

educational measurement the development and application of tests to measure student abilities.

educational neuroscience

educational neuroscience see neuroeducation.

educational pacing

educational pacing 1. the rate or speed of the learning process. 2. the control and monitoring of student work speed by a teacher, supervisor, or discussion leader. 3. the rate at which a whole class of students moves through a specific curriculum. This is determined by multiple factors, such as number of students in the class, student ability and interest, teacher philosophy, and teacher competence.

educational placement

educational placement the act of matching students with the appropriate educational program or environment for their age, abilities, and needs. Standardized tests, classroom test data, interviews, and past student performance may all be taken into account in arriving at this decision.

educational program

educational program a curriculum or course of training that upon completion often leads to an academic degree, certification, or license. Accreditation may be given by a supervisory organization of the minimum standards that must exist within the institution offering the educational program.

educational psychology

educational psychology a branch of psychology dealing with the application of psychological principles and theories to a broad spectrum of teaching, training, and learning issues in educational settings. Educational psychology also addresses psychological problems that can arise in educational systems. Educational psychologists often hold applied as well as academic positions, spending their time in a variety of teaching, research, and applied pursuits.

educational quotient (EQ)

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educational retardation

educational retardation 1. slowness or delay of student progress in acquiring knowledge due to a physical, emotional, intellectual, or mental disability. 2. a slowness or delay that is specific to a certain subject or educational setting.

educational sport psychology

educational sport psychology a specialty focused on the use of psychological methods to improve performance in sport. Educational sport psychologists assist participants in sport to optimize performance enhancement through, for example, use of imagery and attentional focus. Education and training may also be informed by sport science, physical education, or kinesiology. Compare clinical sport psychology.

Educational Testing Service (ETS)

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educational tests

educational tests see diagnostic educational tests.

educational therapy

educational therapy individualized treatment interventions for people with learning disabilities or emotional or behavioral problems that significantly interfere with learning. Educational therapy integrates educational techniques and therapeutic practices to promote academic achievement and the attainment of basic skills while building self-esteem and confidence, fostering independence, and aiding personal development. It is usually conducted by a professionally trained educational therapist.

eduction

eduction n. the comprehension of relations, or the comprehension of correlates, or both, in an analogy. Eduction of relations involves understanding the relationship between the first two terms of an analogy, whereas eduction of correlates involves the application of this understanding to the third term in the analogy to find the solution. For example, in the analogy “tall : short “ heavy : ?”, eduction of relations would be used to infer the relation between tall and short, and eduction of correlates would be used to apply the relation to produce light as a solution. [defined in the early 20th century by Charles Spearman]

Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS)

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Edwards Social Desirability Scale

Edwards Social Desirability Scale a 39-item inventory derived from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and used to measure whether respondents are truthful in self-reports or are misrepresenting themselves in a way likely to be seen as positive by others. [developed in the 1950s by Allen L. Edwards]

Edwards syndrome

Edwards syndrome see trisomy 18. [John Hilton Edwards (1928–2007), British geneticist]

EE

EE abbreviation for expressed emotion.

EEG

EEG abbreviation for electroencephalography or electroencephalogram.

EEG biofeedback

EEG biofeedback see neurofeedback.

EEG measures of intelligence

EEG measures of intelligence measures of intelligence believed to be extractable from electroencephalographic assessments of sites in the brain. Although some investigators found correlations between EEG measures of intelligence and psychometric test scores, other investigators often failed to replicate their findings. These measures have largely been superseded by more precise ERP measures of intelligence.

EEOC

EEOC abbreviation for Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

EFA

EFA abbreviation for exploratory factor analysis.

effect

effect n. 1. an event or state that is brought about as the result of another (its cause). 2. in analysis of variance, a statistically significant relationship between variables, such that one variable is held to be an outcome of another (or some combination of others). See main effect; interaction effect. 3. short for effect size.

effect coding

effect coding in regression analysis, a procedure in which values of 1 or −1 are assigned to represent the categories of a dichotomous variable (or 1, 0, and −1 for a trichotomous variable). The results obtained for the group indicated by values of 1 are then interpreted relative to the larger group comprising all participants. For example, a researcher could assign values of 1 to individuals in an experimental group and values of −1 to those in a control group. He or she could conclude that there is a treatment effect if the experimental group has a mean different from the grand mean across all of the individuals. Compare contrast coding; dummy variable coding.

effect law

effect law see law of effect.

effect size

effect size any of various measures of the magnitude or meaningfulness of a relationship between two variables. For example, Cohen’s d shows the number of standard deviation units between two means. Often, effect sizes are interpreted as indicating the practical significance of a research finding. Additionally, in meta-analyses, they allow for the computation of summary statistics that apply to all the studies considered as a whole. See also statistical significance.

effect variable

effect variable see dependent variable.

effect-size correlation

effect-size correlation (symbol: reffect size) an index of the association between an independent variable and scores on the dependent variable without removing any other sources of variation in the data. An effect-size correlation has values from −1 to +1, with absolute values of .1, .3, and .5 representing small, medium, and large relationships, respectively.

effectance

effectance n. the state of having a causal effect on objects and events in the environment; the word is commonly used in the term effectance motivation, coined by Robert W. White in 1959.

effective dose (ED)

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effective stimulus

effective stimulus see functional stimulus.

effectiveness evaluation

effectiveness evaluation the assessment of the degree of success of a program in achieving its goals. The process requires the determination of evaluation objectives, methods, and criteria of evaluation and the presentation of findings. See also impact analysis; program outcome.

effectiveness research

effectiveness research reviewing past studies or conducting new studies to evaluate how well current and new treatments work, with the aim of improving the care and treatment of patients. The term is often used synonymously with clinical utility research, although some have suggested clinical utility research is a broader term that encompasses studies of additional health-related access to care. Compare efficacy research.

effector

effector n. 1. an organ, such as a muscle or a gland, that responds to neural stimulation by producing a particular physical response or initiating a specific physiological event. 2. a motor nerve ending that triggers activity in tissue cells, such as causing a muscle to contract or a gland to secrete. 3. in motor control, the part of the body that interacts with the environment during an action (e.g., the hand during a reaching movement).

effeminacy

effeminacy n. female behavior or appearance in a male, which is regarded as not fitting the male gender role expectations of society. —effeminate adj.

efference copy

efference copy see corollary discharge.

efferent

efferent adj. conducting or conveying away from a central point. Compare afferent.

efferent motor aphasia

efferent motor aphasia a form of expressive aphasia marked by difficulty in articulating sound and speech sequences, resulting from lesions in the lower part of the left premotor area of the brain.

efferent nerve fiber

efferent nerve fiber a nerve fiber that carries impulses from the central nervous system to the periphery. Compare afferent nerve fiber.

efferent neuron

efferent neuron a neuron, such as a motor neuron, whose axon carries impulses away from the central nervous system toward an effector.

efferent pathway

efferent pathway a neural pathway that carries impulses away from a particular region of the central nervous system toward an effector. Examples are motor pathways. Compare afferent pathway.

Effexor

Effexor n. a trade name for venlafaxine.

efficacy

efficacy n. 1. competence in behavioral performance, especially with reference to a person’s perception of his or her performance capabilities, or perceived self-efficacy. 2. in pharmacology, see dose–response relationship.

efficacy research

efficacy research an empirical study, such as a randomized clinical trial, that examines whether a specific treatment or approach works when compared to outcomes in a placebo control group. Efficacy research is sometimes contrasted with effectiveness research, which uses naturalistic observation to assess whether an approach or treatment is working.

efficiency

efficiency n. 1. a measure of the ability of an organization, work unit, or individual employee to produce the maximum output with a minimum investment of time, effort, and other inputs. Given the same level of output, efficiency increases as the time, effort, and other inputs taken to produce that level decrease. Also called industrial efficiency; organizational efficiency. See also organizational effectiveness. 2. in statistics, the degree to which an estimator uses all the information in a sample to estimate a particular parameter. It is a measure of the optimality of an estimator when comparing various statistical procedures or experimental designs. —efficient adj.

efficient cause

efficient cause in the doctrine of the four causes stated by Aristotle, the agent that initiates a causal process by bringing together the material cause (matter), the formal cause (form), and the final cause (purpose) of a particular effect. One of Aristotle’s examples of an efficient cause was a skilled craftsman who creates an artifact; another was a father who begets a child. More generally, the term is used to mean that which produces a given effect by a causal process.

effluvium

effluvium n. a supposed flow of physical particles too subtle to be perceived by ordinary sensory mechanisms that is sometimes cited as an explanation for various paranormal and spiritualistic phenomena (Latin, “flowing out”). In the 18th century, the term was widely used to explain such phenomena as magnetism and electricity and later became associated with the idea of animal magnetism. In spiritualism and parapsychology, it is often linked with the notion that people and things have an invisible aura. See also Reichenbach phenomenon.

effort after meaning

effort after meaning the persistent effort to put unfamiliar ideas into more familiar terms in an attempt to comprehend ambiguous or unfamiliar material. See repeated reproduction. [defined by Frederic C. Bartlett]

effort justification

effort justification a phenomenon whereby people come to evaluate a particular task or activity more favorably when it involves something that is difficult or unpleasant. The effect is most likely to occur when there are no obvious reasons for performing the task. Because expending effort to perform a useless or unenjoyable task, or experiencing unpleasant consequences in doing so, is cognitively inconsistent (see cognitive dissonance), people are assumed to shift their evaluations of the task in a positive direction to restore consistency. See also cognitive dissonance theory; dissonance reduction.

effort syndrome

effort syndrome the former name for an anxiety reaction now classified as panic disorder: The symptoms are those of a panic attack. This syndrome has been given many names, including cardiac neurosis, hyperkinetic heart syndrome, irritable heart, soldier’s heart, Da Costa’s syndrome, neurocirculatory asthenia, and hyperventilation syndrome.

effortful processing

effortful processing mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves a sense of effort, or overcoming resistance. Compare automaticity. See also mental effort.

effortfulness

effortfulness n. exertion that demands attentional and other cognitive resources: a feature of many psychological tasks that can be judged reliably by participants. Effortful tasks compete against each other under dual-task conditions (see dual-task competition; dual-task performance), indicating that effortfulness correlates with demands on mental resources. Novel skills often begin in an effortful way but become more automatic with practice (see automaticity). Because the sense of effort lacks conscious sensory qualities, it can be considered an experience of fringe consciousness. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies show major blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) correlates of mental effort in the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, with a wider spread of cortical BOLD activity occurring with increased effort. —effortful adj.

effortless attention

effortless attention attention that is active, focused, and task-directed but that involves little or no subjective experience of exertion. It is associated with absorbing activities, such as reading a good book, and with tasks in which there is a balance of challenges with skills, as when a skilled athlete plays sports or a skilled musician plays a musical instrument. High levels of arousal, control, and relaxation are involved, and there is often a strong sense of flow or momentum. See also postvoluntary attention. [described in 2010 by U.S. philosopher and cognitive scientist Brian Bruya (1966– )]

EFP

EFP abbreviation for equine-facilitated psychotherapy. See equine-assisted psychotherapy.

EFPPA

EFPPA abbreviation for European Federation of Professional Psychologists’ Associations.

EFT

EFT 1. abbreviation for Embedded Figures Test. 2. abbreviation for emotion-focused therapy.

egersis

egersis n. intense or extreme wakefulness.

egg cell

egg cell see ovum.

ego

ego n. 1. the self, particularly the conscious sense of self (Latin, “I”). In its popular and quasi-technical sense, ego refers to all the psychological phenomena and processes that are related to the self and that comprise the individual’s attitudes, values, and concerns. 2. in psychoanalytic theory, the component of the personality that deals with the external world and its practical demands. More specifically, the ego enables the individual to perceive, reason, solve problems, test reality, and adjust the instinctual impulses of the id to the demands of the superego. See also antilibidinal ego; body ego.

ego analysis

ego analysis psychoanalytic techniques directed toward discovering the strengths and weaknesses of the ego and uncovering its defenses against unacceptable impulses. See also ego strength; ego weakness.

ego anxiety

ego anxiety in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety caused by the conflicting demands of the ego, id, and superego. Thus, ego anxiety refers to internal rather than external demands. Compare id anxiety; superego anxiety. See also signal anxiety.

ego boundary

ego boundary 1. the concept that individuals are able to distinguish between self and not-self. Someone who is said to lack clear ego boundaries blurs the distinction between himself or herself and others by identifying with them too easily and too much. 2. in psychoanalysis, the boundary between the ego and the id (the internal boundary) or between the ego and external reality (the external boundary).

ego control

ego control a personality characteristic consisting of the tendency to inhibit the expression of emotional and motivational impulses, ranging from undercontrol to overcontrol of such impulses.

ego defect

ego defect in psychoanalytic theory, the absence or limitation of ego functions. The prime function of the ego is perception of reality and adjustment to it. A defect in this function can be either the target of treatment or a deficiency that slows recovery.

ego defense

ego defense in psychoanalytic theory, the use of defense mechanisms to protect the ego against anxiety arising from threatening impulses and conflicts as well as external threats.

ego depletion

ego depletion a state marked by reduction in one’s capacity for volition (initiative, choice, and self-regulation), especially in the context of self-regulatory resources theory. Ego depletion is typically temporary and is restored by rest, positive emotions, or other means.

ego development

ego development 1. the infant’s emerging consciousness of being a separate individual distinct from others, particularly the parents. 2. in classical psychoanalysis, the process in which a part of the id is gradually transformed into the ego as a result of environmental demands. It involves a preconscious stage, in which the ego is partly developed, and a subsequent conscious stage, in which such ego functions as reasoning, judging, and reality testing come to fruition and help to protect the individual from internal and external threats. Also called ego formation.

ego formation

ego formation see ego development.

ego functions

ego functions in psychoanalytic theory, the various activities of the ego, including perception of the external world, self-awareness, problem solving, control of motor functions, adaptation to reality, memory, reconciliation of conflicting impulses and ideas, and regulation of affect. The ego is frequently described as the executive agency of the personality, working in the interest of the reality principle. See also secondary process.

ego identity

ego identity 1. in psychoanalytic theory, the experience of the self as a recognizable, persistent entity resulting from the integration of one’s unique ego-ideal, life roles, and ways of adjusting to reality. 2. the gradual acquisition of a sense of continuity, worth, and integration that Erik Erikson believed to be the essential process in personality development. See Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. See also identity.

ego integration

ego integration in psychoanalytic theory, the process of organizing the various aspects of the personality, such as drives, attitudes, and aims, into a balanced whole. It is considered a strong indicator of psychological health and resiliency.

ego integrity versus despair

ego integrity versus despair see integrity versus despair.

ego involvement

ego involvement the extent to which a task or other target of judgment is perceived as psychologically significant or important to one’s self-esteem. It is presumed to be a determinant of attitude strength. Also called attitudinal involvement; personal involvement; self-relevance. See also centrality of an attitude; importance of an attitude.

ego orientation

ego orientation a motivational focus on winning a game or achieving superior status in a social comparison. Ego orientation is a component of achievement goal theory.

ego psychology

ego psychology in psychoanalysis, an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses, planning, and dealing with the external environment. Ego psychology differs from classical psychoanalysis in proposing that the ego contains a conflict-free sphere of functioning and that it has its own store of energy with which to pursue goals that are independent of instinctual wishes. In addition, ego psychology theories extend beyond classical psychoanalytic drive theory by combining a biological and psychological view of the individual’s development with a recognition of the complex influences of sociocultural dimensions on individual functioning. The scope of psychoanalysis is thereby broadened from the study of unconscious events and psychopathology to exploration of adaptive processes within the matrix of interpersonal, familial, and sociocultural forces. Compare id psychology.

ego resiliency

ego resiliency a personality characteristic consisting of the ability to vary, in an adaptive manner, the degree to which one inhibits or expresses emotional impulses, depending on social demands.

ego resistance

ego resistance see repression resistance.

ego state

ego state in psychoanalytic theory, an integrated state of mind that determines the individual’s relationships to the environment and to other people.

ego strength

ego strength in psychoanalytic theory, the ability of the ego to maintain an effective balance between the inner impulses of the id, the superego, and outer reality. An individual with a strong ego is thus one who is able to tolerate frustration and stress, postpone gratification, modify selfish desires when necessary, and resolve internal conflicts and emotional problems before they lead to neurosis. Compare ego weakness.

ego stress

ego stress any situation, external or internal, that challenges the individual and produces stress (tension, anxiety, etc.) requiring adaptation by the ego. Ego stress is sometimes expressed as such defensive reactions as dissociation, somatization, or panic.

ego structure

ego structure in psychoanalytic theory, the organization of the ego.

ego transcendence

ego transcendence an altered state of consciousness marked by the conviction that one is beyond concern with the self and thus able to perceive reality with greater objectivity.

ego weakness

ego weakness in psychoanalytic theory, the inability of the ego to control impulses and tolerate frustration, disappointment, or stress. The individual with a weak ego is thus one who suffers from anxiety and conflicts, makes excessive use of defense mechanisms or uses immature defense mechanisms, and is likely to develop neurotic symptoms. Compare ego strength.

ego-alien

ego-alien adj. see ego-dystonic.

ego-boundary loss

ego-boundary loss a condition in which the person lacks a clear sense of where his or her own body, mind, and influence end and where these characteristics in other animate and inanimate objects begin.

ego-centered network

ego-centered network in social network analysis, the subset of connections linking the focal individual or node to others in the group being studied. Also called egocentric network. Compare group network.

ego-defensive function of an attitude

ego-defensive function of an attitude the role an attitude can play in enhancing or maintaining the self-esteem of the person holding that attitude. For example, people may hold very positive attitudes toward their social group as a means of maintaining their positive self-regard. See also functional approach to attitudes.

ego-dystonic

ego-dystonic adj. in psychoanalytic theory, describing impulses, wishes, or thoughts that are unacceptable or repugnant to the ego or self. Also called ego-alien. Compare ego-syntonic.

ego-dystonic homosexuality

ego-dystonic homosexuality the condition of being distressed about an inability to be aroused by the opposite sex. There is a sustained pattern of same-sex arousal that the person explicitly states is unwanted and persistently distressing. The condition is frequently accompanied by feelings of loneliness, shame, anxiety, and depression.

ego-ideal

ego-ideal n. in psychoanalytic theory, the part of the ego that is the repository of positive identifications with parental goals and values that the individual genuinely admires and wishes to emulate, such as integrity and loyalty, and that acts as a model of how he or she wishes to be. As new identifications are incorporated in later life, the ego-ideal may develop and change. In his later theorizing, Sigmund Freud incorporated the ego-ideal into the concept of the superego. Also called self-ideal.

ego-splitting

ego-splitting n. 1. in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s development of opposed but coexisting attitudes toward a phenomenon, whether in the normal, neurotic, or psychotic person. In the normal context, ego-splitting can be seen in the critical attitude of the self toward the self; in neuroses, contrary attitudes toward particular behaviors are fundamental; and in psychoses, ego-splitting may produce an “observing” part of the individual that sees and can report on delusional phenomena. 2. in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein and British psychoanalyst W. Ronald D. Fairbairn (1889–1964), fragmentation of the ego in which parts that are perceived as bad are split off from the main ego as a mechanism of protection. See also splitting.

ego-syntonic

ego-syntonic adj. compatible with the ego or conscious self-concept. Thoughts, wishes, impulses, and behavior are said to be ego-syntonic when they form no threat to the ego and can be acted upon without interference from the superego. Compare ego-dystonic. [first described in 1914 by Sigmund Freud]

egocentric predicament

egocentric predicament a problematic condition arising from the assumption that each person’s experience is essentially private. The problem is commonly expressed in terms of one or more of the following propositions: (a) It is difficult to explain how any person could know anything about another person’s experience; (b) it is likewise difficult to understand how general knowledge of the external world is possible apart from one’s individual experience; and (c) given that experience is essentially private, it is difficult to understand how genuine communication between two people might be possible, since both the content and symbols of any communication will be similarly private. The egocentric predicament is often said to be an unavoidable consequence of the Cartesian self. See also solipsism.

egocentric speech

egocentric speech speech in which there is no attempt to exchange thoughts or take into account another person’s point of view. According to Jean Piaget, a child’s use of egocentric speech prevails until the 7th or 8th year of age and then disappears as the child develops social speech geared to others’ needs. According to Lev Vygotsky, however, egocentric speech is in part vocalized social speech geared to solving problems and develops into inner language. See also private speech.

egocentrism

egocentrism n. 1. the tendency to emphasize one’s own needs, concerns, and outcomes rather than those of others. Also called egocentricity. See also idiocentric. Compare sociocentrism. 2. in Piagetian theory, the tendency to perceive the situation from one’s own perspective, believing that others see things from the same point of view as oneself and that events will elicit the same thoughts, feelings, and behavior in others as in oneself. —egocentric adj.

egoism

egoism n. a personality characteristic marked by selfishness and behavior based on self-interest with disregard for the needs of others. See also egotism. —egoistic adj.

egoistic helping

egoistic helping a form of helping behavior in which the goal of the helper is to increase his or her positive feelings or to receive some other benefit. For example, someone may make a large donation to an institution with the expressed interest of having a building named in his or her honor.

egoistic relative deprivation

egoistic relative deprivation see relative deprivation.

egoistic suicide

egoistic suicide one of four types of suicide proposed in 1897 by Émile Durkheim, involving the perception that one has failed to live up to the values and norms of society. Consequently, the individual withdraws from social groups and feels alienated from others. Thus lacking the social integration Durkheim viewed as essential to a healthy, meaningful life, the person becomes overwhelmed by independence and ultimately takes his or her own life. See also altruistic suicide; anomic suicide; fatalistic suicide.

egomania

egomania n. extreme, pathological preoccupation with oneself, often characterized by an exaggerated sense of one’s abilities and worth. This includes the tendency to be totally self-centered, callous with regard to the needs of others, and interested only in the gratification of one’s own impulses and desires. See also egopathy. —egomaniac n.

egopathy

egopathy n. hostile attitudes and actions stemming from an exaggerated sense of self-importance, often manifested by a compulsion to deprecate others. See also egomania.

egotheism

egotheism n. identification of oneself with a deity. See also Jehovah complex; Messiah complex.

egotism

egotism n. excessive conceit or a preoccupation with one’s own importance. See also egoism. —egotistic adj.

EHA

EHA abbreviation for Education for All Handicapped Children Act.

EHR

EHR abbreviation for electronic health record.

eidetic image

eidetic image a clear, specific, high-quality mental image of a visual scene that is retained for a period (seconds to minutes) after the event. Individuals who experience eidetic imagery (called eidetikers) continue to see a visual scene and are able to report on its details even though they know the stimulus is no longer there. This type of imagery is more common in children than in adults.

eigenvalue

eigenvalue (symbol: λ) n. a numerical index, commonly used in factor analysis and principal components analysis, that indicates the portion of the total variance among several correlated variables that is accounted for by a more basic, underlying variable or construct. An eigenvalue may be computed as the sum of the squared factor loadings for all the variables. Eigenvalues are of central importance in linear algebra (i.e., matrix algebra).

eigenvector

eigenvector n. in linear algebra, any vector within a p-dimensional space that is associated with a given transformation and is left invariant (except for stretching or shrinking) by that transformation. Eigenvectors are important in multivariate statistics; their values are applied to variables to form a linear combination that synthesizes much of the variance in a set of variables.

Eigenwelt

Eigenwelt n. in the thought of German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), that aspect of Dasein (being-in-the-world) that is constituted by a person’s relationship to the self. The term was introduced into the vocabulary of psychology chiefly through the work of Swiss existential psychologist Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966). Compare Mitwelt; Umwelt. [German, literally: “own world”]

eighth cranial nerve

eighth cranial nerve see auditory nerve; vestibulocochlear nerve.

Einstellung

Einstellung n. an expectation or readiness associated with particular stimuli. It may foster a degree of mental inflexibility by instilling a tendency to respond to a situation in a certain way. For example, a person who successfully solves a series of problems using one formula may apply that same formula to a new problem solvable by a simpler method. The contemporary term for this concept is mental set. [German, “attitude”]

either–or fallacy

either–or fallacy a type of informal fallacy or persuasive technique in which an argument is constructed so as to imply the necessity of choosing one of only two alternatives. This ignores the possibility that (a) the alternatives may not be mutually exclusive and (b) there may be other equally viable alternatives. For example, the argument that the cause of behavior is either nature or nurture ignores the possibility that both might play a causal role or that human agency might also be part of the explanation.

either–or thinking

either–or thinking a less common name for dichotomous thinking.

ejaculation

ejaculation n. the automatic expulsion of semen and seminal fluid through the penis resulting from involuntary and voluntary contractions of various muscle groups, normally associated with orgasm. See also premature ejaculation; retrograde ejaculation. —ejaculatory adj.

ejaculatory duct

ejaculatory duct a duct on either side of the prostate gland, formed by union of the vas deferens and the efferent duct of the seminal vesicle. The ejaculatory ducts converge in the prostate gland and empty into the urethra at a point below the urinary bladder.

Ekbom’s syndrome

Ekbom’s syndrome a sense of uneasiness, twitching, or restlessness that occurs in the legs when at rest (i.e., sitting or lying) or after retiring for the night. The cause is unknown, but it has been associated with a deficiency of iron, vitamin B12, or folic acid; nerve damage associated with rheumatoid arthritis, kidney failure, or diabetes; and the use of such drugs as lithium, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, and beta blockers. Also called restless-legs syndrome; tachyathetosis; Wittmaack–Ekbom syndrome. [Karl-Axel Ekbom (1907–1977), Swedish physician]

EKG

EKG abbreviation for electrocardiogram.

elaborated code

elaborated code a linguistic register typically used in formal situations (e.g., academic discourse), characterized by a wide vocabulary, complex constructions, and unpredictable collocations of word and idea. This contrasts with the restricted code used in much informal conversation, which is characterized by a narrow vocabulary, simple constructions, and predictable ritualized forms, with much reliance on context and nonverbal communication to convey meaning.

elaboration

elaboration n. 1. the process of interpreting or embellishing information to be remembered or of relating it to other material already known and in memory. The levels-of-processing model of memory holds that the level of elaboration applied to information as it is processed affects both the length of time that it can be retained in memory and the ease with which it can be retrieved. See activation–elaboration. See also chunking; deep processing; recoding. 2. the process of scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information. This process includes generating inferences about the information, assessing its validity, and considering the implications of evaluative responses to the information. See also central route to persuasion; elaboration-likelihood model; peripheral route to persuasion. —elaborate vb.

elaboration-likelihood model (ELM)

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elaborative rehearsal

elaborative rehearsal an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows. For instance, when trying to remember that someone is named George, one might think of five other things one knows about people named George. See depth-of-processing hypothesis; elaboration.

élan vital

élan vital in the thought of French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859–1941), a vital force or energy that animates living organisms, including humans, and propels life toward some end through the process of evolution. Also called life force. See vitalism. [French, literally: “vital impetus”]

elation

elation n. a state of heightened joy, exaggerated optimism, and restless excitement. In extreme or prolonged forms, it is a symptom of a number of disorders; in particular, it may be drug induced or a symptom of acute mania, but it is also found in general paresis, schizophrenia, and psychosis with brain tumor. —elated adj.

Elavil

Elavil n. a trade name for amitriptyline.

ELBW

ELBW abbreviation for extremely low birth weight.

Eldepryl

Eldepryl n. a trade name for selegiline.

elder abuse

elder abuse harm to an adult aged 65 or older caused by another individual. The harm can be physical (violence), sexual (nonconsensual sex), psychological (causing emotional distress), material (improper use of belongings or finances), or neglect (failure to provide needed care).

elder care

elder care the provision of health-related services, supportive personal care, supervision, and social services to an older adult requiring assistance with daily living because of physical disabilities, cognitive impairments, or other conditions. Elder care may be home based or community based (via assisted living, residential care, or a skilled nursing facility).

elder neglect

elder neglect the failure of a caregiver to provide needed care to an older adult. Extreme neglect in the form of abandonment can occur when the caregiver deserts the older adult in need. See elder abuse.

elderspeak

elderspeak n. adjustments to speech patterns, such as speaking more slowly or more loudly, shortening sentences, or using limited or less complex vocabulary, that are sometimes made by younger people when communicating with older adults. These simplified speech patterns are implicitly based on the assumption that older adults are cognitively impaired or incapable of understanding normal speech.

elective

elective n. an educational course, chosen from a number of alternatives, that is not required for a particular program of study. Electives are courses that students are permitted to choose beyond their core and major requirements and typically include the fine arts, physical education, and courses from foundational areas outside the student’s primary focus of study.

elective abortion

elective abortion the planned, premature termination of a pregnancy by removal of the fetus, either through surgery or the use of medication. See abortion.

elective affinity

elective affinity a feeling of sympathy, attraction, or connection to a particular person, thing, or idea. The term was originally used to refer to certain chemical processes but took on a new figurative sense after the publication in 1809 of The Elective Affinities, a novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832). It is often used to mean those preferences and common feelings that constitute a cultural or national identity or that distinguish groups and subgroups from one another.

elective bilingualism

elective bilingualism see elite bilingualism.

elective mutism

elective mutism see selective mutism.

Electra complex

Electra complex the female counterpart of the Oedipus complex, involving the daughter’s love for her father, jealousy toward the mother, and blame of the mother for depriving her of a penis. Although Sigmund Freud rejected the phrase, using the term Oedipus complex to refer to both boys and girls, many modern textbooks of psychology propagate the mistaken belief that Electra complex is a Freudian term. The name derives from the Greek myth of Electra, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, who seeks to avenge her father’s murder by persuading her brother Orestes to help her kill Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. [defined by Carl Jung]

electric ophthalmia

electric ophthalmia see ophthalmia.

electric potential

electric potential see potential.

electric sense

electric sense the ability of some species to generate and sense electric fields within their environment. Specialized muscle cells can be coupled to generate a significant electric field, and specialized neural receptors or other organs can detect changes in electric fields. Sea lampreys and eels generate an electric current that is used to stun and disable their prey, but these animals do not appear to sense electric fields. Dogfish sharks hide in the sand and use specialized receptors called Lorenzini ampullae to detect electric currents from prey. Several families of fish found in the tropics both generate and detect electric signals, adjusting signal production to avoid jamming with nearby fish and to change discharge rates to communicate aggression or reproductive status.

electric shock method

electric shock method see electroconvulsive therapy; electrotherapy.

electric sink

electric sink a device or region that collects or dissipates electrical energy: the opposite of an electric source.

electrical activity of the brain

electrical activity of the brain spontaneous or evoked changes in electrical brain potentials. Spontaneous electrical activity of the brain was discovered by British physiologist Richard Caton (1842–1926) and others around 1875 but was not explored in detail until the development of sophisticated electronic recording devices in the 1930s. The oscillations may vary in frequency from 1 to more than 50 Hz, and from 50 to 200 mV in amplitude, as recorded by electrodes attached to the scalp. See also brain waves.

electrical intracranial stimulation

electrical intracranial stimulation see intracranial stimulation.

electrical self-stimulation of the brain (ESSB)

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electrical stimulation

electrical stimulation the stimulation of neurons by electrical energy, as in intracranial stimulation.

electrical stimulation of the cortex

electrical stimulation of the cortex the use of electric charges introduced through electrodes implanted in the brain cells of the cerebral cortex to produce a desired effect. In animal experiments, a reward or punishment effect depends upon the site of the electrodes and the intensity of the stimulation. Electrical stimulation of the cortex has also been used in humans to promote recall and as therapy.

electrical synapse

electrical synapse a type of connection in which neurons are not separated by a cleft but instead are joined by a gap junction so that the nerve impulse is transmitted across without first being translated into a chemical message.

electrical transcranial stimulation (ETS)

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electrocardiogram (ECG; EKG)

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electrocardiographic effect

electrocardiographic effect a change in the electrical activity of the heart as recorded by an electrocardiogram, especially a change associated with administration of a drug. Prolongation of segments of the cardiac cycle, particularly the Q-T interval (the period of ventricular contraction), may be observed with excess doses of numerous antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants. A malignant form of electrocardiographic change is an arrhythmia known as torsades de pointes (French, literally: “twisting of the points”), so called because of its characteristic outline on an electrocardiograph tracing. Torsades de pointes syndrome may result from drug interactions increasing the serum concentration of certain drugs or from an abnormal reaction to single drugs (e.g., pimozide) in susceptible individuals.

electrocochleography (ECochG)

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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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electrocorticography (ECoG)

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electrode

electrode n. an instrument with a positive-pole cathode and a negative-pole anode used to stimulate biological tissues electrically or record electrical activity in these tissues. Also called bipolar electrode. See also microelectrode.

electrode placement

electrode placement the positioning of electrodes on the scalp or in neurons to record changes of electric potential caused by neural activity. In nonhuman animal research studies and some human studies, needlelike microelectrodes are placed in specific brain cells.

electrodermal changes

electrodermal changes changes in the skin that alter its electrical conductivity. See galvanic skin response; skin conductance.

electrodermal response (EDR)

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electrodiagnosis

electrodiagnosis n. the application of an electric current to nerves and muscles for diagnostic purposes. See electroencephalography; electromyography.

electroencephalographic audiometry

electroencephalographic audiometry the measurement of hearing sensitivity with the use of electroencephalography. Gross measures are obtained from changes in brain-wave patterns when above-threshold sound stimuli are introduced.

electroencephalography (EEG)

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electrolyte imbalance

electrolyte imbalance abnormal levels of one or more electrolytes, the ions of chemicals that play a vital role in fluid balance, acid–base balance, and other functions of body cells. Electrolytes that may be affected include sodium, which is needed for water regulation and normal nerve and muscle function; potassium, which is necessary for acid–base balance; and calcium, which is essential for normal blood and muscle functions.

electromagnetic spectrum

electromagnetic spectrum the range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation from gamma rays (very short waves) to radio waves (very long waves). The human eye is sensitive to only a narrow range of wavelengths of approximately 400 to 700 nm. See spectrum.

electromyography (EMG)

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electronarcosis

electronarcosis n. a form of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in which the amount of electricity, the duration of the shock, or both is sufficient to generate the tonic phase of a seizure but either limits or prevents the clonic phase. Electronarcosis is a generally less effective alternative to standard ECT and is more likely to cause side effects. The technique has also been used to induce relaxation and sleep. See electrosleep therapy.

electronic aid to daily living

electronic aid to daily living see environmental control device.

electronic brainstorming

electronic brainstorming the use of computer-based procedures, such as online discussions and real-time e-mail communication, to generate unique ideas and solutions to problems. If such sessions are to adhere to the principles of brainstorming used in face-to-face groups, then they will explicitly encourage expressiveness, building on others’ ideas and maximizing the number of ideas generated, and will discourage evaluation of any idea that is offered.

electronic health record (EHR)

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electronic nose

electronic nose a device that is capable of sensing gases, especially odors. Electronic noses are used commercially to detect malodorous foodstuffs, for example, and scientifically in modeling the olfactory system.

electronystagmography

electronystagmography n. a neurological test that measures movements of the eye muscles, used to confirm the presence of nystagmus. A graphical recording of eye movements is generated and is used to evaluate dizziness, vertigo, and the function of the auditory nerve and the semicircular canals.

electrooculography (EOG)

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electroolfactography (EOG)

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electrophysiologic audiometry

electrophysiologic audiometry a large class of procedures for measuring auditory function that use electrical responses evoked by sound stimulation. Included in this class of procedures are averaged electroencephalographic audiometry and electrocochleography (ECochG), which measures electrical activity in the inner ear. Responses include the brainstem auditory evoked response.

electrophysiology

electrophysiology n. the study of the electrical properties and processes of tissues. This includes such specialized subfields as electrocardiography, electroencephalography, electromyography, electrooculography, and electroretinography. —electrophysiologic or electrophysiological adj.

electroplethysmography

electroplethysmography n. a test or testing procedure based on the measurement of blood volume or volume changes in organs, organ systems, or circulation.

electroretinography

electroretinography n. a recording (via an instrument called an electroretinograph) of the electrical activity of the retina during visual stimulation using electrodes placed on the anesthetized surface of the eye. Different segments of the recorded waveform (called an electroretinogram [ERG]) correspond to activity in the different cells and layers of the retina.

electroshock therapy (EST)

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electrosleep therapy

electrosleep therapy a former treatment for depression, chronic anxiety, and insomnia by inducing a state of relaxation or sleep through low-voltage electrical transcranial stimulation (ETS; or cranial electrical stimulation, CES), a technique developed in the Soviet Union in the 1940s.

electrostimulation

electrostimulation n. an aversive, or negative-reinforcement, technique involving administration of an electric shock. See also aversion therapy.

electrostimulation of the brain (ESB)

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electrostimulator

electrostimulator n. an instrument that delivers controlled electrical stimulation to a specific area of the body.

electrotactile aid

electrotactile aid see tactile sensory aid.

electrotherapy

electrotherapy n. any therapeutic measure that involves the application of an electric current to the body.

electrotonic conduction

electrotonic conduction the passive flow of a change in electric potential along a nerve or muscle membrane. It occurs in response to stimulation that is inadequate to trigger an actively propagated action potential (i.e., subthreshold stimulation) but instead generates depolarization in a small area of membrane. This localized depolarization travels to neighboring areas via the drifting fluid within the cell, rapidly attenuating as it spreads.

electrotonus

electrotonus n. the change in the excitability, conductivity, or electrical status of a nerve or muscle following application of an electric current.

elegant solution

elegant solution a solution to a question or a problem that achieves the maximally satisfactory effect with minimal effort, materials, or steps. In terms of theories or models of behavior, an elegant solution would be one that satisfies the requirements of the law of parsimony. See also Occam’s razor.

element

element n. 1. a subunit or constituent part of something, often with the connotation that it cannot be reduced further. 2. a member of a set, class, or group. For example, in the set of all PhD-conferring American universities, any one of those American universities that confer the PhD is an element of the set. See also set theory. 3. one of the 118 officially identified chemical substances, of which 92 occur naturally, that cannot be reduced to simpler fragments by chemical means alone.

element-level compatibility effect

element-level compatibility effect see stimulus–response compatibility.

elementarism

elementarism n. 1. in scientific theory, the procedure of explaining a complex phenomenon by reducing it to simple, elemental units. 2. the belief that such a procedure is appropriate to a science dealing with psychological phenomena, which are explained by reduction to simple elements, such as basic sensations or elementary reflexes. Both psychological structuralism and behaviorism have been described as elementarist approaches. Also called elementalism; elementism. See also atomism; molecular. —elementarist adj.

elementary cognitive task (ECT)

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Elephant Man’s disease

Elephant Man’s disease a disease named after a 19th-century patient, Joseph Carey Merrick, who was known as “the Elephant Man”; although neurofibromatosis Type 1 was formerly suggested as the likely cause, Proteus syndrome is now thought to be a more probable cause.

elevated maze

elevated maze a maze consisting of paths formed by elevated, flat runways without side walls, placed far enough apart that an individual within it cannot jump across the gaps. An incorrect choice within the maze leads to a cul-de-sac, signified by the end of an arm and open space. It is one of two primary types of maze, the other being an alley maze.

elevated mood

elevated mood a heightened mood characterized by feelings of euphoria, elation, and well-being.

elevated plus maze

elevated plus maze an apparatus used as a test of anxiety in laboratory rats and mice. It is a cross-shaped maze that is raised from the ground and has two enclosed arms and two open arms. Because of a natural fear of heights, rodents typically spend more time in the enclosed arms than in the open arms. However, if injected with anxiolytic (antianxiety) drugs, rodents will increase the amount of time they spend in the open arms.

elevator phobia

elevator phobia a persistent and irrational fear of elevators, which may represent fear of heights (acrophobia), fear of being enclosed (claustrophobia), or fear of having panic symptoms (e.g., as occurs with agoraphobia).

eleventh cranial nerve

eleventh cranial nerve see accessory nerve.

elicitation

elicitation n. the reliable production of a particular response by a stimulus. Salivation following food in the mouth is an example of elicitation. —elicit vb.

elicited behavior

elicited behavior see respondent behavior.

elimination by aspects

elimination by aspects a theory of decision making holding that a choice is reached through a series of eliminations. At each stage, the decision maker selects an attribute or aspect perceived to be important and eliminates alternatives lacking that attribute. The next most important attribute is then selected, and the process continues until only one alternative is left. [introduced in 1972 by Amos Tversky]

elimination disorder

elimination disorder any disorder related to defecation or urination, usually occurring in children (or individuals of equivalent mental age), that is not due to the use of substances or a general medical condition. See encopresis; enuresis.

elimination drive

elimination drive the urge to expel feces or urine from the body. Psychological factors have considerable effects on these drives; for example, tension and fright may precipitate involuntary voiding of both the bladder and bowel. See defecation reflex; encopresis; enuresis; micturition reflex.

eliminativism

eliminativism n. the view that mental states, such as beliefs, feelings, and intentions, are not necessary to a scientific account of human behavior. These are regarded as the stuff of folk psychology, informal and intuitive concepts by which human beings offer accounts of their behaviors. According to the eliminativist view, when truly scientific psychology progresses far enough to replace folk psychology, the explanatory language of mental states will probably be replaced by a language of biological states. Also called eliminative materialism. See also identity theory; reductionism. Compare conscious mentalism; mentalism. —eliminativist adj.

elision

elision n. in speech, the omission of certain sounds in particular phonological environments, as when an unstressed vowel occurs at the beginning or end of a word (e.g., How d’you do).

elite athlete

elite athlete most often, an athlete who competes at a national, international, or professional level, although the term is sometimes used colloquially to refer to accomplished athletes in nonprofessional contexts.

elite bilingualism

elite bilingualism a type of bilingualism attained through formal study of the second language, which involves literacy in that language and is considered a sign of high social status and education. Also called elective bilingualism. Compare folk bilingualism. [first described by U.S. sociolinguist Joshua A. Fishman (1926– )]

ellipsis

ellipsis n. 1. a linguistic structure in which a word or words normally needed for reasons of grammar or logic are omitted. This may be done for the sake of brevity, emphasis, or both, as, for example, in the reply Gone to the question Where is she? See also deletion. 2. in psychoanalysis, a form of parapraxis involving the omission of significant ideas in free association or dreams. Efforts are made to recover these ideas during analysis. —elliptical adj.

Ellis–van Creveld syndrome

Ellis–van Creveld syndrome an autosomal recessive disorder (see recessive allele) marked by polydactyly (extra fingers or toes); poorly formed hair, teeth, and nails; and dwarfism. Associated abnormalities may include genital anomalies and heart defects. A high incidence of the disorder is seen among the Old Order Amish of Pennsylvania. Also called chondroectodermal dysplasia. [Richard White Bernard Ellis (1902–1966), British physician; Simon van Creveld (1894–1971), Dutch pediatrician]

ELM

ELM abbreviation for elaboration-likelihood model.

elopement

elopement n. 1. the departure of a patient from a psychiatric hospital or unit without permission. 2. in law enforcement, slang for the escape of an inmate.

ELSI Program

ELSI Program the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications Program of the Human Genome Project. This program aims to advance the study of social, psychological, and cultural issues and problems raised by advances in the understanding of the human genome and related changes in the diagnosis and treatment of inherited susceptibility to illness.

EMA

EMA abbreviation for ecological momentary assessment.

emancipated minor

emancipated minor an individual who has not yet reached the legal age of adulthood (18 in most states) but who is self-supporting, exercises general control over his or her life, and may claim the legal rights of an adult.

emancipation disorder

emancipation disorder a disorder in which an adolescent or young adult experiences conflict between a desire for freedom from parental control and the responsibilities of independence. Symptoms may include indecisiveness, homesickness, excessive dependence on peers, and paradoxical overdependence on parental advice. Also called emancipation disorder of adolescence and early adulthood.

emasculation

emasculation n. castration or, by extension, the reduction or removal of a man’s sense of masculinity, as by depriving him of a culturally sanctioned male role or the exercise of male privilege. —emasculate vb.

embalming fluid

embalming fluid 1. slang for liquid PCP or a liquid containing PCP. See fry. 2. the mixture of formaldehyde and other chemicals used to preserve dead bodies. This mixture may be a drug of abuse, although the actual frequency of such abuse is unknown, and many investigators believe that the substance called “embalming fluid” by drug dealers or users is nearly always PCP.

embarrassment

embarrassment n. a self-conscious emotion in which a person feels awkward or flustered in other people’s company or because of the attention of others, as, for example, when being observed engaging in actions that are subject to mild disapproval from others. It often has an element of self-deprecating humor and is typically characterized by nervous laughter, a shy smile, or blushing. See also self-consciousness. —embarrassed adj.

embedded figure

embedded figure a type of ambiguous figure in which one or more images blend into a larger pattern and so are not immediately obvious. With repeated viewing, the embedded figure usually becomes obvious more rapidly.

Embedded Figures Test (EFT)

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embedded sentence

embedded sentence in transformational generative grammar, a subordinate clause in a complex sentence. According to this analysis, the complex sentence The dog chased the squirrel that stole the peanut has a deep structure consisting of two sentences, The dog chased the squirrel and The squirrel stole the peanut. In its surface structure, the second sentence is embedded within the first.

embeddedness of an attitude

embeddedness of an attitude the extent to which an attitude is linked to or associated with other cognitive structures in memory. Such structures could include other attitudes, values, and beliefs. See also attitude system; belief system; interattitudinal consistency.

emblem

emblem n. a bodily movement that substitutes for a spoken word or phrase and that can be readily comprehended by most individuals in a culture. Examples are shaking the head back and forth to signify no and nodding the head up and down to indicate yes. See also nonverbal communication. —emblematic adj.

embodied cognition

embodied cognition the thesis that the human mind is largely determined by the structures of the human body (morphology, sensory and motor systems) and its interactions with the physical environment. This concept emerged from work in late 20th century linguistics, philosophy, and cognitive psychology. Also called embodiment.

embolic stroke

embolic stroke a stroke caused by a blood clot, cholesterol, fibrin, or other material breaking away from the wall of an artery or the heart and traveling up the arterial tree to lodge suddenly in a smaller cerebral artery (see cerebral embolism). Embolic strokes account for approximately 30% of all strokes and are abrupt in onset.

embolism

embolism n. the interruption of blood flow due to blockage of a vessel by an embolus, material formed elsewhere and carried by the bloodstream to the site of obstruction. The embolus may be a blood clot, air bubble, fat globule, or other substance, such as a clump of bacteria or tissue cells. An embolus usually occurs at a point where a blood vessel branches or narrows. The symptoms are those associated with a disruption of the normal flow of fresh blood to a part of an organ and include pain, numbness, and loss of body warmth in the affected area. An embolus in a coronary artery may cause a fatal heart attack; in the brain, the result is an embolic stroke.

embolus

embolus n. see embolism; thrombus.

embryo

embryo n. an animal in the stages of development between cleavage of the fertilized egg and birth or hatching. In human prenatal development, the embryo comprises the products of conception during the first 8 weeks of pregnancy; thereafter, it is called a fetus. See embryonic stage. —embryonic adj.

embryo transfer

embryo transfer the process in which an ovum fertilized in vitro is transferred to the uterus of the woman from whom it was originally removed or to the uterus of another woman.

embryology

embryology n. the branch of biology that studies the formation, early growth, and development of organisms. —embryological or embryologic adj. —embryologist n.

embryonic stage

embryonic stage in human prenatal development, the roughly 6-week period in which the three-layered embryo (gastrula) develops. The embryonic stage follows the 2-week germinal stage and precedes the fetal stage, which begins in the 3rd month of pregnancy. The term is, however, sometimes used to refer to the full first 8 weeks of pregnancy.

embryonic stem cell

embryonic stem cell see stem cell.

EmC

EmC abbreviation for extreme capsule.

EMDR

EMDR abbreviation for eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing.

emergence

emergence n. 1. in philosophy of mind, the notion that conscious experience is the result of, but cannot be reduced to, brain processes. 2. the idea that higher order phenomena may be derived from lower order constituents but are not predictable from them. See epigenetic theory.

emergency call system

emergency call system a portable device that summons immediate assistance for an individual who, due to illness or an impairment, may not be able to reach a telephone in an emergency. The device, which may be worn (e.g., on the wrist, around the neck) or carried, is generally a noisemaker, a one-way alerting device (e.g., an alarm), or an intercom that may be used to contact a neighbor, family member, or 24-hour monitoring station staffed by trained personnel. Often used by people in their homes, emergency call systems are also used in hospitals, long-term care institutions, and assisted living facilities.

emergency intervention

emergency intervention immediate action undertaken to minimize or eliminate the harm caused by a sudden and (usually) unforeseen occurrence. For example, emergency intervention for a rape victim may involve conducting a clinical interview within 24 to 78 hours after the rape in order to evaluate the person’s status, reduce his or her potential for experiencing adverse mental health consequences, and develop a plan for long-term recovery. Although many people use this term interchangeably with crisis intervention, others limit it to situations involving suicidal behavior, violent behavior, or interpersonal victimization.

emergency psychotherapy

emergency psychotherapy psychological treatment of individuals who have undergone a traumatic experience (e.g., a road accident) and are in a state of acute anxiety, panic, or shock or are suicidal. Therapists may call on a very broad range of techniques depending on the immediate needs of the client. See also crisis intervention.

emergency reaction

emergency reaction see fight-or-flight response.

emergency services

emergency services in health care, services provided to an individual in response to perceived need for immediate medical or psychological treatment.

emergency syndrome

emergency syndrome see fight-or-flight response.

emergent evolution

emergent evolution the theory that new species and biological adaptations evolve from ancestral sources but cannot be reduced to them.

emergent feature

emergent feature an entity produced by the interaction of small or simple elements (e.g., short line segments) in the visual system, such an entity (e.g., a polygon) being more salient to human perception than are the elements themselves. In ergonomics, object displays are usually designed to make use of emergent features; the display configurations yield an overall image (e.g., a rectangle or pentagon) that can be perceived holistically by the operator of a machine system and therefore rapidly analyzed to assess the state of the system. When a component of the system is not in the appropriate or normal state, the image will be distorted, alerting the operator to potential problems.

emergent leader

emergent leader in the social psychology of groups, an individual who becomes the leader of an initially leaderless group gradually and implicitly, as the members allow that individual to assume the responsibilities of the leadership role, rather than by appointment or election. See also leadership emergence.

emergent literacy

emergent literacy the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are presumed to be developmental precursors to conventional forms of reading and writing. Emergent literacy begins before the child receives formal instruction in reading and writing and occurs in circumstances that support these developments, as when, for example, the child is being read to.

emergent property

emergent property a characteristic of a complex system that is not predictable from an analysis of its components and that thus often arises unexpectedly. For example, it has frequently been claimed that conscious experience is not predictable by analysis of the neurophysiological and biochemical complexity of the brain.

emergent-norm theory

emergent-norm theory an explanation of collective behavior suggesting that the uniformity in action often observed in crowds, cults, and other aggregations is caused by members’ conformity to unique social norms that develop spontaneously in those groups. See universality. [introduced in 1957 by U.S. sociologists Ralph H. Turner (1916– ) and Lewis M. Killian (1919–2010)]

emergentism

emergentism n. the view that complex phenomena and processes have emergent properties that arise from interactions of the more basic processes that underlie them but cannot be deduced or explained from the nature and logic of these processes. Compare reductionism.

emerging adulthood

emerging adulthood a developmental stage that is neither adolescence nor young adulthood but is theoretically and empirically distinct from them both, spanning the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18 to 25. Emerging adulthood is distinguished by relative independence from social roles and from normative expectations. Having left the dependency of childhood and adolescence, and having not yet taken on the responsibilities that are normative in adulthood, emerging adults engage in identity exploration, a process of trying out various life possibilities (e.g., in love, work, and worldviews) and gradually moving toward making enduring decisions. During this period, individuals have the highest rates of residential instability (change) of any age group and see themselves neither as adolescents nor entirely as adults. [proposed in 2000 by U.S. developmental psychologist Jeffrey Jensen Arnett]

emetic therapy

emetic therapy the use of drugs that produce aversive states when combined with problem behaviors or stimuli. Side effects of the drugs used and other issues with regard to this form of treatment limit its application. See aversion therapy.

EMG

EMG abbreviation for electromyography.

emic

emic adj. 1. denoting an approach to the study of human cultures that interprets behaviors and practices in terms of the system of meanings created by and operative within a particular cultural context. Such an approach would generally be of the kind associated with ethnography rather than ethnology. Compare etic. [introduced by U.S. linguist Kenneth Pike (1912–2000); first used in anthropology by U.S. cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (1927–2001)] 2. in linguistics, see emic–etic distinction.

emic–etic distinction

emic–etic distinction 1. a distinction between two fundamentally different approaches to language analysis, one characteristic of phonemics and the other of phonetics. An emic analysis puts primacy on the characterization of a particular language through close attention to those features that have a meaningful structural significance within it. By contrast, an etic analysis concentrates on universal features of language, particularly the acoustic properties of speech sounds and the physiological processes involved in making them. To illustrate the point, an emic analysis of English speech sounds would show interest in the difference between the sounds /r/ and /l/ because this is used to make meaningful distinctions (e.g., it differentiates the words rash and lash); an emic analysis of Japanese, however, would disregard this difference in sounds, as it is not a meaningful contrast in that language. An etic analysis would show the same interest in this feature in both languages. See also minimal pair. 2. the distinction between emic and etic approaches in anthropology and related disciplines.

emitted behavior

emitted behavior a natural response to a circumstance; that is, behavior that is not influenced by, or dependent on, any external stimuli. Compare respondent behavior.

Emmert’s law

Emmert’s law the principle that the perceived size of an afterimage is proportional to the distance of the surface on which it is projected: The larger the afterimage, the farther away it is. See size constancy. [Emil Emmert (1844–1913), German physiologist]

emmetropia

emmetropia n. the state of the eye’s normal optical system, in which distant objects are sharply focused on the retina by the curvature of the cornea and the lens. This normal optical system is said to be emmetropic. Compare hyperopia; myopia.

Emory Dyssemia Index (EDI)

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emotion

emotion n. a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which an individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event. The specific quality of the emotion (e.g., fear, shame) is determined by the specific significance of the event. For example, if the significance involves threat, fear is likely to be generated; if the significance involves disapproval from another, shame is likely to be generated. Emotion typically involves feeling but differs from feeling in having an overt or implicit engagement with the world. —emotional adj.

emotion regulation

emotion regulation the ability of an individual to modulate an emotion or set of emotions. Explicit emotion regulation requires conscious monitoring, using techniques such as learning to construe situations differently in order to manage them better, changing the target of an emotion (e.g., anger) in a way likely to produce a more positive outcome, and recognizing how different behaviors can be used in the service of a given emotional state. Implicit emotion regulation operates without deliberate monitoring; it modulates the intensity or duration of an emotional response without the need for awareness. Emotion regulation typically increases across the lifespan. Also called emotional regulation. See also process model of emotion regulation.

emotion-focused coping

emotion-focused coping a stress-management strategy in which a person focuses on regulating his or her negative emotional reactions to a stressor. Rather than taking actions to change the stressor itself, the individual tries to control feelings using a variety of cognitive and behavioral tools, including meditation and other relaxation techniques, prayer, positive reframing, wishful thinking and other avoidance techniques, self-blame, seeking social support (or conversely engaging in social withdrawal), and talking with others (including mental health care professionals). It has been proposed that emotion-focused coping is used primarily when a person appraises a stressor as beyond his or her capacity to change. Compare problem-focused coping. [identified in 1984 by Richard S. Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1938– ), U.S. psychologists]

emotion-focused couples therapy

emotion-focused couples therapy a form of couples therapy based on the premise that relationship problems are most often due to thwarted fulfillment of emotional needs, particularly the need for attachment. This intervention involves isolating the conflict over thwarted needs, interrupting the negative interaction cycle, reframing the conflict, and helping the partners to accept each other’s emotional experience as valid. Also called emotionally focused couples therapy. [developed in the 1980s by South African-born Canadian psychologist Leslie S. Greenberg (1945– ) and Canadian psychologist Susan M. Johnson]

emotion-focused therapy (EFT)

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emotional abuse

emotional abuse nonphysical abuse: a pattern of behavior in which one person deliberately and repeatedly subjects another to nonphysical acts that are detrimental to behavioral and affective functioning and overall mental well-being. Researchers have yet to formulate a universally agreed upon definition of the concept, but they have identified a variety of forms that emotional abuse may take, including verbal abuse; intimidation and terrorization; humiliation and degradation; exploitation; harassment; rejection and withholding of affection; isolation; and excessive control. Also called psychological abuse.

emotional adjustment

emotional adjustment the condition or process of personal acceptance of and adaptation to one’s circumstances, which may require modification of attitudes and the expression of emotions that are appropriate to a given situation.

emotional blocking

emotional blocking the inhibition of thought, speech, or other responses due to extreme emotion, often associated with extreme fear. See also blocking.

emotional charge

emotional charge strong emotion, such as anger, conceived as being bottled up under pressure and ready to explode. The concept also involves the idea that emotions are negatively or positively charged.

emotional cognition

emotional cognition the ability to recognize and interpret the emotions of others, notably from such cues as facial expression and voice tone, and to interpret one’s own feelings correctly. Impairment of emotional cognition is associated with a range of psychological conditions, notably Asperger’s disorder.

emotional conflict

emotional conflict a state of disharmony between incompatible intense emotions, such as love and hate or the desire for success and fear of failure, that causes distress to the individual.

emotional contagion

emotional contagion the rapid spread of an emotion from one or a few individuals to others. For example, fear of catching a disease can spread rapidly through a community. See also behavioral contagion; mass contagion; social contagion.

emotional content

emotional content themes or characteristics of feelings that tend to elicit strong emotions, especially as they are portrayed in various forms of communication (reading material, motion pictures, etc.) or as they are manifested in specific situations.

emotional dependence

emotional dependence reliance on others for emotional support, comfort, and nurturance.

emotional deprivation

emotional deprivation lack of adequate interpersonal attachments that provide affirmation, love, affection, and interest, especially on the part of the primary caregiver during a child’s developmental years.

emotional deterioration

emotional deterioration an emotional state characterized by carelessness toward oneself, indifference to one’s surroundings (including other people), and inappropriate emotional reactions.

emotional development

emotional development a gradual increase in the capacity to experience, express, and interpret the full range of emotions and in the ability to cope with them appropriately. For example, infants begin to smile and frown around 8 weeks of age and to laugh around 3 or 4 months, and older children begin to learn that hitting others is not an acceptable way of dealing with anger. Expressions of delight, fear, anger, and disgust are evident by 6 months of age, and fear of strangers from 8 months. Expressions of affection and jealousy are seen between 1 and 2 years of age, and expressions of rage in the form of temper tantrums appear a year or so later. Cortical control, imitation of others, hormonal influences, home atmosphere, and conditioning play major roles in emotional development. Also called affective development.

emotional disorder

emotional disorder 1. any psychological disorder characterized primarily by maladjustive emotional reactions that are inappropriate or disproportionate to their cause. Also called emotional illness. See also anxiety disorder; mood disorder. 2. loosely, any mental disorder.

emotional disposition

emotional disposition a tendency to have a particular type or class of affective experience (e.g., positive affect or negative affect).

emotional dissemblance

emotional dissemblance lack of correspondence between an individual’s internal affective state and its outward expression. There are two broad categories of emotional dissemblance: culturally acceptable display rules and nonverbal or verbal deception.

emotional disturbance

emotional disturbance a fear-, anxiety-, or other emotionally based condition that results in maladaptive behavior—ranging from withdrawal and isolation to acting out and aggression—and adversely affects an individual’s academic and social functioning. Children with a longstanding condition that meets specified criteria, such as the inability to form satisfactory relationships with peers and teachers, are considered to have a serious emotional disturbance (SED) that constitutes a disability under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act.

emotional divorce

emotional divorce a marital relationship in which the partners live separate lives, with an absence of normal interaction between them.

emotional dysregulation

emotional dysregulation see dysregulation.

emotional engineering

emotional engineering see kansei engineering.

emotional expression

emotional expression 1. an outward manifestation of an intrapsychic state. For example, a high-pitched voice is a sign of arousal, blushing is a sign of embarrassment, and so on. See also affect display. 2. an emotional response in which the individual attempts to influence his or her relation to the world through the intermediacy of others, rather than directly. For example, a sad face and slumped posture elicit nurturing from others. Expressions differ from action tendencies, which influence the world directly, and from feelings, which are intrapsychic experiences of the significance of a transaction.

emotional flooding

emotional flooding an influx of great and uncontrollable emotion that may be overwhelming to the person who experiences it.

emotional illness

emotional illness see emotional disorder.

emotional immaturity

emotional immaturity 1. a tendency to express emotions without restraint or disproportionately to the situation. Compare emotional maturity. 2. a lay term for maladjustment.

emotional incest

emotional incest a form of child sexual abuse consisting of nonphysical sexualized interactions between a parent figure and a child. Emotional incest may involve the caregiver commenting on the child’s sexual attractiveness, drawing attention to the caregiver’s own arousal to the child or the size or shape of the child’s secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., breasts, pubic hair), or implying that the child is sexually active (e.g., calling the child a slut). Also called covert incest.

emotional inoculation

emotional inoculation the imagining or cognitive rehearsal of an anxiety-producing experience. Rehearsal lowers anxiety by allowing the individual to anticipate reactions and plan responses.

emotional insight

emotional insight 1. an awareness of one’s own emotional reactions or those of others. 2. in psychotherapy, the client’s awareness of the emotional forces, such as internal conflicts or traumatic experiences, that underlie his or her symptoms. This form of insight is considered a prerequisite to change in many therapeutic approaches.

emotional instability

emotional instability a tendency to exhibit unpredictable and rapid changes in emotions. See labile affect. Compare emotional stability.

emotional insulation

emotional insulation a defense mechanism characterized by seeming indifference and detachment in response to frustrating situations or disappointing events. The extreme of emotional insulation is found in states of complete apathy and catatonic stupor; in lesser forms, it appears as emotional isolation.

emotional intelligence

emotional intelligence a type of intelligence that involves the ability to process emotional information and use it in reasoning and other cognitive activities, proposed by U.S. psychologists Peter Salovey (1958– ) and John D. Mayer (1953– ). According to Mayer and Salovey’s 1997 model, it comprises four abilities: to perceive and appraise emotions accurately; to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition; to comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information; and to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions to promote growth and well-being. Their ideas were popularized in a best-selling book by U.S. psychologist and science journalist Daniel J. Goleman (1946– ), who also altered the definition to include many personality variables.

emotional intelligence quotient

emotional intelligence quotient an index of emotional intelligence. Popular writers and the media sometimes abbreviate the term to EQ (for emotional quotient, nominally similar to IQ).

emotional isolation

emotional isolation see emotional insulation.

emotional maturity

emotional maturity a high and appropriate level of emotional control and expression. Compare emotional immaturity.

emotional memory

emotional memory memory for events that evoke an emotional response. Emotional memories can be either implicit (nonconscious) or explicit (conscious). In laboratory studies with nonhuman animals, implicit emotional memory is demonstrated through such phenomena as conditioned fear (see avoidance conditioning) and freezing behavior; additional paradigms exist to study implicit emotional memory in humans. Explicit emotional memory is manifested when individuals reexperience the original emotions engendered by an event (e.g., terror when describing an accident, joy when describing a close family member’s wedding). Functional neuroanatomy suggests that the encoding process for implicit emotional memories centers around the amygdala in the subcortical portions of the limbic system, and adrenergic and dopaminergic mechanisms in particular. Indeed, a person whose amygdala is damaged may calmly recall the details of a traumatic event without showing any residual fear in relation to that event. In contrast, encoding of explicit emotional memories involves the cortical regions of the limbic system, such as the hippocampus. Emotional memory is distinct from the more general phenomenon of enhanced storage and retrieval of emotional stimuli, which for example is seen when experimental participants recall aversive nouns from a word list better than they recall neutral items. Also called affective memory.

emotional processing theory

emotional processing theory a theory proposing a hypothetical sequence of fear-reducing changes that is evoked by emotional engagement with the memory of a significant event, particularly a trauma. The theory is based on the concept of a fear structure, a type of mental framework for reacting to threat that includes information about a feared stimulus (e.g., a snake), about physiological and behavioral responses (e.g., rapid heartbeat, sweating), and about the meaning of the stimulus and response elements (e.g., the snake is poisonous and will bite me and I am afraid of it). Although most fear structures accurately represent legitimate threats, others become distorted: Individuals do not reflect sufficiently upon the event initially and thus do not successfully evoke and cope with the associated emotions, so that harmless stimuli become seen as dangerous and act to trigger excessive physiological reactions, deliberate avoidance of memories of the event, emotional withdrawal, and other maladaptive behaviors. The existence of such erroneous fear structures originally was proposed in response to the difficulties of traditional learning theories in explaining intrusion symptoms and fear in posttraumatic stress disorder. According to this conceptualization, which has since been expanded to other anxiety disorders, treatment (i.e., prolonged exposure therapy) should be designed to provide information that is incompatible with the pathological elements of a specific fear structure. Thus, the repetitive exposure to the event memory in a safe environment in which the threat is not realized gradually decreases emotional responding until the fear structure changes to accommodate this new, more accurate information (e.g., If I am not anxious, the situation cannot be so bad). [proposed in 1986 by U.S. psychologists Edna B. Foa (1937– ) and Michael J. Kozak (1952– )]

emotional quotient

emotional quotient see emotional intelligence quotient.

emotional reeducation

emotional reeducation psychotherapy focused on modifying the client’s attitudes, feelings, and reactions by helping him or her gain insight into emotional conflicts and self-defeating behavior arising from affective disturbance or disorder. Typical objectives are an increase in self-confidence, sociability, and self-reliance. The methods used include group discussions, personal counseling, relationship therapy, and self-exploration.

emotional release

emotional release the catharsis or sudden outpouring of emotions that have been pent up or suppressed.

emotional response

emotional response an emotional reaction, such as happiness, fear, or sadness, to a given stimulus.

emotional security

emotional security the feeling of safety, confidence, and freedom from apprehension. In the approach of Karen D. Horney, the need for emotional security is the underlying determinant of personality and behavior; in the approach of Harry Stack Sullivan, it is itself determined primarily by interpersonal relations. See also security operations.

emotional stability

emotional stability predictability and consistency in emotional reactions, with absence of rapid mood changes. Compare emotional instability.

emotional stress

emotional stress the feeling of psychological strain and uneasiness produced by situations of danger, threat, and loss of personal security or by internal conflicts, frustrations, loss of self-esteem, and grief. Also called emotional tension.

emotional stupor

emotional stupor a form of stupor marked by depression or intense anxiety and accompanied by mutism.

emotional support

emotional support the verbal and nonverbal processes by which one communicates care and concern for another, offering reassurance, empathy, comfort, and acceptance. It may be a major factor contributing to the effectiveness of self-help groups, within which members both provide and receive emotional support, and to attachment, in which the caregiver provides emotional support to the child.

emotional tension

emotional tension see emotional stress.

emotional unconscious

emotional unconscious that aspect of the nonconscious mind that consists of unreportable emotional or motivational states. It is suggested that such states may influence thought and action without the individual becoming consciously aware of them. The emotional unconscious is comparable to, but distinct from, the cognitive unconscious, which consists of implicit percepts, memories, and thoughts. The extent to which an individual can be said to have emotions without being conscious of them, however, is controversial. [proposed by U.S. cognitive psychologist John F. Kihlstrom (1948– )]

emotional valence

emotional valence the value associated with a stimulus as expressed on a continuum from pleasant to unpleasant or from attractive to aversive. In factor analysis and multidimensional scaling studies, emotional valence is one of two axes (or dimensions) on which an emotion can be located, the other axis being arousal (expressed as a continuum from high to low). For example, happiness is typically characterized by pleasant valence and relatively high arousal, whereas sadness or depression is typically characterized by unpleasant valence and relatively low arousal.

emotionality

emotionality n. the degree to which an individual experiences and expresses emotions, irrespective of the quality of the emotional experience.

emotionally based persuasion

emotionally based persuasion see affectively based persuasion.

emotive

emotive adj. related to or arousing emotion.

emotive imagery

emotive imagery in behavior therapy and cognitive behavior therapy, a procedure in which the client imagines emotion-arousing scenes while relaxing in a comfortable, protective setting. See reciprocal inhibition.

emotive technique

emotive technique any of various therapeutic techniques designed to encourage clients to express their thoughts and feelings in an intense and animated manner so as to make these more obvious and available for discussion in therapy. Emotive techniques are used, for example, in rational emotive behavior therapy to dispute irrational beliefs in order to move from intellectual to emotional insight.

empathic failure

empathic failure 1. a lack of understanding of another person’s feelings, perceptions, and thoughts. In self psychology, a parent or caregiver’s repeated empathic failure toward a child is thought to be a potential source of later psychopathology, such as narcissistic personality disorder and borderline personality disorder. 2. in psychoanalysis, a situation in which a patient feels misunderstood by the therapist or analyst. Compare attunement; misattunement. [first described in 1966 by Austrian-born U.S. psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)]

empathy

empathy n. understanding a person from his or her frame of reference rather than one’s own, or vicariously experiencing that person’s feelings, perceptions, and thoughts. Empathy does not, of itself, entail motivation to be of assistance, although it may turn into sympathy or personal distress, which may result in action. In psychotherapy, therapist empathy for the client can be a path to comprehension of the client’s cognitions, affects, motivations, or behaviors. See also perspective taking. —empathic or —empathetic adj. —empathize vb.

empathy training

empathy training 1. a systematic procedure to increase empathetic feeling and communications in an individual. 2. training to enable convicted abusers to envision their victims’ feelings and become sensitive to the pain they have caused, with the aim of decreasing the likelihood that they will commit similar crimes in the future.

empathy-altruism hypothesis

empathy-altruism hypothesis a theory that explains helping behaviors as resulting from feelings of empathy and compassion toward others, which arouse an altruistic motivation directed toward the ultimate goal of improving another person’s welfare. [proposed in 1991 by U.S. social psychologist C. Daniel Batson (1943– )]

empiric-risk figure

empiric-risk figure in genetic counseling, a percentage representing the risk for common disorders, such as schizophrenia and depression, when there is evidence of genetic factors of unknown mechanism. The figure is based upon reports of frequency of occurrence in large series of families (in addition to the approximately 3% risk of birth defects, including intellectual disability, present for every couple having a child).

empirical

empirical adj. 1. derived from or denoting experimentation or systematic observations as the basis for conclusion or determination, as opposed to speculative, theoretical, or exclusively reason-based approaches. Many forms of research attempt to gain empirical evidence in favor of a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable and assessing the effect on an outcome or dependent variable. 2. based on experience.

empirical construct

empirical construct see construct.

empirical grounding

empirical grounding the practice or procedure of anchoring theoretical terms to scientifically measurable or observable events. The extent to which this is possible for a particular theory is a measure of the value of that theory. See operational definition.

empirical knowledge

empirical knowledge 1. in philosophy, knowledge gained from experience rather than from innate ideas or deductive reasoning. 2. in the sciences, knowledge gained from experiment and observation rather than from theory. See empiricism.

empirical method

empirical method any procedure for conducting an investigation that relies upon experimentation and systematic observation rather than theoretical speculation. The term is sometimes used as a vague synonym for scientific method.

empirical psychology

empirical psychology an approach to the study and explanation of psychological phenomena that emphasizes objective observation (see observational study) and the experimental method as the source of information about the phenomena under consideration. Compare rational psychology. See also experimental psychology.

empirical self

empirical self the self that is known by the self, rather than the self as knower. In the psychology of William James, the empirical self is held to consist of the material self (everything material that can be seen as belonging to the self), the social self (the self as perceived by others), and the spiritual self (the self that is closest to one’s core subjective experience of oneself). The empirical self (or “me”) is contrasted with the nominative self (or “I”).

empirical test

empirical test the test of a hypothesis by means of experiments or other systematic observations.

empirical validity

empirical validity the degree to which the accuracy of a test, model, or other construct can be demonstrated through experimentation and systematic observation (i.e., the accumulation of supporting research evidence) rather than theory alone.

empirical-criterion keying

empirical-criterion keying a method for developing personality inventories in which the items (presumed to measure one or more traits) are created and then administered to a criterion group of people known to possess a certain characteristic (e.g., antisocial behavior, significant anxiety, exaggerated concern about physical health) and to a control group of people without the characteristic. Only those items that demonstrate an ability to distinguish between the two groups are chosen for inclusion in the final inventory.

empirical-rational strategy

empirical-rational strategy in social psychology, the idea that societal and institutional change can be brought about if the public receives enough convincing factual evidence. The concept holds that reason alone can motivate people to change their attitudes. See also normative-reeducative strategy; power-coercive strategy.

empirically keyed test

empirically keyed test an assessment in which answers are scored in such a way as to establish differences in responses among groups already known to differ. For example, on a test measuring problem solving, the correct alternative among the response choices would be the one preferred by members of a criterion group who were administered the test previously. See also empirical-criterion keying.

empiricism

empiricism n. 1. an approach to epistemology holding that all knowledge of matters of fact either arises from experience or requires experience for its validation. In particular, empiricism denies the possibility of innate ideas, arguing that the mind at birth is like a blank sheet of paper (see tabula rasa). During the 17th and 18th centuries, empiricism was developed as a systematic approach to philosophy in the work of John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. These thinkers also developed theories of associationism to explain how even the most complex mental concepts can be derived from simple sense experiences. Although there is a strong emphasis on empiricism in psychology, this can take different forms. Some approaches to psychology hold that sensory experience is the origin of all knowledge and thus, ultimately, of personality, character, beliefs, emotions, and behavior. Behaviorism is the purest example of empiricism in this sense. Advocates of other theoretical approaches to psychology, such as phenomenology, argue that the definition of experience as only sensory experience is too narrow; this enables them to reject the position that all knowledge arises from the senses while also claiming to adhere to a type of empiricism. 2. the view that experimentation is the most important, if not the only, foundation of scientific knowledge and the means by which individuals evaluate truth claims or the adequacy of theories and models. 3. in philosophy, the position that all linguistic expressions that are not tautologous must be empirically verifiable if they are to be deemed valid or meaningful. This principle was essential to the philosophy of logical positivism. See also positivism. —empiricist adj., n.

employee appraisal

employee appraisal see employee evaluation.

employee assistance program (EAP)

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employee comparison technique

employee comparison technique any method of employee evaluation in which the performance of one employee is compared with that of others, rather than considered in absolute terms. Examples include the ranking method, the forced distribution method, and the paired comparison method.

employee evaluation

employee evaluation the judgment of an employee’s overall job performance and of certain related personal characteristics (e.g., ability to get along with colleagues) that may be relevant. Employee evaluations are usually performed by a supervisor or consultant. Also called employee appraisal; work evaluation. See criterion dimensions; job criterion; performance review.

Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA)

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employee training

employee training see personnel training.

employment at will

employment at will a common-law doctrine stating that in the absence of an employment contract, neither an employer nor an employee is required to give advance notice of termination or resignation, nor are they required to give a reason for their action. Legal exceptions to the doctrine are provided by whistleblower and antidiscrimination statutes, as well as retribution laws that protect employees against termination for such actions as filing a worker’s compensation claim or serving on a jury.

employment counseling

employment counseling counseling designed to help an individual with issues related to work, such as job seeking, work compatibility, outside pressures interfering with job performance, termination of employment, and work efficiency. Within an organization, employment counseling is often provided through an employee assistance program.

employment discrimination

employment discrimination an employer’s use of a person’s ethnicity, color, age, religion, gender, sexual orientation, national origin, disability, or other variable unrelated to job qualifications or performance as a factor in differential pay, hiring practices, termination of employment, or working conditions.

employment interview

employment interview a meeting with a job applicant in which a personnel worker, executive, or supervisor (a) imparts information and answers questions about the company, including its products, working conditions, and benefits offered; (b) describes the job in which the applicant is interested; and (c) obtains information about the applicant that will contribute to a judgment of his or her suitability for the job. Despite concerns about its reliability and validity, the employment interview continues to be used far more frequently than any other selection technique (e.g., work-sample tests). Also called job interview. See patterned interview; structured interview; unstructured interview.

employment psychology

employment psychology see industrial and organizational psychology.

employment test

employment test any instrument used to assess the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of applicants so as to predict their performance in a job. Employment tests can be used to measure a variety of attributes, such as decision-making skills, aptitudes and interests, personality traits, and sensory and motor abilities. See selection test. See also integrity testing; occupational test; personnel test; work-sample test.

empowerment

empowerment n. 1. the promotion of the skills, knowledge, and confidence necessary to take greater control of one’s life. In psychotherapy, the process involves helping clients become more active in meeting their needs and fulfilling their desires and aims to provide them with a sense of achievement and realization of their own abilities and ambitions. See also enabling. 2. the delegation of increased decision-making powers to individuals or groups in a society or organization. —empower vb.

empowerment evaluation

empowerment evaluation see participatory evaluation.

empty nest

empty nest the family home after the children have reached maturity and left, often creating an emotional void (empty nest syndrome) in the lives of the parents (empty nesters).

empty set

empty set in set theory, a collection of entities with no elements or members. Also called null set.

empty speech

empty speech fluent speech that lacks information or meaningful content.

empty word

empty word see function word.

empty-chair technique

empty-chair technique a technique originating in gestalt therapy in which the client conducts an emotional dialogue with some aspect of himself or herself or some significant person (e.g., a parent), who is imagined to be sitting in an empty chair during the session. The client then exchanges chairs and takes the role of that aspect or of that other person. This technique is now sometimes also referred to as the two-chair technique.

empyreumatic

empyreumatic adj. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality that is smelled in roasted coffee and creosote.

EMR

EMR abbreviation for educable mentally retarded.

EMSAM

EMSAM n. a trade name for transdermal selegiline.

emulation

emulation n. the ability to comprehend the goal of a model and engage in similar behavior to achieve that goal, without necessarily replicating the specific actions of the model. Emulation facilitates social learning.

enabling

enabling n. 1. a process whereby someone (i.e., the enabler) contributes to continued maladaptive or pathological behavior (e.g., child abuse, substance abuse) in another person. The enabler is typically an intimate partner or good friend who passively permits or unwittingly encourages this behavior in the other person; often, the enabler is aware of the destructiveness of the person’s behavior but feels powerless to prevent it. 2. the process of encouraging or allowing individuals to meet their own needs and achieve desired ends. A therapist attempts to enable clients to believe in themselves, have the confidence to act on their desires, and affirm their ability to achieve. See also empowerment.

enaction

enaction n. the process of putting something into action. The word is preferred to terms like execution, which have computing or machine-based connotations. Enaction thus involves guidance and support; it does not imply complete automation. Much of the literature on process modeling states that models should be enactable.

enactive representation

enactive representation representation of objects and events through action and movement, which is characteristic of infants and small children. That is, the child understands things in terms of how they can be manipulated, used, or acted upon. The process underlying this emergent understanding is called the enactive mode (or enactive stage). Compare iconic representation; symbolic representation. [proposed by Jerome Seymour Bruner]

enactment

enactment n. 1. the acting out of an important life event rather than expressing it in words. See psychodrama. 2. in some forms of psychoanalytic psychotherapy, the patient’s reliving of past relationships in the transference relationship with the therapist and, conversely, the therapist’s move away from active neutrality to unwittingly intertwine personal issues into symbolic interactions with the patient (a countertransference phenomenon). Attunement to the relational patterns that emerge in this therapeutic relationship offers the therapist an opportunity to help the patient acknowledge and work through similar patterns in the patient’s relationships with others. See also relational psychoanalysis; self psychology. 3. in some forms of couples therapy, a technique in which the therapist recreates areas of conflict between partners in order to facilitate bonding moments. 4. see structural family therapy.

enantiodromia

enantiodromia n. 1. the conception of Greek philosopher Heraclitus (c. 535–c. 475 bce) that all things eventually turn into, or are replaced by, their opposite. 2. in the approach of Carl Jung, the “necessary opposition” that governs psychic life, as in the interplay between conscious and unconscious, introverted and extraverted tendencies, and the ego and shadow.

enantiomers

enantiomers n. see isomers.

encapsulated end organ

encapsulated end organ see end organ.

encapsulation

encapsulation n. 1. the process of separating or keeping separate, particularly the ability of some people experiencing delusions to maintain high levels of functioning and prevent their delusions from pervading everyday behavior and cognitive states (hence called encapsulated delusions). 2. enclosure, as in a sheath or other covering.

encéphale isolé

encéphale isolé a nonhuman animal whose brainstem has been surgically severed at the point where the spinal cord and medulla oblongata meet. The animal is alert but paralyzed, with a normal sleep–wake cycle on an electroencephalogram. See also cerveau isolé. [French, “isolated brain”]

encephalitis

encephalitis n. inflammation of the brain, typically caused by viral infection. The symptoms may be mild, with influenza-like characteristics, or severe and potentially fatal, with fever, vomiting, confusion or disorientation, drowsiness, seizures, and coma or loss of consciousness. See also encephalitis lethargica; herpes-simplex encephalitis; meningoencephalitis; polioencephalitis. —encephalitic adj.

encephalitis lethargica

encephalitis lethargica an epidemic form of encephalitis that was observed globally between 1915 and 1926 and believed to be of viral origin (it appeared following an influenza pandemic of 1914–1918). Symptoms include pathological sleepiness and drowsiness, apathy, and ocular paralysis. Also called Economo’s disease; von Economo’s disease.

encephalization

encephalization n. a larger than expected brain size for a species, given its body size. For example, an average person weighing 140 lb has an actual brain weight of 2.9 lb instead of the predicted 0.6 lb. This enlargement is the result of evolutionary advancement, with the brains of higher species increasing in anatomical complexity as cognitive functions were transferred from more primitive brain areas to the cerebral cortex (a process called corticalization).

encephalocele

encephalocele n. a congenital hernia (see herniation) of the brain, which protrudes through a cleft in the skull.

encephalofacial angiomatosis

encephalofacial angiomatosis see Sturge–Weber syndrome.

encephalomalacia

encephalomalacia n. softening of the brain, usually due to tissue deterioration resulting from an inadequate blood supply to the area.

encephalomyelitis

encephalomyelitis n. inflammation of the brain and spinal cord. As with encephalitis, it is most often caused by viral infection.

encephalon

encephalon n. see brain.

encephalopathy

encephalopathy n. any of various diffuse disorders or diseases of the brain that alter brain function or structure and are characterized primarily by altered mental states, especially confusion.

encephalopsy

encephalopsy n. a condition in which one associates colors with numbers, letters, smells, or other dimensions.

encoding

encoding n. 1. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval. 2. in communications, the conversion of messages or data into codes or signals capable of being carried by a communication channel.

encoding specificity

encoding specificity the principle that retrieval of memory is optimal when the retrieval conditions (such as context or cues) duplicate the conditions that were present when the memory was formed. [proposed in 1983 by Endel Tulving]

encoding strategy

encoding strategy a mental or behavioral strategy that one may use to ensure learning or remembering, such as elaborative rehearsal, mental imagery, or a mnemonic.

encoding variability theory

encoding variability theory see spacing effect.

encopresis

encopresis n. repeated defecation in inappropriate places (clothing, floor, etc.) that occurs after the age of 4 and is not due to a substance (e.g., a laxative) or to a general medical condition. Encopresis may or may not be accompanied by constipation and is often associated with poor toilet training and stressful situations. Compare fecal incontinence.

encounter

encounter n. a direct confrontation or other involvement of one individual with another or between several people. See also interaction.

encounter group

encounter group a group of individuals in which constructive insight, sensitivity to others, and personal growth are promoted through direct interactions on an emotional and social level. The leader functions as a catalyst and facilitator rather than as a therapist and focuses on here-and-now feelings and interaction rather than on theory or individual motivation.

encounter movement

encounter movement a trend toward the formation of small groups in which various techniques, such as confrontation, games, and reenactment, are used to stimulate awareness, personality growth, and productive interactions. The movement gained popularity in the 1960s but diminished at the end of the 20th century.

enculturation

enculturation n. 1. the processes, beginning in early childhood, by which particular cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns are instilled in the members of a society. Compare acculturation. See also cultural heritage; social transmission. 2. in anthropology, the rearing of great apes in an environment that includes frequent contact with humans and their artifacts and, usually, human–ape interactions, such as direct teaching, the use of language, and joint attention. Some investigators have suggested that enculturated great apes may show aspects of social cognitive development that are more like those of children than of mother- or nursery-reared apes. —enculturate vb.

end brush

end brush the finely branched terminal of an axon. Also called telodendron.

end feet

end feet the terminal processes of an axon or an astrocyte.

end of life

end of life the variable period during which dying individuals and their families, friends, and caregivers face issues related to the imminent prospect of death. The end-of-life concept is a way of considering the total context of an approaching death, rather than medical factors only. End-of-life issues include decisions relating to the nature of terminal care (hospice or traditional), whether to resuscitate, the distribution of property and assets, funeral and memorial arrangements, and leave taking and possible reconciliations with family and friends. See also advance directive; informed consent.

end organ

end organ the structure associated with a motor or sensory nerve ending, such as a muscle end plate or a sensory receptor. The latter may be encapsulated end organs, which are enclosed in a membranous sheath and usually located in peripheral tissue, such as the skin. Kinds of encapsulated end organs include Meissner’s corpuscles (sensitive to touch) and Pacinian corpuscles (sensitive to pressure).

end plate

end plate a specialized region of a muscle-cell membrane that faces the terminus of a motor neuron within a neuromuscular junction. The depolarization that is induced in this muscular region when stimulated by a neurotransmitter released from the adjacent motor neuron terminus is called the end-plate potential (EPP). A very small variation in this potential due to the random release of tiny amounts of a neurotransmitter at an axon terminal is called a miniature end-plate potential. Also called motor end plate.

end spurt

end spurt the increased productivity or gain in performance frequently noted near the end of a task, series of trials, or day’s work. It is also commonly observed in athletic endeavors, such as long-distance running. Compare initial spurt.

end-aversion bias

end-aversion bias the tendency for individuals to avoid the extreme choices on a scale and instead select a choice in the middle of the scale, closer to neutral. Such an approach results in a narrower range of responses that most likely will not be an accurate representation of the variable being measured. For example, a supervisor assessing employees would show end-aversion bias if his or her ratings generally were around 4 on a 7-point scale. Also called central-tendency bias.

end-stage renal disease

end-stage renal disease the terminal stage of chronic kidney failure, requiring the individual with the disease to undergo hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or kidney transplant to survive. The psychological effects of living with the condition and its treatment can include depression arising from a sense of lost or limited personal control due to dependence on a dialysis machine, to dialysis-related diet restrictions, and the like. Body-image problems caused by transplantation can develop as well.

end-stopped cell

end-stopped cell a neuron in any visual area of the cerebral cortex that is maximally responsive to a line of a certain length or to a corner of a larger stimulus. Such neurons have a reduced or absent response when the line or corner is extended beyond a certain point. End stopping is a characteristic of hypercomplex cells in striate cortex.

endarterectomy

endarterectomy n. a surgical procedure in which an atherosclerotic plaque is removed from an artery, most commonly the carotid artery at the level of bifurcation in the neck. By removing the plaque, the bore of the artery is enlarged, allowing a greater flow of blood to the brain and thus decreasing the risk of stroke.

endemic

endemic adj. occurring in a specific region or population, particularly with reference to a disease or disorder. Compare epidemic; pandemic.

endo- (end-)

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endocannabinoid

endocannabinoid n. see endogenous cannabinoid.

endocarditis

endocarditis n. inflammation of the endocardium, the inner lining of the heart, and often the heart valves. It is typically caused by bacterial or fungal infections. Primary diagnostic symptoms include fever, new or changing heart murmur, and minute hemorrhages (particularly in the extremities and conjunctiva of the eye).

endocast

endocast n. a cast of the cranial cavity of a skull. It is especially useful for studying the size and form of brains of fossils of extinct species.

endocochlear potential

endocochlear potential see endolymphatic potential.

endocrine

endocrine adj. describing or relating to a type of chemical signaling in which a chemical messenger is released by a cell and is carried (e.g., via the bloodstream) to a distant target cell on which it exerts its effect. Compare autocrine; paracrine.

endocrine disruptor

endocrine disruptor a natural or synthetic chemical that blocks, stimulates, mimics, or otherwise affects hormones in the endocrine system (e.g., sex hormones, thyroid hormones). Natural endocrine disruptors may include, for example, phytoestrogens (i.e., estrogens produced by some plants). Examples of synthetic endocrine disruptors are industrial chemicals (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs]), plastics such as bisphenol A, plasticizers such as phthalate, pesticides (e.g., dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT]), and pharmaceutical agents such as diethylstilbestrol. Effects of exposure to endocrine disruptors may include infertility, birth defects, and cancer.

endocrine gland

endocrine gland any ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream to act on distant targets. Such glands include the pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, gonads (testis and ovary), and islets of Langerhans. Together, they comprise the endocrine system. Compare exocrine gland.

endocrinology

endocrinology n. the study of the morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and pathology of the endocrine glands. See also neuroendocrinology; psychoneuroendocrinology. —endocrinological adj. —endocrinologist n.

endoderm

endoderm n. the innermost of the three primary germ layers of a developing embryo. It gives rise to the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts and some glands. —endodermal adj.

endogamy

endogamy n. the custom or practice of marrying within one’s kinship network, caste, or other religious or social group. Compare exogamy. —endogamous adj.

endogenous

endogenous adj. originating within the body as a result of normal biochemical or physiological processes (e.g., endogenous opioids) or of predisposing biological or genetic influences (e.g., endogenous depression). Compare exogenous. —endogenously adv.

endogenous attention

endogenous attention see voluntary attention.

endogenous cannabinoid (eCB)

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endogenous cue

endogenous cue a cue, such as a centered arrow, that instructs a participant in a task to direct attention to a particular location but does not automatically draw attention to that location. It initiates a voluntary movement of attention. Compare exogenous cue.

endogenous depression

endogenous depression depression that occurs in the absence of an obvious psychological stressor and in which a biological or genetic cause is implied. Compare reactive depression.

endogenous opioid

endogenous opioid a substance produced in the body that has the analgesic and euphoric effects of morphine. Three families of endogenous opioids are well known: the enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins. All are neuropeptides that bind to opioid receptors in the central nervous system; they are mostly inhibitory, acting like opiates to block pain. They bind relatively nonselectively to opioid receptors, although enkephalins bind preferentially to the delta opioid receptors and dynorphins to kappa opioid receptors. Three other endogenous opioid peptides have been identified: nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) and endomorphins 1 and 2. Also called opioid neurotransmitter.

endogenous oscillator

endogenous oscillator a neural circuit that generates regularly repeating sequences of neural activity or behavior. In the context of chronobiology, it refers to the biological clock. See also circadian oscillator.

endogenous research

endogenous research research that is based on information inherent in a specific area or system, without taking into account outside, independent information.

endogenous rhythm

endogenous rhythm see biological rhythm.

endogenous smile

endogenous smile a spontaneous or reflexive smile that is observed when an infant, early in life, is in a state of REM sleep. Characterized by a simple turning up of the corners of the mouth, such smiles are seen from birth and are not elicited by social stimulation. Compare social smile.

endogenous thyrotoxicosis

endogenous thyrotoxicosis see thyrotoxicosis.

endogenous variable

endogenous variable a dependent variable whose values are determined, caused, or explained by factors within the model or system under study. Compare exogenous variable.

endolymph

endolymph n. the fluid contained in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, that is, within the scala media, semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle. —endolymphatic adj.

endolymphatic potential

endolymphatic potential a DC electric potential of approximately 80 mV measurable with electrodes inserted into the endolymph in the scala media. Also called endocochlear potential.

endometrium

endometrium n. the layer of cells lining the uterus. It varies in thickness during the menstrual cycle, reaching a peak of cellular proliferation approximately 1 week after ovulation, in preparation for implantation of a fertilized ovum, and sloughing off as menstrual flow 2 weeks after ovulation if the ovum is not fertilized. —endometrial adj.

endomorph

endomorph n. a constitutional type (somatotype) in Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality characterized by a soft, round physique, which—according to this theory—is highly correlated with viscerotonia. Also called endomorphic body type. —endomorphic adj. —endomorphy n.

endomorphin

endomorphin n. see endogenous opioid.

endomusia

endomusia n. literally, inner music (Greek): the reproduction of a tune or piece of music in the mind.

endophasia

endophasia n. literally, inner speech (Greek): the reproduction of spoken language in the mind. See also covert speech.

endophenotype

endophenotype n. a type of biological marker that is simpler to detect than genetic sequences and that may be useful in researching vulnerability to a wide range of psychological and neurological disorders. Endophenotypes may be a useful link between genetic sequences and their external emotional, cognitive, or behavioral manifestations. [coined in the 1970s by U.S. behavioral geneticist and clinical psychologist Irving I. Gottesman (1930– ) and British psychiatrist James Shields (d. 1978)]

endoplasm

endoplasm n. the relatively less dense cytoplasm that fills the bulk of a cell, away from the periphery and excluding the nucleus. Compare ectoplasm. —endoplasmic adj.

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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endopsychic

endopsychic adj. pertaining to nonconscious material or intrapsychic processes (i.e., processes occurring within the mind). Compare exopsychic.

endopsychic structure

endopsychic structure in psychoanalysis, the internal structure of the mind or psyche. In Sigmund Freud’s formulation, the mind is divided into three components: the id, ego, and superego. See structural model.

endoradiosonde

endoradiosonde n. a miniature instrument consisting of recording devices and a radio transmitter that is implanted in or fed to a nonhuman animal in order to study internal reactions or behaviors.

endorphin

endorphin n. any of a class of neuropeptides, found mainly in the pituitary gland, that function as endogenous opioids. The best known is beta-endorphin; the others are alpha-endorphin and gamma-endorphin. The production of endorphins during intense physical activity is one explanation for the runner’s high or exercise high, as well as for an athlete’s ability to feel little or no pain during a competition.

endosomatic current

endosomatic current an electrical current produced by a living organism.

endotherm

endotherm n. an animal whose body temperature is regulated chiefly by internal metabolic processes. The only true endotherms are mammals and birds. Such animals, formerly called homeotherms, are popularly described as warm-blooded. Compare ectotherm. —endothermic adj. —endothermy n.

endowment effect

endowment effect the tendency of people to place a higher value on items once they own them or once these have been associated with the self in some other way. For example, an individual selling goods often prices them above what he or she would be willing to pay to acquire those same goods (i.e., selling prices exceed buying prices). The endowment effect is characterized by increased positive emotions toward the object. [coined in 1980 by U.S. economist Richard Thaler (1945– )]

endurance activity

endurance activity a physical activity that depends on aerobic capacity, that is, the ability to produce energy for muscles by using oxygen for long periods of time. Sport performances that are endurance activities include marathons, runs over 10,000 m, and triathlons. Also called aerobic activity. See aerobic exercise; anaerobic exercise.

enema

enema n. the injection of a liquid into the rectum via the anus or the liquid itself. Enemas are used for introducing radiopaque contrast media into the bowel for radiography and also for administration of certain drugs in solution for absorption through the rectal mucosa.

enema addiction

enema addiction a dependence upon enemas to empty the bowel. This condition is often associated with eating disorders in which enemas are routinely used for purging. See also klismaphilia; laxative addiction.

energization theory

energization theory the theory that the subjective perception of a goal’s value or attainability corresponds to the level of energy expended to reach that goal. [proposed by Jack W. Brehm and colleagues]

energy drink

energy drink any of a group of widely available liquids that may contain large quantities of caffeine as well as sugar, taurine, gingseng, gingko biloba, B vitamins, antioxidants, and artificial sweeteners and that are used to increase energy, alertness, and endurance. Overuse has been associated with agitation, anxiety, insomnia, and arrhythmias. Caffeinated alcoholic beverages are also considered to be energy drinks. In 2010, in response to concerns about the safety of these beverages, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration labeled caffeine an “unsafe food additive” to alcohol and effectively banned its use in alcoholic beverages.

energy-flow system

energy-flow system any system in which the component organisms or entities convert energy into forms that can be used by the other organisms or entities, such that there is a constant energy flow through the entire system. An ecosystem is perhaps the clearest example of an energy-flow system. In psychology, Sigmund Freud’s early models of the psyche were essentially energy-flow models, in which libido was employed by the instincts to bring thoughts to consciousness while simultaneously employed by other parts of the psyche to keep them out of consciousness. More recently, a field known as energy psychology has emerged, which attempts to treat trauma and emotional problems by intervening in the energy flow of the body.

enervate

enervate vb. 1. to weaken or deprive of energy. 2. to surgically remove a nerve or a part of a nerve. —enervation n.

engendering psychology

engendering psychology the project of developing an approach to psychological issues that is sensitive to questions of gender. See feminist psychology; woman-centered psychology. [introduced by U.S. psychologist Florence L. Denmark (1932– )]

engineering anthropometry

engineering anthropometry measurement of the static and dynamic features of the human body, including dimensions, movements, and center of gravity, and the application of these data to the design and evaluation of equipment for human use.

engineering controls

engineering controls the avoidance of hazards through redesign of machinery or equipment (e.g., by using guards, ventilation systems, and radiation shields) and the replacement or removal of unsafe systems or practices. Engineering controls are considered the first resort in the creation of a safe working environment, followed by administrative controls and the use of personal protective equipment. See also hazard-control protocol.

engineering model

engineering model 1. a belief or hypothesis that living organisms, including humans, can be viewed mechanistically, that is, as machines. 2. in evaluation research, a simple comparison of treatment gains for different groups, some of which have been exposed to the treatment program of interest. Compare medical model.

engineering psychology

engineering psychology a subfield of human factors psychology concerned with identifying the psychological principles that govern human interaction with environments, systems, and products and applying these principles to issues of engineering and design. Engineering psychologists may consult with architects and designers of various industrial and consumer products (e.g., airplanes, automobiles, home appliances, electronics and software applications) while specializing in such areas as ergonomics, human–computer interaction, or usability engineering. Engineering psychology is often used synonymously with human factors engineering. See also equipment design; human engineering; tool design; workspace design.

English as a second language (ESL)

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engram

engram n. the hypothetical memory trace that is stored in the brain. The nature of the engram, in terms of the exact physiological changes that occur to encode a memory, is as yet unknown. The term was introduced by German biologist Richard Semon (1859–1918) in the early 1900s and was popularized by Karl S. Lashley in his 1950 paper “In Search of the Engram.” Also called mneme; mnemonic trace; neurogram.

engulfment

engulfment n. 1. extreme distress and anxiety related to feelings of being taken over by an external force. 2. fear of close interpersonal relationships because of a perceived loss of independence and selfhood. This fear is common in those with feelings of personal insecurity, who experience relationships as overwhelming threats to personal identity. It may also be associated with borderline personality disorder. [first described by British psychiatrist R. D. Laing (1927–1989)]

enhancement

enhancement n. 1. the use of genetic technology to produce superior offspring. 2. more generally, any impovement in the nature or value of an entity.

enjoyment

enjoyment n. a perception of great pleasure and happiness brought on by success in or simple satisfaction with an activity.

enkephalin

enkephalin n. see endogenous opioid.

Enlon

Enlon n. a trade name for edrophonium.

enmeshment

enmeshment n. a condition in which two or more people, typically family members, are involved in each other’s activities and personal relationships to an excessive degree, thus limiting or precluding healthy interaction and compromising individual autonomy and identity.

enrichment

enrichment n. 1. enhancement or improvement by the addition or augmentation of some desirable property, quality, or component. For example, the Instrumental Enrichment program was originally designed to help pupils with intellectual disability improve their metacognitive and cognitive skills; job enrichment policies are designed to enhance quality of worklife and thus employees’ interest in and attitude toward work tasks; and marriage-enrichment groups are intended to enhance the interpersonal relationships of married couples. 2. the provision of opportunities to increase levels of behavioral or intellectual activity in an otherwise unstimulating (i.e., impoverished) environment. For example, the provision of play materials and opportunities for social contacts has been shown to enhance the development of young children. In laboratory studies of animal behavior, the addition of physical features or task requirements to an environment elicits a more natural behavioral repertoire from the animals. Devices, such as puzzle boxes and complex feeders, are used to reduce boredom and stereotypy. Enriched environments have been shown to induce greater brain neuronal growth and complexity in rats than do standard caging environments. Also called environmental enrichment.

enrichment program

enrichment program 1. an educational program designed to supplement the academic curriculum and facilitate the intellectual stimulation of children at risk of educational difficulties or failure, particularly those from culturally or economically disadvantaged homes. Activities, such as arts and music instruction, theater, and science experiments, are typically provided through special preschool or kindergarten classes and intended to facilitate the acquisition of oral, written, motor, and interpersonal skills. 2. an educational program designed to provide gifted children with an expanded curriculum. Enrichment programs most often focus on expanding the horizons of learning by means of auxiliary instruction rather than by providing accelerated instruction in the regular curriculum.

entelechy

entelechy n. in philosophy and metaphysics, actuality or realization as opposed to potentiality. Aristotle used the word to refer to the soul (psyche), seen as that form within the material being by virtue of which it achieves the actuality of its nature (see actual). Later philosophers employed the term in a similar vein. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz referred to monads as being entelechy, or having entelechy, defined as the power to perfect their given nature (see nisus). In certain vitalist philosophies and theories, entelechy refers to the vital force within an organism that allows for life, development, and self-fulfillment (see élan vital; vitalism).

enteric virus infection

enteric virus infection a disease produced by one of the polio, Cocksackie, or echoviruses (called enteroviruses), which are members of the picornavirus family. Such infections include poliomyelitis, aseptic meningitis, herpangina, and myocarditis. The viruses have been classed as enteric because they multiply in the human gastrointestinal tract. Also called enteroviral infection.

enterogastrone

enterogastrone n. a hormone secreted by the small intestine that inhibits the secretion of gastric juice by the stomach. It is released when the stomach contents pass into the small intestine.

enthusiasm

enthusiasm n. a feeling of excitement or passion for an activity, cause, or object. —enthusiastic adj.

entitativity

entitativity n. the extent to which a group or collective is considered by others to be a real entity having unity, coherence, and internal organization rather than a set of independent individuals. In general, groups whose members share a common fate, are similar to one another, and are located close together are more likely to be considered a group rather than a mere aggregation. [first described by Donald Campbell]

entitlement

entitlement n. 1. rights or benefits legally bestowed on a person or group, for example, by legislation or contract. 2. unreasonable claims to special consideration, especially as a disturbance of self-concept in narcissistic personality disorder.

entitlement program

entitlement program a program of the U.S. government that provides financial assistance and welfare benefits to individuals who meet requirements set by law (e.g., people with mental or physical disabilities). Entitlement programs are administered through Medicare, Medicaid, Social Security disability insurance, and similar funding sources.

entity theory

entity theory see implicit self theory.

entoptic

entoptic adj. originating within the eyeball itself. The term is used particularly to denote visual sensations caused by stimulation within the eye (entoptic phenomena), the classic example of which is seeing faint dark specks moving through the visual field when gazing at a clear, blue sky. These are shadows caused by blood cells moving through the vasculature on the surface of the retina.

entorhinal cortex

entorhinal cortex a region of cerebral cortex in the ventromedial portion of the temporal lobe. It has reciprocal connections with the hippocampal formation and various other cortical and subcortical structures and is an integral component of the medial temporal lobe memory system. It is also involved in spatial navigation. Lesions in this area are used to study neural plasticity and working memory; they are also seen in temporal lobe epilepsy and the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease.

entrainment

entrainment n. the process of activating or providing a timing cue for a biological rhythm. For example, the production of gonadal hormones in seasonally breeding animals can be a result of entrainment to increasing day length. The timing of circadian rhythms can be due to entrainment to either sunrise or sunset. See brainwave entrainment.

entrapment

entrapment n. 1. a process in which one makes increasing commitments to a failing course of action or an unattainable goal in order to justify the amount of time and effort already invested, feeling helpless to do otherwise. An example is provided by a company that proceeds with the design and construction of a new building for its employees after economic and other changes significantly reduce profits, halt business growth, and result in staff layoffs that make the new space not only financially burdensome but also no longer necessary. See also escalating commitment. 2. a pathological condition in which swelling of surrounding tissue places excessive pressure on a nerve. Fibers located on the surface of the nerve usually bear the brunt of the compression, whereas interior fibers tend to be less affected. Repeated or long-term entrapment can cause nerve damage and muscle weakness. 3. a law enforcement agent’s provocation or inducement of an individual to commit an illegal action when that individual would not necessarily have engaged in the activity otherwise. If entrapment is proved, it can serve as a defense in a criminal prosecution.

entrepreneurship

entrepreneurship n. the assumption of all the risks of the creation, organization, and management of a business venture for the reward of future profits. Social entrepreneurship is the use of an entrepreneurial approach with similar assumed risks to create, organize, and manage a venture whose profits are used primarily to promote a positive return to society by effecting social change.

entropy

entropy n. 1. a thermodynamic quantity providing a measure of the unavailability of the energy of a closed system to do work. 2. in statistics, an indication of the degree of disorder, disequilibrium, or change of a closed system. For example, an entropy measure may be used to indicate the quality of classification in a cluster analysis. Clusters with high similarity would have low entropy, whereas clusters with more dispersion would have higher entropy. 3. in information theory, a measure of the efficiency with which a system transmits information.

enucleation

enucleation n. 1. the removal of an entire organic structure, such as a tumor or a bodily organ, without damaging the surrounding structure. Enucleation often refers to the removal of an eyeball in which the optic nerve and connective eye muscles have been severed so that the eye can be removed wholly and cleanly. See also autoenucleation. 2. the destruction or removal of the nucleus of a cell.

enuresis

enuresis n. repeated involuntary urination in inappropriate places (clothing, floor, etc.) that occurs after the chronological age when continence is expected (generally 5 years old) and that is not due to a substance (e.g., a diuretic) or to a general medical condition. Enuresis may occur during the day (diurnal enuresis), night (nocturnal enuresis), or both and is frequently associated with delayed bladder development, poor toilet training, and stressful situations. See also bed-wetting. Compare urinary incontinence.

envelope

envelope n. in acoustics, a slowly varying or “smoothed” change in amplitude. Usually it refers to temporal changes, such as those produced by amplitude modulation or beats, but it can also refer to the shape of a spectrum, as in a spectral envelope, or to spatial changes, as in the envelope of the traveling wave (see basilar membrane). “Slowly varying” is not precisely defined but generally refers to fluctuations whose rate is much less, by a factor of at least 0.5, than the highest rates in the temporal, spectral, or spatial representations. For example, the beats created by adding 1000 Hz and 1005 Hz tones have a quasi-sinusoidal envelope with a periodicity of 5 Hz, but there is no envelope created by the addition of 1000 Hz and 2005 Hz. Temporal and spectral envelopes are important in auditory perception.

environment

environment n. the aggregate of external agents or conditions—physical, biological, social, and cultural—that influence the functions of an organism. The physical environment may be measured in terms of temperature, air pressure, noise, vibration, atmosphere, or sources of nutrients, which in turn may be specified by a range of values (e.g., a temperature scale). See also ecology. —environmental adj.

environmental aesthetics

environmental aesthetics analysis of the role of natural objects and environmental characteristics in judgments of beauty, scenic quality, or visual preference. Aesthetic judgments may be heightened by moderate levels of complexity as conveyed, for example, by moving water or views from a height.

environmental agnosia

environmental agnosia 1. the inability of individuals with some brain injuries to recognize familiar places and surroundings, including their homes and neighborhoods. 2. loss of topographical familiarity. See also topographical disorientation.

environmental approach

environmental approach a therapeutic approach in which efforts are directed either toward reducing external pressures (e.g., employment or financial problems) that contribute to emotional difficulties or toward modifying aspects of the individual’s living or working space to improve functioning.

environmental assessment

environmental assessment the evaluation of situational and environmental variables that influence behavior, based on the theory that disordered functioning may be rooted partly in the social system, or particular social context, rather than wholly in the individual and his or her personal characteristics. In an organizational context, for example, measures of manager support and availability of resources to accomplish a job would likely be used in the environmental assessment of employee job satisfaction.

environmental attitudes

environmental attitudes the beliefs and values of individuals or societies with respect to nature, ecology, or environmental issues. Research in this area examines how such factors as age, gender, and politics relate to people’s environmental attitudes, the influence of environmental education on attitudes, and the role of attitudes in proecological behavior.

environmental attribution

environmental attribution see situational attribution.

environmental cognition

environmental cognition information processing in real-world settings, often with regard to memory for geographic location and way finding. See cognitive map; landmark.

environmental constraint

environmental constraint any circumstance of a person’s situation or environment that discourages the development of skills, independence, social competence, or adaptive behavior or inhibits the display of skills previously acquired. For example, living in a community residence where staff prepare all the meals would act as an environmental constraint for someone who has learned how to make sandwiches, because it would provide no opportunity to display this ability.

environmental control device

environmental control device an assistive technology device with the capacity to regulate or manipulate aspects of a person’s physical surroundings. Examples include devices that turn on lights, open doors, and operate appliances. Also called electronic aid to daily living; environmental control unit. See also control device; feedback device; switch device; target device.

environmental deprivation

environmental deprivation an absence of environmental conditions that stimulate intellectual and behavioral development, such as educational, recreational, and social opportunities. Environmental deprivation is often associated with social isolation and may be so severe that it causes pseudoretardation.

environmental design

environmental design the creative planning of living and working areas to enhance their habitability. Environmental design may also be applied to the enhancement of recreational areas. Habitability factors range from simple shelter needs to complex and sophisticated environmental aesthetics and conformance factors, such as the use of specific colors of paint or levels of illumination for the optimum performance of tasks.

environmental determinism

environmental determinism the view that psychological and behavioral characteristics are largely or completely the result of environmental conditions. Biological factors are considered to be of minor importance, exerting little if any influence. Compare biological determinism; genetic determinism. See determinism; nature–nurture.

environmental education

environmental education the development of principles and materials to raise awareness and change behaviors with respect to environmental problems. See environmental attitudes; proecological behavior; social trap.

environmental enrichment

environmental enrichment see enrichment.

environmental field

environmental field in Gestalt psychology, the entire context in which an event takes place and with which the components of the event interact.

environmental hazards

environmental hazards environmental factors that pose some danger to an organism or community, such as exposed electrical wiring in a home or workplace and nuclear reactors or lead smelters in a community. Chronic exposure to environmental hazards is linked to both psychological and physiological stress.

environmental justice

environmental justice fair and impartial treatment with respect to the distribution of environmental hazards in the general population, such that no single group is exposed disproportionately to suboptimal environmental conditions at home, work, or school.

environmental load theory

environmental load theory the theory that humans have a limited ability to handle environmental stimuli. The limit is determined by the amount of information inputs that can be processed by the central nervous system. When the environmental load exceeds the individual’s capacity for processing, the central nervous system reacts by ignoring some of the inputs. See also cognitive overload; information overload; sensory overload; stimulus overload.

environmental manipulation

environmental manipulation improving the well-being of people by changing their living conditions, such as by placing an abused or delinquent child in a foster home or by transferring an adult patient from a mental hospital to an adult home or a halfway house.

environmental modifications

environmental modifications changes in the home environment (e.g., installing ramps, grab bars) to accommodate an individual’s disabilities and enable him or her to live more independently.

environmental noise

environmental noise see differentiation theory; noise.

environmental press–competence model

environmental press–competence model a model of stress and adaptation in which adaptive functioning in the environment depends on the interaction between stimuli in a person’s physical and social environment that place demands on that individual (environmental press) and the individual’s competence in meeting these demands, which is shaped by such personal characteristics as physical health and cognitive and perceptual abilities. See also person–environment interaction. [proposed in 1973 by U.S. geropsychologists M. Powell Lawton (1923–2001) and Lucille D. Nahemow (1933–2000)]

environmental psychology

environmental psychology a multidisciplinary field that investigates the effects of the physical environment on human behavior and welfare. Influences studied may include environmental stressors (e.g., noise, crowding, air pollution, temperature); design variables (e.g., lighting); the design of technology (see ergonomics); and larger, more ambient qualities of the physical environment, such as floorplan layouts, the size and location of buildings, and proximity to nature.

environmental psychophysics

environmental psychophysics the application of psychophysical methods to problems in real-world environments, such as investigating the magnitude of odor created by a processing plant.

environmental sounds agnosia

environmental sounds agnosia see auditory agnosia.

environmental stress

environmental stress any kind of stress caused by factors in one’s physical and social surroundings.

environmental stress theory

environmental stress theory the concept that autonomic and cognitive factors combine to form an individual’s appraisal of stressors in the environment as threatening or nonthreatening. Stressors perceived as threatening may lead to stress reactions involving physiological, emotional, and behavioral elements, which in turn may elicit strategies designed to cope with and potentially adapt to the threat.

environmental therapy

environmental therapy therapy that addresses the client’s interaction with his or her physical or social surroundings (or both) in an effort to promote greater cognitive, affective, and behavioral health. See milieu therapy; therapeutic community.

environmentalism

environmentalism n. 1. the concept that the environment and learning are the chief determinants of behavior and thus are the major cause of interpersonal variations in ability and adjustment; accordingly, behavior is largely modifiable. Compare hereditarianism. See also nature–nurture. 2. a social movement and position that emphasizes the ecological relationship between humans and the natural environment and strives to protect the environment as an essential resource. —environmentalist n.

envy

envy 1. n. a negative emotion of discontent and resentment generated by desire for the possessions, attributes, qualities, or achievements of another (the target of the envy). Unlike jealousy, with which it shares certain similarities and with which it is often confused, envy need involve only two individuals—the envious person and the person envied—whereas jealousy always involves a threesome. See also primal envy. 2. vb. to feel such discontent or resentment. —envious adj.

enzyme

enzyme n. a protein that acts as a biological catalyst, accelerating the rate of a biochemical reaction without itself becoming permanently altered. Many enzymes require other organic molecules (coenzymes) or inorganic ions (cofactors) to function normally. Most enzymes are named according to the type of reaction they catalyze; for example, glucosidases convert glucosides to glucose; acetylcholinesterase (see cholinesterase) splits and inactivates molecules of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

enzyme induction

enzyme induction the ability of drugs or other substances to increase the activity of enzymes, especially hepatic (liver) enzymes, that are responsible for the metabolism of those drugs or other substances. The cytochrome P450 hepatic enzymes, which are responsible for the metabolism of numerous psychotropic compounds, are susceptible to induction. Barbiturates, alcohol, benzodiazepines, some anticonvulsants, and steroids may induce hepatic enzymes, usually resulting in a decrease in activity of the drug or other substances metabolized via the same enzyme system. Substances contained in cigarette smoke, charbroiled meat, and environmental pollutants are also capable of enzyme induction.

enzyme inhibition

enzyme inhibition the ability of drugs or other substances to impair or arrest the ability of enzymes, especially liver (hepatic) enzymes, to metabolize those drugs or other substances. The cytochrome P450 enzymes that are responsible for the metabolism of numerous psychotropic drugs are susceptible to inhibition by psychotropics or other substances. Many of the SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) inhibit the activity of enzymes for which they are substrates, leading to increased concentrations of the SSRIs or other drugs that are metabolized by the same enzyme. Enyzme inhibition can be competitive, when a drug partially inhibits an enzyme by competing for the same binding site as the substrate (the compound on which the enzyme acts), or irreversible, when a drug binds so completely to an enzyme that it fundamentally alters the enzyme and even partial metabolism of other substances cannot take place.

EOG

EOG 1. abbreviation for electrooculography or electrooculogram. 2. abbreviation for electroolfactography or electroolfactogram.

eonism

eonism n. the adoption by a male of a female role, or vice versa, as in transvestism. Eonism is named for Charles Eon de Beaumont, a French political adventurer who died in 1810 after posing as a woman for many years.

EP

EP abbreviation for evoked potential.

epena

epena n. a hallucinogenic snuff prepared from the bark of South American trees of the genus Virola and used in Colombia, Brazil, and Venezuela. The bark is scraped from the trees and boiled to extract a red resin that is dried, ground, and mixed with wood ash. The active agents, which include dimethyltryptamine (see DMT), produce effects that are comparable to those of LSD. Also called nyakwana; parica; yakee.

ependyma

ependyma n. the membrane lining the brain ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. —ependymal adj.

ependymal cell

ependymal cell a type of nonneuronal central nervous system cell (glia) that comprises the ependyma and helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid.

ependymoma

ependymoma n. see glioma.

ephebophilia

ephebophilia n. sexual attraction to and arousal by adolescent children, usually early adolescents who are just going through puberty.

ephedra

ephedra n. a bushy shrub (Ephedra sinica), known to Chinese herbalists as ma huang, that is indigenous to arid regions of the world, particularly Mongolia and northern China. The leaves contain significant amounts of the alkaloid stimulants ephedrine and pseudoephedrine and are traditionally made into a beverage. Both ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are strong sympathomimetic agents and therefore increase blood pressure, alertness, and anxiety, as well as causing peripheral symptoms of sympathetic activity (e.g., tremor, sweating). These agents also relax smooth muscle; hence, the plant and its active components have often been used as a remedy for asthma or other respiratory complaints. In addition, ephedra has been combined into many dietary supplements that are reputed to aid weight loss, increase energy, and enhance athletic performance. There is, however, little evidence of ephedra’s effectiveness for these uses except for modest, short-term weight loss without any clear health benefit. It is toxic and potentially fatal, particularly in high doses or when combined with other stimulants, such as caffeine; reported adverse events include headaches, insomnia, rapid or irregular heartbeat, nerve damage, muscle injury, psychosis, memory loss, heart attack, stroke, seizure, and death. In 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the sale of products containing ephedra, the first U.S. government ban of a dietary supplement.

ephemeral

ephemeral adj. fleeting, transient, or short-lived. The term literally means “lasting only one day.” —ephemera n.

EPI

EPI abbreviation for Eysenck Personality Inventory.

epi-

EPI abbreviation for Eysenck Personality Inventory.

epicritic

epicritic adj. denoting or relating to cutaneous nerve fibers involved in minute sensory discriminations, particularly those involving very small or near-threshold variations in temperature and touch sensations. Compare protopathic.

epidemic

epidemic adj. generally prevalent: affecting a significant number of people, particularly with reference to a disease or disorder not ordinarily present in a specific population or present at a much higher rate than is typical. Compare endemic; pandemic.

epidemic catalepsy

epidemic catalepsy a situation in which catalepsy occurs in a number of individuals at the same time as a result of identification or imitation.

epidemic hysteria

epidemic hysteria see collective hysteria.

Epidemiologic Catchment Area Survey (ECA Survey)

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epidemiology

epidemiology n. the study of the incidence and distribution of specific diseases and disorders. The epidemiologist also seeks to establish relationships to such factors as heredity, environment, nutrition, or age at onset. Results of epidemiological studies are intended to find clues and associations rather than necessarily to show causal relationships. See also incidence; prevalence; risk ratio. —epidemiologic or epidemiological adj.

epidermis

epidermis n. 1. the outer, protective, nonvascular layer of the skin of vertebrates. 2. the outer layer of cells of various invertebrates. 3. the outermost layer of cells covering the leaves and young parts of plants.

epididymis

epididymis n. (pl. epididymides) an elongated tubule running along the top and back of the testis that stores spermatozoa received from seminiferous tubules within the testis. It empties into the vas deferens. —epididymal adj.

epidural hematoma

epidural hematoma an accumulation of blood (see hematoma) in the space above the dura mater caused by rupture of a blood vessel (see extradural hemorrhage), typically due to trauma.

epidural hemorrhage

epidural hemorrhage see extradural hemorrhage.

epigastric reflex

epigastric reflex a spinal reflex that draws in the upper central region of the abdominal wall, elicited by a quick stroke with a pin from the nipple downward.

epigenesis

epigenesis n. 1. the theory, now accepted, that prenatal development is a gradual, complex, and cumulative process involving successive differentiation of morphological structures from fertilized ovum to embryo to fetus. Compare preformism. 2. the theory that characteristics of an organism, both physical and behavioral, arise from an interaction between genetic and environmental influences rather than from one or the other. See also nature–nurture. 3. in genetics, the occurrence of a heritable change in gene function that is not the result of a change in the base sequence of the organism’s DNA. See also epigenetics. 4. in the theory of Erik Erikson, the emergence of different goals at each stage of ego and social development. See Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. —epigenetic adj.

epigenetic landscape

epigenetic landscape a visual metaphor that depicts development as a hill with valleys of various depths and steepness, to convey the idea that some aspects of development are directed along certain general pathways and likely to occur under most circumstances but that the exact sequence of paths varies across individuals and can be altered by sudden environmental or genetic change. [proposed by British biologist Conrad Hall Waddington (1905–1975)]

epigenetic theory

epigenetic theory the concept that mind and consciousness developed when living organisms reached a high level of complexity. See emergence.

epigenetics

epigenetics n. the study of heritable chemical modifications to DNA that alter gene activity without changing nucleotide sequence. Such modifications instead typically involve the attachment of additional material to the DNA molecule itself (DNA methylation) or the structural alteration of its associated proteins (chromatin remodeling), which disrupt the normal development and functioning of cells by influencing gene activation, deactivation, transcription, and so forth. Epigenetic mechanisms have been proposed as the means by which environmental and psychosocial factors such as toxins and early childhood experiences interact with physiology: They affect neural function through changes in gene expression that lead to individual differences in cognition and behavior (e.g., learning, memory, aggression, affect). Research also suggests that some epigenetic changes of an individual can be passed down to more than one generation of descendants. Additionally, epigenetic abnormalities have been linked to the etiology of many diseases and mental disorders, including autoimmune disturbances, cancer, heart disease, anxiety, autism, depression, intellectual disability, schizophrenia, and substance abuse.

epilepsy

epilepsy n. a group of chronic brain disorders associated with disturbances in the electrical discharges of brain cells and characterized by recurrent seizures, with or without clouding or loss of consciousness. Symptomatic epilepsy is due to known conditions, such as brain inflammation, brain tumor, vascular disturbances, structural abnormality, brain injury, or degenerative disease; idiopathic epilepsy is of unknown origin or is due to nonspecific brain defects. Types of seizure vary depending on the nature of the abnormal electrical discharge and the area of the brain affected (see absence seizure; generalized seizure; partial seizure; tonic–clonic seizure). Epilepsy was formerly known as falling sickness. Also called seizure disorder. See also status epilepticus; temporal lobe epilepsy. —epileptic adj.

epilepsy surgery

epilepsy surgery neurosurgery to remove a part of the brain, often the anterior temporal lobe, that is the focus for intractable (uncontrollable) epileptic seizures. The goal of the surgery is to reduce or eliminate seizures.

epileptic cry

epileptic cry a momentary cry produced by sudden contraction of the chest and laryngeal muscles during the tonic phase of a tonic–clonic seizure. Also called initial cry.

epileptic furor

epileptic furor see furor.

epileptiform

epileptiform adj. resembling epilepsy. Also called epileptoid.

epileptiform seizure

epileptiform seizure an episode that resembles an epileptic seizure. See also nonepileptic seizure.

epileptogenic

epileptogenic adj. describing any factor or agent that causes or potentially may induce epileptic seizures.

epileptogenic focus

epileptogenic focus a discrete area of the brain in which originate the electrical discharges that give rise to seizure activity.

epileptogenic lesion

epileptogenic lesion an area of tissue damage in the brain that results in epileptic seizures. Epilepsy may result from various brain lesions—for example, head injury, laceration, tumor, or hemorrhage—arising either immediately after the injury or, in some cases, months or years later.

epimenorrhagia

epimenorrhagia n. see menorrhagia.

epinephrine

epinephrine n. a catecholamine neurotransmitter and adrenal hormone that is the end product of the metabolism of the dietary amino acid tyrosine. It is synthesized primarily in the adrenal medulla by methylation of norepinephrine, which itself is formed from dopamine by the action of the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase. As a hormone, it is secreted in large amounts when an individual is stimulated by fear, anxiety, or a similar stress-related reaction. As a neurotransmitter, it is the primary stimulant of both alpha-adrenergic receptors and beta-adrenergic receptors. Thus, it increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, relaxes bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, and produces varying effects on blood pressure as it acts both as a vasodilator and vasoconstrictor. Also called adrenaline.

epiphany

epiphany n. a sudden perception of the essential nature of oneself, others, or reality.

epiphenomenalism

epiphenomenalism n. the position that bodily (physical) events produce mental events, such as thoughts and feelings, but that mental events do not have causal power to produce bodily (physical) events. Thus, causality between the mental and the physical proceeds in one direction only. A more radical form of the same position would add that mental events lack causal efficacy to produce anything, including other mental events. The term was coined in 1902 by James Ward, but the concept itself predates his usage. For example, British philosopher Shadworth H. Hodgson (1832–1912) and British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) wrote about it some 30 years earlier, with Huxley in 1874 famously likening mental events (e.g., consciousness) to the steam whistle of a locomotive: They are by-products of the locomotive but cannot affect the locomotive itself. Huxley’s term for the concept was conscious automatism. See also mind–body problem; reductionism.

epiphenomenon

epiphenomenon n. (pl. epiphenomena) a mere by-product of a process that has no effect on the process itself. The term is used most frequently to refer to mental events considered as products of brain processes. Thus, though mental events are real in some sense, they are not real in the same way that biological states and events are real, and not necessary to the explanation of mental events themselves. Epiphenomena are conceived of as having no causal power. See epiphenomenalism. —epiphenomenal adj.

epiphora

epiphora n. excessive secretion of tears, which is most commonly due to an organic condition causing an insufficient drainage of tears but may be associated with emotional stress, such as chronic anxiety or fear.

episode

episode n. a noteworthy isolated event or series of events. An episode of an illness is an isolated occurrence, which may be repeated.

episodic amnesia

episodic amnesia a loss of memory only for certain significant events. Episodic amnesia may involve a transient ability to recall an event followed by periods of inability to access the memory.

episodic buffer

episodic buffer a fourth component added to the 1974 tripartite model of working memory proposed by British cognitive psychologists Alan D. Baddeley (1934– ) and Graham J. Hitch (1946– ). Introduced in 2000 as a further subsidiary of the central executive, the episodic buffer is a temporary multimodal store that combines information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad subsystems of working memory with information about time and order to form and maintain an integrated, detailed representation of a given stimulus or event that can then be deposited into long-term memory as necessary. It is “episodic” in the sense that it holds integrated episodes or scenes and a “buffer” in the sense of providing a limited capacity interface between systems using different representational codes. In addressing certain shortcomings of the original working memory model—particularly the failure to explain the process of chunking and the dilemma of linking the two distinct representational formats of the loop and sketchpad—the episodic buffer provides a means to allow multiple sources of information to be considered simultaneously, thus creating a model of the environment that may be manipulated to solve problems and plan future behavior.

episodic disorder

episodic disorder any disorder characterized by the appearance of symptoms in discrete, often brief, periods or episodes.

episodic memory

episodic memory the ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place. As defined in 1972 by Endel Tulving, episodic memory supplements semantic memory as a form of declarative memory. Although Tulving’s original description of episodic memory required recollecting the three ‘Ws’ of an event—what, where, and when—it has since been revised to include a sense of self-awareness and a subjective conscious experience as well (termed autonoetic consciousness). In other words, in addition to recalling the facts of a past event, an individual has to engage in “mental time travel” and remember that he or she was the one who lived the event. The hippocampus plays a key role in episodic memory formation and retrieval. Atrophy of this area and structures in the associated hippocampal formation is a hallmark feature of Alzheimer’s disease, although episodic memory also declines considerably with normal aging. See also autobiographical memory.

epistemic

epistemic adj. of or relating to knowledge or to epistemology. The epistemic drive, created by the desire for knowledge, is often considered a fundamental drive. See need for cognition.

epistemic value

epistemic value the extent to which a theory, model, or cognitive process (e.g., a sense perception or memory) is capable of providing accurate knowledge; also, any specific attribute of a theory or process that is considered to be a sign of its ability to convey such knowledge. For example, falsifiability and empirical grounding are important epistemic values in science; consistency and clarity might be considered epistemic values in relation to memory.

epistemology

epistemology n. the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, origin, and limitations of knowledge. It is also concerned with the justification of truth claims. Mainly owing to the work of René Descartes, epistemology has been the dominant question in philosophy since the 17th century (see Cartesianism; Cartesian self; modernism). In psychology, interest in epistemology arises from two principal sources. First, as the study of the behavior of human beings, psychology has long had interest in the processes of knowledge acquisition and learning of all sorts. Second, as a science, psychology has an interest in the justification of its knowledge claims. In connection with this concern, most work on epistemology in psychology has concentrated on the scientific method and on the justification of scientifically derived knowledge claims. In general, the guiding epistemology of psychology has been empiricism, although some approaches to the subject, such as psychoanalysis, the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget, and the humanistic psychology of Carl Rogers, are heavily influenced by rationalism. —epistemological adj.

epistemophilia

epistemophilia n. the love of knowledge: the impulse to investigate and inquire. See also curiosity.

epithalamus

epithalamus n. a portion of the diencephalon that is immediately above and behind the thalamus. It includes the pineal gland and the posterior commissure.

epithelioma

epithelioma n. any tumor that originates in cells of the epithelium. Skin cancer may begin as an epithelioma.

epithelium

epithelium n. (pl. epithelia) the cellular layer covering the outer surface of the body and lining body cavities, such as the lungs and gastrointestinal tract. —epithelial adj.

EPP

EPP abbreviation for end-plate potential.

EPPS

EPPS abbreviation for Edwards Personal Preference Schedule.

EPQ

EPQ abbreviation for Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. See Eysenck Personality Inventory.

EPS

EPS abbreviation for extrapyramidal symptoms or syndrome.

EPSDT

EPSDT abbreviation for Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment.

epsilon alcoholism

epsilon alcoholism see Jellinek’s alcoholism species.

epsilon movement

epsilon movement the perception of motion occurring when a white line on a black background is changed to a black line on a white background. Also called epsilon motion.

EPSP

EPSP abbreviation for excitatory postsynaptic potential.

Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)

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EQ

EQ 1. abbreviation for educational quotient. 2. see emotional intelligence quotient.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

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equal loudness contour

equal loudness contour the function relating decibels sound-pressure level (dB SPL) to frequency for pure tones that have a loudness equal to that of a 1-kHz tone at a fixed level. For example, a 100 Hz tone presented at 70 dB SPL is as loud as a 1 kHz tone presented at 60 dB SPL. This is a point on the equal loudness contour for a 60-phon reference. This function has been incorporated in audio circuitry as “loudness compensation,” primarily in an attempt to correct for the decreased loudness of low frequencies when listening at low levels. See loudness.

equal opportunity

equal opportunity under U.S. federal law, the principle that all individuals should have the opportunity to find employment and to succeed in their jobs regardless of race, age, color, religion, sex, disability, and national origin. The principle of equal opportunity also applies to education, health care, and social and other services, and in some states and municipalities, it has been extended to include sexual orientation. See also affirmative action; Age Discrimination in Employment Act; Americans With Disabilities Act; four-fifths rule; reverse discrimination; Uniform Guidelines for Employee Selection Procedures.

equal rights amendment (ERA)

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equal sense-difference method

equal sense-difference method see method of equal-appearing intervals.

equal weighting

equal weighting see weighting.

equal-and-unequal-cases method

equal-and-unequal-cases method see method of equal and unequal cases.

equal-appearing-intervals method

equal-appearing-intervals method see method of equal-appearing intervals.

equality law

equality law see law of equality.

equality of variance

equality of variance see homogeneity of variance.

equality stage

equality stage see distributive justice.

equated score

equated score the score distribution from Measure B transformed to match the distribution of Measure A in one or more features. See transformation.

equation

equation n. a formal, usually brief, statement showing that two expressions are the same or equal. In mathematics or statistics, an equation is often a statement with y on the left of an equal sign and an expression for delineating or modeling y on the right side. For example, a commonly used equation for a straight line is y = mx + b, where m stands for the slope of the line, x stands for different values along the x-axis, and b stands for the point where the line crosses the y-axis.

equilibration

equilibration n. in Piagetian theory, the process by which an individual uses assimilation and accommodation to restore or maintain a psychological equilibrium, that is, a cognitive state devoid of conflicting schemas.

equilibratory sense

equilibratory sense see sense of equilibrium.

equilibrium

equilibrium n. 1. a state of physical or mental balance or stability (e.g., in posture, physiological processes, psychological adjustment). See homeostasis; sense of equilibrium; vestibular system. 2. a state of stability in any other system. See also dynamic equilibrium.

equilibrium model of group development

equilibrium model of group development in general, any conceptual analysis that assumes that the processes contributing to group development fluctuate around, but regularly return to, a resting point where opposing forces are balanced or held in check. For example, U.S. social psychologist Robert Freed Bales (1916–2004) suggested that groups vary over time in the extent to which they stress the accomplishment of group tasks relative to the improvement of interpersonal relationships among group members.

equilibrium potential

equilibrium potential the state in which the tendency of ions (electrically charged particles) to flow across a cell membrane from regions of high concentration is exactly balanced by the opposing potential difference (electric charge) across the membrane.

equilibrium-point model

equilibrium-point model a model of limb control in which the target of a movement is specified as an equilibrium point between the agonist and antagonist muscle groups acting on the limb. Variants of this model are called the mass-spring model and the lambda (λ) model. See also impulse-timing model.

equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP)

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equipercentile method

equipercentile method a procedure for showing how two measures are similar, such that a shared value of x on the two measurements implies that the probability of a person drawn at random having a score greater than x is the same for both measures.

equipment automation

equipment automation the extent to which equipment can operate without human intervention. For example, progress from manual feeds to fully automated feeds reflects an increasing degree of equipment automation.

equipment design

equipment design an area of human engineering concerned with the design of work tools, home appliances, and machines of all kinds, including their displays and controls. One particularly important application is the design of transport systems, such as roads, road signs, and the vehicles that use them. The major goal is to see that the equipment is designed with human factors in mind, such as safety, fatigue, convenience, comfort, and efficiency. See tool design; workspace design. See also engineering psychology; ergonomics.

equipotentiality

equipotentiality n. 1. Karl S. Lashley’s hypothesis that large areas of cerebral cortex have similar potential to perform particular functions, including learning and other complex processes (e.g., maze navigation), so that intact cortical areas may take over functions of damaged or destroyed areas. Proposed in 1929 following experimental observations of the effects of different brain lesions on rats’ ability to learn a complex maze, the concept has been challenged by subsequent research showing that areas of cortex have relatively specific functions. Brain plasticity (adaptive shifting of function) is commonly observed after local cortical damage, however. See also mass action. 2. in learning theory, the principle that any pair of stimuli can be associated with equal ease, regardless of their nature or origin. Also called law of equipotentiality; principle of equipotentiality.

equity stage

equity stage see distributive justice.

equity theory

equity theory a theory of justice regarding what individuals are likely to view as a fair return from activities involving themselves and a number of other people. The theory posits that people compare the ratio of the outcome of the activity—that is, the benefits they receive from it (e.g., pay, fringe benefits, intrinsic gratifications, recognition)—to their inputs (e.g., effort, seniority, skills, social status) with the outcome-to-input ratios of those engaged in a comparable activity. Outcomes are equitable only when people receive benefits that are proportional to their inputs. See external inequity; internal inequity; overpayment inequity; underpayment inequity.

equivalence

equivalence n. a relationship between two or more items, scales, variables, or stimuli that permits one to replace another.

equivalence class

equivalence class a stimulus group whose members exhibit reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity in the context of conditional discriminations. In other words, the members demonstrate stimulus equivalence and hence may substitute for one another.

equivalence paradox

equivalence paradox the situation in which two different procedures produce very similar outcomes, despite having different initial assumptions or features. For example, two very different psychotherapy procedures may nonetheless produce very similar, positive outcomes, possibly due to the therapeutic relationship instead of the specific treatments. In statistics, the term refers to the fact that principal components analysis and factor analysis often produce a similar pattern of dimensions and loadings, although they each have a different premise.

equivalency test

equivalency test an assessment of one’s educational level regardless of whether one has completed a specific course of study. For example, by taking the appropriate equivalency test, one may obtain a high school diploma without completing high school state requirements.

equivalent form

equivalent form see alternate form.

equivalent stimulus

equivalent stimulus see stimulus equivalence.

equivalent-forms reliability

equivalent-forms reliability see alternate-forms reliability.

equivalents method

equivalents method see method of adjustment.

equivocal death analysis

equivocal death analysis see psychological autopsy.

equivocal sign

equivocal sign see soft sign.

ER

ER 1. abbreviation for endoplasmic reticulum. 2. abbreviation for evoked response (see evoked potential).

ERA

ERA abbreviation for equal rights amendment.

erect

erect adj. 1. upright or vertical. See piloerection; posture. 2. tumescent, as an erect penis (see tumescence).

erectile dysfunction

erectile dysfunction the lack or loss of ability to achieve an erection. It may be primary, in which a man has never been able to achieve erection sufficient for sexual intercourse; or secondary, in which a man is no longer capable of producing or maintaining an erection or can have one only in some situations (e.g., during masturbation) or with some partners. Causes of erectile dysfunction may be psychological or physical, including the effects of medications or drug abuse. If a man normally experiences a nocturnal erection or is able to induce an erection by masturbation, but cannot achieve or maintain an erection during sexual intercourse, the dysfunction is assumed to be due largely or solely to psychological factors. See male erectile disorder.

eremophilia

eremophilia n. a pathological desire to be alone.

erethism

erethism n. 1. an abnormally high degree of sensitivity to sensory stimulation in some or all parts of the body. It is associated with a number of conditions and is a major symptom of mercury poisoning. See also Mad Hatter’s disease. 2. any abnormally high degree of sensitivity, excitability, or irritability in response to stimulation, such as emotional erethism.

ERF

ERF abbreviation for event-related magnetic field.

erg

erg n. 1. a term used by Raymond B. Cattell, in preference to drive or instinct, to denote a type of innate dynamic trait that directs an individual toward a goal and provides the motivational energy to obtain it. Examples include curiosity, self-assertion, gregariousness, protectiveness, and hunger. 2. in physics, a unit of work or energy. ERG abbreviation for electroretinogram. See electroretinography.

ERG

ERG theory

ERG theory abbreviation for existence, relatedness, and growth theory.

ergasiology

ergasiology n. see psychobiology.

ergative

ergative n. in English and some other languages, a verb that can be used either transitively or intransitively with the same noun to describe the same action. An example is close in I closed the door or the door closed: The direct object of the transitive verb (here door) becomes the subject of the intransitive verb. Such constructions are of great interest in case grammar and generative grammar.

ergic trait

ergic trait a dynamic trait that motivates an individual to achieve an objective.

ergodicity

ergodicity n. a principle stating that the average value of a variable over a set of individuals in a defined space or time, such as a sample, will be the same as the average across a long time series of points for a single individual. For example, if ergodicity held for a measure of satisfaction in an organization, the average satisfaction score of all employees in the organization would be the same as the average satisfaction score across a one-year period for one employee. In reality, ergodicity does not always hold, thus giving rise to different streams of nomothetic and idiographic research, which focus on the group or the individual, respectively.

ergograph

ergograph n. a device used to record the work capacity or fatigue of a muscle or muscle group. The output of an ergograph is called an ergogram, indicating the amount of work done or the physical exertion of the muscles.

ergomania

ergomania n. see workaholism.

ergometry

ergometry n. the measurement of physical work performed by the muscles under various task demands. —ergometric adj.

ergonomic traps

ergonomic traps components of a design that contribute to the probability of accidents and human error. Designs that are not intuitive or that violate normal human tendencies in terms of behavior and mental processing contain ergonomic traps. For example, clothes irons with the power cable on the right side present an ergonomic trap to someone who is left-handed. See behavior-based safety.

ergonomics

ergonomics n. the discipline that applies a knowledge of human abilities and limitations drawn from physiology, biomechanics, anthropometry, and other areas to the design of systems, equipment, and processes for safe and efficient performance. A practitioner in the field is sometimes called an ergonomist. Speciality areas include cognitive ergonomics, communication ergonomics, cultural ergonomics, industrial ergonomics, macroergonomics, and occupational ergonomics. This term is often used synonymously with human factors. See also human systems integration. —ergonomic adj.

ergonovine

ergonovine n. see ergot derivative; oxytocic.

ergot alkaloid

ergot alkaloid any of a group of pharmacologically active substances derived from the parasitic fungus Claviceps purpurea, which grows naturally on rye and other grains. Although highly toxic, ergot alkaloids have been used for centuries by midwives to induce abortion or labor. A number have been isolated, including lysergic acid, and the compounds are sometimes utilized as adrenergic blocking agents (see ergot derivative). Epidemics of ergot poisoning (ergotism) were widespread in Europe until relatively modern times; symptoms included peripheral vasoconstriction (occasionally to the point of gangrene) and changes in mental functioning, including visual hallucinations. Because of the pharmacological relationship between ergot and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), the hallucinogenic effects are similar to those of LSD.

ergot derivative

ergot derivative any of a group of adrenergic blocking agents with selective inhibitory activity, derived from ergot alkaloids. Ergot derivatives act on the central nervous system in a complex manner and, in various forms and doses, can both stimulate and depress higher brain centers. A circulatory effect is vasoconstriction. Some of these agents, including ergotamine, are used in the control of migraine headaches, sometimes combined with other drugs (e.g., caffeine). The derivative ergonovine is used as an oxytocic.

ergotamine

ergotamine n. an alkaloid drug (an ergot derivative) used in the treatment of vascular headaches, including migraines. The exact nature of its therapeutic action is unknown, but ergotamine is believed to constrict the dilated cranial blood vessels responsible for headache symptoms. U.S. trade name (among others): Cafergot.

ergotherapy

ergotherapy n. treatment of disease by muscular exercise. This term is used in Europe; it is not common in the United States.

ergotropic

ergotropic adj. related to or concerning a capacity or propensity for expenditure of energy, that is, for activity, effort, or work. Compare trophotropic.

Erhard Seminar Training (est; EST)

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Erichsen’s disease

Erichsen’s disease a disorder characterized by back pain and other spinal symptoms that was first identified in 1866 (at a time when railroad transportation was becoming increasingly popular) and was believed to be a result of railroad accidents. As the state of medicine advanced, it was realized that these symptoms were not of organic origin but may have indicated either malingering or a psychogenic disorder that may have been a precursor to posttraumatic stress disorder. Also called railway spine. [John Eric Erichsen (1818–1896), British surgeon]

Ericksonian psychotherapy

Ericksonian psychotherapy a form of psychotherapy in which the therapist works with the client to create, through hypnosis (specifically through indirect suggestion) and metaphors, real-life experiences intended to activate previously dormant, intrapsychic resources. Also called Ericksonian hypnotherapy. [Milton H. Erickson]

Eriksen flankers task

Eriksen flankers task see flanker task. [Charles W. Eriksen, U.S. psychologist]

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development the theory proposed by Erik Erikson that ego identity is gradually achieved by facing goals and challenges during eight stages of development across the lifespan. The stages are (a) infancy: basic trust versus mistrust; (b) toddler: autonomy versus shame and doubt; (c) preschool age: initiative versus guilt; (d) school age: industry versus inferiority; (e) adolescence: identity versus identity confusion; (f) young adulthood: intimacy versus isolation; (g) middle age: generativity versus stagnation; and (h) older adulthood: integrity versus despair.

ERISA

ERISA acronym for Employee Retirement Income Security Act.

erogenous zone

erogenous zone an area or part of the body sensitive to stimulation that is a source of erotic or sexual feeling or pleasure. Among the primary zones are the genitals, buttocks and anus, the breasts (especially the nipples), and the mouth.

Eros

Eros n. the god of love in Greek mythology (equivalent to the Roman Cupid), whose name was chosen by Sigmund Freud to designate a theoretical set of strivings oriented toward sexuality, development, and increased life activity (see life instinct). In Freud’s dual instinct theory, Eros is seen as involved in a dialectic process with Thanatos, the striving toward reduced psychical tension and life activity (see death instinct). See also libido.

erosion

erosion n. the deterioration or corrosion of a physical setting from climate effects and from use by organisms, including human beings. For example, the degree of erosion evident in footpaths or trails in a woodland may be taken as an indication of their degree of use. Compare accretion.

erotic asphyxiation

erotic asphyxiation sexual pleasure associated with restriction of breathing during sexual activity. See asphyxophilia; autoerotic asphyxia.

erotic delusion

erotic delusion the false perception or belief that one is loved by or has had a sexual affair with a public figure or other individual. Also called erotomania; erotomanic delusion. See Clérambault’s syndrome; delusional disorder; erotic paranoia; Simenon’s syndrome.

erotic feminism

erotic feminism a type of feminism that emphasizes female sexuality and its expression as a means of opposing the exploitation of women and escaping male domination. This contrasts with some other tendencies in mainstream feminism, which can appear wary or even dismissive in their approach to erotic expression.

erotic instinct

erotic instinct 1. in psychoanalytic theory, the sex drive or libido. 2. Eros, or the life instinct.

erotic love

erotic love a type of love, identified in certain classification systems, that is characterized by strong sexual arousal. See also limerence; passionate love.

erotic paranoia

erotic paranoia a disorder in which the individual experiences erotic delusions. Also called erotomanic-type delusional disorder. See delusional disorder. See also Clérambault’s syndrome; Simenon’s syndrome.

erotic plasticity

erotic plasticity the degree to which sexual desire and sexual behavior are shaped by social, cultural, and situational factors. See behavioral plasticity.

erotic pyromania

erotic pyromania see pyrolagnia.

erotic type

erotic type see libidinal types.

erotica

erotica pl. n. literature, illustrations, motion pictures, or other artistic material likely to arouse an emotional response through an aesthetic treatment of sexuality and sexual love. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with pornography. However, the distinction is often made that erotica, unlike most pornography, does not involve violence, coercion, or exploitative sexuality, instead depicting sexuality in a positive manner. [from erotic (Greek erotikos, derived from eros: “love”)]

eroticism

eroticism n. 1. the quality of being sexually arousing or pleasurable or the condition of being sexually aroused. 2. a preoccupation with or susceptibility to sexual excitement. 3. the use of sexually arousing themes, images, or suggestions in entertainment or the arts. 4. in psychoanalytic theory, the pleasurable sensations associated not only with stimulation of the genitals but also with nongenital parts of the body, such as the mouth or anus (see anal eroticism; oral eroticism). Also called erotism. See also autoeroticism; erotization. —erotic adj.

eroticization

eroticization n. see erotization.

erotism

erotism n. see eroticism.

erotization

erotization n. the investment of bodily organs and functions with sexual pleasure and gratification. Common examples are the erotization of certain areas of the body, such as the oral or anal erogenous zones; organs such as the skin; functions such as sucking, defecation, or urination; and olfactory sensations associated with sex. Theoretically, almost any interest or activity can be erotized by the individual; for example, activities such as dancing and eating are not infrequently seen as erotic or as having erotic components. Also called eroticization; libidinization; sexualization. —erotize vb.

erotogenesis

erotogenesis n. in classical psychoanalytic theory, the origination of erotic impulses from sources that may include the anal, oral, and genital zones. See erotization.

erotogenic

erotogenic adj. denoting or relating to any stimulus that evokes or excites sexual feelings or responses.

erotogenic masochism

erotogenic masochism see primary masochism.

erotographomania

erotographomania n. an obsession with erotic writing that is accompanied by a pathological compulsion to write about sexual matters or draw sexual images, typically expressed through anonymous love letters or graffiti.

erotolalia

erotolalia n. speech that contains sexual obscenities, particularly as used to enhance gratification during sexual intercourse.

erotomania

erotomania n. 1. compulsive, insatiable sexual activity. 2. see erotic delusion. —erotomanic adj.

erotomanic delusion

erotomanic delusion see erotic delusion.

erotophonophilia

erotophonophilia n. see lust murder.

ERP

ERP 1. abbreviation for event-related potential. 2. abbreviation for exposure and response prevention.

ERP measure of attitudes

ERP measure of attitudes a physiological measure of attitudes based on electrocortical activity. The procedure makes use of the phenomenon that one component of event-related potentials (ERPs), the late positive potential (or P300), varies as a function of categorization of stimuli. This component is large when a target stimulus is judged to be inconsistent with the context in which it is encountered and small when it is judged to be consistent with the context. To assess attitudes, the target attitude object is evaluated as part of a series of objects that are either positive or negative in nature. If a large late positive potential is produced when the attitude object is evaluated in the negative context and a small positive potential is produced when it is evaluated in the positive context, this indicates a positive attitude. The reverse pattern indicates a negative attitude. [originally developed by U.S. psychologists John T. Cacioppo (1951– ), Stephen L. Crites Jr. (1967– ), and their associates]

ERP measures of intelligence

ERP measures of intelligence measures of intelligence elicited by observing event-related potentials (ERPs) in the brain in response to various kinds of stimuli. These measures show reliable correlations with traditional measures of intelligence, with the level of the correlation depending on the particular potential being measured. For example, P300, a positive potential observed roughly 300 ms after presentation of a stimulus, tends to be related to effectiveness in coping with novelty and appears to be related to intelligence.

error

error n. 1. a deviation from true or accurate information (e.g., a wrong response, a mistaken belief). 2. in experimentation, any change in a dependent variable not attributable to the manipulation of an independent variable. 3. in statistics, a deviation of an observed score from a true score, where the true score is often defined by the mean of the particular group or condition in which the score being assessed for error occurs, or from the score predicted by a model. Errors generally are categorized as systematic error or random error. See also residual.

error analysis

error analysis 1. the study of human factors and engineering-design factors that may result in production or operation errors. See also accident analysis; failure modes and effects analysis; fault tree analysis; job-safety analysis. 2. a systematic analysis of the language corpus obtained from second-language learners to identify ways in which the linguistic forms systematically deviate from target-language norms and to make inferences about the learner’s state of second-language development. See fossilization; interlanguage; language transfer.

error method

error method see method of adjustment.

error of anticipation

error of anticipation in the method of limits, an error in which the participant responds target present before it is actually detected, based on the knowledge that the stimuli are being presented in an ascending order.

error of commission

error of commission a category of human error in which an operator performs an incorrect or additional action, such as pressing a control button twice, leading to inappropriate or duplicate performance of a function. Compare error of omission.

error of habituation

error of habituation in the method of limits, a tendency to continue with the previous response (either target present or target absent) beyond the point at which a transition in judgments should occur.

error of omission

error of omission a category of human error in which an operator fails to perform a necessary step or action, such as failing to press a control button, leading to the failure of a function. Compare error of commission.

error of refraction

error of refraction see refractive error.

error rate

error rate the frequency with which errors are made. Examples include the proportion of an experimenter’s data recordings that are wrong or the number of Type I errors that occur during significance testing.

error score

error score in classical test theory, the difference between a person’s observed measurement or score and his or her expected measurement or score. Also called residual score.

error sum of squares

error sum of squares the difference between a score and the mean score, multiplied by this same difference. It is part of the denominator of the F ratio in an analysis of variance and represents the amount of variation in the dependent variable that cannot be explained by the independent variables. Also called residual sum of squares; sum of squared errors (SSE). Compare regression sum of squares.

error term

error term the element of a statistical equation that indicates the amount of change in the dependent variable that is unexplained by change in the independent variables. Also called disturbance term; residual term.

error variance

error variance the element of variability in a score that is produced by extraneous factors, such as measurement imprecision, and is not attributable to the independent variable or other controlled experimental manipulations. Error variance usually indicates how much random fluctuation is expected within scores and often forms part of the denominator of test statistics, such as the F ratio in an analysis of variance. Also called residual error; residual variance; unexplained variance.

error-choice technique

error-choice technique an indirect attitude measure that consists of a series of objective-knowledge multiple-choice questions about an attitude object. These questions are constructed so that people are unlikely to know the true answers, but with response options that imply positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object. For example, an error-choice measure of attitudes toward capital punishment might include questions about the percentage of people falsely convicted for capital crimes and the percentage difference in the number of violent crimes in states with and without capital punishment. The procedure is based on the assumption that participants will use their attitudes as a basis for guessing; that is, they will tend to select answers that support their attitudes. Attitudes are assessed by computing the number of positive response options selected relative to the number of negative response options selected. Also called information-error technique.

errorless learning

errorless learning a method that prevents the production of incorrect answers during the learning period. Specifically, learning occurs across several sessions but memory is not tested until the last session. It is thought to be more efficient than standard trial-and-error learning because it eliminates interference.

erythema multiforme major

erythema multiforme major a skin condition due to hypersensitivity to certain infections and medications. Previously thought to be a form of Stevens–Johnson syndrome, it is now generally considered to be a distinct condition.

erythro- (erythr-)

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erythropoietin

erythropoietin n. a protein produced by the kidneys and liver that stimulates the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the bone marrow and maintains erythrocytes in the circulation at an optimal level.

erythropsia

erythropsia n. see chromatopsia.

Esalen Institute

Esalen Institute an alternative educational center in California, founded in 1962, where enhancement of well-being is approached through a number of meditative and New Age therapies. Therapists and members of the general public participate in seminars, workshops, experiential programs, and other events that are designed to promote self-exploration and enhance relationships with others.

ESB

ESB abbreviation for electrostimulation of the brain.

escalating aggression

escalating aggression increasing intensity or severity of hostile or destructive behavior, often to the point of violence. This process is often associated with assaultive behavior, domestic violence, and the cycle of violence.

escalating commitment

escalating commitment continued commitment and increased allocation of resources to a failing course of action, often in the hope of recouping past losses associated with that course of action. It is often associated with expenditures and decision making in the development of new products, when a company increases the allocation of resources to a failing product, regardless of the low probability of its success, in an attempt to recover some of its initial investment.

escape behavior

escape behavior any response designed to move away from or eliminate an already present aversive stimulus. Escape behavior may be mental (through fantasy or daydreams) or behavioral (physical withdrawal from a noxious stimulus or a conditioned response, as when an animal taps a lever in order to terminate a shock). See also active avoidance. Compare avoidance behavior.

escape conditioning

escape conditioning the process by which a subject acquires a response that results in the termination of an aversive stimulus. For example, if a monkey learns that pulling a string eliminates a loud noise, escape conditioning has occurred. Also called escape learning; escape training. See also avoidance conditioning.

escape from freedom

escape from freedom a false solution to an individual’s problems of loneliness and isolation, in which he or she seeks refuge in social conformity. See also identity need. [defined by Erich Fromm]

escape from reality

escape from reality a defensive reaction involving the use of fantasy as a means of avoiding conflicts and problems of daily living. See also flight from reality.

escape into illness

escape into illness see flight into illness.

escape mechanism

escape mechanism see defense mechanism.

escape titration

escape titration a procedure in which an animal, presented with an aversive stimulus that increases in intensity over time, can give a response decrease the stimulus intensity by some fixed (usually small) amount. By responding, therefore, the subject can control the intensity of the stimulus at virtually any level within the range set by the experimenter. Also called fractional escape.

escapism

escapism n. the tendency to escape from the real world to the delight or security of a fantasy world. Escapism may reflect a periodic, normal, and common impulse, as might be seen in harmless daydreams, or it may be evidence of or accompany symptoms of neurosis or more serious mental pathology. —escapist adj.

Eskalith

Eskalith n. a trade name for lithium.

ESL

ESL abbreviation for English as a second language.

ESM

ESM abbreviation for experience-sampling method.

esophageal speech

esophageal speech a type of phonation, not involving the larynx, in which the air supply originates in the narrow upper portion of the esophagus, with the pharyngoesophageal segment (the sphincterlike muscle at the junction of the laryngopharynx and the esophagus) acting as a neoglottis (vibratory apparatus). Compare buccal speech.

esophoria

esophoria n. an inward deviation of one eye that is due to a muscular imbalance and that interferes with binocular vision. Esophoria is a form of heterophoria. See also phoria.

esotropia

esotropia n. see cross-eye; tropia.

ESP

ESP abbreviation for extrasensory perception.

ESP cards

ESP cards see Zener cards.

ESP forced-choice test

ESP forced-choice test in parapsychology experiments, a technique in which a participant’s “calls,” or guesses, are restricted to a predetermined set of targets, as with Zener cards. The main advantages of this procedure are that the success or failure of the participants’ calls should be (a) unambiguous and (b) statistically measurable, enabling them to be compared with chance expectations.

ESP free-response test

ESP free-response test in parapsychology experiments, a technique in which a participant’s “calls,” or guesses, are not restricted to a predetermined set of targets. The calls are then correlated to possible targets by a process of preferential matching.

espanto

espanto n. see susto.

esprit de corps

esprit de corps a feeling of unity, commitment, purpose, and collective efficacy shared by most or all of the members of a cohesive group or organization. Unlike group morale, which can be low when members are dissatisfied or indifferent, esprit de corps implies confidence and enthusiasm for the group. See also group cohesion; group solidarity.

ESS

ESS abbreviation for evolutionarily stable strategy.

ESSB

ESSB abbreviation for electrical self-stimulation of the brain. See intracranial stimulation.

essence

essence n. in philosophy, the presumed ontological reality at the core of something that makes it what it is and not something else. There have been various philosophical attempts to define the difference between what something necessarily is and what it merely coincidentally is (see accidental property; essential property). In psychology, the concept of essence is relevant to discussions of personhood, including questions of human agency and of the self. It is thus important for personality theories. The view that human beings have certain important essential characteristics is known as essentialism. —essential adj.

essential amino acid

essential amino acid see amino acid.

essential fatty acid

essential fatty acid see fatty acid.

essential hypertension

essential hypertension high blood pressure (see hypertension) that is not secondary to another disease and for which no obvious cause can be found. It accounts for at least 85% of all cases of hypertension; risk factors include obesity, cigarette smoking, genetic factors, and psychological influences (e.g., aggressive personality, stressful environment).

essential property

essential property a characteristic of an idea or entity that is essential to its nature or existence. For example, being female is an essential property of mothers, whereas being tired is an accidental property.

essential tremor

essential tremor trembling of the hands, head, or voice that appears to be hereditary. It is the most common type of movement disorder and is thought to be a benign condition, although its etiology and neurological substrates remain unclear. Also called familial tremor.

essentialism

essentialism n. in philosophy, the position that things (or some things) have essences; that is, they have certain necessary properties without which they could not be the things they are. In Marxism, postmodernism, poststructuralism, and certain feminist perspectives, essentialism is the rejected position that human beings have an essential nature that transcends such factors as social class, gender, and ethnicity. See also universalism.

est

est abbreviation for Erhard Seminar Training. EST 1. abbreviation for electroshock therapy or electroconvulsive shock therapy. See electroconvulsive therapy. 2. abbreviation for Erhard Seminar Training.

EST

establishing operation

establishing operation any event or procedure that changes the efficacy of a stimulus as a reinforcer or punisher. For example, in an operant-conditioning study where food is used to positively reinforce behavior, the establishing operation may be food deprivation, which sets up food as a rewarding and reinforcing stimulus.

estazolam

estazolam n. a high-potency, intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used for the short-term treatment of insomnia. U.S. trade name: ProSom.

esteem need

esteem need any desire for achievement, reputation, or prestige that is necessary for a sense of personal value and self-esteem. Comprising the fourth level of Maslow’s motivational hierarchy, esteem needs are dependent upon the admiration and approval of others.

Estes–Skinner procedure

Estes–Skinner procedure another name for conditioned suppression. [after William K. Estes and B. F. Skinner, who developed the technique in 1941]

esthesiometry (aesthesiometry)

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estimate

estimate 1. n. a best guess of the value of a parameter of a distribution on the basis of a set of empirical observations. 2. vb. to assign a value to a parameter in this way.

estimating function

estimating function a mathematical equation used to approximate values and properties (e.g., bias, consistency, efficiency) for a specific parameter (e.g., regression coefficient) by using information from the sample data and the parameter of interest. This approach is particularly suitable when a likelihood function is not easily known.

estimation

estimation n. in statistics, the process of approximating a population parameter from sample data while allowing for some degree of uncertainty by giving a range of values within which the parameter will most likely fall. Estimation usually requires a large random sample, from which one can calculate point estimate values, such as the mean and standard deviation, in the larger population of interest. The process of estimation also involves building a confidence interval around the obtained sample value, plus and minus some margin of error.

estimator

estimator n. a quantity calculated from the values in a sample according to some rule and used to give an approximation of the value in a population. For example, the sample mean or average is an estimator for the population mean; the value of the sample mean is the estimate.

estimators

estimators pl. n. the mental processes involved in judging quantity, as in the ability to recognize that a given set contains six elements rather than five or seven. Compare operators. [defined in this sense by U.S. statistician Andrew Gelman]

estradiol

estradiol n. a naturally occurring steroid hormone that is the most potent of the estrogens. It is secreted mainly by the ovary but also by the placenta and testes.

estrangement

estrangement n. 1. a state of increased distance or separation from oneself or others. See alienation. 2. a significant decrease or discontinuation of contact with individuals with whom one formerly had close relationships, such as a spouse or family member, due to apathy or antagonism. —estranged adj.

estrogen

estrogen n. any of a class of steroid hormones that are produced mainly by the ovaries and act as the principal female sex hormones, inducing estrus in female mammals and secondary female sexual characteristics in humans. The estrogens occurring naturally in humans are estradiol, estrone, and estriol, secreted by the ovarian follicle, corpus luteum, placenta, testes, and adrenal cortex. Estrogens are also produced by certain plants; these phytoestrogens may be used in the manufacture of synthetic steroid hormones. Estrogens are used therapeutically in estrogen replacement therapy and oral contraceptives and to treat certain menstrual disorders and some types of breast and prostate cancers.

estrogen antagonist

estrogen antagonist see antiestrogen.

estrogen replacement therapy

estrogen replacement therapy the administration of natural or synthetic estrogens, such as estradiol or ethinyl estradiol, for the relief of symptoms associated with menopause, surgical removal of the ovaries, or failure of the ovaries to develop. Although estrogen replacement therapy was once an extremely common therapy in menopausal women, studies have questioned its material long-term benefits, and its use has fallen off considerably in recent years. See hormone replacement therapy.

estrone

estrone n. an estrogen produced by ovarian follicles and other tissues. It is used therapeutically in the treatment of menopausal symptoms, estrogen-deficiency disorders, and certain cases of vaginitis.

estrous cycle

estrous cycle the cyclical sequence of reproductive activity shown by female mammals except humans and other primates; see menstrual cycle. Animals that experience one estrous cycle per year are called monestrous; those that have multiple estrous cycles annually are polyestrous. See also diestrus; estrus; proestrus.

estrus

estrus n. the stage in the estrous cycle when a female animal is receptive to the male and willing to mate. Also called heat. —estrous adj.

eszopiclone

eszopiclone n. a nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic used for the short-term treatment of insomnia. Like the related drug zaleplon, it is relatively selective for a specific subunit on the GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor complex. Side effects include excessive sedation or confusion, dry mouth, and a bitter taste. U.S. trade name: Lunesta.

eta

eta (symbol: η) n. 1. in structural equation modeling, denoting a latent variable. 2. see correlation ratio.

eta squared

eta squared (symbol: η2) a measure of the amount of variance in a dependent variable that can be explained by one or more independent variables, as calculated in a variety of statistical procedures. In an analysis of variance, for example, eta squared is calculated as the sum of squares for the treatment (i.e., sum of squared differences between a group mean and the grand mean) divided by the total sum of squares. Eta squared is often used as an effect size measure.

ethanol

ethanol n. a substance formed naturally or synthetically by the fermentation of glucose and found in beverages such as beers, wines, and distilled liquors. It is the most frequently used and abused CNS depressant in many cultures. When consumed, it primarily affects the central nervous system, mood, and cognitive functions. In small doses, it can produce feelings of warmth, well-being, and confidence. As more is consumed, there is a gradual loss of self-control, and speech and control of limbs become difficult; at high consumption levels, nausea and vomiting, loss of consciousness, and even fatal respiratory arrest may occur. Ethanol has been mistakenly identified as a stimulant, since its stimulating effect derives from an associated loss of cortical inhibition. Also called ethyl alcohol. See also alcohol.

ethchlorvynol

ethchlorvynol n. an alcohol derivative introduced in the 1950s as a nonbarbiturate sedative. Ethchlorvynol is an effective, rapidly acting hypnotic, but because of its toxicity in overdose, as well as its ability to induce enzymes involved in drug metabolism (see enzyme induction) and its association with blood disorders, it has become clinically obsolete. It is at times a substance of abuse. U.S. trade name: Placidyl.

ether

ether n. a drug introduced into medicine as a general anesthetic in the mid-1800s. The effects of ether include a progressive series of physical and psychological reactions, beginning with a feeling of suffocation, bodily warmth, visual and auditory aberrations, and a feeling of stiffness and inability to move the limbs. A second stage may be marked by some resistance to the sense of suffocation of the anesthetic, but the muscles relax, blood pressure and pulse increase, and pupils dilate. In the third stage, pulse and blood pressure return to normal, pupils contract, and reflexes are absent. If additional ether is administered beyond the third stage, there is danger of paralysis of the medullary centers, followed by shock and death. In clinical practice, ether has been replaced by safer anesthetics.

ethereal

ethereal adj. 1. in the Zwaardemaker smell system, denoting an odor quality that is smelled in fruits and wines. 2. denoting one of the seven classes of odorants in the stereochemical smell theory.

ethical code

ethical code see code of ethics.

ethical conflict

ethical conflict see boundary issues; conflict of interest.

ethical consumerism

ethical consumerism the purchase and consumption of goods and services in accordance with one’s social or moral beliefs. For example, an environmentally conscious consumer will prefer green brands and is often willing to pay a premium for them.

ethical determinism

ethical determinism the position, stated definitively by Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 bce), that one who knows the good will (necessarily) do the good. It is implied that a sense of obligation is the defining feature of knowledge of the good and that this sense will be strong enough to compel, rather than merely suggest, action. This position assumes the essential rationality of human beings. Later modifications of the position have argued that a person will necessarily act in accordance with what he or she perceives to be good, whether or not it really is good, or that a person will act consistently with what he or she perceives to be good, where what is good is what is in that person’s self-interest (see eudemonism). Also called moral determinism.

ethical dilemma

ethical dilemma a situation in which two moral principles conflict with one another. Fictional or hypothetical dilemmas of this kind are often used to assess the moral beliefs or moral reasoning skills of individuals. Also called moral dilemma. See Heinz dilemma.

ethical imperative

ethical imperative a principle or practice taken to be ethically required of one. The binding character of the principle or behavior may result from a perceived logical or rational necessity, as in the categorical imperative defined by Immanuel Kant, or it may seem to arise from some set of empirical facts; for example, energy conservation may seem to be an ethical imperative given that one accepts the evidence of global warming.

ethical judgment

ethical judgment 1. a moral decision made by an individual, especially a difficult one made in the context of a real or hypothetical ethical dilemma. Such judgments often reveal the beliefs that an individual applies in discriminating between right and wrong and the attitudes that comprise his or her basic moral orientation. 2. the faculty of making moral distinctions. Also called moral judgment.

ethical nihilism

ethical nihilism see moral nihilism.

ethical principle orientation

ethical principle orientation see postconventional level.

ethics

ethics n. 1. the branch of philosophy that investigates both the content of moral judgments (i.e., what is right and what is wrong) and their nature (i.e., whether such judgments should be considered objective or subjective). The study of the first type of question is sometimes termed normative ethics and that of the second metaethics. Also called moral philosophy. 2. the principles of morally right conduct accepted by a person or a group or considered appropriate to a specific field. In psychological research, for example, proper ethics requires that participants be treated fairly and without harm and that investigators report results and findings honestly. See code of ethics; professional ethics; research ethics. —ethical adj.

ethics of animal research

ethics of animal research the complex set of issues relating to the ethics of manipulating nonhuman animals experimentally, holding them in captivity, and using them for the purpose of research. Some argue that any animal research is unethical because animals cannot give informed consent. Others see value in animal research if the animals are well cared for and treated humanely. See animal care and use; Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

ethinamate

ethinamate n. see alcohol derivative.

ethmocephaly

ethmocephaly n. a birth defect involving the olfactory system and often marked by a rudimentary proboscis-shaped nose, which may have imperforate nostrils. The condition is sometimes associated with cebocephaly and tends to occur as part of trisomy 13.

ethmoid fossa

ethmoid fossa see fossa.

ethnic

ethnic adj. denoting or referring to a group of people having a shared social, cultural, linguistic, and sometimes religious background.

ethnic bias

ethnic bias 1. discrimination against individuals based on their ethnic group, often resulting in inequities in such areas as education, employment, health care, and housing. 2. in testing and measurement, contamination or deficiency in an instrument that differentially affects the scores of those from different ethnic groups. Ideally, researchers strive to create culture-fair tests.

ethnic cleansing

ethnic cleansing the methodical removal, detention, or genocide of an ethnic group or groups to produce an ethnically homogeneous territory or society.

ethnic drift

ethnic drift 1. the process by which people belonging to an ethnic minority tend to lose, alter, or redefine their sense of ethnic identity over time, generally as a result of assimilation with the dominant culture, intermarriage, or loss of contact with their culture of origin. See also cultural drift. 2. the tendency for people of the same ethnicity to gather in or be assigned to the same formal or informal groups, whether as a result of voluntary association or the policies of others. At work, for example, people of the same ethnicity are often assigned to the same work team or supervisor.

ethnic group

ethnic group any major social group that possesses a common identity based on history, culture, language, and often religion.

ethnic identity

ethnic identity an individual’s sense of being a person who is defined, in part, by membership in a specific ethnic group. This sense is usually considered to be a complex construct involving shared social, cultural, linguistic, religious, and often racial factors but identical with none of them.

ethnic psychology

ethnic psychology a branch of psychology that studies how the culture, language, and related phenomena of different ethnic groups within a nation or region affect the attitudes, experiences, and behaviors of group members. Influenced by sociology, the field focuses on the unique sociocultural attributes of those of different races and ethnicities within each society, particularly as related to social class distinctions. Also called ethnopsychology; racial and ethnic minority psychology. See also cross-cultural psychology; multicultural psychology.

ethnic research

ethnic research the body of studies that investigates the backgrounds of people from different races and cultures.

ethnic socialization

ethnic socialization the transmission by parents, caregivers, or others of information, values, and perspectives about their ethnic group to the next generation, with the goals of instilling children with pride in their ethnic heritage and providing them with strategies for coping with ethnic discrimination and other barriers to success in mainstream society. This term is used in reference to research with a number of ethnic groups, including African Americans. See also racial socialization.

ethnicity

ethnicity n. a social categorization based on an individual’s membership in or identification with a particular cultural or ethnic group.

ethnocentrism

ethnocentrism n. 1. the practice of regarding one’s own ethnic, racial, or social group as the center of all things. Just as egocentrism is a sense of self-superiority, so ethnocentrism is the parallel tendency to judge one’s group as superior to other groups. 2. the tendency, often unintentional, to base perceptions and understandings of other groups or cultures on one’s own. Also called ethnocentricity. See also ingroup bias; racism; sociocentrism. —ethnocentric adj. [first described by U.S. sociologist William G. Sumner (1840–1910)]

ethnographic approach

ethnographic approach a strategy frequently used by anthropologists for studying a community as a way of life. The method requires extensive residence in the community, fluency in the local languages, and active participation in community life to develop insight into its total culture.

ethnography

ethnography n. the descriptive study of cultures or societies based on direct observation (see field research) and (ideally) some degree of participation. Compare ethnology. See also emic. —ethnographer n. —ethnographic adj.

ethnolinguistics

ethnolinguistics n. the investigation of language within the context of human cultures or societies, paying attention to cultural influences and incorporating the principles of anthropology and ethnography. See also anthropological linguistics.

ethnology

ethnology n. the comparative, analytical, or historical study of human cultures or societies. Compare ethnography. See also etic. —ethnological adj. —ethnologist n.

ethnomethodology

ethnomethodology n. the analysis of the underlying conventions and systems of meaning that people use to make sense of commonplace social interactions and experiences. [introduced by U.S. sociologist Harold Garfinkel (1917–2011)] —ethnomethodological adj. —ethnomethodologist n.

ethnopsychology

ethnopsychology n. see ethnic psychology.

ethnopsychopharmacology

ethnopsychopharmacology n. the branch of pharmacology that studies ethnic and cultural variations in the use of and response to psychoactive agents across divergent groups, as well as the mechanisms responsible for such differences. —ethnopsychopharmacological adj.

ethogram

ethogram n. a detailed listing and description of the behavior patterns of a nonhuman animal in its natural habitat. The description is objective rather than interpretative. For example, a vocalization given in response to a predator would be described in terms of its acoustic properties rather than its apparent function of alarm call. An ethogram can be used to determine categories for a behavior record and is a prerequisite for observational research. See ethology.

ethologically oriented universal

ethologically oriented universal see psychological universal.

ethology

ethology n. the comparative study of the behavior of nonhuman animals, typically in their natural habitat but also involving experiments both in the field and in captivity. Ethology was developed by behavioral biologists in Europe and is often associated with connotations of innate or species-specific behavior patterns, in contrast with comparative psychology. The theory and methods from both areas are now closely interrelated, and animal behavior is a more neutral and more broadly encompassing term. Increasingly, ethology is used to describe research involving observation and detailed descriptions of human behavior as well. —ethological adj. —ethologist n.

ethos

ethos n. the distinctive character or spirit of an individual, group, culture, nation, or period, as revealed particularly in its attitudes and values. See also Ortgeist; Zeitgeist.

ethosuximide

ethosuximide n. see succinimide.

ethotoin

ethotoin n. see hydantoin.

ethyl alcohol

ethyl alcohol see ethanol.

etic

etic adj. 1. denoting an approach to the study of human cultures based on concepts or constructs that are held to be universal and applicable cross-culturally. Such an approach would generally be of the kind associated with ethnology rather than ethnography. The term is sometimes used critically of studies or perspectives that aspire to objectivity but succeed only in defining social behaviors in terms of the researcher’s own cultural values. Compare emic. [introduced by U.S. linguist Kenneth Pike (1912–2000); first used in anthropology by U.S. cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (1927–2001)] 2. in linguistics, see emic–etic distinction.

etiology

etiology n. 1. the causes and progress of a disease or disorder. 2. the branch of medical and psychological science concerned with the systematic study of the causes of physical and mental disorders. —etiological adj.

Etrafon

Etrafon n. a trade name for a combination of the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline and the antipsychotic perphenazine, used for the treatment of concurrent anxiety and depression. Its use has, however, declined because of its association with tardive dyskinesia.

ETS

ETS 1. abbreviation for Educational Testing Service. 2. abbreviation for electrical transcranial stimulation. See electrosleep therapy.

etymology

etymology n. the study of the origins and historical development of words and morphemes. —etymological adj.

eu-

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eudaimonic well-being

eudaimonic well-being the type of happiness or contentment that is achieved through self-actualization and having meaningful purpose in one’s life. Compare hedonic well-being.

eudemonia (eudaemonia)

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eudemonism (eudaemonism)

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euergasia

euergasia n. normal mental or psychobiological functioning. Also called orthergasia. [defined by Adolf Meyer]

eugenic

eugenic adj. describing a factor or influence that is favorable to heredity. Compare dysgenic.

eugenics

eugenics n. a social and political philosophy, based loosely on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Francis Galton’s research on hereditary genius, that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding. Positive eugenics is directed toward promoting reproduction by individuals with ostensibly superior traits, whereas negative eugenics is directed toward preventing reproduction by individuals with traits that are considered to be undesirable. The eugenic position is groundless and scientifically naive, in that many conditions associated with disability or disorders, such as syndromes that increase risk of intellectual disability, are inherited recessively and occur unpredictably. Nevertheless, the philosophy gained popularity in the United Kingdom and United States, where eugenic policies, such as sterilization of people with intellectual disability, persisted into the latter half of the 20th century. Attitudes toward genetics in the 21st century are often influenced by individual and community concerns about prior eugenic abuses.

Euler diagram

Euler diagram a pictorial image of how entities or situations intersect or overlap. Whereas a Venn diagram depicts all areas of intersection, a Euler diagram does not necessarily include all areas. For example, a researcher might create a Venn diagram in which a large circle represents a population, a circle inside that represents a sample or subset of the population, and overlapping circles inside the previous one indicate additional subsets. If the image were to leave out some of the inner circles, such as the ones representing different kinds of random samples, it would be considered a Euler diagram. [Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Swiss-born Russian mathematician]

eumorphic

eumorphic adj. denoting a constitutional body type characterized by normal shape and structure and roughly equivalent to the normosplanchnic type.

eunuch

eunuch n. a male who has been castrated before puberty and who therefore develops the secondary sex characteristics of a female, such as a higher voice. See also castration.

euphenics

euphenics n. interventions that aim to improve the outcome of a genetic disease by altering the environment to minimize expression of the disease. For example, people with phenylketonuria can reduce or prevent its expression by eliminating major sources of phenylalanine (e.g., soft drinks sweetened with aspartame) from their diet.

euphoria

euphoria n. extreme happiness and an elevated sense of well-being. An exaggerated degree of euphoria that does not reflect the reality of one’s situation is common in manic episodes and hypomanic episodes. —euphoric adj.

euphoriant

euphoriant n. a substance capable of inducing a strong subjective sense of well-being and happiness.

euphorogenic

euphorogenic adj. describing an event or medication that generates a state of euphoria.

eureka task

eureka task a problem-solving task designed to investigate the phenomenon of sudden insight into a problem’s solution. The route to solving the problem is usually not obvious and typically requires a mental leap beyond the sorts of solutions used for everyday problems. See also aha experience; discontinuity hypothesis.

European Federation of Professional Psychologists’ Associations (EFPPA)

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European Federation of the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity

European Federation of the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity a European federation of national organizations in the area of sport and exercise psychology. The organization is usually called FEPSAC, an acronym of its French name (Fédération Européenne de Psychologie des Sports et des Activités Corporelles).

eurymorph

eurymorph n. see body-build index.

euryplastic

euryplastic adj. denoting a constitutional body type that is roughly equivalent to the pyknic type in Kretschmer typology.

eusociality

eusociality n. a social structure among nonhuman animals in which there is a marked division of labor, with only a few individuals that reproduce and many more nonreproductive individuals that guard the nest, gather food and nest materials, or help to care for the young. Eusociality is a common form of social structure in colonial species of bees and wasps (see social insects): The haplodiploidy mode of inheritance helps to explain the adaptiveness of nonreproductive helpers caring for the young of the queen. —eusocial adj.

eustachian tube

eustachian tube a slender tube extending from the middle ear to the pharynx, with the primary function of equalizing air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane (eardrum). [Bartolommeo Eustachio (1524–1574), Italian anatomist]

eusthenic

eusthenic adj. denoting a constitutional body type that is equivalent to the asthenic type and close to the athletic type in Kretschmer typology.

eustress

eustress n. the positive stress response, involving optimal levels of stimulation: a type of stress that results from challenging but attainable and enjoyable or worthwhile tasks (e.g., participating in an athletic event, giving a speech). It has a beneficial effect by generating a sense of fulfillment or achievement and facilitating growth, development, mastery, and high levels of performance. Compare distress. [first described by Hungarian-born Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907–1982)]

euthanasia

euthanasia n. the act or process of terminating a life, usually to prevent further suffering in an incurably or terminally ill individual. Voluntary euthanasia requires the consent of a competent person who has established a valid advance directive or made his or her wishes otherwise clearly known. Euthanasia is distinguished from the much more widely accepted practice of forgoing invasive treatments, as permitted under natural-death laws throughout the United States. Traditionally, a distinction between passive euthanasia (withholding treatment) and active euthanasia (taking directly lethal action) has been made. In current practice, however, the term euthanasia typically is used to mean active euthanasia only. The practice of and debate over euthanasia in various forms have a long history going back to Ancient Greece (the term itself derives from the Greek: eu, “good, well,” and thanatos, “death”). Worldwide, legal and ethical questions persist to this day about the circumstances under which, in the absence of an advance directive, euthanasia can and cannot be pursued, as famously occurred, for example, in the case of Terri Schaivo, a Florida woman in a permanent vegetative state who died in 2005 after her life support was discontinued following a lengthy court battle. Ethical questions apply as well to the euthanasia of nonhuman animals, particularly concerning whether it is ethical to terminate the lives of healthy animals in shelters and zoos. See also assisted death. —euthanize vb.

euthymia

euthymia n. a mood of well-being and tranquility. The term often is used to refer to a state in patients with a bipolar disorder that is neither manic nor depressive but in between, associated with adaptive behavior and enhanced functioning. —euthymic adj.

evaluability assessment

evaluability assessment a review that may be carried out before a program evaluation: The aim is to identify the evaluation objective, specific questions to be answered by program-evaluation data, and possible designs, measurements, and analyses to be used in the evaluation.

evaluation

evaluation n. a careful examination or overall appraisal of something, particularly to determine its worth, value, or desirability. For example, the evaluation of a particular therapeutic technique refers to a determination of its success in achieving defined goals.

evaluation apprehension

evaluation apprehension uneasiness or worry about being judged by others, especially worry experienced by participants in an experiment as a result of their desire to be evaluated favorably by the experimenter or by others observing their behavior. Participants with evaluation apprehension may inhibit reactions (e.g., the display of aggression) that they believe will lead the experimenter to regard them as psychologically unhealthy.

evaluation interview

evaluation interview an interview conducted as part of an employee-evaluation program. An evaluation interview may be a routine or periodic discussion of the individual’s job performance (see performance review) or may arise from specific circumstances. In some cases, it may involve psychological incentives, such as suggesting that the employee develop a set of personal goals.

evaluation objective

evaluation objective any of the purposes of an evaluation of a program. For example, the purpose of formative evaluations is to consider implementation problems, program integrity, and program monitoring, whereas the purpose of summative evaluations is to focus on program impact, program effectiveness, and cost analysis.

evaluation research

evaluation research the use of scientific principles and methods to assess the effectiveness of social interventions and programs, including those related to mental health, education, and safety (e.g., crime prevention, automobile accident prevention). Evaluation research is thus a type of applied research. See also assessment research.

evaluation utilization

evaluation utilization an effort to act on the findings of an evaluation program. It involves managing disparate evaluation outcomes as well as generalizing solutions for the problems brought to light by the evaluation process.

evaluative priming measure

evaluative priming measure an implicit attitude measure based on the phenomenon that the speed of evaluating some target attitude object is facilitated by a prime (i.e., the prior presentation of another attitude object) that is evaluatively consistent with the target and inhibited by a prime that is evaluatively inconsistent with the target. For example, if the name of a product is presented as a prime immediately prior to a target word likely to be negative to most people (e.g., cockroach), evaluation of the target should be faster if the attitude toward the product is negative and slower if the attitude toward the product is positive. A measure of attitudes toward the prime (i.e., the product) can be created by computing the relative difference in the speed of evaluating a negative target paired with the prime versus a positive target paired with the prime. Also called bona fide pipeline measure. See also direct attitude measure; explicit attitude measure; indirect attitude measure. [originally developed by U.S. psychologist Russell H. Fazio (1952– )]

evaluative ratings

evaluative ratings scores reflecting individuals’ judgments of the aesthetic or other qualities of a group of objects. Evaluative ratings may be based on hedonic values, such as the relative pleasantness of a set of paintings, on the relative complexity of a series of patterns, or on other factors.

evaluative reasoning

evaluative reasoning a form of critical thinking that involves appraisal of the effectiveness, validity, meaning, or relevance of any act, idea, feeling, technique, or object.

evaluator

evaluator n. an individual whose role is to assess and provide advice about the progress of a therapy or sensitivity group, a project team, an institution, or an individual. See also external evaluator; internal evaluator.

evaluator credibility

evaluator credibility the extent to which the evaluator of a program is viewed by the stakeholders as trustworthy, technically competent, and knowledgeable enough to execute an evaluation in a fair and responsible manner.

evasion

evasion n. 1. a form of paralogia in which an idea that is logically next in a chain of thought is replaced by another idea closely but not accurately or appropriately related to it. 2. elusion or avoidance.

evenly hovering attention

evenly hovering attention see free-floating attention.

event

event n. 1. any occurrence or phenomenon that has a definite beginning and end and that involves or produces change. 2. in probability theory, any of the namable things that can be said to result from a single trial of an experiment of chance. For example, in the roll of a single die, the events could include (among others) any of the six individual numbers, any even number, and any odd number.

event history analysis

event history analysis see survival analysis.

event memory

event memory memory for everyday events, which is a form of episodic memory.

event sampling

event sampling a strategy commonly used in direct observation that involves noting and recording the occurrence of a carefully specified behavior whenever it is seen. For example, a researcher may record each episode of apnea that occurs within a 9-hour period overnight while a person sleeps.

event space

event space a subset of the set of all possible outcomes in a situation (the sample space). For example, the sample space of working days for a particular organization might comprise Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday for all employees, but the event space for working days might include only Monday through Friday for some employees.

event-related magnetic field (ERF)

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event-related potential (ERP)

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everyday creativity

everyday creativity the ability to think divergently and demonstrate flexibility and originality in one’s daily activities. Examples include redecorating a room at home or devising a novel solution to a business problem. Also called ordinary creativity. Compare exceptional creativity.

everyday intelligence

everyday intelligence the intellectual skills used in ordinary activities (e.g., price comparison shopping, using a map to travel unfamiliar streets). Everyday intelligence refers not to a psychometrically validated construct but to a loosely conceptualized kind of intelligence relevant to the problems people face on a daily basis.

everyday racism

everyday racism differential treatment of individuals on the basis of their racial group that occurs in common, routine social situations. For example, consider two college students who are pictured in the newspaper for participating as volunteers at an event to clean up a local neighborhood. Everyday racism would be evident if the picture caption identifies the White student as a volunteer and misidentifies the African American student as a community resident.

evidence-based practice (EBP)

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evil eye

evil eye a folk belief in the supernatural powers of a malevolent stare or hostile gaze, which is believed to cause adversity, illness, injury, or destruction to the recipient. The term is applied more specifically to a culture-bound syndrome in Mediterranean countries and other regions (see mal de ojo). See also witchcraft.

eviration

eviration n. 1. castration or emasculation. 2. the delusion of a man that he has been turned into a woman.

evocative therapy

evocative therapy therapy based on the idea that behavior is aroused by underlying factors. Once the factors underlying a maladaptive or unwanted behavior have been identified, dispositional and environmental changes can be made to affect those factors and therefore alter the behavior. [originated by Jerome D. Frank]

evoked potential (EP)

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evolution

evolution n. 1. the process of gradual change in the appearance of populations of organisms that takes place over generations. Such changes are widely held to account for the present diversity of living organisms originating from relatively few ancestors since the emergence of life on earth. See evolutionary theory. See also convergent evolution; divergent evolution. 2. any other process of gradual change. —evolutionary adj.

evolution of consciousness

evolution of consciousness the process by which consciousness arose and developed as a biological adaptation in animals. In mammals, conscious wakefulness, attentional orienting, sensory perception, immediate memory, and so forth are associated with the evolution of the thalamocortical system of the mammalian brain over more than 200 million years. Close functional parallels may exist in birds, some cephalopods, and reptiles such as salamanders and crocodilia.

evolution of intelligence

evolution of intelligence the process by which intelligence has developed from earlier and generally simpler species to later and generally more complex species. There are many theories of how intelligence has evolved, but most emphasize some kind of Darwinian natural-selection process, in which evolution favored skills that were more useful over the eons for adaptation to environments than skills that were less useful.

evolution of the brain

evolution of the brain the concept that the brains of complex animals have evolved over many millions of years from a network of simple nerve fibers connecting various body areas, as in primitive multicellular animals. At a more advanced stage, a neural axis developed to connect and integrate peripheral neurons and to house cell bodies; this axis became a spinal cord. Still later, collections of neurons with control functions developed at the head end of the spinal cord, as in the brains of higher invertebrates, birds, fish, and reptiles. From those concentrations of brain tissue evolved the forebrain, with its highly convoluted cerebral cortex, of mammals, especially prominent in whales, great apes, and Homo sapiens. See also cephalization; encephalization.

evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS)

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evolutionary aesthetics

evolutionary aesthetics the concept that art evolves due to intrinsic forces rather than changing to reflect extra-artistic forces.

evolutionary developmental psychology

evolutionary developmental psychology the application of the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to explain human development. Evolutionary developmental psychology involves the study of the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the universal development of social and cognitive competencies and the evolved epigenetic processes (gene–environment interactions) that adapt these competencies to local conditions. It assumes that not only are behaviors and cognitions that characterize adults the product of selection pressures operating over the course of evolution, but so also are characteristics of children’s behaviors and minds. [proposed in 2002 by U.S. developmental psychologists David Bjorklund (1949– ) and Anthony D. Pellegrini (1949– )]

evolutionary epistemology

evolutionary epistemology any of a number of approaches to epistemology that seek to explain the origins and development of human knowledge in terms of biological, chiefly Darwinian, evolution. One form suggests that ideas and explanations evolve in a way analogous to the evolution of organisms; that is, they survive as they show themselves to be “fit,” or useful. Another form suggests that there is a literal biological origin of ideas and that certain ideas, such as the rules of logic, have enhanced the survival of those in whom they evolved: Thus, the ideas themselves tend to survive and take on importance.

evolutionary psychology

evolutionary psychology an approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges. It differs from sociobiology mainly in its emphasis on the effects of natural selection on information processing and the structure of the human mind.

evolutionary theory

evolutionary theory any theory to account for the evolution of organisms over successive generations. One early and influential example was the theory of evolution by use or disuse (see Lamarckism). Nowadays, the most widely accepted is an updated version of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution through natural selection, called neo-Darwinism (see Darwinism). Theories concerning specific aspects of evolution include coevolution, exaptation, neoteny, punctuated equilibrium, and recapitulation theory. Opposed to all theories of evolution is the doctrine of creationism. The application of evolutionary principles permeates different subdisciplines within psychology, including clinical science, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience. For example, the influence of evolutionary theories can be seen in studies conducted to determine whether particular clinical disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety) are in fact psychological adaptations or in assertions that emotions evolved to serve primary functions (particularly to motivate and communicate) that would enhance survival.

evolved mechanism

evolved mechanism a subsystem of the brain (or mind) that is a product of natural selection and is generally seen as having evolved as a result of its success in solving a problem related to survival or reproduction during the evolution of a species. For example, the elements of the brain’s visual system that enable organisms to perceive objects in three-dimensional space (despite the fact that vision involves the projection of light onto a two-dimensional surface, the retina) would be seen as an evolved mechanism that solved the problem of determining the distance between oneself and objects in the environment.

ex post facto design

ex post facto design research that examines past occurrences in order to understand a current state. Although this type of design involves both a dependent variable and an independent variable, the investigator cannot manipulate the latter. For example, a researcher who is interested in determining the effectiveness of a particular television advertisement on consumer behavior may recruit a group of participants who saw the advertisement and a group of participants who did not, yet the researcher has no control over which specific people actually viewed the advertisement. Also called ex post facto study. [from Latin ex post facto, “after the event”]

ex post facto evaluation

ex post facto evaluation see summative evaluation.

ex vivo

ex vivo referring to procedures taking place outside of a living organism. For example, during surgery an organ may be removed, treated ex vivo, and returned to the body. Ex vivo research uses living cells or tissue in a laboratory setting soon after their removal from the organism. These ex vivo cells or tissue are not necessarily cultured, as in in vitro experiments. Compare in vivo. [Latin, literally: “out of life”]

ex-

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ex-patient club

ex-patient club a group that provides individuals discharged from a psychiatric hospital with social and recreational experience, promotes their rehabilitation and readjustment to posthospital life, and maintains their mental health improvement through group support and, in some cases, group therapy. Ex-patient clubs may be organized by former patients or by the discharging hospital as part of its aftercare program. See also mental health support organization.

EX/RP

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exacerbation

exacerbation n. an increase in the severity of a disease or disorder or of its symptoms.

exact replication

exact replication see replication.

exact test

exact test any statistical test in which the probability of finding a result as extreme or more extreme than the one obtained, given the null hypothesis, can be calculated precisely rather than approximated. The Fisher exact test is an example.

exaggeration

exaggeration n. the act of embellishing or overstating a quality or characteristic of a person, thing, or situation. It is often a defensive reaction in which the individual justifies questionable attitudes or behavior through overstatement, such as dramatizing the oppressive acts of a parent as a means of justifying rebellious behavior.

exaltation

exaltation n. an extreme state of euphoria and psychomotor agitation, accompanied by a lack of restraint. It occurs in some manic episodes.

examination

examination n. a test, observation, or other means of investigation carried out on a patient to evaluate physical or mental health or detect the presence or absence of signs or symptoms of diseases, disorders, or conditions. See also mental examination; neurological evaluation; psychological examination.

exaptation

exaptation n. a trait that, having evolved to serve one function, is later used for another. For example, feathers may have evolved as cooling or insulating mechanisms and later aided in flying. Also called spandrel. [proposed by U.S. paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002)]

exceptional child

exceptional child a child who is substantially above or below the average in some significant respect. Often applied to a child who shows marked deviations in intelligence, the term may also be used to indicate the presence of a special talent or an unusual emotional or social difficulty. See also giftedness; slow learner.

exceptional creativity

exceptional creativity the capability of individuals to make unique and important contributions to society through their work and the products of their work. Exceptional creativity, as measured by creative output, seems to peak at different points in the adult lifespan depending on the field of activity. Also called creative genius. Compare everyday creativity.

exchange relationship

exchange relationship see communal relationship.

exchange theory

exchange theory see social exchange theory.

exchangeability

exchangeability n. the ability to be used in different circumstances or situations. For example, in measurement and statistics, items that are equally appropriate on different versions of a test and methods or parameters that work well under different conditions show exchangeability.

excitability

excitability n. 1. the tendency of some individuals to be readily aroused to emotional responses. 2. in neurophysiology, the capacity of neurons and some muscle cells to respond electrically to external stimulation with a sudden, transient increase in their ionic permeability and a change in the electric potential across their cell membrane. —excitable adj.

excitant

excitant n. an agent capable of eliciting a response.

excitation

excitation n. the electrical activity elicited in a neuron or muscle cell in response to an external stimulus, specifically the propagation of an action potential.

excitation pattern

excitation pattern a spatial pattern of responses to sound in the auditory system. It usually refers to the envelope of the displacement pattern on the basilar membrane or its representation in the auditory nerve. See tonotopic organization; tuning curve.

excitation-transfer theory

excitation-transfer theory the theory that emotional responses can be intensified by arousal from other stimuli not directly related to the stimulus that originally provoked the response. According to this theory, when a person becomes aroused physiologically, there is a subsequent period of time when the person will experience a state of residual arousal yet be unaware of it. If additional stimuli are encountered during this time, the individual may mistakenly ascribe his or her residual response from the previous stimuli to those successive stimuli. [originally proposed in 1971 by U.S. psychologist Dolf Zillmann (1935– )]

excitatory conditioning

excitatory conditioning direct classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus acts as a signal that a particular unconditioned stimulus will follow. Compare inhibitory conditioning.

excitatory field

excitatory field an area of the brain surrounding and sharing the response of an excited sensory area.

excitatory gradient (excitation gradient)

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excitatory neurotransmitter

excitatory neurotransmitter see neurotransmitter.

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

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excitatory synapse

excitatory synapse a specialized type of junction at which activity from one neuron (in the form of an action potential) facilitates activity in an adjacent neuron by initiating an excitatory postsynaptic potential. Compare inhibitory synapse.

excitatory threshold

excitatory threshold the stimulus intensity that is just sufficient to trigger a nerve impulse.

excitatory–inhibitory processes

excitatory–inhibitory processes 1. processes in which the transmission of neuronal signals is activated or inhibited by the effects of neurotransmitters on the postsynaptic membrane. 2. antagonistic functions of the nervous system defined by Ivan Pavlov. 3. the stimulation of the cortex and the subsequent facilitation of learning, memory, and action (excitatory processes) versus central nervous system processes that inhibit or interfere with perceptual, cognitive, and motor activities (inhibitory processes). Individuals with a predominance of inhibitory over excitatory processes are theorized to be predisposed to a higher degree of extraversion, whereas individuals with a predominance of excitatory over inhibitory processes are theorized to be predisposed to a higher degree of introversion. Introverted–extraverted behaviors are said to serve the function of modulating these excitation and inhibitory processes: That is, individuals who build up excitatory processes slowly and inhibitory processes quickly need to behave in an extraverted fashion to provide “excitement,” whereas introverts are already excited so they do not need to behave in an extraverted way to increase this excitability but tend instead to shy away from excitatory stimuli. [proposed by Hans Eysenck]

excitement

excitement n. an emotional state marked by enthusiasm, eagerness or anticipation, and general arousal.

excitement phase

excitement phase see sexual-response cycle.

excitotoxic lesion

excitotoxic lesion a lesion caused by paroxysmal overactivity of neurons, which may be associated with seizures or occur after stroke. This is most commonly caused by overstimulation of neurons by excitatory amino acids (see excitotoxicity).

excitotoxicity

excitotoxicity n. the property that causes neurons to die when overstimulated (e.g., by large amounts of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate).

exclusion design

exclusion design tools or systems that have been designed to virtually exclude the possibility of human error. Error triggers or ergonomic traps are first identified and then designed out of the system. See engineering controls. See also fail-safe; prevention design.

exclusive

exclusive adj. completely separate and incompatible. For example, gender has two exclusive categories of male and female. See also mutually exclusive events.

excoriation (skin-picking) disorder

excoriation (skin-picking) disorder in DSM–5, a new diagnosis characterized by recurrent picking at one’s own skin, leading to lesions and causing significant distress or impairment.

excrement

excrement n. see feces.

exculpatory evidence

exculpatory evidence evidence supporting a defendant’s claim of innocence.

executive

executive n. a theoretical superordinate mechanism in some models of cognition—particularly those in cognitive science, cognitive neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence—that organizes, initiates, monitors, and otherwise controls information-processing activities and other mental operations. A similar concept specific to working memory is that of the central executive.

executive area

executive area a region of the brain hypothesized to account for higher order brain functions, such as thinking and reasoning (see executive functions). The frontal lobe is commonly referred to as an executive area.

executive attention

executive attention see selective attention.

executive coaching

executive coaching one-on-one, customized counseling and feedback provided to managers in an organization to develop their interpersonal and other managerial skills and enhance their ability to achieve short- and long-term organizational goals. Executive coaching is provided by external consultants or similar professional coaches, rather than by managers, peers, or human resources personnel within the organization. See management development.

executive control structure

executive control structure a theoretical mental system governing the use of different cognitive strategies: an internal blueprint. Particularly relevant to problem solving, executive control structures contain representations of situations, their objectives, and the various procedures available for obtaining them. They are one of two mechanisms proposed by Canadian developmental psychologist Robbie Case (1944–2000) as guiding learning and thinking processes in children, the other being the central conceptual structure.

executive dysfunction

executive dysfunction impairment in the ability to think abstractly; plan; solve problems; synthesize information; or start, continue, and stop complex behavior. It is related especially to disorders of the frontal lobe or associated subcortical pathways.

executive functions

executive functions higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, effortful and persistent goal pursuit, inhibition of competing impulses, flexibility in goal selection, and goal-conflict resolution. These often involve the use of language, judgment, abstraction and concept formation, and logic and reasoning. They are frequently associated with neural networks that include the frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex. Deficits in executive functioning are seen in various disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia. In the latter, for example, selection and maintenance of goals may be impaired, as may the ability to exclude distractions. Also called central processes; higher order processes. See also Supervisory Attentional System.

executive leadership

executive leadership the processes by which those occupying the highest level positions of power and authority in an organization structure, direct, coordinate, and motivate others toward achieving certain goals.

executive organ

executive organ the body organ that plays the major role in responding to a stimulus. For example, when the stimulus instigates touching an object, the hand becomes the executive organ. Other organs often play subsidiary roles; for example, the eye that helps direct the hand serves as an auxiliary organ.

executive self

executive self the subjective agent to which regulation and implementation of voluntary actions is ordinarily attributed. The concept of an executive self has acquired considerable scientific plausibility, being associated with well-studied functions of the prefrontal cortex and other brain structures. Self-descriptions are vulnerable to a variety of attribution errors, however (see illusion of agency).

executive stage

executive stage see Schaie’s stages of cognitive development.

executive stress

executive stress strain experienced by management personnel who are responsible for major decisions, the effectiveness of subordinates, and the success of the company as a competitive organization. See burnout; occupational stress.

Exelon

Exelon n. a trade name for rivastigmine.

exemplar theory

exemplar theory the hypothesis that categorization depends on specific remembered instances of the category, as opposed to an abstract prototype or a feature-based rule that defines category membership. Exemplar theory has also been applied to questions of attention, skill acquisition, and social decision making, among other issues. Exemplar theories of prejudice, for example, suggest that stereotypes are not just abstractions about the typical characteristics of members of a particular group but instead are based on the perceiver’s memories of specific individual group members. Also called instance theory.

exemplary damages

exemplary damages see punitive damages.

exemplification

exemplification n. a strategy for self-presentation that involves inducing other people to regard one as a highly moral, virtuous person whose actions are consistent with positive, shared values.

exercise

exercise n. a form of physical activity that is planned, repetitive in nature, and designed to enhance or maintain physical condition. Physical exercise may also be used as an adjunct to mental health therapy. See also exercise psychology; time-out theory.

exercise addiction

exercise addiction the condition of being dependent on or excessively devoted to physical exercise. Stopping exercise will cause the addicted person to experience withdrawal symptoms. Also called exercise dependence. See negative exercise addiction; positive exercise addiction.

exercise adherence

exercise adherence a combination of attending to an exercise program and achieving the set intensity and duration of exercise in the program. Also called exercise compliance.

exercise high

exercise high a feeling of euphoria during or immediately after physical exercise. See endorphin; runner’s high.

exercise obsession

exercise obsession see negative exercise addiction.

exercise play

exercise play play that involves gross, vigorous movement in various directions, such as running or jumping. It usually begins around 2 years of age and peaks between 5 and 6 years. Exercise play is a form of locomotor play and may or may not be social.

exercise psychology

exercise psychology a combination of exercise science and psychology used to study the psychological circumstances and consequences of involvement in exercise. See also sport and exercise psychology.

exercise therapy

exercise therapy the prevention or treatment of disorders and chronic disease through regular, repetitive physical activity that enhances fitness and mobility. This type of therapy is designed to improve the functional capacity of body structures and has been demonstrated to have beneficial effects for many conditions, such as the alleviation of symptoms of depression and multiple sclerosis and the reduction in risk of developing cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. More generally, there is widespread research evidence for a positive relationship between regular exercise and several indices of mental health and physical well-being.

exercise–behavior model

exercise–behavior model an adaptation of the health–belief model that identifies the relationships of the following to likelihood of exercising: (a) personal predispositions, (b) sociodemographic variables, (c) perceived cost and benefits of exercising, and (d) perceived self-efficacy and locus of control. [proposed in 1984 by health education specialists Melody Powers Noland (1952– ) and Robert H. Feldman]

exhaustion

exhaustion n. a state of extreme fatigue.

exhaustion death

exhaustion death see lethal catatonia.

exhaustion delirium

exhaustion delirium delirium occurring under conditions of extreme fatigue resulting from prolonged and intense overexertion, particularly when coupled with other forms of stress, such as prolonged insomnia, starvation, excessive heat or cold, or exposure to toxins. It is typically associated with the extreme physical effort required of those who engage in endurance sports or of others facing extreme environmental conditions, as well as with debilitating diseases.

exhaustion stage

exhaustion stage see general adaptation syndrome.

exhaustive

exhaustive adj. complete or all encompassing. For example, a set of 13 hearts, 13 spades, 13 diamonds, 13 clubs, and two jokers forms an exhaustive set of all possible playing cards that could be drawn.

exhaustive search

exhaustive search any search process in which every item of a set is checked before a decision is made about the presence or absence of a target item. This may be a search for particular items in memory, a visual search, or any problem-solving exercise that involves choosing the best path to a solution from a number of alternative paths. Compare self-terminating search. See also algorithm; heuristic search.

exhibitionism

exhibitionism n. 1. the disposition or tendency to draw attention to oneself, particularly through conspicuous behavior. See also attention-getting. 2. a paraphilia in which the genitals are exposed to an unsuspecting stranger as a means of achieving sexual excitement, but without any attempt at further sexual activity with the stranger. —exhibitionist n.

existence

existence n. 1. being: the quality by virtue of which something is, and which distinguishes it from what is not. 2. in existentialism, the concrete lived experience of human beings rooted in a concrete world, as opposed to a more abstract concept of a human being, such as an essence. —existent adj.

existence, relatedness, and growth theory (ERG theory)

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existential analysis

existential analysis a type of psychoanalysis, or a phase in existential psychotherapy, that places an emphasis on conscious perception and experience over unconscious motivation and drive in the search for meaning. The therapist typically takes an active, often confrontational, role by posing difficult questions and noting maladaptive decision making. The approach to “being” is future- or growth-oriented, and the goal is to develop and encourage highly conscious decision making on the part of the client. Also called existential psychoanalysis.

existential anxiety

existential anxiety 1. in existentialism, the angst associated with one’s freedom as a human being to make choices; with one’s responsibility for the consequences of those choices; and with the sense that one’s existence is devoid of absolute meaning and purpose given that such choices occur in the absence of rational certainty or structure. See nothingness. 2. a general sense of anguish or despair associated with an individual’s recognition of the inevitability of death.

existential crisis

existential crisis 1. in existentialism, a crucial stage or turning point at which an individual is faced with finding meaning and purpose in life and taking responsibility for his or her choices. See existential neurosis; existential vacuum. 2. more generally, any psychological or moral crisis that causes an individual to ask fundamental questions about human existence.

existential dread

existential dread a profound, deep-seated psychic or spiritual condition of insecurity and despair in relation to the human condition and the meaning of life. See also angst.

existential intelligence

existential intelligence a kind of intelligence proposed as a “candidate” intelligence in the multiple-intelligences theory. It is involved in understanding larger fundamental questions of existence and the role and place of humans in the universe. At present, there are no developed measures of existential intelligence.

existential judgment

existential judgment in philosophy, a judgment having to do with the existence, origin, or nature of a thing (i.e., its factual status), as contrasted with a judgment of the meaning, value, or importance of a thing.

existential living

existential living the capacity to live fully in the present and respond freely and flexibly to new experience without fear. Existential living is considered to be a central feature of the fully functioning person. [defined in psychology by Carl Rogers]

existential neurosis

existential neurosis a pathological condition characterized by feelings of despair and anxiety that arise from living inauthentically, that is, from failing to take responsibility for one’s own life and to make choices and find meaning in living. See authenticity; existential crisis; existential vacuum.

existential phenomenology

existential phenomenology a philosophical development from the phenomenology of German thinker Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) that can be seen most clearly in the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) and French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961). Phenomenology originally sought to achieve immediate and direct apprehension of phenomena at the most fundamental level, the level of that which manifests itself to pure consciousness. Heidegger’s contribution was to turn the phenomenological method toward the existential, or lived experience, rather than toward mere objects of consciousness. Thus, existential phenomenology seeks to get at the meaning of lived experience through the careful and systematic analysis of lived experience itself. In its fundamental project and subject matter, Heidegger’s work of the 1910s and 1920s anticipated the French existentialism of the postwar era. See being-in-the-world; Dasein.

existential psychoanalysis

existential psychoanalysis see existential analysis.

existential psychology

existential psychology a general approach to psychological theory and practice that derives from existentialism. It emphasizes the subjective meaning of human experience, the uniqueness of the individual, and personal responsibility reflected in choice. Such an approach was pioneered by Swiss existential psychologist Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966). See being-in-the-world; world design. See also humanistic psychology.

existential psychotherapy

existential psychotherapy a form of psychotherapy that deals with the here and now of the client’s total situation rather than with his or her past or underlying dynamics. It emphasizes the exploration and development of meaning in life, focuses on emotional experiences and decision making, and stresses a person’s responsibility for his or her own existence. See also logotherapy.

existential vacuum

existential vacuum the inability to find or create meaning in life, leading to feelings of emptiness, alienation, futility, and aimlessness. Most existentialists have considered meaninglessness to be the quintessential symptom or ailment of the modern age. See existential crisis; existential neurosis. See also logotherapy. [introduced by Viktor E. Frankl]

existential–humanistic therapy

existential–humanistic therapy a form of psychotherapy that focuses on the entire person rather than solely on behavior, cognition, or underlying motivations. Emphasis is placed on the client’s subjective experiences, free will, and ability to decide the course of his or her own life. Also called humanistic–existential therapy.

existentialism

existentialism n. a philosophical and literary movement that emerged in Europe in the period between the two World Wars and became the dominant trend in Continental thought during the 1940s and 1950s. Existentialism is notoriously difficult to sum up in a single definition—partly because many who might be identified with the movement reject the label, and partly because the movement is itself often a rejection of systematization and classification. The origins of existentialism have been traced to a range of thinkers, including French philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, and Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881). However, the first fully developed philosophy of existentialism is usually taken to be the existential phenomenology elaborated by German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) in the 1910s and 1920s. Heidegger’s concept of Dasein was a key influence on the work of the French philosopher and author Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), who is usually seen as the existentialist thinker par excellence. In the immediate postwar years, Sartre popularized both the term existentialism and most of the ideas now associated with it. Existentialism represents a turning away from systematic philosophy, with its emphasis on metaphysical absolutes and principles of rational certainty, and toward an emphasis on the concrete existence of a human being “thrown” into a world that is merely “given” and contingent. Such a being encounters the world as a subjective consciousness, “condemned” to create its own meanings and values in an “absurd” and purposeless universe. The human being must perform this task without benefit of a fixed essence or inherent nature, and in the absence of any possibility of rational certainty. However, by accepting the burden of this responsibility, and refusing the “bad faith” of religion and other spurious rationalizations, he or she can achieve authenticity. Various forms of existential psychology have taken up the task of providing explanations, understandings of human behavior, and therapies based on existentialist assumptions about human existence. They have emphasized such constructs as alienation, authenticity, and freedom, as well as the difficulties associated with finding meaning and overcoming anxiety. —existential adj. —existentialist n., adj.

exit interview

exit interview 1. a meeting between a student and a school counselor before the student leaves to begin high school, college, technical school, a vocational program, or a job. Future plans (e.g., future course of study) and the student’s degree of preparation are discussed. 2. an employee’s final meeting with a supervisor or personnel staff primarily to discuss the reasons for the employee’s resignation or termination of employment. Information from such interviews can be used to reduce turnover of and improve job satisfaction for remaining staff.

exo- (ex-)

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exocrine gland

exocrine gland any gland that secretes a product onto the outer body surface or into body cavities through a duct. Examples are the tear-producing lacrimal (or lachrymal) gland and the salivary gland. Compare endocrine gland.

exogamy

exogamy n. the custom or practice of marrying outside one’s kinship network or other religious or social group. Compare endogamy. —exogamous adj.

exogenous

exogenous adj. originating outside the body, referring, for example, to drugs (exogenous chemicals) or to phenomena, conditions, or disorders resulting from the influence of external factors. Compare endogenous. —exogenously adv.

exogenous attention

exogenous attention see involuntary attention.

exogenous cue

exogenous cue a cue, usually the onset of a stimulus in the peripheral visual field, that draws attention automatically to the location of the stimulus. It initiates involuntary movement of attention. Compare endogenous cue.

exogenous depression

exogenous depression see reactive depression.

exogenous variable

exogenous variable an independent variable whose value is determined by factors outside the model or system under study. Compare endogenous variable.

exon

exon n. a sequence of DNA within a gene that encodes a part or all of the gene’s product or function. Exons are separated by noncoding sequences (see intron).

exophoria

exophoria n. deviation of one eye in an outward direction. See also phoria.

exophthalmos

exophthalmos n. abnormal protrusion of the eyeball, a condition commonly associated with hyperthyroidism. Exophthalmos combined with a goiter, a swelling in the neck due to an enlarged thyroid gland (exophthalmic goiter), is a prominent feature of Graves’ disease. Exophthalmos may also be the result of a tumor or infection involving the eye. It is often characterized by the appearance of a fixed stare. —exophthalmic adj.

exopsychic

exopsychic adj. characterizing mental activity that purportedly produces effects outside the individual. Compare endopsychic.

exorcism

exorcism n. the act or practice in which supposed evil spirits are expelled from a person believed to be possessed, or a place thought to be haunted, by means of certain rites, ceremonies, prayers, and incantations. It was once widely believed that such spirits were the major cause of mental disease and other disorders and that exorcism was therefore a suitable form of treatment. The Roman Catholic Church still performs ritual exorcisms in certain very restricted circumstances. See also inhabitance. —exorcise vb. —exorcist n.

exosomatic method

exosomatic method a technique used in psychogalvanic-response studies in which skin resistance to a small electric current from an external source is measured. See galvanic skin response.

exosystem

exosystem n. in ecological systems theory, those societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but nevertheless affect the immediate context within which he or she develops. They include the government, the legal system, and the media. Compare chronosystem; macrosystem; mesosystem. [introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner]

exotropia

exotropia n. the permanent outward deviation of one eye. Also called divergent strabismus; walleye. See also strabismus; tropia.

exp

exp abbreviation for exponential function.

expanded consciousness

expanded consciousness a sense that one’s mind has been opened to a new or larger kind of awareness, associated particularly with mystical experiences, meditation, or hallucinogenic drug use. See also altered state of consciousness.

expansion

expansion n. a description of a mathematical or statistical function via a series of sums.

expansive delusion

expansive delusion a less common name for a delusion of grandeur.

expansive mood

expansive mood a mood that reflects feelings of grandiosity.

expansiveness

expansiveness n. a personality trait manifested by loquaciousness, overfriendliness, hyperactivity, and lack of restraint.

expectancy

expectancy n. 1. the internal state resulting from experience with predictable relationships between stimuli or between responses and stimuli. This basic meaning becomes slightly more specific in some fields. For example, in cognitive psychology, it refers to an attitude or mental set that determines the way in which a person approaches a situation, and in motivation theory, it refers to an individual’s belief that his or her actions can produce a particular outcome (e.g., attainment of a goal). 2. see expectation. —expectant adj.

expectancy effect

expectancy effect the effect of one person’s expectation about the behavior of another person on the actual behavior of that other person (interpersonal expectancy effect), or the effect of a person’s expectation about his or her own behavior on that person’s actual subsequent behavior (intrapersonal expectancy effect). See also experimenter expectancy effect.

expectancy theory

expectancy theory 1. a theory that cognitive learning involves acquired expectancies and a tendency to react to certain objects as signs of other objects previously associated with them. Purposive behaviorism is a specific form of expectancy theory. 2. see valence–instrumentality–expectancy theory.

expectancy wave

expectancy wave see contingent negative variation.

expectancy-value model

expectancy-value model the concept that motivation for an outcome depends on the significance of that outcome and the probability of achieving it.

expectation

expectation n. 1. a state of tense, emotional anticipation. 2. in probability and statistics, the long-term average of a random variable. For example, the expectation is that the mean for a specific random variable obtained with an extremely large sample will equal the mean of the population of interest. Also called expectancy. See expected value.

expectation-states theory

expectation-states theory a sociological explanation of status differentiation in groups proposing that group members allocate status not only to those who possess qualities suggesting competence at a task (specific-status characteristics) but also to those who have qualities that the members (mistakenly) think are indicators of competence and potential, such as sex, age, wealth, and ethnicity (diffuse-status characteristics). See also status generalization.

expected frequency

expected frequency a frequency predicted from a theoretical model. For example, a university administrator may want to examine the observed frequency of female and male students and compare it to the expected frequency for each gender to determine how similar the pattern is to that in the general population. Expected frequencies are chiefly used in the chi-square test.

expected value

expected value the value of a random variable or one of its functions as derived by mathematical calculation rather than observation. It is symbolized by E(x), with x varying according to the specific item of interest that is being calculated. Usually, the expected value is a mean or weighted average.

experience

experience n. 1. an event that is actually lived through, as opposed to one that is imagined or thought about. 2. the present contents of consciousness. 3. a stimulus that has resulted in learning. —experiential adj.

experience-dependent process

experience-dependent process in brain development, changes in neurochemistry, anatomy, electrophysiology, and neuronal structure following various experiences that are unique to an individual and may occur at any time during the lifespan. The experience of training in certain behaviorial and cognitive tasks, for example, has been shown to increase the length of dendrites and spine density, the primary sites of excitatory synapses, on individual neurons, effectively increasing the amount of space available for synaptic connections. Such changes are thought to be among the primary mechanisms by which the brain adapts to environmental demands and thus may represent an important component of the neural substrate of learning and memory.

experience-expectant process

experience-expectant process in brain development, a predetermined maturational process in which synapses are formed and maintained only when an organism has undergone expected species-typical experiences during a particular critical period. Such functions as vision will develop for all members of a species if given species-typical environmental stimulation (e.g., light).

experience-sampling method (ESM)

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experiencer

experiencer n. in case grammar, the entity that experiences the effect of the action, state, or process described in a sentence, such as John in John sees Mary, The wind felt soft to John, and The walk invigorated John. Note that experiencer case is independent of the grammatical role of John in the sentence. The category, which overlaps with that of patient, is usually reserved for animate nouns capable of sensory or emotional experience. See also agent; instrumental.

experiential family therapy

experiential family therapy an intervention that emphasizes intuition, feelings, and underlying processes in treating families and deemphasizes theoretical frameworks. The work is often characterized by the use of the therapist’s own feelings and self-disclosures in interactions with clients. Notable experiential family therapists have included U.S. psychiatrists Carl A. Whitaker (1912–1995) and Virginia M. Satir (1916–1988).

experiential history

experiential history the social, environmental, and behavioral components of an individual’s background from birth to death.

experiential knowledge

experiential knowledge understanding and expertise that emerge from life experience rather than from formal education or professional training. For example, members of self-help groups draw upon experiential knowledge in supporting and helping each other.

experiential learning

experiential learning learning that occurs by actively performing and participating in an activity.

experiential psychotherapy

experiential psychotherapy a broad family of psychotherapies originating in the 1950s and 1960s and falling under the umbrella of existential–humanistic psychology. A core belief of the approach is that true client change occurs through direct, active “experiencing” of what the client is undergoing and feeling at any given point in therapy, both on the surface and at a deeper level. Experiential therapists typically engage clients very directly with regard to accessing and expressing their inner feelings and experiencing both present and past life scenes, and they offer clients perspectives for integrating such experiences into realistic and healthy self-concepts. Experiential psychotherapy has its antecedents in the work of U.S. psychiatrists Carl A. Whitaker (1912–1995) and Thomas P. Malone (d. 2000), Austrian-born U.S. psychologist Carl Rogers, U.S. philosopher and psychologist Eugene T. Gendlin (1926– ), and others.

experiential subtheory

experiential subtheory a subtheory in the triarchic theory of intelligence specifying the kinds of experience to which the components of intelligence (specified in the componential subtheory) are applied. According to the experiential subtheory, people are creatively intelligent to the extent that they can cope with relative novelty and automatize routine aspects of tasks so as to devote more resources to novel stimuli in their environment.

experiment

experiment n. a series of observations conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with the purpose of drawing causal inferences about that relationship. An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable, the measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of various participants to one or more of the conditions being studied. Random selection of participants and their random assignment to conditions also are necessary in experiments. —experimental adj.

experiment-wise alpha level

experiment-wise alpha level the significance level (i.e., the acceptable risk of making a Type I error) that is established by a researcher for a set of multiple comparisons and statistical tests. It is often set at the conventional level of .05; by setting the alpha for individual tests (the testwise alpha level) at a lower rate (e.g., .01), it can be ensured that the whole set of tests does not produce error greater than the desired experiment-wise level.

experiment-wise error rate

experiment-wise error rate in a test involving multiple comparisons, the probability of making at least one Type I error over an entire research study. The experiment-wise error rate differs from the testwise error rate, which is the probability of making a Type I error when performing a specific test or comparison.

experimental aesthetics

experimental aesthetics the use of techniques of experimental psychology in the study of responses to natural objects or art forms and their components. Studies in experimental aesthetics may also involve the use of Gestalt and other concepts in analyzing emotional effects and preferences for colors and patterns.

experimental analysis of behavior

experimental analysis of behavior an approach to experimental psychology that explores the relationships between particular experiences and changes in behavior, emphasizing the behavior of individuals rather than group averages. It is concerned especially with describing how contingencies of reinforcement control the rate of an instrumental response.

experimental attrition

experimental attrition see attrition.

experimental condition

experimental condition a level of the independent variable that is manipulated by the researcher in order to assess the effect on a dependent variable. Participants in an experimental condition receive some form of treatment or experience whereas those in a control condition do not. For example, patients in an experimental condition may receive a new drug, whereas those in a control condition may receive a pill that looks like the new drug but is only a placebo containing some inert substance.

experimental control

experimental control see control.

experimental design

experimental design an outline or plan of the procedures to be followed in scientific experimentation in order to reach valid conclusions, with consideration of such factors as participant selection, variable manipulation, data collection and analysis, and minimization of external influences.

experimental epilepsy

experimental epilepsy induction of repeated episodes of abnormal neural activity (seizures) in a nonhuman animal through electrical or chemical brain stimulation or through repeated sensory stimulation.

experimental ethics

experimental ethics see research ethics.

experimental group

experimental group a group of participants in a research study who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable (i.e., a particular treatment or treatment level). The responses of the experimental group are compared to the responses of a control group, other experimental groups, or both.

experimental hypothesis

experimental hypothesis a premise that describes what a researcher in a scientific study hopes to demonstrate if certain conditions are met, such as random selection of participants, random assignment to experimental groups or control groups, and manipulation of an independent variable.

experimental manipulation

experimental manipulation in an experiment, the manipulation of one or more independent variables in order to investigate their effect on a dependent variable. An example would be the assignment of a specific treatment or placebo to participants in a research study in order to control possible confounds and assess the effect of the treatment.

experimental method

experimental method a system of scientific investigation, usually based on a design to be carried out under controlled conditions, that is intended to test a hypothesis and establish a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.

experimental neuropsychology

experimental neuropsychology the use of empirical methods to study the physiological structures and processes of the nervous system and their relationships to cognition and behavior. For example, an experimental neuropsychologist might examine how different probes affect recognition memory performance in individuals with and without schizophrenia in order to identify which memory processes are most vulnerable to disruption in schizophrenia and to determine how people with the disorder can best remember. Experimental neuropsychology encompasses both healthy functioning and impairment in a variety of areas and relies on numerous techniques, such as laboratory research, neuropsychological tests, brain imaging, electroencephalography, and qualitative analysis.

experimental neurosis

experimental neurosis a pathological condition induced in a nonhuman animal during conditioning experiments requiring discriminations between nearly indistinguishable stimuli or involving punishment for necessary activities (e.g., eating). Experimental neurosis may be characterized by a range of behavioral abnormalities, including agitation, irritability, aggression, regressive behavior, escape and avoidance, and disturbances in physiological activity such as pulse, heart, and respiration rates. For example, in one experiment a dog learned to salivate in the presence of a circle, which had been paired with food, but not in the presence of an ellipse, which had not been paired with food. Faced with a difficult discrimination, the dog became agitated, barked violently, and attacked the apparatus, and all simple discriminations that had been learned were lost.

experimental philosophy

experimental philosophy 1. in the late 17th and 18th centuries, a name for the new discipline of experimental science then emerging. Use of the term often went with an optimism about the ability of experimental science to answer the questions that had been posed but unsolved by “natural philosophy.” The systematic work of Isaac Newton is often given as a defining example of experimental philosophy. 2. a late 20th-century movement holding that modern experimental science, particularly neuroscience, will ultimately uncover the biological foundations of thought and thereby provide a material answer to the questions of epistemology. In other words, experimental philosophy holds that answers to philosophical questions regarding the mind and its activities can, and likely will, be reduced to questions of how the brain functions. See reductionism.

experimental psychology

experimental psychology the scientific study of behavior, motives, or cognition in a laboratory or other controlled setting in order to predict, explain, or influence behavior or other psychological phenomena. Experimental psychology aims at establishing quantified relationships and explanatory theory through the analysis of responses under various controlled conditions and the synthesis of adequate theoretical accounts from the results of these observations. See also empirical psychology.

experimental realism

experimental realism the extent to which a controlled study is meaningful and engaging to participants, eliciting responses that are spontaneous and natural. See also mundane realism.

experimental research

experimental research research utilizing randomized assignment of participants to conditions and systematic manipulation of variables with the objective of drawing causal inference. It is generally conducted within a laboratory or other controlled environment, which in reducing the potential influence of extraneous factors increases internal validity but decreases external validity. Compare correlational research; field research; quasi-experimental research.

experimental treatment

experimental treatment 1. in research, the conditions applied to one or more groups that are expected to cause change in some outcome or dependent variable. 2. an intervention or regimen that has shown some promise as a cure or ameliorative for a disease or condition but is still being evaluated for efficacy, safety, and acceptability.

experimental unit

experimental unit the unit to which an experimental manipulation is applied. For example, if an intervention is applied to a classroom of students, the classroom (not the individual students) is the experimental unit. In quasi-experimental research and other nonexperimental contexts, the term unit of analysis is used instead.

experimental variable

experimental variable an independent variable that is manipulated by the researcher to determine its relationship to or influence upon some outcome or dependent variable.

experimenter bias

experimenter bias any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher’s behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results. For example, a researcher may inadvertently cue participants to behave or respond in a particular way. See experimenter effect.

experimenter drift

experimenter drift a gradual and nonconscious change in the way a researcher conducts or interprets a controlled study, leading to systematic error in the results.

experimenter effect

experimenter effect any influence a researcher may have on the results of his or her research, derived from either interaction with participants or unintentional errors of observation, measurement, analysis, or interpretation. In the former, the experimenter’s personal characteristics (e.g., age, sex, race), attitudes, and expectations directly affect the behavior of participants. In the latter, the experimenter’s procedural errors (often arising from his or her expectations about results) have no effect on participant responses but indirectly distort the research findings.

experimenter expectancy effect

experimenter expectancy effect a type of experimenter effect in which a researcher’s expectations about the findings of his or her research are inadvertently conveyed to participants and influence their responses. This distortion of results arises from participants’ reactions to subtle cues (demand characteristics) unintentionally given by the researcher—for example, through body movements, gestures, or facial expressions—and may threaten the ecological validity of the research. The term is often used synonymously with Rosenthal effect.

expert authority

expert authority see authority.

expert fallacy

expert fallacy see false authority.

expert performance

expert performance the perception of small differences between two stimuli. For example, distinguishing between identical twins might require expert performance.

expert power

expert power a capacity to influence others that is based on the assumption that the influencer is highly skilled.

expert system

expert system a program, often mimicking expert problem-solving performance, that uses the explicit representation of human knowledge, usually in the form of “if → then” rules. The expert system often employs a certainty-factor algebra to support reasoning in uncertain situations in which there are missing or vague data or unclear alternatives. Expert systems are used in such fields as medical diagnosis and financial prediction. Also called knowledge-based system (KBS).

expert testimony

expert testimony evidence given in court by an expert witness. Unlike other testimony, this evidence may include the witness’s opinions about certain facts to help the trier of fact to make a decision. See opinion testimony; ultimate opinion testimony.

expert witness

expert witness an individual who is qualified to testify on scientific, technical, or professional matters and provide an opinion concerning the evidence or facts presented in a court of law. Eligibility to testify as an expert witness is based on the person’s special skills or knowledge as judged by the court. In U.S. federal courts, eligibility criteria are established by the Federal Rules of Evidence 702–706; see Daubert test. Mental health professionals often serve as expert witnesses in such cases as those involving insanity pleas and child custody.

expert–novice differences

expert–novice differences the ways in which the performance of those skilled in a particular domain will typically differ from that of those who have no experience in that domain.

expertise

expertise n. a high level of domain-specific knowledge and skills accumulated with age or experience.

expiatory punishment

expiatory punishment a punishment in which the wrongdoer is made to suffer in proportion to the severity of the wrongdoing, but not necessarily in a way that reflects the nature of the transgression. Compare reciprocal punishment.

explained variance

explained variance the proportion of the variance in a dependent variable that can be determined or explained by one or more other variables. In analysis of variance procedures, the explained variance usually is given by eta squared or omega squared, whereas in prediction methods, such as multiple regression, it usually is given by the coefficient of multiple determination. Explained variance also is applied in procedures such as principal components analysis or factor analysis to describe the proportion of the variance in a measure that can be understood or predicted from a component or factor. Compare error variance.

explanation

explanation n. an account that provides a meaning for some phenomenon or event in terms of causal conditions, a set of beliefs or assumptions, or a metaphor that relates it to something already understood. See scientific explanation. —explanatory adj.

explanatory research

explanatory research a study conducted to assess why a particular finding occurred. For example, one might conduct explanatory research to determine why individuals who have been abused as children tend to be at higher risk for negative outcomes as adults. Compare predictive research.

explanatory style

explanatory style an individual’s unique way of describing and explaining some phenomenon, event, or personal history.

explanatory variable

explanatory variable see independent variable.

explant

explant n. a small piece of tissue that is isolated from the body and grown in an artificial medium, often for experimental purposes.

explicit attitude

explicit attitude a relatively enduring and general evaluative response of which a person is consciously aware. Compare implicit attitude.

explicit attitude measure

explicit attitude measure any procedure for evaluating attitudes in which a person is consciously aware of the fact that his or her attitude toward something or someone is being assessed. Measures of this type are generally direct attitude measures. Compare implicit attitude measure.

explicit behavior

explicit behavior see overt behavior.

explicit emotion regulation

explicit emotion regulation see emotion regulation.

explicit memory

explicit memory long-term memory that can be consciously recalled: general knowledge or information about personal experiences that an individual retrieves in response to a specific need or request to do so. This term, proposed in 1985 by Canadian psychologist Peter Graf and U.S. psychologist Daniel L. Schacter (1952– ), is used interchangeably with declarative memory but typically with a performance-based orientation—that is, a person is aware that he or she possesses certain knowledge and specifically retrieves it to complete a task overtly eliciting that knowledge (e.g., a multiple-choice exam). Compare implicit memory.

explicit memory test

explicit memory test a memory test that elicits conscious memories of previously experienced events. Such tests (e.g., free recall, recognition method) include explicit instructions to participants to recall earlier events. Also called direct memory test. Compare implicit memory test. See also conceptual test; perceptual test.

explicit prejudice

explicit prejudice a negative attitude against a specific social group that is consciously held, even if not expressed publicly. The person is thus aware of and can report on this type of prejudice, typically via questionnaires that require participants to indicate whether they agree or disagree with the statements presented. Compare implicit prejudice.

explicit process

explicit process a cognitive process that can be described accurately and that is available to introspection. Compare implicit process.

exploitative orientation

exploitative orientation in the existential psychoanalysis of Erich Fromm, a character pattern marked by the use of stealth, deceit, power, or violence to obtain what the individual wants. The character type is plagiaristic rather than spontaneously or resourcefully creative. Also called exploitative character. Compare hoarding orientation; marketing orientation.

exploratory behavior

exploratory behavior the movements made by human beings or other animals in orienting to new environments. Exploratory behavior occurs even when there is no obvious biological reward associated with it. A lack of such behavior in a new environment is often used as a measure of fearfulness or emotionality. See also diversive exploration; inspective exploration.

exploratory data analysis (EDA)

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exploratory drive

exploratory drive the motivation that compels an organism to examine its environment. The exploratory drive may be secondary to other drives, such as fear or hunger leading to exploration. Alternatively, exploratory behavior may be a separate and independent drive. Also called exploration drive. See also curiosity.

exploratory factor analysis (EFA)

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exploratory procedure

exploratory procedure 1. a surgical procedure used to diagnose disease when less invasive methods are inconclusive. 2. a method used by people for feeling the surfaces of objects. People tend to modify their use of touch to optimize the acquisition of information. Thus, they may push on a surface to judge its hardness or stroke it with the index finger to perceive texture. [described in 1987 by Canadian psychologist Susan J. Lederman and U.S. psychologist Roberta L. Klatzky (1947– )]

exploratory research

exploratory research a study that is conducted when not much is known about a particular phenomenon. In exploratory research, one typically seeks to identify multiple possible links between variables. In contrast, in confirmatory research, one tests whether a specific prediction holds under specific circumstances.

explosive disorder

explosive disorder see intermittent explosive disorder; isolated explosive disorder.

explosive personality

explosive personality a personality with a pattern of frequent outbursts of uncontrolled anger and hostility out of proportion to any provocation. See intermittent explosive disorder.

exponent

exponent n. a number shown as a superscript of another number to indicate how many times the base number is to be multiplied by itself. For example, the base number 2 with an exponent of 3 (i.e., 23) denotes the number formed by multiplying 2 by itself three times (i.e., 2 × 2 × 2 = 8).

exponential curve

exponential curve a graph of a rapidly growing function in which the increase is proportional to the size of an x variable and the slope is equal to the value of the y variable.

exponential distribution

exponential distribution a theoretical arrangement of survival times, used in parametric survival analysis when the hazard rate is thought to be constant over time. It is a specific type of gamma distribution.

exponential function (exp)

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exposure and response prevention (ERP; EX/RP)

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exposure deafness

exposure deafness loss of hearing due to prolonged exposure to loud sounds. The condition may be temporary or permanent, depending upon the loudness, length of exposure, and sound frequencies. See also auditory fatigue.

exposure therapy

exposure therapy a form of behavior therapy that is effective in treating anxiety disorders. It involves systematic and repeated confrontation with a feared stimulus, either in vivo (live) or in the imagination, and may encompass any of a number of behavioral interventions, including desensitization, flooding, implosive therapy, and extinction-based techniques. It works by (a) habituation, in which repeated exposure reduces anxiety over time by a process of extinction; (b) disconfirming fearful predictions; and (c) increasing feelings of self-efficacy and mastery.

expressed emotion (EE)

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expression

expression n. an external manifestation of an internal condition or characteristic. For example, gene expression is the process by which the instructions encoded in DNA are used to create observable products, such as proteins (and by extension demonstrable physical attributes, such as hair or eye color). The term, however, is most often used in reference to the communication of a thought, behavior, or emotion, as in emotional expression or facial expression.

expressionism factor

expressionism factor in psychological aesthetics, a dimension of artistic style that emphasizes the artist’s emotional experience, especially where this is powerful or intense. According to Daniel E. Berlyne, the expressionism factor is based on stylistic ratings that are high on such scales as tense–tranquil.

expressive amimia

expressive amimia see amimia.

expressive amusia

expressive amusia see amusia.

expressive aphasia

expressive aphasia see aphasia; Broca’s aphasia.

expressive language

expressive language the language produced by a speaker or writer, as opposed to that received by a listener or reader (see receptive language). Also called productive language.

expressive language disorder

expressive language disorder a developmental disorder, classified in the DSM–IV–TR as a communication disorder, that is characterized by impairment in acquiring the ability to use language effectively for communicating with others despite normal language comprehension. Manifestations include below-average vocabulary skills, difficulty producing complete sentences, and problems recalling words.

expressive suppression

expressive suppression see response-focused emotion regulation.

expressive therapy

expressive therapy 1. a form of psychotherapy in which the client is encouraged to talk through problems and to express feelings openly and without restraint. Compare suppressive therapy. 2. any of a variety of therapies that rely on nonverbal methods (e.g., art, dance, movement) to facilitate change.

extended care

extended care a service provided at a residential facility where 24-hour nursing care and rehabilitation therapy are available, usually following an acute hospitalization. A facility that provides such a service is known as an extended care facility (ECF). See also continuing care unit; skilled nursing facility.

extended Cox regression model

extended Cox regression model see Cox regression analysis.

extended family

extended family 1. a family unit consisting of parents and children living in one household with other individuals united by kinship (e.g., grandparents, cousins). 2. in modern Western societies, the nuclear family together with various other relatives who live nearby and keep in regular touch. 3. most generally, any family members beyond the nuclear family (e.g., grandparents, cousins, aunts, uncles). Also called consanguineous family.

extended suicide

extended suicide murder–suicide in which both the murder and the suicide reflect the suicidal process. The individual first kills those perceived as being a part of his or her identity or extended self and then commits suicide.

extended-family therapy

extended-family therapy group therapy involving not only the nuclear family but also other family members, such as aunts, uncles, grandparents, and cousins.

extended-release preparation

extended-release preparation see slow-release preparation.

extended-stay review

extended-stay review a review of a continuous hospital stay that has equaled or exceeded the period defined by a hospital or third-party utilization review. See also continued-stay review.

extension

extension n. the straightening of a joint in a limb (e.g., the elbow joint) so that two parts of the limb (e.g., the forearm and upper arm) are drawn away from each other.

extension reflex

extension reflex any reflex action that causes a limb or part of a limb to move away from the body. Extension reflexes include the extensor thrust, stretch reflexes, and crossed-extension reflexes. Compare flexion reflex.

extensional meaning

extensional meaning the meaning of a word or phrase as established by a list of the individual instances to which it applies. For example, the extensional meaning of cardinal points of the compass is “north, south, east, and west.” Compare intensional meaning.

extensor

extensor n. a muscle whose contraction extends a part of the body; for example, the triceps muscle group extends, or straightens, the arm. Compare flexor.

extensor motor neuron

extensor motor neuron a motor neuron whose fibers connect with extensor muscles that extend a part of the body by contracting.

extensor posturing

extensor posturing see decerebrate rigidity.

extensor rigidity

extensor rigidity rigid contractions of extensor muscles. The kind of rigidity sometimes indicates the site of the motor neuron lesion associated with the disorder. Injury to the cerebellum produces increased tone of extensor muscles, called cerebellar rigidity. See also decerebrate rigidity.

extensor thrust

extensor thrust a reflex extension of the leg caused by applying a stimulus to the sole of the foot. The reflex normally occurs each time a person takes a step in walking or running, signaling a need for body support and providing the thrust for taking the next step. See also stretch reflex.

exteriorization

exteriorization n. 1. the act of relating one’s inner feelings and attitudes to external, objective reality. 2. the outward expression of one’s private and personal ideas.

external aim

external aim see object of instinct.

external attribution

external attribution see situational attribution.

external auditory meatus

external auditory meatus the canal that conducts sound through the external ear, from the pinna to the tympanic membrane (eardrum). Also called auditory canal; ear canal.

external boundary

external boundary in psychoanalytic theory, the boundary between the ego and external reality, as opposed to the internal boundary between the ego and id.

external capsule

external capsule a thin layer of myelinated nerve fibers separating the claustrum from the putamen. See also extreme capsule; internal capsule.

external chemical messenger (ECM)

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external control

external control see locus of control.

external ear

external ear the part of the ear consisting of the pinna, the external auditory meatus, and the outer surface of the eardrum (see tympanic membrane). Also called outer ear.

external evaluator

external evaluator an individual conducting a program evaluation who is not a regular full-time employee of the program being evaluated. Such an evaluation is considered more objective and potentially less biased than one produced by an internal evaluator. External agents are often preferred for summative evaluations, with possible highly visible consequences, to ensure the validity and credibility of the results.

external fertilization

external fertilization see fertilization.

external genitalia

external genitalia see genitalia.

external granular layer

external granular layer see cortical layers.

external inequity

external inequity the situation in which employers compensate employees at levels that are unfair in relation to the levels of compensation they would receive from other comparable employers. Compare internal inequity. See equity theory.

external locus of control

external locus of control see locus of control.

external pyramidal layer

external pyramidal layer see cortical layers.

external rectus

external rectus see lateral rectus.

external reliability

external reliability the extent to which a measure is consistent when assessed over time or across different individuals. External reliability calculated across time is referred to more specifically as retest reliability; external reliability calculated across individuals is referred to more specifically as interrater reliability.

external respiration

external respiration see respiration.

external validity

external validity the extent to which the results of research or testing can be generalized beyond the sample that generated them. For example, if research has been conducted only with male participants, it cannot be assumed that similar results will apply to female participants. The more specialized the sample, the less likely will it be that the results are highly generalizable to other individuals, situations, and time periods. Compare internal validity.

external world

external world the world of real existing things external to and independent of human consciousness. The question of how one can have knowledge of such a world, or even be sure that such a world exists, has been fundamental to philosophy since the time of René Descartes. See absolute reality; objective reality. See also Cartesian self; egocentric predicament; solipsism.

externality effect

externality effect the tendency of very young infants to direct their attention primarily to the outside of a figure and to spend little time inspecting internal features. The externality effect appears to diminish after the age of 1 month. [initially described in 1979 by I.W.R. Bushnell]

externalization

externalization n. 1. a defense mechanism in which one’s thoughts, feelings, or perceptions are attributed to the external world and perceived as independent of oneself or one’s own experiences. A common expression of this is projection. 2. the process of learning to distinguish between the self and the environment during childhood. 3. the process by which a drive, such as hunger, is aroused by external stimuli, such as food, rather than by internal stimuli.

externalizing–internalizing

externalizing–internalizing a broad classification of children’s behaviors and disorders based on their reactions to stressors. Externalizing behaviors and disorders are characterized primarily by actions in the external world, such as acting out, antisocial behavior, hostility, and aggression. Internalizing behaviors and disorders are characterized primarily by processes within the self, such as anxiety, somatization, and depression. See also Child Behavior Checklist. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Thomas M. Achenbach (1940– )]

exteroception

exteroception n. sensitivity to stimuli that are outside the body, resulting from the response of specialized sensory cells called exteroceptors to objects and occurrences in the external environment. Exteroception includes the five senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste, and exteroceptors thus take a variety of forms (e.g., photoreceptors—retinal rods and cones—for sight; cutaneous receptors—Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s tactile disks—for touch). Compare interoception. —exteroceptive adj.

exteroceptive stimulus

exteroceptive stimulus a stimulus that arises in the external world and is sensed by an organism through any of the five senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste. Compare interoceptive stimulus; proprioceptive stimulus.

exteroceptor

exteroceptor n. see exteroception.

extinction

extinction n. 1. in biology, the loss of a species or subspecies either completely or within a particular environment. For example, the passenger pigeon is globally extinct, and condors and whooping cranes were extinct in many places where previously they had been found but have been reintroduced after successful captive breeding. 2. see perceptual extinction. 3. in classical conditioning, (a) a procedure in which pairing of stimulus events is discontinued, either by presenting the conditioned stimulus alone or by presenting the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus independently of one another; or (b) the result of this procedure, which is a gradual decline in the probability and magnitude of the conditioned response. 4. in operant conditioning, (a) a procedure in which reinforcement is discontinued, that is, the reinforcing stimulus is no longer presented; or (b) the result of this procedure, which is a decline in the rate of the formerly reinforced response. —extinguish vb.

extinction burst

extinction burst see burst.

extirpation

extirpation n. see ablation.

extra- (extr-)

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extracellular space

extracellular space the fluid-filled space in an organism that lies outside the plasma membrane of cells.

extradural hemorrhage

extradural hemorrhage bleeding that occurs outside the dura mater, the outermost of the three protective membranes (meninges) that cover the brain. It usually involves a ruptured artery resulting from a severe head injury, such as a skull fracture. There may be a brief lucid period after the injury, then severe headaches, dizziness, confusion, loss of consciousness, and finally death if the hemorrhage is not controlled. Also called epidural hemorrhage.

extrafusal fiber

extrafusal fiber any of the muscle fibers that lie outside muscle spindles and provide most of the force for muscle contraction. Compare intrafusal fiber.

extraneous variable

extraneous variable a measure that is not under investigation in an experiment but may potentially affect the outcome or dependent variable and thus may influence results. Such potential influence often requires that an extraneous variable be controlled during research. See also confound.

extrapair mating

extrapair mating in socially monogamous species, mating that occurs with individuals other than the mate. In many monogamous bird species, genetic evidence of paternity suggests extensive extrapair mating, with the result that many chicks are not sired by the male that cares for them. Extrapair mating might also occur at times when conception is not possible, either to test other potential mates or to strengthen social relationships with others. See also cuckoldry.

extrapolation

extrapolation n. the process of estimating or projecting unknown score values on the basis of the known scores obtained from a given sample. For example, a researcher might estimate how well students will do on an achievement test on the basis of their current performance, or estimate how well a similar group of students might perform on the same achievement test.

extrapsychic

extrapsychic adj. pertaining to that which originates outside the mind or that which occurs between the mind and the environment. Compare intrapsychic.

extrapsychic conflict

extrapsychic conflict conflict arising between the individual and the environment, as contrasted with intrapsychic conflict.

extrapunitive

extrapunitive adj. referring to the punishment of others: tending to direct anger, blame, or hostility away from the self toward the external factors, such as situations and other people, perceived to be the source of one’s frustrations. Compare intropunitive.

extrapyramidal dyskinesia

extrapyramidal dyskinesia any of various distortions of voluntary movement (dyskinesias), such as tremors, spasms, tics, rigidity, or gait disturbances, associated with some lesion of the extrapyramidal tract. These dyskinesias can occur in neurological disorders or as a side effect of antipsychotic drugs, which produce such conditions as akathisia, acute dystonia, and tardive dyskinesia.

extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS)

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extrapyramidal tract

extrapyramidal tract a motor portion of the central nervous system that includes the basal ganglia and some closely related structures (e.g., the subthalamic nucleus) and descending pathways to the midbrain. It regulates muscle tone and body posture and coordinates opposing sets of skeletal muscles and movement of their associated skeletal parts. Also called extrapyramidal motor system; extrapyramidal system.

extrasensory perception (ESP)

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extraspective perspective

extraspective perspective a methodological approach based on objective, empirical observation of actions and reactions, as contrasted with an introspective, first-person account of experience. The approach of behaviorism is based on an extraspective perspective.

extraspectral hue

extraspectral hue a hue composed of a mixture of wavelengths, and thus not falling along the visible spectrum (compare spectral color). Two examples are purple and white: Purple is a mixture of long and short wavelengths, whereas white is a mixture of all wavelengths. Also called nonspectral hue.

extrastriate cortex

extrastriate cortex see prestriate cortex.

extrastriate visual area

extrastriate visual area any of the visually responsive regions of cerebral cortex that are located outside the primary visual cortex (striate cortex), that is, in the prestriate cortex. Extrastriate visual areas include V2, V3, V4, and V5.

extraterrestrial kidnapping

extraterrestrial kidnapping see alien abduction.

extrauterine pregnancy

extrauterine pregnancy see ectopic pregnancy.

extraversion (extroversion)

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extreme capsule (EmC)

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extreme environments

extreme environments extreme living conditions (e.g., space habitats, polar regions, offshore oil platforms) as they affect human health and well-being. Salient issues in the analysis of extreme environments include privacy, crowding, social support, and levels of stimulation.

extremely low birth weight (ELBW)

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extremity of an attitude

extremity of an attitude the extent to which a person’s evaluation of an attitude object deviates from neutrality. Extremity is related to attitude strength.

extrinsic eye muscles

extrinsic eye muscles see eye muscles.

extrinsic motivation

extrinsic motivation an external incentive to engage in a specific activity, especially motivation arising from the expectation of punishment or reward (e.g., completing a disliked chore in exchange for payment). Compare intrinsic motivation.

extrinsic reinforcement

extrinsic reinforcement provision of a reward for performing an action, such as giving a child candy for reading. The reward itself is called an extrinsic reinforcer. Some evidence suggests that extrinsic reinforcement decreases later involvement in the action unless the reward is given only to induce interest. Compare intrinsic reinforcement.

extrinsic religion

extrinsic religion a religious orientation in which religiosity is largely a means to other ends, such as social morality or individual well-being, rather than an end in itself. Compare intrinsic religion. [introduced by Gordon W. Allport]

extrinsic reward

extrinsic reward a reward for behavior that is not a natural consequence of that behavior. For example, winning a trophy for finishing first in a race and receiving praise or money in the work setting are extrinsic rewards. Compare intrinsic reward.

extroversion

extroversion n. see extraversion.

eye

eye n. the organ of sight. The human eye is a layered, globular structure whose shape is maintained by fluid filling its interior. There are three layers: (a) the outer corneoscleral coat, which includes the transparent cornea in front and continues as the fibrous sclera over the rest of the globe; (b) the middle layer, called the uveal tract, which includes the iris, the ciliary body, and the choroid layer; and (c) the innermost layer, the retina, which is sensitive to light. Retinal ganglion cells within the retina communicate with the central nervous system through the optic nerve, which leaves the retina at the optic disk. The eye has three chambers. The anterior chamber, between the cornea and the iris, and the posterior chamber, between the ciliary body, lens, and posterior aspect of the iris, are filled with a watery fluid, the aqueous humor. The anterior and posterior chambers are in continuity through the pupil. The third chamber, the vitreous body, is the large cavity between the lens and the retina filled with vitreous humor. See also eye muscles; visual system.

eye bank

eye bank a repository for corneas or other parts of the human eye to be used for surgical transplantation in medically and immunologically appropriate recipients.

eye contact

eye contact a direct look exchanged between two people who are interacting. Maintaining eye contact is considered essential to communication between therapist and client during face-to-face interviews. Social psychological studies of eye contact generally find that people look more at the other person when listening to that person than when they themselves are talking; that people tend to avoid eye contact when they are embarrassed; and that the more intimate the relationship, the greater the eye contact. Also called mutual gaze.

eye dominance

eye dominance a preference for using one eye rather than the other. Preference is often for the right eye and is caused mainly by the differential acuity of the two eyes.

eye movements

eye movements movements of the eyes caused by contraction of the extrinsic eye muscles. These include movements that allow or maintain the fixation of stationary targets; smooth-pursuit eye movements; vergence movements; saccadic movements (see saccade), and reflexive movements of the eyes, such as the optokinetic reflex and vestibulo-ocular reflex.

eye muscles

eye muscles 1. (extrinsic eye muscles) the muscles that move the eye within the eye socket. There are three pairs: (a) the superior rectus and inferior rectus, (b) the lateral rectus and medial rectus, and (c) the superior oblique and inferior oblique. 2. (intrinsic eye muscles) the muscles that move structures within the eye itself. They include the ciliary muscles, which alter the shape of the lens during accommodation, and the muscles of the iris, which change the size of the pupil.

eye preference

eye preference see dominant eye; eye dominance.

eye span

eye span see reading span.

eye structure

eye structure see eye.

eye tracker

eye tracker a device that measures the successive targets of an individual’s visual fixations as he or she observes displays. See also eye-movement camera.

eye-movement camera

eye-movement camera a device that video-records eye movements to study rapid foveal fixations during perceptual, cognitive, or social information processing. See also eye tracker.

eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)

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eye-roll sign

eye-roll sign the tendency of the eyes to roll upward in their sockets during the onset of sleep; the eye roll can also occur when people close their eyes during hypnotic induction. It has been proposed that the degree of eye roll is an index of hypnotic suggestibility, though whether the eye roll is a correlate to or plays a causal role in suggestibility is unknown.

eye–hand coordination

eye–hand coordination the integration of visual information-processing skills and appropriate motor responses of the hands in grasping and exploring objects and performing specific tasks. By 6 months of age, most infants can grasp an object within reach, although full use of the thumb develops later, between 8 and 12 months.

eye–voice span

eye–voice span in oral reading, the distance in terms of characters between the word being spoken and the word the eye is focused on. See also reading span.

eyelash sign

eyelash sign a reaction of eyelid movement to the stimulus of stroking the eyelashes. It can be used as part of a diagnostic test for loss of consciousness due to a functional or psychogenic disorder. If the loss of consciousness is due to a neurological disease or injury, the reflex will not occur.

eyelid conditioning

eyelid conditioning a procedure for studying classical conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus (usually an electrical stimulus or a puff of air) elicits an eyeblink.

eyewitness memory

eyewitness memory an individual’s recollection of an event, often a crime or accident of some kind, that he or she personally saw or experienced. The reliability of eyewitness testimony is a major issue in forensic psychology, given the existence of such phenomena as the misinformation effect and weapon-focus effect.

eyewitness testimony

eyewitness testimony evidence given under oath in a court of law by an individual who claims to have witnessed the facts under dispute.

EYM Project

EYM Project abbreviation for Early Years of Marriage Project.

Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)

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Eysenck’s dimensions

Eysenck’s dimensions a system for classifying personality types in which individual differences are described according to three dimensions: psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism (referred to as PEN). See also factor theory of personality. [Hans Eysenck]

Psychology Terms Starting With 'E'