Terms Starting with "G"

708 terms

g

g symbol for general factor.

G M2 gangliosidosis

G M2 gangliosidosis see Tay–Sachs disease.

G protein

G protein any of a class of proteins that are coupled to the intracellular portion of a type of membrane receptor (G-protein-coupled receptor) and are activated when the receptor binds an appropriate ligand (e.g., a neurotransmitter) on the extracellular surface. G proteins thus have a role in signal transduction, being involved, for example, in indirect chemical neurotransmission. They work in conjunction with the nucleotides guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and serve to transmit the signal from the receptor to other cell components (e.g., ion channels) in various ways, such as by controlling the synthesis of second messengers within the cell.

G statistic

G statistic a value used to assess the presence of spatial clustering or autocorrelation in a data set. A large G statistic with a small accompanying probability level, or p value (e.g., ＜.05), suggests there are subsets of dependence or clustering.

G-LOC

G-LOC abbreviation for gravity-induced loss of consciousness.

G-protection device

G-protection device an aeronautic device to counter the effects of gravity during flight. The faster the speed, the greater the acceleration due to gravity (acceleration of free fall). Inflatable pressure cuffs in the flight suit help counter some of the gravity effects in order to keep the pilot from losing consciousness.

G-spot

G-spot abbreviation for Graefenberg spot.

G-tolerance limits

G-tolerance limits the maximum gravitation effects (g-forces) that an individual can withstand before blacking out as a result of acceleration drawing blood out of the head toward the feet (the +Gz direction). Pilots of high-performance aircraft can tolerate +9 Gz with use of G-suits and straining maneuvers. The duration of G-exposure and the type of safety protection used are important in determining whether or not blackout will occur.

GA

GA abbreviation for Gamblers Anonymous.

GABA

GABA abbreviation for gamma-aminobutyric acid.

GABA agonist

GABA agonist a compound that exerts an agonistic (augmentative) effect at gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor sites (see GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor; GABAB receptorgabab-receptor) or on the action of GABA. Several classes of GABA agonists exist. Direct GABA agonists (e.g., muscimol) act at the GABA binding site on the receptor; indirect GABA agonists facilitate, in various ways, the release or activity of GABA. Of the indirect GABA agonists, the benzodiazepines, which act as allosteric modulators (see allosteric modulation) at the GABA receptor complex, are in the most common clinical use.

GABA antagonist

GABA antagonist a substance that exerts an antagonistic (inhibitive) effect at gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor sites (see GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor; GABAB receptorgabab-receptor) or on the action of GABA. Like GABA agonists, GABA antagonists can be direct or indirect. Direct GABA antagonists block the GABA receptor; the best known of these is bicuculline, which acts as a competitive antagonist for GABA at its receptor site. Indirect GABA antagonists include picrotoxin, which is a noncompetitive antagonist at the GABAA receptor complex and blocks the effects of GABA on the receptor complex.

GABAA receptor

GABAA receptor one of the two main types of receptor protein that bind the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the other being the GABAB receptorgabab-receptor. It is located at most synapses of most neurons that use GABA as a neurotransmitter. The predominant inhibitory receptor in the central nervous system, it functions as a chloride channel (see ion channel). GABA agonists, such as the barbiturates and benzodiazepines, enhance the binding of GABA to GABAA receptors, allowing for increased conductance of chloride through the ion channel and thereby hyperpolarizing the neuron and inhibiting its activity. GABA antagonists, such as bicuculline and picrotoxin, block the inhibitory effects of GABA at this receptor. Many other substances, including alcohol (ethanol), are thought to exert at least part of their effect via interaction at the GABAA receptor.

GABAB receptor

GABAB receptor one of the two main types of receptor protein that bind the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the other being the GABAA receptorgabaa-receptor. GABAB receptors, which are G protein-coupled receptors, are less plentiful in the brain than GABAA receptors and do not have binding sites for benzodiazepine or barbiturate GABA agonists. Activation of GABAB receptors results in relatively long-lasting neuronal inhibition, but few psychotropic substances exert their effect at these receptors: Baclofen is a relatively selective agonist at GABAB receptors and is used clinically as a skeletal muscle relaxant.

gabapentin

gabapentin n. a drug used for the treatment of seizures (see anticonvulsant) and for the relief of pain associated with shingles (see herpetic neuralgia). Its mechanism of action is unknown: It is a chemical analog of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that is a potent ligand at alpha 2 delta sites on voltage-gated N and P/Q channels. Gabapentin is currently being investigated for the treatment of certain other disorders, including restless legs syndrome, anxiety disorders, and fibromyalgia, but it is largely discredited as a mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder. Side effects are primarily sedation, dizziness, ataxia, and fatigue; abrupt withdrawal may precipitate seizures. U.S. trade name: Neurontin.

GAD

GAD abbreviation for generalized anxiety disorder.

GAF Scale

GAF Scale abbreviation for Global Assessment of Functioning Scale.

GAI

GAI abbreviation for guided affective imagery.

Gaia hypothesis

Gaia hypothesis the hypothesis that the earth, its living things, and its physical environments constitute a single self-regulating entity. In contrast to Darwinian theories of evolution, which hold that living things adapt themselves to the extant environment, the hypothesis suggests that the earth has adapted to, and been transformed by, the living things that are a part of it. This perspective has been influential in modern ecological movements but is rejected by mainstream scientists. The hypothesis is named for Gaia, the Earth, a primordial Greek goddess who emerged from Chaos. [formulated and named by British scientist James E. Lovelock (1919– )]

gain score

gain score see difference score.

gain–loss theory

gain–loss theory a theory of interpersonal attraction stating that people’s like (or dislike) for another person is more strongly affected by the degree to which they believe they have gone up (or down) in that individual’s estimation than by the unvarying degree to which they think they are attractive (or unattractive) to that person. [first studied in 1965 by U.S. psychologists Elliot Aronson (1932– ) and Darwyn E. Linder (1939– )]

gainsharing

gainsharing n. a reward system in which employees are provided with monetary incentives in the form of bonuses that are tied to the performance of a business unit or organization. See incentive system; Scanlon plan. See also agency theory.

gait

gait n. a manner of walking.

gait apraxia

gait apraxia impairment or loss of the ability to walk that does not involve sensory impairment or paralysis.

galactopoiesis

galactopoiesis n. see lactation.

galactorrhea

galactorrhea n. abnormal expression of breast milk, which may occur either in women at times other than when nursing or in men. Lactation is stimulated by the pituitary hormone prolactin, and the neurotransmitter dopamine normally acts to inhibit the release of prolactin. Therefore, administration of dopamine-receptor antagonists (e.g., conventional antipsychotics), which inhibit the effects of dopamine, may cause galactorrhea. Pituitary tumors or injury to the pituitary gland, causing excessive secretion of prolactin, may also result in galactorrhea. The dopamine-receptor agonist bromocriptine may be used to treat the condition.

galactosemia

galactosemia n. an autosomal recessive disease in which the body is unable to metabolize the sugar galactose, which therefore accumulates in the blood. Untreated, this results in cataracts, jaundice, lethargic and hypotonic behavior, and intellectual disability; the condition is associated with a high infant death rate. Treatment is based on restricted intake of dietary galactose.

galanin

galanin n. a neuropeptide that is implicated in a variety of functions, including normal growth of the nervous system, recovery of function after nerve injury, and regulation of appetite.

galantamine

galantamine n. an inhibitor of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, with additional actions modulating nicotinic receptors directly, that is used for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease (see cognitive enhancer). Although galantamine and other acetylcholinesterase inhibitors do not reverse symptoms of dementia, they have been demonstrated to temporarily slow progression of the disease. U.S. trade name: Razadyne.

Galton bar

Galton bar an instrument that measures the difference threshold (just noticeable difference) for visual linear distances. [Francis Galton]

Galton’s questionary

Galton’s questionary a set of questions sent by Francis Galton to 200 eminent men of science in Britain. The recipients were asked about matters ranging from their physiology (e.g., hat size) to their religious and political background and their reasons for undertaking a career in science. This study, published in 1874 as English Men of Science, is acknowledged as the first use of a questionnaire for psychological research.

galvanic skin response (GSR)

Sorry, "galvanic-skin-response-gsr" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

galvanotropism

galvanotropism n. an orienting response of an organism toward electrical stimulation. It is distinct from galvanotaxis, which is active, directed movement of an organism in response to electrical stimulation. —galvanotropic adj.

GAM

GAM abbreviation for generalized additive model.

gambler’s fallacy

gambler’s fallacy a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events. For example, a person might think that the more often a tossed coin comes up heads, the more likely it is to come up tails in subsequent tosses, although each coin toss is independent of any other and the true probability of the outcome of any toss is still just .5.

Gamblers Anonymous (GA)

Sorry, "gamblers-anonymous-ga" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gambling disorder

gambling disorder DSM–5’s term for pathological gambling, categorized as a nonsubstance-related addiction rather than an impulse-control disorder (as in DSM–IV–TR). DSM–5 criteria for the disorder include persistent, recurrent gambling not related to manic episodes, along with significant impairment or distress. Associated behaviors may include betting increasing amounts of money, inability to limit or stop gambling, and preoccupation with gambling.

game

game n. 1. a social interaction, organized play, or transaction with formal rules. See zero-sum game. 2. in psychotherapy, a situation in which members of a group take part in some activity designed to elicit emotions or stimulate revealing interactions and interrelationships. In play therapy, games are often used as a projective or observational technique. 3. in transactional analysis, a recurrent and often deceitful ploy adopted by an individual in his or her dealings with others. 4. in gestalt therapy, an exercise or experiment designed to increase self-awareness, such as acting out frightening situations or participating in the hot-seat technique.

game reasoning

game reasoning the reasoning that governs acceptable behavior within a sporting context. As sport is deemed to be outside real life, the level of morality applied to behavior in sport is different from and usually lower than that applied to behavior in real life. See bracketed morality.

game theory

game theory a branch of mathematics concerned with the analysis of the behavior of decision makers (called players) whose choices affect one another. Game theory is often used in both theoretical modeling and empirical studies of conflict, cooperation, and competition, and it has helped structure interactive decision-making situations in numerous disciplines, including economics, political science, organizational and social psychology, and ethics. A simple game theory example is a scenario from a reality television show in which the final two players are each asked privately to make a decision to share or keep the entire game prize. The players are told that the outcome will be decided by the following rules: (a) If one player decides to keep the entire prize and the other decides to share, then the first player gets the entire prize; (b) if both players decide to share the prize, then the prize is split; and (c) if both players decide to keep the entire prize, then both leave empty-handed. The players must therefore base their decisions on what they think the other will choose to do.

gamete

gamete n. either of the female or male reproductive cells that take part in fertilization to produce a zygote. In humans and other animals, the female gamete is the ovum and the male gamete is the spermatozoon. Gametes contain the haploid number of chromosomes rather than the diploid number found in body (somatic) cells. See also germ cell.

gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)

Sorry, "gamete-intrafallopian-transfer-gift" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gametogenesis

gametogenesis n. the process resulting in the formation of gametes from germ cells, which normally involves meiosis. In mammals, gametogenesis in the female is known as oogenesis and occurs in the ovaries; in the male, it is called spermatogenesis and occurs in the testes.

gamma

gamma (symbol: γ) n. 1. the distance of a stimulus from the threshold in a psychophysical procedure. 2. any of several different statistical indices, most commonly Goodman–Kruskal’s gamma.

gamma alcoholism

gamma alcoholism see Jellinek’s alcoholism species.

gamma coherence

gamma coherence see gamma synchrony.

gamma distribution

gamma distribution a pattern of data that can be depicted on vertical and horizontal axes when information is known about two parameters, scale and shape, both of which are values equal to zero or higher. For example, a standard gamma distribution is one in which the shape and location parameters of the continuous probability function are 0 and 1, respectively. Gamma distributions are common in Bayesian statistics and are often used to describe waiting times and reaction times.

gamma motor neuron

gamma motor neuron see motor neuron.

gamma movement

gamma movement see apparent movement.

gamma synchrony

gamma synchrony the coordinated oscillations of cortical populations of neurons at frequencies from 25 to 60 Hz (gamma waves). This pattern of electrical activity, as recorded via intracranial electrodes or scalp electroencephalography, predominates during periods of focused mental activities. Growing evidence suggests that gamma synchrony may be a general mechanism for the integration of cognitive processes. Cross-frequency synchrony, including gamma synchrony, has been suggested as the neural correlate of consciousness. Gamma coherence is gamma synchrony with a brief phase lag.

gamma wave

gamma wave in the brain’s electromagnetic field activity, a type of low-amplitude brain wave ranging from 25 to 60 Hz (peaking near 40 Hz) that is associated with cognitive activities such as perception and learning. Also called gamma rhythm.

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Sorry, "gamma-aminobutyric-acid-gaba" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist

gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist see GABA agonist.

gamma-aminobutyric acid antagonist

gamma-aminobutyric acid antagonist see GABA antagonist.

gamma-cystathionase deficiency

gamma-cystathionase deficiency see cystathioninuria.

gamma-endorphin

gamma-endorphin n. see endorphin.

gamma-hydroxybutyrate

gamma-hydroxybutyrate n. see GHB.

gamonomania

gamonomania n. an abnormally strong desire or urge to marry.

gang

gang n. a social group composed of members with a high degree of personal contact who share common interests and standards of behavior, which in some cases (e.g., street gangs) are antisocial.

ganglion

ganglion n. (pl. ganglia) a collection of cell bodies of neurons that lies outside the central nervous system (the basal ganglia, however, are an exception). Many invertebrates have only distributed ganglia and no centralized nervous system. Compare nucleus. —ganglionic adj.

ganglion cell

ganglion cell see retinal ganglion cell.

ganglionic blocking agent

ganglionic blocking agent any of a group of drugs that inhibit the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at synapses in the autonomic ganglia. Among other effects, this causes a decrease in heart rate and a lowering of blood pressure, and these drugs were at one time widely used in the treatment of hypertension. However, because of the severity of their side effects, their use is now rare. See mecamylamine.

ganglionic layer

ganglionic layer see cortical layers.

ganglioside

ganglioside n. any of a group of glycosphingolipids (sugar-containing lipids) that occur mainly in the tissues of the central nervous system. —gangliosidic adj.

gangliosidosis

gangliosidosis n. a disorder of lipid metabolism marked by the excessive accumulation of gangliosides in the nervous system. Gangliosidosis occurs in a number of different forms, each associated with a specific ganglioside; Tay–Sachs disease is one type of gangliosidosis.

ganja

ganja n. one of the more potent forms of cannabis, made from the dried flowering tops of female cannabis plants.

Ganser syndrome

Ganser syndrome a condition in which psychotic illness is simulated or a dissociated state occurs purportedly as a result of an unconscious effort by the individual to escape from an intolerable situation. It is typically seen in psychiatric hospitals and, historically, in prisons (it is referred to in the older literature as prison psychosis). The most prominent feature is the giving of approximate answers to simple or familiar questions (e.g., “3 + 3 = 7”; “a horse has five legs”). Other features include clouding of consciousness, inattentiveness or drowsiness, conversion symptoms (e.g., conversion paralysis), hallucinations, and, frequently, loss of memory for events subsequent to the episode. The syndrome has been variously categorized as a malingering process, a psychotic disorder, and a consequence of a head injury. Also called pseudodementia. [first described in 1898 by Sigbert Ganser (1853–1931), German psychiatrist]

Ganzfeld

Ganzfeld n. 1. a homogeneous visual field, resulting from stimulation of both retinas by diffuse, uniform illumination. This is typically accomplished by looking through white spheres (or the halves of a ping-pong ball) in a dimly red-lit room. 2. in parapsychology experiments, a technique in which the participant is isolated from the sensory environment (e.g., by covering the eyes and placing headphones, usually playing white or pink noise, over the ears). [German, “whole field”; coined by Wolfgang Metzger]

gap detection

gap detection the detection of a temporal interruption in a quasi-continuous sound. For individuals with typical hearing in laboratory situations, a gap of approximately 3 ms is just detectable.

gap junction

gap junction a type of intercellular junction consisting of a gap of about 2 to 4 nm between the plasma membranes of two cells, spanned by protein channels that allow passage of electrical signals. See electrical synapse.

garbage in, garbage out (GIGO)

Sorry, "garbage-in-garbage-out-gigo" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Garcia effect

Garcia effect an alternative but less common name for conditioned taste aversion. [John Garcia (1917–2012), U.S. psychologist]

garden-path sentence

garden-path sentence a sentence in which structural cues, lexical ambiguity, or a combination of both mislead the reader or listener into an incorrect interpretation until a disambiguating cue appears later in the sentence. For example, in the sentence As the car drove past the church clock could be heard striking, the appearance of the verb phrase could be heard indicates that a parsing of the sentence in which past is interpreted as governing the church is erroneous. Such sentences have proved useful in psycholinguistic research into the role of memory in sentence parsing.

Gardner–Diamond syndrome

Gardner–Diamond syndrome a condition in which an individual bruises easily (purpura simplex) and the black and blue patches (ecchymoses) tend to enlarge and result in pain in the affected tissue. It is thought to be triggered by severe emotional distress. Also called autoerythrocyte sensitization syndrome; painful bruising syndrome; psychogenic purpura. [Louis Klein Diamond (1902–1995) and Frank H. Gardner (1919–2013), U.S. physicians]

gargoylism

gargoylism n. the facial appearance of people with Hurler syndrome. The features include an abnormally long and narrow skull due to premature closure of the sagittal suture; a broad nose bridge; an open mouth with a large protruding tongue; thick lips; and clouded corneas.

GAS

GAS abbreviation for general adaptation syndrome.

gas chromatography

gas chromatography a method of chemical analysis used to separate and identify the components of a mixture. The substance being tested is placed at one end of a long tube, and its components are volatilized by an inert gas injected into the tube. Components can be identified by the time they take to pass through the tube. The technique is used to separate and quantify barbiturates, steroids, and fatty acids.

gaslight

gaslight vb. to manipulate another person into doubting his or her perceptions, experiences, or understanding of events. The term once referred to manipulation so extreme as to induce mental illness or to justify commitment of the gaslighted person to a psychiatric institution but is now used more generally. It is usually considered a colloquialism, though occasionally it is seen in clinical literature, referring, for example, to the manipulative tactics associated with antisocial personality disorder. —gaslighted adj. [from Gaslight, a 1938 stage play and two later film adaptations (1940, 1944) in which a wife is nearly driven to insanity by the deceptions of her husband]

gasoline intoxication

gasoline intoxication a euphoric reaction induced by inhalation of gasoline vapor. It also results in headache, weakness, depression of the central nervous system, confusion, nausea, and respiratory disorders. See inhalant.

gastric motility

gastric motility movements of the stomach muscles, particularly those caused by digestive processes. Such movements may also occur in the absence of food in the stomach, as in the reaction of an individual to stress.

gastric neuropathy

gastric neuropathy a form of diabetic gastropathy marked by delayed emptying of the stomach and irregular food absorption.

gastrin

gastrin n. a hormone, synthesized in the G cells of the stomach wall, that regulates the release of gastric juice by the stomach. See also secretin.

gastro- (gastr-)

Sorry, "gastro-gastr" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gastrocolic reflex

gastrocolic reflex the reflex wave of contraction that passes along the colon when food enters a fasting stomach or even in anticipation of a meal.

gastroduodenal ulceration

gastroduodenal ulceration ulceration of the mucosa lining of the stomach and duodenum caused by hydrochloric acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin, which are secreted by the stomach. Although in some cases gastroduodenal ulceration is due to secretion of excess acid, in many others secretion is normal but the mucosa is more susceptible to the acid’s effects. Factors implicated in this increased susceptibility include infection with Helicobacter pylori bacteria and long-term use of NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; e.g., aspirin, ibuprofen); there may also be a familial or genetic factor. Gastric (stomach) ulcers tend to develop later in life and are less likely to be associated with increased acid secretion than are duodenal ulcers. See also dyspepsia; ulcer.

gastroenteritis

gastroenteritis n. inflammation of the lining of the stomach and intestines. It may be caused by food poisoning, infectious diseases, allergic reactions, or psychological factors such as fear, anger, or other emotional disturbance. Symptoms may include headache, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, and gas pain.

gastrointestinal motility

gastrointestinal motility the involuntary forward movement of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, which are propelled mainly by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the bands of circular and longitudinal muscle fibers that form the walls of the tract.

gastrointestinal problems

gastrointestinal problems disorders associated with dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract, such as diarrhea, malabsorption syndrome, colitis, flatulence, dysphagia, gastroenteritis, and peptic ulcer.

gastrula

gastrula n. an early embryo showing differentiation of cells into the three germ layers that will give rise to all of the major tissue systems in the adult organism.

gastrulation

gastrulation n. a stage of embryonic development in which the blastula—essentially a hollow ball of cells—is reorganized to form the gastrula, which contains the basic plan of the future organism.

gate

gate n. a device or circuit (e.g., an ion channel or a neural circuit) that controls the passage of a substance or signal. See gate-control theory; gated channel; ligand-gated ion channel; voltage-gated ion channel.

gate-control theory

gate-control theory the hypothesis that the subjective experience of pain is modulated by large nerve fibers in the spinal cord that act as gates, such that pain is not the product of a simple transmission of stimulation from the skin or some internal organ to the brain. Rather, sensations from noxious stimulation impinging on pain receptors have to pass through these spinal gates to the brain in order to emerge as pain perceptions. The status of the gates, however, is subject to a variety of influences (e.g., drugs, injury, emotions, possibly even instructions coming from the brain itself), which can operate to shut them, thus inhibiting pain transmission, or cause them to be fully open, thus facilitating transmission. Compare pattern theory; specificity theory. See also gating mechanism. [first proposed in 1965 by Canadian psychologist Ronald Melzack (1929– ) and British neuroscientist Patrick D. Wall (1925–2001)]

gated channel

gated channel a channel in a cell membrane that can open or close to regulate the passage of certain ions or molecules.

gatekeeper

gatekeeper n. a health care professional, usually a primary care provider associated with a managed care organization, who determines a patient’s access to health care services and whose approval is required for referrals to specialists.

gatekeeper role

gatekeeper role the responsibility of judges to determine the admissibility in court of both scientific and nonscientific expert testimony according to criteria relevant to reliability. See also Daubert test; Kumho Tire Co. v. Patrick Carmichaelkumho-tire-co-v-patrick-carmichael.

gateway drug

gateway drug a substance whose use is thought to promote progression to using more harmful substances. For example, alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis are often considered to be gateways to heroin, cocaine, LSD, or PCP use. Introduced in the 1950s, the concept became the most popular framework for understanding drug use among adolescent populations, guiding prevention efforts and shaping governmental policy. However, research suggests that certain personality traits (see addictive personality), rather than the substances themselves, are more likely to be associated both with early drug use (e.g., of tobacco and alcohol) at a relatively young age and with the progression to drugs that have a higher abuse potential.

gating

gating n. the automatic inhibition or exclusion from attention of certain sensory stimuli when attention is focused on other stimuli. That is, while one is attending to specific information in the environment, other information does not reach one’s awareness. Also called sensory gating.

gating mechanism

gating mechanism in gate-control theory, the mechanism by which spinal gates open or close, thereby allowing or limiting the transmission of pain.

Gauss–Markov theorem

Gauss–Markov theorem a fundamental theorem of mathematical statistics that deals with the generation of linear unbiased estimators with minimum variance in the general linear model. [Karl Friedrich Gauss; Andrei Markov (1856–1922), Russian mathematician]

Gaussian distribution

Gaussian distribution see normal distribution. [Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), German mathematician]

Gaussian noise

Gaussian noise see noise. [Karl Friedrich Gauss]

gay

gay 1. adj. denoting individuals, especially males, who are sexually attracted to and aroused by members of their own sex. 2. n. a gay individual. See also homosexuality.

gay bashing

gay bashing see homophobia.

gay liberation

gay liberation a social movement seeking to redress legal, social, and economic discrimination against, and advocating equal rights and acceptance for, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. Gay liberation emerged from the radicalism and social turmoil of the late 1960s and extended its political organizing activities in response to the rise of HIV/AIDS in the 1980s. Since then, it has evolved into a broad, diverse movement that includes core debates about how to achieve full equality. For example, some argue for complete integration into mainstream society and its institutions (e.g., through legalization of same-sex marriage), and others stress the essential difference of homosexual experience, culture, and identity. Also called gay lib; gay rights movement; homosexual rights movement; queer rights movement.

gay marriage

gay marriage see same-sex marriage.

gay-related immune deficiency

gay-related immune deficiency a former name for AIDS, reflecting the erroneous belief that it was restricted to gay and bisexual men.

gaze

gaze n. 1. the act or process of maintaining the eyes upon a fixation point. 2. the orientation of the eyes within the face, which can be used by others to interpret where an individual is looking. Gaze direction is an effective way of communicating the location of hidden objects and is functionally similar to pointing. Some nonhuman animals, such as dogs and dolphins, appear to understand the function of gaze direction. See also eye contact.

gaze palsy

gaze palsy an inability to move the eyes, either by saccades or smooth-pursuit eye movements, past mid position in a particular direction, although the eye muscles are capable of contraction. Typical forms are vertical gaze palsy (affecting up–down movements) and horizontal gaze palsy (affecting left–right movements); in complete gaze palsy, gaze shifts are restricted in all directions. Gaze palsy can be caused by injury to the brainstem, thalamus, or posterior occipitotemporal, parietal, or frontal cortex. It leads to a restriction of the field of regard. Also called gaze paresis.

GBMI

GBMI abbreviation for guilty but mentally ill.

GCS

GCS abbreviation for Glasgow Coma Scale.

GDS

GDS 1. abbreviation for Geriatric Depression Scale. 2. abbreviation for Global Deterioration Scale. 3. abbreviation for Gordon Diagnostic System.

GDSS

GDSS abbreviation for group decision support systems.

Gegenhalten

Gegenhalten n. in neurology, involuntary resistance to passive movement of the extremities. [German, “resisting”]

Geisteswissenschaftliche Psychologie

Geisteswissenschaftliche Psychologie one of two branches of the subject matter of psychology as defined by German academics in the 19th century. Variously translated, the term literally means a psychology dealing with the science of the mind or spirit; as such it was intended to encompass the moral, spiritual, historical, and human aspects of behavior now known as social science. Compare Naturwissenschaftliche Psychologie. See also verstehende Psychologie.

gel electrophoresis

gel electrophoresis a method of separating molecules of differing size or electrical charge by forcing them to flow through a gel under the influence of an electric field.

gelasmus

gelasmus n. spasmodic laughter in individuals with certain psychogenic disorders, schizophrenia, and some diseases of the brain (especially of the medulla oblongata). When occurring as an aspect of a psychomotor seizure, this type of spasmodic laughter is termed gelastic epilepsy.

gematria

gematria n. an occult practice in which the numerical values of letters, words, and phrases are calculated and those values are used to uncover “hidden” significances in words, names, or texts (most often the Hebrew scriptures). It is a form of numerology.

Gemeinschaft

Gemeinschaft n. a type of society or social group based on a community of feeling resulting from shared life experiences and similar beliefs and values (from German, “community”). Familial and kinship relations are an example, although the term can also apply to friendship networks and neighborhood relations. Compare Gesellschaft. [first described in 1887 by German sociologist Ferdinand Julius Tönnies (1855–1936)]

Gemeinschaftsgefühl

Gemeinschaftsgefühl n. social interest or community spirit: a spirit of equality, belonging, and unity (German, literally: “feeling for community”).

gemellology

gemellology n. the study of twins and the phenomenon of twinning.

gender

gender n. 1. the condition of being male, female, or neuter. In a human context, the distinction between gender and sex reflects the usage of these terms: Sex usually refers to the biological aspects of maleness or femaleness, whereas gender implies the psychological, behavioral, social, and cultural aspects of being male or female (i.e., masculinity or femininity). 2. in linguistics, a grammatical category in inflected languages that governs the agreement between nouns and pronouns and adjectives.

gender assignment

gender assignment classification of an infant at birth as either male or female. Children born with ambiguous genitalia are usually assigned a gender by parents or physicians. See also gender reassignment.

gender bias

gender bias any one of a variety of stereotypical beliefs about individuals on the basis of their sex, particularly as related to the differential treatment of females and males. These biases often are expressed linguistically, as in use of the phrase physicians and their wives (instead of physicians and their spouses, which avoids the implication that physicians must be male) or of the term he when people of both sexes are being discussed.

gender coding

gender coding assigning particular traits or behaviors exclusively or predominantly to males or females.

gender concept

gender concept an understanding of the socially constructed distinction between male and female, based on biological sex but also including the roles and expectations for males and females in a culture. Children begin to acquire concepts of gender, including knowledge of the activities, toys, and other objects associated with each gender and of how they view themselves as male or female in their culture, possibly from as early as 18 months of age.

gender consistency

gender consistency the understanding that one’s own and other people’s maleness or femaleness is fixed across situations, regardless of superficial changes in appearance or activities.

gender constancy

gender constancy a child’s emerging sense of the permanence of being a boy or a girl, an understanding that occurs in a series of stages: gender identity, gender stability, and gender consistency.

gender differences

gender differences typical differences between men and women that are specific to a particular culture and influenced by its attitudes and practices. Gender differences emerge in a variety of domains, such as careers, communication, and interpersonal relationships. See also sex differences.

gender discrimination

gender discrimination an improper but frequently used synonym of sex discrimination.

gender dysphoria

gender dysphoria 1. discontent with the physical or social aspects of one’s own sex. 2. in DSM–5, a diagnostic class that replaces gender identity disorder and shifts clinical emphasis from cross-gender identification itself to a focus on the possible distress arising from a sense of mismatch, or incongruence, that one may have about one’s experienced gender versus one’s assigned gender. Diagnostic criteria for gender dysphoria in children include significant distress or impairment due to marked gender incongruence, such as a strong desire to be—or a belief that one is—the other gender, preference for the toys, games, roles, and activities stereotypically associated with the other gender, and a strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy. In adults, the manifestations of gender dysphoria may include a strong desire to replace one’s physical sex characteristics with those of the other gender (see sex reassignment), the belief that one has the emotions of the other gender, and a desire to be treated as the other gender or recognized as having an alternative gender identity.

gender identification

gender identification the process of identifying oneself as male or female and adopting the roles and values of that gender. Compare sexual identification. See also gender-role socialization.

gender identity

gender identity one’s self-identification as male or female. Although the dominant approach in psychology for many years had been to regard gender identity as residing in individuals, the important influence of societal structures, cultural expectations, and personal interactions in its development is now recognized as well. Significant evidence now exists to support the conceptualization of gender identity as influenced by both environmental and biological factors. See cisgender; gender constancy; transgender. See also gender role.

gender identity discordance

gender identity discordance a continuing sense that one’s anatomical sex is wrong, with a persistent wish to be the other sex. This phrase is sometimes used in place of gender identity disorder and transsexualism to avoid connotations of pathology. See also gender dysphoria.

gender identity disorder

gender identity disorder in DSM–IV–TR, a disorder characterized by clinically significant distress or impairment of functioning due to cross-gender identification (i.e., a desire to be or actual insistence that one is of the other sex) and persistent discomfort arising from the belief that one’s sex or gender is inappropriate to one’s true self (see transsexualism). The disorder is distinguished from simple dissatisfaction or nonconformity with gender roles. The category gender identity disorder not otherwise specified is used to classify gender-related disorders distinct from gender identity disorder, such as gender dysphoria related to congenital intersex, stress-related cross-dressing behavior (see transvestism), or preoccupation with castration or penectomy (removal of the penis). In DSM–5, gender dysphoria entirely replaces gender identity disorder as a diagnostic class and emphasizes the clinical significance not of cross-gender identification per se but instead the possible distress arising from a sense of incongruence one may have between one’s experienced gender and one’s assigned gender.

gender nonconformity

gender nonconformity behavior that differs from that of others of the same sex or from cultural expectations of male and female behavior.

gender pay gap

gender pay gap the percentage difference between female and male median annual earnings that is thought to result from undervaluing and underpaying work done by women. Also called gender wage gap. See also comparable worth.

gender psychology

gender psychology the exploration of the concepts of masculinity and femininity across cultures and the influence of those concepts on behavior, health, interpersonal relationships, and psychological processes. Although gender psychology originally denoted the analysis of biological sex differences between men and women, the field has grown to encompass the social construction of gender as well. Current topics of study are broad, including within-sex variability, gender identity and gender roles, sexuality and sexual orientation, gender stereotypes and their origins, and other explorations of men’s and women’s experiences, attitudes, and attributes. Modern gender psychology is also methodologically and theoretically diverse, using various quantitative and qualitative techniques and incorporating a variety of perspectives from foundational areas (e.g., social, developmental, and cognitive psychology) and applied fields (e.g., clinical, counseling, and educational psychology).

gender reassignment

gender reassignment 1. the changing of an individual’s label as male or female because of incorrect gender assignment at birth, due to the presence of anomalous genitalia (as in intersex). 2. see sex reassignment.

gender research

gender research the study of issues related to femininity, masculinity, sexuality, and gay, lesbian, and transsexual concerns. Gender research may involve qualitative studies that use focus groups or interviews to understand behavior as well as quantitative analyses that examine potential gender group differences or prediction models. For example, traditional research has assessed whether there are significant group differences between men and women on math and science performance. More recently times, more complex prediction models have been examined to demonstrate that multiple factors are needed to understand performance, such as cultural norms and expectations.

gender role

gender role the pattern of behavior, personality traits, and attitudes that define masculinity or femininity in a particular culture. It frequently is considered the external manifestation of the internalized gender identity, although the two are not necessarily consistent with one another.

gender schema

gender schema the organized set of beliefs and expectations that guides one’s understanding of maleness and femaleness.

gender script

gender script a temporally organized, gender-related sequence of events. Stereotypically female gender scripts may include doing laundry or preparing dinner in the kitchen, whereas stereotypically male scripts may include building a birdhouse or barbecuing. See also script.

gender similarities hypothesis

gender similarities hypothesis the notion that males and females are more psychologically alike than they are different. This directly contradicts the popular gender differences model stating that men and women differ enormously in cognitive ability, communication style, personality, social behavior, and dozens of other characteristics, and the similarities hypothesis has been criticized as lacking a theoretical basis (given that it is derived exclusively from meta-analysis) and as unnecessarily dismissive of contextually based gender differences. [proposed in 2005 by U.S. psychologist Janet Shibley Hyde (1948– )]

gender stability

gender stability the understanding that one’s own or other people’s maleness or femaleness does not change over time. See gender constancy.

gender stereotype

gender stereotype a relatively fixed, overly simplified concept of the attitudes and behaviors considered normal and appropriate for a male or female in a particular culture. Gender stereotypes often support the social conditioning of gender roles. See also sex-role stereotype.

gender typing

gender typing expectations about people’s behavior that are based on their biological sex, or the process through which individuals acquire and internalize such expectations.

gender-role socialization

gender-role socialization the conditioning of individuals to the roles, expectations, and behaviors that society prescribes for males and females.

gene

gene n. the basic unit of heredity, responsible for storing genetic information and transmitting it to subsequent generations. The observable characteristics of an organism (i.e., its phenotype) are determined by numerous genes, which contain the instructions necessary for the functioning of the organism’s constituent cells. Each gene consists of a section of DNA, a large and complex molecule that, in higher organisms, is arranged to form the chromosomes of the cell nucleus. Instructions are contained in the chemical composition of the DNA, according to the genetic code. In classical genetics, a gene is described in terms of the trait with which it is associated and is investigated largely by virtue of the variations brought about by its different forms, or alleles. At the molecular level, most genes encode proteins, which carry out the functions of the cell or act to regulate the expression of other genes. A minority encode vital components of the cell’s protein-assembling apparatus, such as ribosomes. Recent advances in genetic technology and the work of the Human Genome Project have done much to illuminate the mechanism of gene action and have pinpointed genes associated with various inherited diseases. See also dominant allele; recessive allele.

gene cloning

gene cloning see cloning.

gene expression

gene expression see expression.

gene imprinting

gene imprinting the phenomenon in which the expression of a gene is different depending on whether it was inherited from the mother or the father.

gene knockdown

gene knockdown see knockdown.

gene knockout

gene knockout see knockout.

gene linkage

gene linkage the tendency for genes or genetic markers that are located physically close to each other on a chromosome to be inherited together. Linkage data can provide high-risk family members with estimates of their individual risk for the disease or condition conveyed by the gene.

gene mapping

gene mapping the creation of a schematic representation of the arrangement of genes, genetic markers, or both as they occur in the genetic material of an organism. For humans and other higher organisms, three different types of map are made. A genetic map (or linkage map) shows the relative positions of genes along each chromosome. A physical map shows the absolute physical distances between genes along the DNA molecule. A cytogenetic map depicts the banded appearance of stained chromosomes; the bands can be correlated with the location of particular genes.

gene mosaicism

gene mosaicism the presence in an individual of two or more cell lines that are distinct in respect to their genetic and chromosomal makeup and are derived from a single zygote.

gene mutation

gene mutation see mutation.

gene pool

gene pool the total number of genes and their variants (alleles) that occur within a given population of a species at a particular time.

gene splicing

gene splicing the technique of inserting genetic material, in the form of DNA, into an existing DNA molecule. This is commonly performed in genetic engineering when genetic material from one organism is introduced into another organism, usually of a different species. The resultant recombinant DNA may create new sources of drugs or similar organic substances from microorganisms or may correct genetic defects.

gene therapy

gene therapy the insertion of segments of healthy DNA into human body cells to correct defective segments responsible for disease development. A carrier molecule (vector) is used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells, restoring them to a normal state of producing properly functioning proteins. The most common vector is a virus that has been specifically altered to carry normal human DNA, but several nonviral options are being explored as well. Though experimental, current gene therapy holds significant promise as an effective treatment for a variety of pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders. It is not, however, without its share of challenges and limitations: (a) difficulties integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells have prevented any long-term benefits; (b) if the body’s immune system response to foreign objects is triggered, benefits of the therapy may be mitigated; and (c) conditions that arise from mutations in a single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy, yet some of the most commonly occurring disorders (e.g., heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer’s disease, arthritis, diabetes) are caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes. There are also ethical, legal, and social concerns associated with the practice. See also genetic engineering.

gene–environment interaction

gene–environment interaction an interaction between one or more genes and factors in the environment, such as may be needed to trigger the onset of a disease, condition, or characteristic.

gene–gene interaction

gene–gene interaction an interaction between two or more genes, such as may be responsible for the development of a disease, condition, or characteristic.

genealogy

genealogy n. the study of the ancestry of an individual or group with emphasis on family history and relationships rather than hereditary traits. —genealogical adj. —genealogist n.

genera

genera pl. n. see genus.

general ability

general ability a measurable ability believed to underlie skill in handling all types of intellectual tasks. See also general factor.

general ability tests

general ability tests tests designed to measure the general factor of intelligence. They usually require, among other things, understanding and applying relations among relatively abstract stimuli, such as geometric forms.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Sorry, "general-adaptation-syndrome-gas" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

general aptitude

general aptitude see aptitude.

general arousal

general arousal level of energy expenditure, proposed as one of the two dimensions in terms of which all human behavior can be explained (see arousal), the other being approach–withdrawal.

general behavior theory

general behavior theory see behavior theory.

general drive

general drive see nonregulatory drive.

general effect

general effect an overall scientific finding about a relationship between phenomena. For example, a researcher examining the relationship between various teaching styles and academic performance may conclude the existence of a general effect in which better student performance is obtained with an applied, hands-on style. See also interaction effect; main effect.

general extrasensory perception (GESP)

Sorry, "general-extrasensory-perception-gesp" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

general factor

general factor (symbol: g) a hypothetical source of individual differences in general ability, which represents individuals’ abilities to perceive relationships and to derive conclusions from them. The general factor is said to be a basic ability that underlies the performance of different varieties of intellectual tasks, in contrast to specific factors, which are alleged each to be unique to a single task. Even theorists who posit multiple mental abilities have often suggested that a general factor may underlie these (correlated) mental abilities. See two-factor theory. [postulated in 1904 by Charles Spearman]

general genetic law of cultural development

general genetic law of cultural development the idea that a child’s development, as a process embedded in culture, occurs on two planes: first the social, between individuals, and later the psychological, as thought is internalized by the child. [proposed by Lev Vygotsky]

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ)

Sorry, "general-health-questionnaire-ghq" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

general knowledge test

general knowledge test a type of implicit memory test that asks participants to answer factual questions about previously studied items (e.g., words) and assesses how many more questions are answered correctly for the studied material than for unstudied material. It is often categorized as a verbal conceptual test.

general language disability

general language disability see language disability.

general linear model (GLM)

Sorry, "general-linear-model-glm" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

general medical condition

general medical condition in DSM–IV–TR, a disorder that has known physical causes and observable psychopathology. Examples include hypertension and diabetes. The equivalent term in DSM–5 is another medical condition. Thus, for example, the DSM–5 diagnosis for a patient who experiences significant anxiety symptoms (e.g., panic attacks) as a consequence of having a neurological disorder (e.g., Parkinson’s disease) would be “anxiety disorder due to another medical condition.”

General Neuropsychological Deficit Scale

General Neuropsychological Deficit Scale a scale that combines a series of tests from the Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery to generate an overall estimate of cognitive impairment: The higher the score, the greater the impairment.

general neurotic syndrome

general neurotic syndrome a diagnostic classification for a combined anxiety, depressive, and personality disorder. Also called negative affect syndrome.

general paresis

general paresis dementia associated with advanced neurosyphilitic infection of the brain (see neurosyphilis), a condition that is now extremely rare because syphilis is usually diagnosed and treated in its early stages. The first symptoms of general paresis appear 5 to 30 years after the primary infection. Psychological signs are irritability, confusion, fatigue, and forgetfulness, followed by headaches, confabulation, and deterioration in behavior and judgment. If untreated with antibiotics, physical signs gradually develop, including Argyll Robertson pupils, sagging facial muscles, vacant expression, slurred speech, poor handwriting, and locomotor ataxia, followed by inability to dress, paralysis, convulsions, loss of bladder and bowel control, and gradual deterioration to a vegetative state. General paresis was formerly known as general paralysis of the insane, dementia paralytica, paralytic dementia, and paretic psychosis. Also called general paralysis.

general practitioner (GP)

Sorry, "general-practitioner-gp" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

General Problem Solver (GPS)

Sorry, "general-problem-solver-gps" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

general psychology

general psychology the broad study of the basic principles, problems, and methods underlying the science of psychology, including areas such as behavior, human growth and development, emotions, motivation, learning, the senses, perception, thinking processes, memory, intelligence, personality theory, psychological testing, behavior disorders, social behavior, and mental health. The study is viewed from various perspectives, including physiological, historical, theoretical, philosophical, and practical.

general semantics

general semantics an early attempt in the philosophy of language to establish the relationship between words and referents on a scientific basis. It proved influential in a number of disciplines in the 1930s and 1940s. See semantics; semiotics. [introduced by Polish-born U.S. philosopher and scientist Alfred Korzybski (1879–1950) in his Science and Sanity (1933)]

general slowing

general slowing an explanation of cognitive aging that attributes poorer performance of older adults on a variety of cognitive tasks to reduced speed of cognitive processes.

general systems theory

general systems theory an interdisciplinary conceptual framework focusing on the wholeness, pattern, relationship, hierarchical order, integration, and organization of phenomena. It was designed to move beyond the reductionistic and mechanistic tradition in science (see reductionism) and integrate the fragmented approaches and different classes of phenomena studied by contemporary science into an organized whole. In this framework, an entity or phenomenon should be viewed holistically as a set of elements interacting with one another (i.e., as a system), and the goal of general systems theory is to identify and understand the principles applicable to all systems. The impact of each element in a system depends on the role played by other elements in the system, and order arises from interaction among these elements. Also called systems theory. [formulated by Austrian biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901–1972)]

general transfer

general transfer the transfer of general skills or principles acquired in one task or situation to problems in a totally different field. An example is applying the capacity for logical thought acquired in a philosophy course to problems arising in business (see transfer of training). Also called transfer by generalization; transfer of principles. Compare specific transfer. See also cognitive generalization.

generalizability

generalizability n. the extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population. For example, a theoretical model of change would be said to have high generalizability if it applied to numerous behaviors (e.g., smoking, diet, substance use, exercise) and varying populations (e.g., young children, teenagers, middle-age and older adults). A finding that has greater generalizability also is said to have greater external validity, in that conclusions pertain to situations beyond the original study.

generalizability theory

generalizability theory a framework of principles and assumptions about how to determine the reliability of a set of data. Researchers investigate the various facets of a study (items, raters, settings, etc.) to understand specific sources of error and to determine the conditions under which observations will be consistent and applicable across different contexts (e.g., age groups, geographic regions, socioeconomic status).

generalization

generalization n. 1. the process of deriving a concept, judgment, principle, or theory from a limited number of specific cases and applying it more widely, often to an entire class of objects, events, or people. See inductive reasoning. 2. a judgment or principle derived and applied in this way. 3. in conditioning, see stimulus generalization. —generalize vb.

generalization gradient

generalization gradient a graph marking the similarity or difference between two stimuli versus the similarity or difference in their elicited responses. An excitatory gradient (or excitation gradient) graphs an increased tendency to respond to a stimulus and to other stimuli that resemble it, whereas an inhibitory gradient (or inhibition gradient) graphs a decreased tendency. In general, the more similar two stimuli, the more similar the responses. See also stimulus generalization.

generalized additive model (GAM)

Sorry, "generalized-additive-model-gam" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Sorry, "generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

generalized imitation

generalized imitation imitation of forms of behavior that, until presented by a model, had been previously unseen. Presumably this results from a history of reinforcement for imitating.

generalized least squares regression

generalized least squares regression a procedure used to estimate regression coefficients and other parameters when error variances are correlated or show heterogeneity of variance such that a conventional ordinary least squares regression procedure will produce biased results.

generalized linear model (GLM)

Sorry, "generalized-linear-model-glm" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

generalized matching law

generalized matching law in behavioral studies, a formula in the form of a power function (y = axb ) that describes the choice between two alternatives in terms of the ratio (y) of rates of occurrence of (or time spent in) each alternative and the ratio (x) of the rates of reinforcement of the two alternatives. The exponent (b) of the function indexes sensitivity to reinforcement rates, and the coefficient (a) indexes inherent bias for one of the alternatives. When both a and b are equal to 1.0, the formula makes the same prediction as the matching law.

generalized motor program

generalized motor program the hypothesized, abstract form of a motor program whose expression can be varied depending on the concurrent choice of parameters, such as overall extent or speed.

generalized other

generalized other in symbolic interactionism, the aggregation of people’s viewpoints. It is distinguished from specific other people and their individual views.

generalized seizure

generalized seizure a seizure in which abnormal electrical activity involves the entire brain rather than a specific focal area. The two most common forms are absence seizures and some tonic–clonic seizures.

generalizing assimilation

generalizing assimilation in Jean Piaget’s theory of sensorimotor intelligence, the incorporation of increasingly varied objects into a reflex scheme, as, for example, when an infant generalizes a sucking scheme to his or her hand, a blanket, or a toy.

generate–recognize model

generate–recognize model see two-process model of recall.

generation

generation n. 1. the act or process of reproduction or creation. 2. all of the offspring that are at the same stage of descent from a common ancestor. See also filial generation. 3. the average time interval between the birth of parents and the birth of their offspring.

generation effect

generation effect the finding that memory for items to be remembered in an experiment is enhanced if the participants help to generate the items. For example, the word hot will be better remembered if the studied item is “Opposite of COLD: H__” than if the word hot is simply read. Though generation often yields a memory benefit, there are circumstances in which it does not increase retention relative to studying the items.

generation gap

generation gap the differences in values, morals, attitudes, and behavior apparent between younger and older people in a society. The term was first used with reference to the burgeoning youth culture of the late 1960s.

generative grammar

generative grammar an approach to linguistics in which the goal is to account for the infinite set of possible grammatical sentences in a language using a finite set of generative rules. Unlike earlier inductive approaches that set out to describe and draw inferences about grammar on the basis of a corpus of natural language, the theories of generative grammar developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and 1960s took for their basic data the intuitions of native speakers about what is and is not grammatical (see competence; grammaticality). In taking this mentalist approach, Chomsky not only repudiated any behaviorist account of language use and acquisition but also revolutionized the whole field of linguistics, effectively redefining it as a branch of cognitive psychology. Much research in psycholinguistics has since focused on whether the various models suggested by generative grammar have psychological reality in the production and reception of language. See also finite-state grammar; government and binding theory; phrase-structure grammar; transformational generative grammar.

generativity versus stagnation

generativity versus stagnation the seventh stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one’s full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption. Also called generativity versus self-absorption.

generator potential

generator potential see receptor potential.

generic knowledge

generic knowledge see semantic knowledge.

generic name

generic name the nonproprietary name for a pharmaceutical compound. In the United States, the name is adopted by the United States Adopted Name Council and, if recognized by the United States Pharmacopoeia, becomes the official name of the compound. Compare proprietary drug; trademark.

generosity

generosity n. the quality of freely giving one’s support or resources to others in need. See also kindness. —generous adj.

genetic

genetic adj. relating to genes or genetics.

genetic algorithm

genetic algorithm a search procedure from artificial intelligence in which populations of solutions to a problem (usually encoded in strings of bits) are combined to make new possible solutions for the problem. A fitness measure is used to determine which solutions are suitable for making the new populations of solutions. Genetic operators, such as crossover (where sections of two solutions are interchanged) and mutation (where various bits in a solution are switched), are used to produce the new generations of solutions. This approach to creating problem solutions is intended to be an analogue of natural selection in actual evolutionary processes.

genetic clock

genetic clock see telomere.

genetic code

genetic code the instructions in genes that “tell” the cell how to make specific proteins. The code resides in the sequence of bases occurring as constituents of the genetic material, DNA or RNA. These bases are represented by the letters A, T, G, and C (which stand for adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, respectively). In messenger RNA, uracil (U) replaces thymine. Each unit, or codon, of the code consists of three consecutive bases. Hence, there are 64 possible triplet combinations of the four bases, which specify the amino acids that make up each protein molecule.

genetic counseling

genetic counseling an interactive method of educating a prospective parent about genetic risks, benefits and limitations of genetic testing, reproductive risks, and options for surveillance and screening related to diseases with potentially inherited causes. Genetic counseling is most often provided by geneticists or genetic counselors who are trained to discuss hereditary disease with individuals, take pedigrees, and help individuals and families make decisions about the options open to them with regard to genetic disease. If genetic testing is performed, genetic counselors also assess the psychological implications of risk notification and the need for further psychological counseling following disclosure of test results. Also called genetic guidance. See also pretest counseling; posttest counseling.

genetic defect

genetic defect any abnormality (mutation) in a gene or a chromosome. Generally, the defect is expressed in a failure to synthesize a normally functioning enzyme that is required for a specific step in building a certain body cell or for a vital stage in the metabolism of a food element.

genetic determinism

genetic determinism the doctrine that human and nonhuman animal behavior and mental activity are largely (or completely) controlled by the genetic constitution of the individual and that responses to environmental influences are for the most part innately determined. See biological determinism; determinism; nature–nurture.

genetic disorder

genetic disorder any disease or condition that is due to an abnormality of a gene or chromosome (see mutation). Also called inherited disorder.

genetic engineering

genetic engineering techniques by which the genetic contents of living cells or viruses can be deliberately altered, either by modifying the existing genes or by introducing novel material (e.g., a gene from another species). Genetic engineering is undertaken for many different reasons, including basic research on genetic mechanisms, the large-scale production of particular gene products (e.g., medically useful proteins), and the genetic modification of crop plants. There have also been attempts to modify defective human body cells in the hope of treating certain genetic diseases. There remains, however, considerable public concern about the risks and limits of genetic engineering in plants and animals, including humans. See also gene splicing; recombinant DNA.

genetic epistemology

genetic epistemology a term used by Jean Piaget to denote his theoretical approach to and experimental study of the development of knowledge.

genetic error

genetic error an error in the DNA code of a single gene. The genetic error may be due to a mutation that is spontaneous or one caused by an environmental factor, such as radiation. In either case, the error alters a gene’s ability to provide the proper instructions for cellular manufacture of an enzyme required to metabolize an important amino acid. A genetic error that becomes hereditary usually is not lethal to an embryo or fetus; the individual is able to survive birth and become a fertile adult, thus capable of transmitting the error to another generation of individuals. Some genetic errors, however, may result in fetal death or mortality for the individual before he or she reaches adulthood. More than 2,000 kinds of genetic errors have been cataloged.

genetic guidance

genetic guidance see genetic counseling.

genetic linguistics

genetic linguistics an approach to linguistics in which languages are classified according to their historical “family” relationships. The world’s 4,000 or so languages are conventionally divided into some 18 families, each of which is presumed to have developed from a common ancestral protolanguage. The larger families, such as Indo-European, are further divided into subfamilies, such as Celtic, Germanic, Aryan, and so on. See comparative linguistics; diachronic linguistics.

genetic linkage

genetic linkage see gene linkage.

genetic map

genetic map a chromosome map of a species that shows the position of its known genes, genetic markers, or both relative to each other. In humans, genetic mapping entails examining the pattern of inheritance of numerous traits or other markers, over many generations, to establish the degree of gene linkage.

genetic marker

genetic marker a gene or segment of DNA with an identifiable location on a chromosome and whose inheritance can be readily tracked through different generations. Because DNA segments that lie near each other on a chromosome tend to be inherited together, markers are often used to determine the inheritance of a gene that has not yet been identified but whose approximate location is known.

genetic method

genetic method the study of psychological processes in terms of hereditary origins and developmental history, with an emphasis on the role of genes as explanatory devices.

genetic monogamy

genetic monogamy see monogamy.

genetic predisposition

genetic predisposition a tendency for certain traits to be inherited, including physical and mental conditions and disorders. Schizophrenia, for example, is a mental disorder with a genetic predisposition that affects less than 1% of the general population but increasingly larger percentages of distant relatives, siblings, and identical twins of individuals affected. Also called hereditary predisposition. Compare diathesis.

genetic programming

genetic programming a search process for generating problem solutions based on research in genetic algorithms. In this situation, problem solutions are represented by computer code. Genetic operators, including the exchange of components of code between two solutions as well as the mutation of pieces of a solution code, are used to produce new solutions. A fitness metric is used to determine which solutions are most appropriate for use in producing each new generation of solutions.

genetic programming theory

genetic programming theory a group of theories that describe aging as resulting from genetic encoding within an individual’s DNA whereby one is born with a predetermined tendency toward a developmental timetable. Also called planned obsolescence theory. Compare variable rate theory.

genetic psychology

genetic psychology the study of the development of mental functions in children and their transformation across the lifespan. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term was preferred over the synonymous developmental psychology.

genetic sequence

genetic sequence the order of base pairs along a particular strand or segment of a DNA or messenger RNA molecule.

genetic theory

genetic theory 1. the view that behavior can be explained in hereditary and developmental terms. 2. the theoretical principles accepted in the science of genetics.

genetic underclass

genetic underclass see underclass.

genetic variation

genetic variation differences in the observable characteristics (phenotype) of the members of a population or species due to spontaneous or environmentally induced genetic alterations or rearrangements. Genetic variation is the basis for natural selection. In one set of conditions, those with certain features will have higher reproductive success, but if conditions change, then individuals with other features might be favored.

geneticist

geneticist n. a health professional who specializes in the study of genetics. A geneticist may be a member of a medical services department of a hospital, medical college, or research institution.

genetics

genetics n. the branch of biology that is concerned with the mechanisms and phenomena of heredity and the laws that determine inherited traits. See also behavioral genetics; biogenesis; political genetics; sociogenetics.

genetics of intelligence

genetics of intelligence a research area concerned with the influence of one’s genetic makeup on intelligence. Investigators have identified precise genes or genetic sequences thought to be involved in generating individual differences in intelligence, but these findings remain speculative.

genetotrophic disease

genetotrophic disease any disease due to an inherited inability of enzymes to break down the nutrients necessary to meet an organism’s metabolic requirements. Phenylketonuria and other inborn errors of metabolism are examples of genetotrophic diseases.

geniculate nucleus

geniculate nucleus any of four small oval clusters of nerve cell bodies on the underside of the thalamus in the brain. There are two pairs—the lateral geniculate nuclei and the medial geniculate nuclei—with one of each pair on either lobe of the thalamus; these relay, respectively, visual impulses and auditory impulses to the cerebral cortex. Also called geniculate body.

genistein

genistein n. a phytoestrogen (see estrogen) found in soy beans and other legumes. The effects of genistein in mitigating against learning and memory deficits associated with Alzheimer’s disease and in alleviating menopause-related hot flashes, as well as other potential uses, are being studied.

genital

genital adj. relating to the sex organs. See genitalia.

genital arousal in sleep

genital arousal in sleep penile erection in men and clitoral enlargement and vaginal lubrication in women that occur during REM sleep. Absence of nocturnal penile tumescence is a marker of a physical cause of erectile dysfunction.

genital character

genital character see genital personality.

genital disorder

genital disorder any adverse condition affecting the genitalia. Such a condition may be congenital, caused by infection, sexually transmitted, or the result of injury.

genital herpes

genital herpes a herpes infection that involves the genitals, usually caused by herpes simplex Type 2. However, genital infection with herpes simplex Type 1 is becoming more common. Genital herpes is incurable, although medications are available to manage outbreaks.

genital love

genital love in classical psychoanalytic theory, sexually mature love of another person achieved during the genital stage of psychosexual development. See also genital personality.

genital mutilation

genital mutilation the destruction or physical modification of the external genitalia, especially when done for cultural reasons (as in circumcision or female genital mutilation) or as a form of self-punishment.

genital personality

genital personality in classical psychoanalytic theory, the sexually mature, adult personality that ideally develops during the genital stage of psychosexual development. Individuals who have reached this stage of development are posited to have fully resolved their Oedipus complex and to exhibit a mature sexuality that involves true intimacy and expresses equal concern for their own and their partner’s satisfaction. Also called genital character. See also genital love.

genital stage

genital stage in classical psychoanalytic theory, the final stage of psychosexual development, ideally reached in puberty, when the Oedipus complex has been fully resolved and erotic interest and activity are focused on intercourse with a sexual partner. Also called genital phase. See also genital love; genital personality.

genital stimulation

genital stimulation stimulation of the genitalia to produce sexual pleasure and response.

genital zone

genital zone any of the external reproductive organs and adjacent areas that are capable of producing erotic or sexual sensations. See also erogenous zone.

genitalia

genitalia pl. n. the reproductive organs of the male or female. The male genitalia include the penis, testes and related structures, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands. The female genitalia consist of the vulva, vagina, vestibular glands, uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and related structures. The external genitalia comprise the vulva (including the clitoris, labia, and vestibule of the vagina) in females and the penis and testicles in males. Also called genitals. See also ambiguous genitalia.

genitality

genitality n. the capacity to experience erotic sensation in the genital organs, starting with childhood masturbation and culminating in adult sexuality.

genitive

genitive n. a case of nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases that expresses a possessor–possessed relation. In English, unlike more inflected languages, the genitive case is apparent only in the possessive pronouns (my/mine, your/yours, our/ours, etc.) and the use of the noun ending -’s or -’ to indicate possession. Compare accusative; dative; nominative.

genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder

Sorry, "genito-pelvic-pain-penetration-disorder" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

genitofemoral nerve

genitofemoral nerve a nerve that receives sensory impulses from the genitalia and the leg. It divides into femoral and genital branches. In men, the genital branch innervates the cremaster muscle and skin of the scrotum; in women, it accompanies one of the ligaments of the uterus. The femoral branch subdivides into other smaller nerves of the leg.

genius

genius n. an extreme degree of intellectual or creative ability, or any person who possesses such ability.

genocide

genocide n. the intentional and systematic annihilation of a racial, ethnic, national, or religious group. Thus defined, genocide was declared an international crime by the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948. See also ethnic cleansing. —genocidal adj.

genocopy

genocopy n. a genotype at one position (or locus) of a chromosome that produces a nearly identical phenotype, or observable characteristic, to that produced by a genotype at another position.

genogram

genogram n. a diagrammatic representation of a family that includes pedigree information—that is, individual histories of illness and death—but also incorporates aspects of the interpersonal relationships between family members.

genome

genome n. all of the genetic material contained in an organism or cell. The Human Genome Project mapped the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 genes in human DNA.

genotype

genotype n. the genetic composition of an individual organism as a whole or at one or more specific positions or loci on a chromosome. Compare phenotype. See also paratype. —genotypic adj.

genotype–environment effects

genotype–environment effects the effects of genetic constitution on experience, based on the proposal that an individual’s genotype influences which environments he or she encounters and the type of experiences he or she has. Three types of genotype–environment effects are proposed: passive (through environments provided by biologically related parents); evocative (through responses elicited by individuals from others); and active (through the selection of different environments by different individuals). [proposed in 1983 by U.S. psychologists Sandra Scarr (1936– ) and Kathleen McCartney (1955– )]

genotype–phenotype correlation

genotype–phenotype correlation a correlation between the location or nature of a mutation in a gene and the expression of that mutation in the individual, based on observations of affected individuals and their genotypes. Attempts at such correlations are made to elucidate which characteristics of a mutation affect, for example, the age of onset or severity of diseases with a genetic etiology.

gentrification

gentrification n. the physical upgrading of neighborhoods and housing that accompanies an influx of wealthier residents. It is theorized that an important adverse effect of gentrification is the displacement of many long-term residents who can no longer afford to live in the gentrified area. —gentrify vb.

genu

genu n. (pl. genua) 1. the knee, or an anatomical structure that resembles a knee. 2. the anterior portion of the corpus callosum as it bends forward and downward.

genus

genus n. (pl. genera) in biological taxonomy, a main subdivision of a family, containing a group of similar, related species.

geocentric theory

geocentric theory the theory, attributed to Alexandrian astronomer, geographer, and mathematician Ptolemy (2nd century ce), that the earth is the center of the universe and that the heavenly bodies move around it. Also called Ptolemaic theory. Compare heliocentric theory.

Geodon

Geodon n. a trade name for ziprasidone.

geographical mobility

geographical mobility the capacity or facility of individuals to move from one geographic region to another. See also social mobility.

geometric distribution

geometric distribution the probability distribution of the number of failed trials before the first success in a series of Bernoulli trials.

geometric illusion

geometric illusion any misinterpretation by the visual system of a figure made of straight or curved lines. Examples of such illusions are the Müller-Lyer illusion and the Zöllner illusion.

geometric mean

geometric mean a measure of central tendency calculated for k numbers x1…xk as (x1× x2 × x3…xk)1/k. A geometric mean is similar to an arithmetic mean except that the latter involves the sum of the quantities divided by the number of quantities, whereas the former is the product of the quantities with the product raised to the power of 1 divided by the number of quantities. Thus, for the numbers 1, 2, and 3, the arithmetic mean is 6/3 = 2, and the geometric mean is the cube root of (1)(2)(3) = 61/3 = 1.817. See also harmonic mean.

geon

geon n. a simple three-dimensional element (e.g., sphere, cube) regarded as a fundamental component in the perception of a more complex object. See recognition by components theory. [first proposed by U.S. psychologist Irving Biederman (1939– )]

geophagy

geophagy n. the eating of dirt or clay. It is most commonly seen in individuals with intellectual disability, young children, and occasionally in pregnant women. It is usually a symptom of pica, but in some cultures, it is an accepted practice.

geostatistics

geostatistics n. a set of methods for analyzing data related to the physical environment. In psychology, for example, geostatistics could be used to understand which factors in the environment can bring about or exacerbate behavioral conditions, such as substance abuse, or spread diseases, such as AIDS.

geotaxis

geotaxis n. the involuntary movement of an organism that helps it maintain a postural orientation related to the force of gravity. See taxis.

geriatric assessment

geriatric assessment a multidisciplinary evaluation of an older person’s medical history as well as current physical and mental health, functional and cognitive abilities, and psychosocial stressors (e.g., loss of spouse) that is used to diagnose and to plan treatment for cognitive, emotional, and social problems that the individual may have.

Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS)

Sorry, "geriatric-depression-scale-gds" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

geriatric disorder

geriatric disorder any disease or chronic condition that occurs commonly, but not exclusively, among older people. Examples of geriatric disorders include glaucoma, arthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias.

geriatric neuropsychology

geriatric neuropsychology an applied subspecialty in neuropsychology addressing the assessment and intervention of cognitive dysfunction in older adults and aimed at improving their functioning and quality of life.

geriatric psychology

geriatric psychology see geropsychology.

geriatric psychopharmacology

geriatric psychopharmacology the branch of pharmacology that studies the use of and response to psychoactive agents in older adults, as well as the mechanisms of action responsible. Metabolic changes associated with aging can affect a drug’s biological activity and may increase the sensitivity of the individual’s central nervous system to drugs.

geriatric psychotherapy

geriatric psychotherapy the use of talk therapy to treat the mental disorders of older adults. Geriatric psychotherapy requires an understanding of age-related and cohort-related differences (see cohort effect) in symptoms and behavior.

geriatric rehabilitation

geriatric rehabilitation the process of using somatic therapies (e.g., occupational therapy, physical therapy) to restore to the fullest extent possible the functional abilities of older adults following an illness or injury that resulted in lost or diminished independence.

geriatric screening

geriatric screening a program or system administered by a hospital, community center, county health center, or other such agency to provide physical examinations and care, psychological evaluations, and financial counseling to older adults.

geriatrician

geriatrician n. a physician, psychologist, or other health care provider who specializes in the biopsychosocial treatment and management of older adults.

geriatrics

geriatrics n. the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders in older adults. —geriatric adj.

germ cell

germ cell any of the cells in the gonads that give rise to the gametes by a process involving growth and meiosis. See oogenesis; spermatogenesis.

germ layer

germ layer any of the three layers of cells in an animal embryo at the gastrula stage, from which the various organs and tissues develop. The outermost layer is the ectoderm, the middle layer is the mesoderm, and the inner layer is the endoderm.

germ line

germ line the line of cells that gives rise to the reproductive cells—the ova and spermatozoa—and is thereby continued between successive generations of organisms. Germ-line mutations, unlike somatic mutations (i.e., mutations in body cells), are transmitted to offspring and may predispose the offspring to disease or other traits.

germ plasm

germ plasm 1. the region of cytoplasm in an egg cell that is destined to give rise to the germ cells during subsequent embryological development. Compare somatoplasm. 2. the hereditary material that, according to German cytologist August Weismann (1834–1914) in his germ plasm theory (also known as continuity of germ plasm or Weismannism), passes unchanged from generation to generation in the germ cells. It is now identified as DNA.

germ theory

germ theory the doctrine that infectious diseases are caused by the presence and activity of microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi, in body tissues.

German measles

German measles a disease that is caused by the rubella virus and that produces symptoms similar to measles, although it is less contagious. A woman who develops German measles during pregnancy has a 25% chance of giving birth to a child with congenital rubella. The rate of malformation in the fetus ranges from a low of 6% if the virus is contracted during the 3rd month of pregnancy to as high as 50% in the 1st month. The birth defects include malformations of the eyes, ears, and central nervous system (see congenital rubella syndrome). Also called rubella.

germinal stage

germinal stage 1. in humans, the first 1 to 2 weeks of prenatal life after fertilization, in which the fertilized egg (zygote) migrates to the uterus and becomes implanted in the endometrium. The embryonic stage follows the germinal stage. 2. in plants, the season during which germination occurs.

geront- (gero-)

Sorry, "geront-gero" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gerontology

gerontology n. the scientific interdisciplinary study of old age and the aging process. Those involved in gerontology include psychologists, biologists, sociologists, medical scientists, medical practitioners, geriatric service providers, and scholars from the humanities and social sciences. See also social gerontology. —gerontological adj. —gerontologist n.

gerophilia

gerophilia n. sexual attraction to much older partners. Also called gerontophilia.

geropsychology

geropsychology n. a specialization in psychology dealing with enhancing the welfare and mental health of older adults via the provision of various psychological services. Also called geriatric psychology. —geropsychological adj. —geropsychologist n.

Gerstmann’s syndrome

Gerstmann’s syndrome a set of four symptoms associated with lesions of a specific area of the (usually left) parietal lobe. They are inability to recognize one’s individual fingers (finger agnosia; see tactile agnosia), inability to distinguish between the right and left sides of one’s body (right–left disorientation), inability to perform mathematical calculations (acalculia), and inability to write (agraphia). The existence of Gerstmann’s syndrome as a true independent entity is subject to debate. [Josef G. Gerstmann (1887–1969), Austrian neurologist]

Gesamtvorstellung

Gesamtvorstellung n. the act of holding in mind the entire content of a sentence before the first word is spoken. [German, literally: “complete representation”; coined by Wilhelm Wundt]

Geschwind’s theory

Geschwind’s theory the hypothesis that excessive intrauterine exposure to androgens inhibits development of the thymus gland and left cerebral hemisphere, explaining why autoimmune disorders tend to be associated with learning disabilities (including dyslexia) and are more frequent in males than in females. [proposed in 1984 by U.S. neuroscientists Norman Geschwind (1926–1984) and Albert Galaburda (1948– )]

Gesellschaft

Gesellschaft n. a type of society (the literal meaning of this German word) or social group in which people feel relatively isolated from each other. Their relationships are primarily contractual in nature, being guided chiefly by rational self-interest and the logic of the marketplace. Compare Gemeinschaft. [first described in 1887 by German sociologist Ferdinand Julius Tönnies (1855–1936)]

GESP

GESP abbreviation for general extrasensory perception.

gestalt

gestalt n. an entire perceptual configuration (from German: “shape,” “configuration,” “totality,” “form”), made up of elements that are integrated and interactive in such a way as to confer properties on the whole configuration that are not possessed by the individual elements. See perceptual organization. See also gestalt principles of organization; Gestalt psychology.

gestalt completion test

gestalt completion test a visual-perceptual task in which the participant is required to synthesize elements from fragmented, ambiguous pictures of items to form a “whole.” Poor performance on this test (i.e., inability to report complete objects) may indicate impairment of right-hemisphere brain function. This testing technique was initially developed in 1931 by U.S. psychologist Roy F. Street but has since been adapted by others. The original Street Gestalt Completion Test (also known as the Street Gestalt test or Street test) consists of 13 incomplete silhouettes of common objects.

gestalt grouping factor

gestalt grouping factor a condition (e.g., proximity) that favors perception of a gestalt figure, that is, of wholeness or entirety.

gestalt homology

gestalt homology in Gestalt psychology, the notion that components of two different structures can have the same role in their respective structures and be defined by that role. For example, a hypotenuse has the same function in any right triangle and is defined by its relationship to the other two sides and the right angle opposite.

gestalt principles of organization

gestalt principles of organization principles of perception, derived by the Gestalt psychologists, that describe the tendency to perceive and interpret certain configurations at the level of the whole rather than in terms of their component features. They include the laws of grouping identified by German psychologist Max Wertheimer in 1923: for example, the laws of closure, common fate, good continuation, proximity, similarity, and symmetry. Also called gestalt laws of organization. See also goodness of configuration; Prägnanz.

Gestalt psychology

Gestalt psychology a psychological approach that focuses on the dynamic organization of experience into patterns or configurations (from German Gestalt [pl. Gestalten]: “shape,” “form,” “configuration,” “totality”). This view was espoused by German psychologists Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Max Wertheimer in the early 20th century as a revolt against structuralism, which analyzed experience into static, atomistic sensations, and also against the equally atomistic approach of behaviorism, which attempted to dissect complex behavior into elementary conditioned reflexes. Gestalt psychology holds instead that experience is an organized whole of which the pieces are an integral part. A crucial demonstration (1912) was that of Wertheimer with two successively flashed lights, which gave the illusion of motion between them rather than of individually flashing lights. Later experiments gave rise to principles of perceptual organization, which were then applied to the study of learning, insight, memory, social psychology, and art.

gestalt therapy

gestalt therapy a form of psychotherapy in which the central focus is on the totality of the client’s functioning and relationships in the here and now rather than on investigation of past experiences and developmental history. One of the themes is that growth occurs by assimilation of what is needed from the environment and that psychopathology arises as a disturbance of contact with the environment. Gestalt techniques, which can be applied in either a group or an individual setting, are designed to bring out spontaneous feelings and self-awareness and promote personality growth. Examples of such techniques are role play, the empty-chair technique, and the hot-seat technique. [first proposed in the 1940s by German-born U.S. psychiatrist Frederick (Fritz) S. Perls (1893–1970)]

gestation

gestation n. the development of the embryo and fetus in the uterus until birth. See pregnancy. —gestational adj.

gestation period

gestation period the period during which an offspring is carried in the uterus of the mother. Gestation periods range from 20 days for the shrew to 550 days for the African rhinoceros and 22 months for the elephant. In human beings, the expected date of birth is usually calculated as 280 days or 9 calendar months from the beginning of the woman’s last menstruation.

gestational age

gestational age the age of a fetus calculated from the date of conception. Also called fetal age. See also menstrual age.

gestational surrogate

gestational surrogate a woman who is implanted with an embryo produced by in vitro fertilization using the ova and sperm of another couple.

gestural communication

gestural communication nonverbal transmission and reception of messages (ideas, feelings, signals) by means of body movements. Sign language is an example.

gesture

gesture n. 1. a movement, such as the clenching of a fist, the waving of a hand, or the stamping of a foot, that communicates a particular meaning or indicates the individual’s emotional state or attitude. Gestures can enhance, clarify, or moderate the meaning of verbal communication. See emblem; iconic gesture. See also nonverbal behavior. 2. a statement or act, usually symbolic, that is intended to influence the attitudes of others (as in a gesture of goodwill). —gestural adj.

GH

GH abbreviation for growth hormone.

GHB

GHB gamma-hydroxybutyrate: sodium oxybate, a potent CNS depressant that is a metabolic product of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). It is currently used for treatment of narcolepsy and management of alcohol withdrawal, and in some countries (although not the United States), it has been used as an intravenous general anesthetic. It is commonly encountered as a drug of abuse that produces euphoria and sedation and purportedly enhances sexual arousal. Its ability to induce amnesia or unconsciousness has led it to be characterized as a date-rape drug. Signs of severe toxicity may occur at levels greater than 40 to 60 mg/kg, and deaths have been reported, usually when the substance is mixed with alcohol. Withdrawal syndromes, characterized by anxiety, tremor, confusion, and rarely seizures, have also been reported. U.S. trade name: Xyrem.

Gheel colony

Gheel colony a colony of people with serious mental illness at Gheel in Belgium, a town of refuge where they are given shelter in individual homes and employed in various capacities. This practice dates from the 13th century and is associated with the legend of St. Dymphna, who was martyred at Gheel and became the patron saint of the mentally ill, incest victims, and runaways. The colony became a government institute in 1850. See Saint Dymphna’s disease.

ghost

ghost n. any apparition of a disembodied figure that retains some general bodily characteristics of a previously living person. Ghosts are rarely “seen” by more than one individual at a time, even when others are present, and tend to be perceived in periods of emotional crisis. The image often includes some implausible physical factors; for example, the ghost wears clothing, rides a horse, or carries a heavy object.

ghost in the machine

ghost in the machine a phrase used to emphasize the problems associated with Cartesian dualism, in which the mind is seen as a nonphysical entity (a “ghost”) that somehow inhabits and interacts with a mechanical body (the “machine”). See dualism; mind–body problem. [coined by British philosopher Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976)]

ghost sickness

ghost sickness a culture-bound syndrome found in Native American communities and attributed to ghosts or sometimes witchcraft. Symptoms include recurring nightmares, weakness, loss of appetite, fear, anxiety, hallucinations, confusion, and a sense of suffocation.

GHQ

GHQ abbreviation for General Health Questionnaire.

ghrelin

ghrelin n. a peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach that binds to growth hormone receptors in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone.

giant cell arteritis

giant cell arteritis see arteritis.

GIFT

GIFT acronym for gamete intrafallopian transfer.

giftedness

giftedness n. the state of possessing a great amount of natural ability, talent, or intelligence, which usually becomes evident at a very young age. Giftedness in intelligence is often categorized as an IQ of two standard deviations above the mean or higher (130 for most IQ tests), obtained on an individually administered IQ test. Many schools and service organizations now use a combination of attributes as the basis for assessing giftedness, including one or more of the following: high intellectual capacity, academic achievement, demonstrable real-world achievement, creativity, task commitment, proven talent, leadership skills, and physical or athletic prowess. The combination of several attributes, or the prominence of one primary attribute, may be regarded as a threshold for the identification of giftedness. —gifted adj.

gigantism

gigantism n. an abnormally large body size due to excessive secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland during childhood.

GIGO

GIGO abbreviation for garbage in, garbage out.

gigolo

gigolo n. a man who is paid to be a woman’s social companion or escort, or to provide sexual services for her, or both.

Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome

Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome see Tourette’s disorder.

Gillespie syndrome

Gillespie syndrome see aniridia, cerebellar ataxia, and mental deficiency. [described in 1965 by Frederick D. Gillespie (1927– ), U.S. ophthalmologist]

Gindler method

Gindler method a series of exercises involving breathing, gentle touch, and posturing intended to foster personal growth and enhance sensory awareness. [Elsa Gindler (1885–1961), German gymnastics teacher]

ginkgo

ginkgo n. a tree, Ginkgo biloba, that is indigenous to Asia but now cultivated widely. An extract of the leaves has been used for centuries by Chinese herbalists and is reputed to possess medicinal and psychotropic properties. It is also a popular dietary supplement primarily used to improve mental acuity, although clinical evidence supporting this effect is largely lacking. The active compounds in ginkgo extract have anticoagulant properties, and ginkgo has been investigated as a treatment for vascular disorders, both peripheral and cerebral (e.g., vascular dementia), the latter with equivocal results. Gingko may also have neuroprotective properties, but studies have not shown beneficial effects relative to placebo in preventing neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Side effects of ginkgo use are rare and may include headaches or mild gastrointestinal disturbances. However, data suggest that continual long-term use of ginkgo may be associated with excessive bleeding or spontaneous hemorrhage. Additionally, there are several known and potential interactions of ginkgo with other agents, including anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and NSAIDs. Ginkgo may also lower seizure thresholds and should not be used by people who have a history of seizures.

ginseng

ginseng n. the root of various plants of the genus Panax, valued for its medicinal properties, particularly in Asian cultures. It has a reputation as an aphrodisiac and is also used to enhance overall physical and mental well-being, boost energy, and relieve stress, but there is little clinical evidence supporting its effectiveness for any of these purposes. Some studies, however, have suggested that ginseng may help regulate blood glucose levels, which has prompted investigation of its potential use as a treatment for diabetes, and may improve immune function. Side effects of ginseng use are infrequent but may include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, insomnia, headaches, nosebleeds, and blood pressure abnormalities. Additionally, ginseng may interact with anticoagulants, caffeine, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and oral hypoglycemics.

girdle sensation

girdle sensation the sensation of feeling a tight band around the trunk, sometimes experienced in multiple sclerosis.

give-and-take process

give-and-take process see interpersonal accommodation.

given–new distinction

given–new distinction in a sentence or other linguistic structure, the distinction made between information that is probably new to the recipient and that which is probably already known (or can be regarded as given by the context). A speaker’s or writer’s assumptions about which information falls into which category will usually affect word order, stress, and other observable features of language. The distinction is important in pragmatics and discourse analysis. See foregrounding.

glabrous skin

glabrous skin the tough, thick, hairless skin that is found on the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands.

gland

gland n. an organ that secretes a substance for use by or discharge from the body. Exocrine glands release their products through a duct onto internal or external bodily surfaces, whereas endocrine glands are ductless and secrete their products directly into the bloodstream.

glans penis

glans penis the roughly mushroom-shaped cap at the tip of the penis. It consists of the expanded extremity of the corpus spongiosum associated with connective tissue and is covered in skin (see foreskin).

glare

glare n. a quality of intense brightness, due either to a reflection from a glass or metallic surface or to any strong and harsh light that hinders visual acuity (e.g., high-beam headlights). See also direct glare.

Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)

Sorry, "glasgow-coma-scale-gcs" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS)

Sorry, "glasgow-outcome-scale-gos" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

glass ceiling

glass ceiling an unofficial, intangible psychological, social, or organizational barrier that prevents able and ambitious individuals, particularly women and members of minority groups, from rising to the highest positions of authority in many organizations. Compare leadership labyrinth.

Glass’s d

Glass’s d an effect size measure that represents the standardized difference between means (i.e., the difference in average values for two samples divided by the standard deviation of the second sample). It is often used in meta-analysis and other research in which it is important to determine whether an effect persists across studies in order to consolidate a result. Also called Glass’s delta. See also Cohen’s d; Hedges’s g. [Gene V. Glass (1940– ), U.S. statistician]

glaucoma

glaucoma n. a common eye disease marked by raised intraocular pressure in one or both eyes and, in uncontrolled glaucoma, severe peripheral visual field loss. Age, myopia, and vascular disease are among the risk factors for glaucoma, and there is a higher incidence of the disease among those of African ancestry than in those of other groups. The acute form causes pain and abrupt reduction of visual acuity, visual blurring, and, if untreated, severe visual impairment. Chronic glaucoma is characterized by progressive visual failure without accompanying pain. See also congenital glaucoma; tunnel vision.

glia

glia n. nonneuronal tissue in the nervous system that provides structural, nutritional, and other kinds of support to neurons. It may consist of very small cells (microglia) or relatively large ones (macroglia). The latter include astrocytes, ependymal cells, and the two types of cells that form the myelin sheath around axons: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Also called neuroglia. —glial adj.

glioma

glioma n. a form of brain tumor that develops from support cells (glia) of the central nervous system. There are three main types, grouped according to the form of support cell involved: astrocytoma (from astrocytes), ependymoma (from ependymal cells), and oligodendroglioma (from oligodendrocytes). Astrocytomas are classified from Grade I to Grade IV by severity and rate of growth: Grade I tumors (also called pilocytic astrocytomas), Grade II astroblastomas, Grade III anaplastic astrocytomas, and Grade IV glioblastomas. Glioma is the most common type of brain cancer and accounts for about a quarter of spinal cord tumors. Also called neuroglioma.

gliosis

gliosis n. an excess of nonneuronal cells (glia) in a damaged area of the central nervous system. A particular type involving the proliferation of astrocytes is called astrocytosis, although the two terms sometimes are used interchangeably. Gliosis is a prominent feature of some neurological disturbances, including stroke.

glittering generalities

glittering generalities vague but catchy phrases and slogans frequently used in propaganda and political campaigns to elicit favorable reactions. Examples are “good, clean government” and “our noble heritage.”

GLM

GLM 1. abbreviation for generalized linear model. 2. abbreviation for general linear model.

global amnesia

global amnesia loss of memory for recent events (retrograde amnesia) combined with an inability to remember new information (anterograde amnesia). It is a very rare condition of unknown etiology. See also transient global amnesia.

global analysis

global analysis see molar.

global aphasia

global aphasia a severe, nonfluent form of aphasia characterized by a complete loss of or drastic reduction in both expressive language skills—one’s ability to use speech and writing to communicate—and receptive language skills—one’s ability to comprehend the speech and writing of others. Neurological lesions in global aphasia are extensive and typically involve the entire left perisylvian language zone.

Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF Scale)

Sorry, "global-assessment-of-functioning-scale-gaf-scale" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Global Deterioration Scale (GDS)

Sorry, "global-deterioration-scale-gds" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

global intelligence

global intelligence verbal and nonverbal intelligence, especially as measured by the verbal and performance subtests in various Wechsler scales.

global memory model

global memory model a mathematical model of the structure and organization of memory that is intended to explain data from a range of experimental tasks and manipulations, as opposed to more restricted models of single phenomena. See also MINERVA 2; search of associative memory.

global neuronal workspace

global neuronal workspace a variation of global workspace theory: a proposed cognitive architecture in which long-distance neurons connect multiple specialized processors into a neural computational space, synchronizing their individual signals and distributing them to the brain as a whole to produce a global transmission of information that is experienced as consciousness. According to the model, workspace neurons can sustain only a single global representation at a time, making the transition to consciousness an all-or-none occurrence that depends on attention: Neural activity must be robust and focused enough to trigger the large-scale and self-sustained synchronicity that elevates processing from subliminal to reportable. Although distributed throughout the brain, long-distance workspace neurons are particularly dense in the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and parietal cortex. [developed by French cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene (1965– ), French neuroscientist Jean-Pierre Changeux (1936– ), French neurologist Lionel Naccache (1969– ), and colleagues]

global perception

global perception overall perception of an object or a situation, focusing on the totality rather than the parts.

global workspace theory

global workspace theory a theory suggesting that consciousness involves the distribution of information processed in and recruited from specialized, nonconscious parts of the brain; this is widely broadcast to other parts of the brain (i.e., the global workspace) wherein the information is then made consciously accessible. [originated by U.S. psychologist Bernard J. Baars (1946– )]

globalization

globalization n. 1. the process by which goods, information, labor, services, business, finance, natural resources, and cultural products move transnationally. Globalization is usually considered a defining characteristic of the contemporary world. 2. the integration of regional economies, societies, and cultures into a global network of ideas as a result of advances in communication, trade, and transportation. The process of globalization has set in motion the gradual disappearance of traditional boundaries between individual societies and those in different parts of the world. See cultural ergonomics. —globalize vb.

globus pallidus

globus pallidus one of the basal ganglia. It is the main output region of the basal ganglia: Its output neurons terminate on thalamic neurons, which in turn project to the cerebral cortex.

globus pharyngeus

globus pharyngeus a sensation of having a lump in the throat for which no medical cause can be identified. It can be a symptom of conversion disorder. Also called globus hystericus.

glomerulus

glomerulus n. (pl. glomeruli) 1. a small tuft or cluster in which olfactory nerve fibers terminate in part of the olfactory bulb. 2. a small tuft or cluster of blood capillaries enclosed in a kidney capsule. —glomerular adj.

glosso- (gloss-)

Sorry, "glosso-gloss" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

glossodynia

glossodynia n. a feeling of pain in the tongue or in the tongue and buccal mucous membranes without any observable cause. Also called glossalgia.

glossolalia

glossolalia n. utterances that have a phonic similarity to human language but no intelligible semantic content. Glossolalia is found in religious ecstasy (“speaking in tongues”) and in hypnotic or mediumistic trances. See also neologism; word salad.

glossopharyngeal nerve

glossopharyngeal nerve the ninth cranial nerve, which supplies the pharynx, soft palate, and posterior third of the tongue, including the taste buds of that portion. It contains both motor and sensory fibers and is involved in swallowing and conveying taste information.

glossosynthesis

glossosynthesis n. the creation of nonsense words.

glottal

glottal 1. adj. pertaining to or involving the glottis or larynx. 2. n. a speech sound produced by constriction of the glottis, as in the [h] sound in hobble.

glottal stop

glottal stop a plosive speech sound produced by complete closure of the glottis followed by sudden release of the breath stream. Although this is a standard speech sound in some languages, in English it occurs mostly in certain dialects, as in the Cockney pronunciation of the t in daughter, or in certain words “loaned” from other languages, such as the native pronunciation of Hawai‘i, in which the stop is indicated by the single quote.

glottis

glottis n. the opening between the vocal cords or, by extension, the vocal cords themselves or collective elements of the larynx that are involved in voice production.

glove anesthesia

glove anesthesia a sensory conversion symptom in which there is a functional loss of sensitivity in the hand and part of the forearm (i.e., areas that would be covered by a glove). See also stocking anesthesia.

GLS

GLS abbreviation for generalized least squares. See generalized least squares regression.

glucagon

glucagon n. a polypeptide hormone, secreted by the A cells of the islets of Langerhans, that increases the concentration of glucose in the blood. It opposes the effects of insulin by promoting the breakdown of glycogen and fat reserves to yield glucose. Glucagon is administered therapeutically to relieve symptoms of hypoglycemia.

glucocorticoid

glucocorticoid n. any corticosteroid hormone that acts chiefly on carbohydrate metabolism. Glucocorticoids include cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone.

glucoreceptor

glucoreceptor n. any of certain cells in the hypothalamus that bind glucose. Glucoreceptors are a putative mechanism for detecting levels of circulating glucose and conveying this information to brain areas. Also called glucodetector; glucostat.

glucose

glucose n. a soluble sugar, abundant in nature, that is a major source of energy for body tissues. The brain relies almost exclusively on glucose for its energy needs. Glucose is derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and—to a much lesser extent—fats. Its concentration in the bloodstream is tightly controlled by the opposing actions of the hormones insulin and glucagon. See also blood sugar.

glucose transporter

glucose transporter a molecule that spans the plasma membrane of a cell and transports glucose molecules across the membrane.

glucostat

glucostat n. see glucoreceptor. —glucostatic adj.

glucostatic theory

glucostatic theory the theory that short-term regulation of food intake is governed by the rate of glucose metabolism (i.e., utilization) rather than by overall blood levels of glucose. See also lipostatic hypothesis. [proposed in the 1950s by French-born U.S. nutritionist Jean Mayer (1924–1993)]

glucuronidation

glucuronidation n. a metabolic process by which drugs or other substances are combined with glucuronic acid to form more water-soluble compounds, which are more readily excreted by the kidneys or in bile. Glucuronidation is the most prevalent of the Phase II reactions of drug metabolism.

glue sniffing

glue sniffing a form of substance abuse in which the fumes of certain adhesives, particularly plastic model glue, are inhaled for their stimulant and euphoric effects. Toluene is the ingredient with psychoactive effects; other hydrocarbons used for this purpose include xylene and benzene. See inhalant.

glutamate

glutamate n. a salt or ester of the amino acid glutamic acid that serves as the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Glutamate plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions. It exerts its effects by binding to glutamate receptors on neurons. Excessive activity of glutamate at these receptors is associated with damage to nerve tissue (neurotoxicity) and cell death (see excitotoxicity), possibly the result of calcium ions flooding into the cell following overstimulation of NMDA receptors.

glutamate hypothesis

glutamate hypothesis the theory that decreased activity of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is responsible for the clinical expression of schizophrenia. The hypothesis, supported by a number of studies, developed from observations that administration of NMDA receptor antagonists, such as PCP (phencyclidine) and ketamine, produce psychotic symptoms in humans. See also dopamine hypothesis.

glutamate receptor

glutamate receptor any of various receptors that bind and respond to the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Glutamate receptors are found on the surface of most neurons. There are two main divisions of these receptors: ionotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors. Ionotropic glutamate receptors are further divided into three classes: NMDA receptors, AMPA receptors, and kainate receptors. Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu or mGluR) are subdivided into several classes denoted by subscript numbers (i.e., mGlu1, mGlu2, etc.).

glutamatergic

glutamatergic adj. responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving glutamate. For example, a glutamatergic neuron is one that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter. Also called glutaminergic.

glutamic acid

glutamic acid an amino acid that is regarded as nonessential in diets but is important for normal brain function. It is converted into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase and requiring pyridoxal phosphate, formed from vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), as a coenzyme.

glutamic acid decarboxylase

glutamic acid decarboxylase the enzyme responsible for the formation of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) from glutamic acid.

glutamic–oxaloacetic transaminase

glutamic–oxaloacetic transaminase see aspartate aminotransferase.

glutethimide

glutethimide n. one of the nonbarbiturate sedatives introduced in the early 1950s. Structurally similar to and pharmacologically interchangeable with the barbiturates, glutethimide offered no advantages for treatment of anxiety or insomnia. Now rarely used clinically, it is sometimes encountered as a drug of abuse. U.S. trade name: Doriden.

glycine

glycine n. an amino acid that serves as one of the two major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (particularly the spinal cord), the other being gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Glycine is also a cotransmitter with glutamate at excitatory NMDA receptors. Glycine synthesis occurs via two different pathways; in the most important of these, glycine is synthesized from the amino acid serine in a single reaction catalyzed by the enzyme serine hydroxymethyltransferase.

glycogen

glycogen n. a polysaccharide formed in the liver from glucose and stored in the liver and other body tissues as a primary source of chemical energy. It is easily broken down into glucose molecules as needed for energy. Also called animal starch.

glycosaminoglycan

glycosaminoglycan n. see mucopolysaccharidosis.

GNAT

GNAT abbreviation for Go/No-go Association Task.

gnostic neuron

gnostic neuron see grandmother cell.

gnothi se auton

gnothi se auton know thyself (Greek). These words, which were inscribed over the portico of the temple of Apollo at Delphi in ancient Greece, have been ascribed to various sources. The pursuit of self-knowledge, or knowledge of the psyche, became a key element in the philosophical project of Socrates. In a sense, this project is the fundamental undertaking of psychology.

GnRH

GnRH abbreviation for gonadotropin-releasing hormone.

go-around

go-around n. a technique used in group psychotherapy in which each member in turn is requested to react to another member, a discussion theme, or a described or enacted situation.

go/no-go

Sorry, "go-no-go" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT)

Sorry, "go-no-go-association-task-gnat" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

goal

goal n. 1. the end state toward which a human or nonhuman animal is striving: the purpose of an activity or endeavor. It can be identified by observing that an organism ceases or changes its behavior upon attaining this state. 2. a target of proficiency to be achieved in a task within a set period of time. See goal setting.

goal gradient

goal gradient systematic changes in behavior that occur as a function of spatial or temporal distance from a reinforcer.

goal model of evaluation

goal model of evaluation a system of assessing organizational effectiveness by focusing on the organization’s public goals or expectations rather than its private goals. See also goal-based evaluation; goal-free evaluation.

goal object

goal object that which an individual is seeking to attain, particularly the ultimate goal following a series of subgoals.

goal orientation

goal orientation 1. the tendency to physically or mentally position oneself toward a goal. 2. the characteristic of individuals who tend to direct their behaviors toward attaining goals, particularly long-term goals.

goal response

goal response 1. in Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning, the unconditioned response elicited by a goal stimulus. 2. more generally, the final response in a chain of behavior directed toward obtaining a goal. In conditioning, it specifically refers to the response given to a positive reinforcing stimulus. See also consummatory response.

goal setting

goal setting a process that establishes specific, time-based behavior targets that are measurable, achievable, and realistic. In work-related settings, for example, this practice usually provides employees with both (a) a basis for motivation, in terms of effort expended, and (b) guidelines or cues to behavior that will be required if the goal is to be met. Goal setting is effective only if individuals concerned are aware of what is to be accomplished and accept the goals for themselves, believing in their attainability. See also Locke’s theory of goal setting; performance goal.

goal specificity

goal specificity the degree to which a goal is defined.

goal stimulus

goal stimulus 1. in Hull’s mathematico-deductive theory of learning, a desired object or goal. 2. more generally, a proprioceptive or other interoceptive stimulus arising from goal-directed behavior.

goal-attainment model

goal-attainment model in evaluation research, a process that focuses on the achievement of a particular time-limited goal and measures the degree to which that goal has been achieved (e.g., by a program).

goal-based evaluation

goal-based evaluation an evaluation that determines the extent to which a program has achieved its goals. This approach relies heavily on stated program goals and objectives, and as such it might overlook other aspects of the program. Compare goal-free evaluation. See also quantitative evaluation.

goal-directed behavior

goal-directed behavior behavior that is oriented toward attaining a particular goal. It is typically identifiable by observing that an organism ceases search behavior and engages in detour behavior when it encounters obstacles to the goal.

goal-free evaluation

goal-free evaluation an evaluation of a program that is conducted without special knowledge of the program’s stated goals and objectives and is therefore less subject to the preconceptions or biases of the researcher. Instead, the evaluation attempts to assess the program’s actual effects on its clients and, importantly, any unintended negative side effects emerging from the program. Also called value-free evaluation. Compare goal-based evaluation. See also qualitative evaluation.

goblet figure

goblet figure see Rubin’s figure.

Gödel’s proof

Gödel’s proof a proof that in any logic system at least as powerful as arithmetic it is possible to state theorems that can be proved to be neither true nor false, using only the proof rules of that system. Published in 1931, this incompleteness result was very challenging to the mathematics of the time. British mathematician Alan Turing (1912–1954), with his proof of the undecidability of the halting problem, extended this result to computation (see Turing machine). [Kurt Gödel (1906–1978), Austrian-born U.S. mathematician]

goiter

goiter n. a swelling in the front part of the neck caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. See exophthalmos; Graves’ disease; thyrotoxicosis.

Golden Rule

Golden Rule the principle of reciprocity in ethics. In the Christian tradition, it is usually expressed as “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you,” but versions are found in most world religions and many ethical systems. Immanuel Kant proposed a similar principle in the categorical imperative.

golden section

golden section the division of a line or area so that the ratio of the smaller to the larger portion is equal to the ratio of the larger portion to the whole line or area. Since classical times, this ratio has been regarded as having aesthetic value. Also called golden mean.

goldenseal

goldenseal n. a shrub, Hydrastis canadensis, with medicinal properties. Indigenous to the eastern United States, it has a long history as a folk remedy to control uterine bleeding, and its leaves are commonly used as a poultice and antibacterial agent. There are few clinical studies evaluating the efficacy of goldenseal, but its active ingredients, the alkaloids berberine and hydrastine, have been studied extensively. Berberine has been shown to have antimicrobial properties and may also be effective in preventing the growth of cancer cells. Hydrastine has vasoconstrictive and abortifacient effects and, when taken orally, has been shown to induce labor in pregnant women. At recommended doses, goldenseal appears to have minimal adverse effects (e.g., irritation of the mouth, throat, and stomach; tingling of the skin), but at higher doses it may cause hypertension and increase heart rate; it has also been associated with seizures and other evidence of overstimulation of the central nervous system, and at very high doses may be toxic, potentially causing paralysis, respiratory failure, and death. Chronic long-term use may inhibit vitamin B absorption. Additionally, goldenseal may interact with other agents, including anticoagulants, antihypertensives, and drugs metabolized by the cytochrome P450 3A4 enzyme (e.g., clonidine, nefazodone, St. John’s wort).

golem

golem n. in medieval Jewish folklore, a being created from inanimate material, specifically clay, and used as a servant by its creator. In spite of such disadvantages as an inability to speak or think and act on their own, golems were often associated with holiness, wisdom, and magical powers. More recently, the term has come to signify a brainless, clumsy oaf or an automaton.

Golgi apparatus

Golgi apparatus an irregular network of membranes and vesicles within a cell that is responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins produced within the cell. [Camillo Golgi (1843–1926), Italian histologist]

Golgi tendon organ

Golgi tendon organ a receptor in muscle tendons that sends impulses to the central nervous system when a muscle contracts. When tension in the tendon becomes high enough to cause damage to tissues, Golgi tendon organs send inhibitory messages to the motor neurons of the attached muscle. Also called Golgi corpuscle. [Camillo Golgi]

Golgi Type I neuron

Golgi Type I neuron see projection neuron. [Camillo Golgi]

Golgi Type II neuron

Golgi Type II neuron see local circuit neuron. [Camillo Golgi]

Goltz syndrome

Goltz syndrome a congenital multisystem disorder marked by eye anomalies, absent or extra digits, and especially skin lesions, particularly nodules of herniated subcutaneous fat in thin skin areas. About 5% of affected individuals tested have been found to have intellectual disability. Also called focal dermal hypoplasia; Goltz–Gorlin syndrome. [Robert William Goltz (1923– ) and Robert James Gorlin (1923–2006), U.S. physicians]

Gompertz curve

Gompertz curve a function or curve used to describe a pattern of growth that is slow at the beginning and end but rather rapid or steep in the middle, thus forming a shape resembling a leaning letter S. For example, the adoption of a fashion fad may follow a Gompertz curve: Few people purchase the product initially, but there is a subsequent period of highly increased sales that precedes a lessening of interest in the product and ultimately very low sales as the fad dies out. Gompertz curves often are used in survival analysis. Also called Gompertz distribution; Gompertz function. [Benjamin Gompertz (1779–1865), British mathematician]

Gompertz hypothesis

Gompertz hypothesis a hypothesis suggesting that the probability of human mortality increases exponentially with age in a geometric proportion, doubling every 8 years, between the ages of 20 and 80. Also called Gompertz equation. [Benjamin Gompertz]

gonad

gonad n. either of the primary male and female sex organs—that is, the testis or the ovary, respectively. —gonadal adj.

gonadal dysgenesis

gonadal dysgenesis see Turner syndrome.

gonadal hormones

gonadal hormones the primary male and female sex hormones.

gonadopause

gonadopause n. the cessation of endocrine-related reproductive function that occurs with age in either sex. See also climacteric; male climacteric.

gonadostat theory

gonadostat theory a mechanism, associated with the initiation of puberty, by which ovarian or testicular hormones regulate hypothalamic and pituitary secretions. [proposed in 1955 by neuroendocrinologist Geoffrey Wingfield Harris (1913–1971)]

gonadotropin

gonadotropin n. any of several hormones that stimulate functions of the gonads. Gonadotropins include follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, produced by the anterior pituitary gland in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone, and chorionic gonadotropin, which is produced by the placenta (see human chorionic gonadotropin). Also called gonadotropic hormone. See also human menopausal gonadotropin. —gonadotropic adj.

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Sorry, "gonadotropin-releasing-hormone-gnrh" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

goniometer (goneometer)

Sorry, "goniometer-goneometer" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gonorrhea

gonorrhea n. a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae (the gonococcus). The primary focus of infection is the genital tract. Untreated, gonorrhea can lead to sterility and gonococcal conjunctivitis, a serious condition that can cause blindness. See also urethritis.

good behavior game

good behavior game an intervention to decrease vocal interruptions, unexcused seat leaving, fighting, and other disruptive actions in elementary school classrooms. Children are divided into teams and informed of the specific behaviors that are not allowed during the game. Teachers penalize teams for misbehavior by any member and award special privileges to the teams with the most points at the game’s conclusion. The amounts of time and the situations in which the game is played are gradually extended throughout the course of the school year, until ultimately the intervention is withdrawn altogether.

good breast

good breast in the psychoanalytic theory of Melanie Klein, the internalized representation (see introjection) of the mother’s breast as nourishing and satisfying. According to Klein, the infant first experiences the mother and the nourishing breast as part-objects with positive qualities—the good breast—and negative qualities—the bad breast. Klein thought that the development of these internalized representations of the breast was the first manifestation of splitting.

good continuation

good continuation one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive objects in alignment as forming smooth, unbroken contours. For example, when two lines meet in a figure, the preferred interpretation is of two continuous lines: A cross is interpreted as a vertical line and a horizontal line rather than as two right angles meeting at their vertices. Also called law (or principle) of continuity; law (or principle) of good continuation.

good death

good death an end of life that is in accordance with the dying person’s values and is consistent with his or her wishes with regard to medical and surgical interventions, life-support technology (e.g., ventilation, feeding tube), pain management and alleviation of suffering, location where he or she wants to die (e.g., home, hospice, hospital), and emotional, spiritual, religious, or other available support prior to and during the dying process. See also appropriate death.

good enough mother

good enough mother in the object relations theory of British psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1896–1971), the ordinary, devoted mother who provides an adequate or good enough environment for the growth of the infant’s ego to express its true self. The good enough mother begins mothering by adapting entirely to the infant and providing an environment free of impingements, but later she gradually and inadvertently creates small failures of adaptation that allow the infant to tolerate the frustrations of reality.

good enough parent

good enough parent a parent who cares for his or her child in any way that is adequate for proper development. [proposed by U.S. psychologist Sandra Scarr (1936– )]

good figure

good figure see law of good figure.

good genes hypothesis

good genes hypothesis a hypothesis of female mate selection arguing that certain features of male behavior and body structure reflect genetic variations that are correlated with positive survival attributes such as health and strength and that females choose males with such features, thereby enhancing their offspring’s chances of survival. Compare runaway selection. [proposed in 1982 by British evolutionary biologist William D. Hamilton (1936–2000) and U.S. behavioral ecologist Marlene Zuk (1956– )]

good gestalt

good gestalt the quality possessed by an arrangement of stimuli that is complete, orderly, and clear, with a high degree of goodness of configuration. Although this is related to the principle of Prägnanz, it is distinct in that the arrangement of stimuli need not be the simplest one possible. See also gestalt; gestalt principles of organization.

good me

good me in the self-system theory of Harry Stack Sullivan, the child’s personification of behaviors and impulses that meet with the approval of the parents. The good me is posited to develop as a part of the socialization process and to protect the child from anxiety about himself or herself. Compare bad me; not me.

good object

good object in the object relations theory of Melanie Klein, an introjected part-object that is perceived as benevolent and satisfying (see introjection). It is an early object representation that derives from the object splitting into parts containing positive and negative qualities. The good object forms the core of the infant’s immature ego. Compare bad object.

good shape

good shape one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive figures in the most uniform and stable forms possible. Also called law (or principle) of good shape.

good-boy-nice-girl orientation

good-boy-nice-girl orientation see conventional level.

good-faith bargaining

good-faith bargaining under the National Labor Relations Act of the United States, the principle that employers recognizing a union as the representative of their employees must treat that union as the exclusive representative of the employees and agree to bargain with that union in an honest, open manner over the terms and conditions of employment. See collective bargaining.

Goodman–Kruskal’s gamma

Goodman–Kruskal’s gamma a measure of association between two categorical variables, where 0 represents no relationship and 1 represents perfect association. For example, a marketing researcher may want to assess the relationship between the location of a store and the type of clothes purchased. A Goodman–Kruskal’s gamma of .30 or higher would indicate a medium-sized correlation, such that clothes distributors desiring to maximize sales should provide specific kinds of clothes at specific locations. Also called Goodman–Kruskal’s tau. [Leo A. Goodman (1928– ) and William Henry Kruskal (1919–2005), U.S. statisticians]

goodness of configuration

goodness of configuration the quality of a shape or form that has high levels of simplicity, regularity, symmetry, or continuity. Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler speculated that the mind tends to perceive more goodness of configuration than may actually exist in a shape. See also closure; gestalt principles of organization; Prägnanz.

goodness of fit

goodness of fit the degree to which values predicted by a model agree with empirically observed values. For example, a researcher may wish to assess whether a pattern of frequencies from a study is the same as theoretically expected, whether two categorical variables are independent, or whether a regression equation correctly predicts obtained data. A small, nonsignificant value from a statistical goodness-of-fit test indicates a well-fitting model.

goose bumps (goose flesh; goose pimples)

Sorry, "goose-bumps-goose-flesh-goose-pimples" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Gordon Diagnostic System (GDS)

Sorry, "gordon-diagnostic-system-gds" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

GOS

GOS abbreviation for Glasgow Outcome Scale.

gossip

gossip 1. n. personal talk or communication of often unsubstantiated information. Gossip may be scandalous in content or malicious in intention, but it need not be so. Many of the functions of gossip have significant implications for group processes, including bonding, norm transmission, and norm reinforcement. 2. vb. to engage in such talk.

Gottschaldt Figures Test

Gottschaldt Figures Test see Closure Flexibility Test.

government and binding theory

government and binding theory an enhanced version of generative grammar involving multiple levels of abstraction that seeks to explain, among other things, the relation between universals and particulars that accounts for the generativity of all human languages.

GP

GP abbreviation for general practitioner. See family medicine.

GPA

GPA abbreviation for grade-point average. See point–hour ratio.

GPS

GPS abbreviation for General Problem Solver.

GPT

GPT abbreviation for Grooved Pegboard Test.

graafian follicle

graafian follicle a small pouchlike cavity in an ovary in which an ovum develops (see oogenesis). At ovulation, one of the follicles ruptures and releases a mature ovum into a fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized. The ruptured follicle becomes the site of the corpus luteum. Also called ovarian follicle. [Reijner de Graaf (1641–1673), Dutch histologist]

graceful degradation

graceful degradation a property of cognitive networks in which damage to a portion of the network produces relatively little damage to overall performance, because performance is distributed across the units in the network and no one unit is solely responsible for any aspect of processing. It is a property of the neural network model of cognition and of models derived from the parallel distributed processing hypothesis. See also distributed processing.

gracile fasciculus

gracile fasciculus the medial portion of either of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, composed of ascending fibers that terminate in the nucleus gracilis of the medulla oblongata. Also called fasciculus gracilis. See also cuneate fasciculus.

gracile nucleus

gracile nucleus see nucleus gracilis.

gracile tubercle

gracile tubercle an elongated swelling on the upper end of the gracile fasciculus in the medulla oblongata. The tubercle contains the nucleus gracilis, which receives dorsal root fibers from sensory receptors in the leg. Also called clava.

gradation method

gradation method the psychophysical technique of measuring change in small equal units.

grade equivalent

grade equivalent a measure of achievement or performance expressed in terms of the average grade level at which the observed score is typically obtained by a student. For example, if a third-grader’s score conforms to fifth-grade norms, the grade equivalent is expressed as five. Also called grade score.

grade inflation

grade inflation a trend that results in higher grades being awarded for lower levels of scholarship. Also called upward grade homogenization.

grade norm

grade norm the standard score or range of scores that represent the average achievement level of students of a particular grade.

grade points

grade points 1. numbers equivalent to letter-grade assignments for academic coursework. Usually, A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, and F = 0. The resulting average allows the appropriate reward to be given or disciplinary action to be taken on the basis of academic performance. 2. letter grades converted to a numerical value, typically as follows: A = 90 to 100 (superior work that is clearly above average); B = 80 to 89 (good work, meeting all requirements and eminently satisfactory); C = 70 to 79 (competent work, meeting requirements); D = 60 to 69 (fair work, minimally acceptable); F = 59 and below (failing work). See also point–hour ratio.

grade skipping

grade skipping see educational acceleration.

grade-equivalent scale

grade-equivalent scale a standardized scale with scores expressed in terms of the grade norm. Also called grade scale.

grade-point average (GPA)

Sorry, "grade-point-average-gpa" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

graded potential

graded potential any change in electric potential of a neuron that is not propagated along the cell (as is an action potential) but declines with distance from the source. Kinds of graded potential include receptor potentials, postsynaptic potentials, and subthreshold potentials.

gradient

gradient n. 1. the slope of a line or surface. 2. a measure of the change of a physical quantity (e.g., temperature). 3. in motivational psychology, a graduated change in the strength of a drive resulting from a change in the environment, such as time interval, distance from a situation, and degree of conflict. See also approach gradient; avoidance gradient.

gradient of effect

gradient of effect the principle that, in a stimulus–response sequence in which one of the responses is reinforced, the responses closely preceding or following the reinforced response are likely to show the effects of the reinforcement procedure to a greater extent than those that are remote from that response.

gradient of reinforcement

gradient of reinforcement the generalization that the closer in time a response is to reinforcement, the stronger it will be.

gradient of texture

gradient of texture the progressively finer appearance of textures and surface grains of objects as the viewer moves away from them. See also visual texture.

grading

grading n. the process by which an instructor assigns a performance rank to a student’s work. A definitive way of portraying a student’s acquired knowledge, grading is usually based on both quantitative achievements (e.g., test results, essay completion, attendance) and qualitative considerations (e.g., class participation, teacher’s perception).

gradual withdrawal

gradual withdrawal see tapering.

Graduate Record Examinations (GRE)

Sorry, "graduate-record-examinations-gre" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT)

Sorry, "graduated-and-reciprocated-initiatives-in-tension-reduction-grit" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Grady Coma Scale

Grady Coma Scale a scale used to rate level of consciousness, with five grades corresponding to confusion (Grade I), stupor (Grade II), deep stupor (Grade III), decerebrate rigidity (Grade IV), and coma (Grade V). Compare Glasgow Coma Scale. [developed in the 1970s at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia]

Graeco-Latin square (Greco-Latin square)

Sorry, "graeco-latin-square-greco-latin-square" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Graefenberg spot (Gräfenberg spot; G-spot)

Sorry, "graefenberg-spot-grafenberg-spot-g-spot" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

grammar

grammar n. in linguistics, an abstract system of rules that describes how a language works. Although it is traditionally held to consist of syntax (rules for arranging words in sentences) and morphology (rules affecting the form taken by individual words), phonology and semantics are also included in some modern systems of grammar. —grammatical adj.

grammaticality

grammaticality n. the quality of adhering to the rules of grammar. In the linguistics of Noam Chomsky, the grammaticality (or otherwise) of a sentence can be intuited by native speakers and explained by the rules of formal grammar. A sentence can be recognized as grammatical even when it is otherwise meaningless, as in the case of Chomsky’s famous example Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

grand mal seizure

grand mal seizure see tonic–clonic seizure.

grand mean

grand mean a numerical average (mean) of a group of averages. For example, if the average test score for one classroom is 75 and the average score for another classroom is 73, the grand mean of the two classrooms is (75 + 73)/2 = 74. Similarly, if an analysis of variance reveals average values of 3, 10, and 20 on a response or dependent variable for three groups of study participants, the grand mean of scores—that is, the average of all participants’ responses regardless of the condition of the independent variables—is (3 + 10 + 20)/3 = 11.

grandiose delusion

grandiose delusion see delusion of grandeur.

grandiosity

grandiosity n. an exaggerated sense of one’s greatness, importance, or ability. In extreme form, it may be regarded as a delusion of grandeur.

grandmother cell

grandmother cell any hypothetical neuron in the visual association cortex that is stimulated only by a single highly complex and meaningful stimulus, such as a particular individual (e.g., one’s grandmother) or a particular well-known object (e.g., the Sydney Opera House). It is an extension of the feature detector concept to a degree that has been dismissed by many as overly simplistic and untenable. However, research on the activity patterns of single neurons in memory-linked areas of the brain has provided support for the concept by revealing a much higher degree of neuronal specificity than previously believed. [coined in 1969 by U.S. cognitive scientist Jerome Ysroael Lettvin (1920–2011), although the concept itself was proposed two years earlier by Polish neurophysiologist Jerzy Konorski (1903–1973), who referred to it as a gnostic neuron]

grandmother hypothesis

grandmother hypothesis the proposition, based on evolutionary theory, that the contribution of grandparents (particularly grandmothers) to the care of their grandchildren has been a factor in extending the human lifespan. [proposed by U.S. evolutionary biologist George C. Williams (1926–2010)]

Grandry–Merkel corpuscle

Grandry–Merkel corpuscle see Merkel’s tactile disk.

Granit theory of color vision

Granit theory of color vision a theory that the perception of color relies on the activation of three types of cells: (a) scotopic dominators, which are retinal rods most sensitive to wavelengths of 500 nm; (b) photopic dominators, which are retinal cones most sensitive to wavelengths of 560 nm; and (c) photopic modulators, other cones sensitive to very narrow frequency ranges. [Ragnar Arthur Granit (1900–1991), Finnish-born Swedish physiologist]

granular cortex

granular cortex the portion of the cerebral cortex that contains granule cells, which are located in layers II and IV of the cortex (see cortical layers). The term refers particularly to primary sensory cortex, in which layer IV (the major input area) is very thick. Compare agranular cortex.

granular layer

granular layer see dentate gyrus.

granule cell

granule cell a type of small, grainlike neuron found in certain layers of the cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex.

granulocyte

granulocyte n. see leukocyte.

grapevine

grapevine n. the unofficial channel of communication in which information, especially rumors and gossip, is passed informally from person to person.

graph

graph n. 1. a visual representation of the relationship between numbers or quantities, which are plotted on a drawing with reference to axes at right angles (see x-axis; y-axis) and linked by lines, dots, or the like. Bar graphs, histograms, and frequency polygons are commonly used examples. 2. in computer programming, a data structure consisting of a set of nodes (not necessarily finite in number) and a set of arcs that connect pairs of nodes. In a directed graph, the arcs have a unique direction from one node (the parent) to the other node (the child). The set of child nodes of one parent are called siblings of each other. A path is a sequence of connected parent–child arcs, in which each child in the sequence is also a parent of the next state in the sequence. A rooted graph has a unique node from which all paths in the graph originate. A tip node or leaf node in the graph is a node without children. The graph structure is often used for representing search in games or other situations of problem solving or for capturing relationships, as in semantic networks. See also tree.

graph theory

graph theory the study of the use of visual representations (graphs) to describe relationships, structures, and dynamics. Applications in psychology include balance theory, sociometry, and analyses of social networks, neural networks, and life space.

graph-

grapheme

grapheme n. a minimal meaningful unit in the writing system of a particular language. It is usually a letter or fixed combination of letters corresponding to a phoneme in that language. —graphemic adj.

grapheme–color synesthesia

grapheme–color synesthesia see synesthesia.

graphemic cued-recall test

graphemic cued-recall test see perceptual test.

graphesthesia

graphesthesia n. the recognition of numbers or letters that are spelled out on the skin, as with finger movements or a dull pointed object. This form of passive touch has been used as a diagnostic tool for brain damage. In addition, people with both visual and hearing impairment are taught to communicate with those who are unfamiliar with sign language by digitally spelling out words on the skin.

graphic rating scale

graphic rating scale a series of anchored points (usually from low to high) on a continuum, often used to evaluate the performance or behavior of individuals in a work or learning environment. For example, a graphic rating scale for assessing an employee’s overall performance during the past year might take the form of a line with the response options of 1 (poor), 2 (below average), 3 (average), 4 (above average), and 5 (excellent) listed. The supervisor would mark the line to indicate the employee’s performance level.

graphical user interface (GUI)

Sorry, "graphical-user-interface-gui" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

graphology

graphology n. the study of the physical characteristics of handwriting, particularly as a means of inferring the writer’s psychological state or personality characteristics. Graphology is based on the premise that writing is a form of expressive behavior, although there is little empirical evidence for its validity. Also called handwriting analysis. —graphological adj. —graphologist n.

graphomania

graphomania n. a pathological impulse to write, which may degenerate into graphorrhea—the compulsive writing of incoherent and meaningless words.

graphomotor apraxia

graphomotor apraxia inability to perform the motor activities involved in writing or drawing despite normal capacity to hold and manipulate a writing implement. Also called apraxic agraphia.

graphopathology

graphopathology n. the interpretation of personality disorders by studying handwriting. See also graphology.

graphospasm

graphospasm n. a rare name for writer’s cramp.

grasp reflex

grasp reflex an involuntary grasping by an individual of anything that touches the palm. This reflex is typical of infants, but in older individuals, it may be a sign of frontal lobe damage or disease.

gratification

gratification n. the state of satisfaction following the fulfillment of a desire or the meeting of a need. See delay of gratification; immediate gratification.

gratification of instincts

gratification of instincts see satisfaction of instincts.

grating

grating n. in vision, a stimulus that consists of parallel light and dark bars.

gratitude

gratitude n. a sense of thankfulness and happiness in response to receiving a gift, either a tangible benefit (e.g., a present, favor) given by someone or a fortunate happenstance (e.g., a beautiful day).

Graves’ disease

Graves’ disease a disorder characterized by enlargement and overactivity of the thyroid gland and marked by a swelling in the neck (goiter), abnormal protrusion of the eyeballs (exophthalmos), and rapid pulse and other symptoms of thyrotoxicosis. [Robert J. Graves (1796–1853), Irish physician]

graviceptor

graviceptor n. any of various specialized nerve endings and receptors located in the inner ear, joints, muscles, and tendons that provide the brain with information regarding body position, equilibrium, and gravitational forces. Also called gravireceptor.

gravida

gravida n. a pregnant woman. The use of a Roman numeral after the term indicates the number of pregnancies a particular woman has undergone (e.g., gravida IV indicates a woman in her fourth pregnancy). In contrast, the term gravid (adj.) is used primarily to describe an egg-laying organism, usually a fish or reptile, when it is carrying eggs. See also multigravida; primigravida.

gravidity

gravidity n. see pregnancy.

gravity-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC)

Sorry, "gravity-induced-loss-of-consciousness-g-loc" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gray

gray n. a visual sensation that has neither hue (color) nor saturation and can vary from black to white.

gray commissure

gray commissure a bundle of nerve fibers that surrounds the central canal of the spinal cord and connects the anterior and dorsal horns of gray matter in each half of the cord.

gray literature

gray literature research findings that are not readily available because they have not been published in archival sources. Examples include dissertations, papers presented at meetings, papers either rejected or not submitted for publication, and technical reports. Gray literature contributes to the file-drawer problem in meta-analysis, the situation in which analytic results are biased becuase researchers do not have access to nonsignificant findings that are not easily found. Also called fugitive literature.

gray matter

gray matter any area of neural tissue that is dominated by cell bodies and is devoid of myelin, such as the cerebral cortex and the H-shaped periaqueductal gray of the spinal cord. Compare white matter.

gray ramus

gray ramus a short nerve in the autonomic nervous system that carries unmyelinated postganglionic fibers from a sympathetic ganglion to an adjacent spinal nerve. The fibers within a gray ramus are called gray rami communicantes.

grayout

grayout n. an increasing loss of peripheral vision to the point that one seems to be looking through a small tube (see tunnel vision). It results from reduced blood flow to the head, as may be experienced, for example, by pilots performing high-speed turning maneuvers in an aircraft.

GRE

GRE abbreviation for Graduate Record Examinations.

great chain of being

great chain of being a construction, attributed to Greek philosopher Plato (c. 429–347 bce) and elaborated by many later philosophers, that sees creation as a continuous linked hierarchy descending from God at the top, through heavenly beings, humans, animals, and plants to nonliving matter. The classic work on the history of this idea is the 1936 study by U.S. philosopher Arthur O. Lovejoy (1873–1963).

great commissure

great commissure 1. in vertebrate brains, the corpus callosum, so called because it is by far the largest commissure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres. 2. in insect brains, the commissure that connects the two lateral protocerebra.

great imitator

great imitator slang for a disease that is difficult to diagnose due to nonspecific symptoms; such diseases include lupus erythematosus, Lyme disease, and syphilis.

great man theory

great man theory a view of political leadership and historical causation that assumes that history is driven by a small number of exceptional individuals (traditionally presumed to be men) with certain innate characteristics that predispose them for greatness. A Zeitgeist (spirit of the times) view of history, in contrast, supposes that history is largely determined by economics, technological development, and a broad spectrum of social influences. [associated with British historian Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881)]

greater superficial petrosal nerve (GSP nerve)

Sorry, "greater-superficial-petrosal-nerve-gsp-nerve" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Greco-Latin square

Greco-Latin square see Graeco-Latin square.

Greek cross

Greek cross a simple figure resembling an equal-armed cross (+), the drawing of which is used to measure basic constructional ability or to screen for unilateral neglect.

green brand

green brand a product (or suite of products) that is created to be environmentally friendly, such as a hybrid car or food containers made from recycled material. Apart from serving as a manufacturer’s response to environmental and social concerns, green brands are designed to enhance consumer appeal for a product and to boost the manufacturer’s image.

greeting behavior

greeting behavior a form of attachment behavior that in humans begins to manifest itself clearly at about 6 months of age, when the infant responds to the arrival of a parent or caregiver.

gregariousness

gregariousness n. the tendency for human beings to enjoy the company of others and to want to associate with them in social activities. Gregariousness gives people security, companionship, acceptance, and a sense of belonging. In nonhuman animals, gregariousness is seen in the tendency to congregate in herds or flocks. See need for affiliation; social instinct. —gregarious adj.

grid cell

grid cell a type of neuron that encodes abstract spatial information about distances, forming a gridlike array of activity presumably used by other brain structures in spatial computations. Originally found in the medial entorhinal cortex, which acts as a gateway regulating the flow of information from sensory cortices to the hippocampus, grid cells have since been identified in areas of the subiculum as well. They have response properties independent of any particular environment; each cell fires selectively at multiple spatial locations, which are geometrically arranged to form a hexagonal lattice representing an organism’s surroundings. Several theories have been proposed to account for the precise mechanisms by which grid cells code trajectories through space, such as the oscillatory interference model and the moiré interference model. See also spatial cognition. [discovered in rats in 2005 by Norwegian physiologist Torkel Hafting (1972– ), U.S.-born Norwegian neuroscientist Marianne Fyhn, Norwegian physiologist Sturla Molden, and Norwegian neuroscientists May-Britt Moser (1963– ) and Edvard I. Moser (1962– )]

grid organizational development (grid OD)

Sorry, "grid-organizational-development-grid-od" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

grief

grief n. the anguish experienced after significant loss, usually the death of a beloved person. Grief is often distinguished from bereavement and mourning. Not all bereavements result in a strong grief response, and not all grief is given public expression (see disenfranchised grief). Grief often includes physiological distress, separation anxiety, confusion, yearning, obsessive dwelling on the past, and apprehension about the future. Intense grief can become life-threatening through disruption of the immune system, self-neglect, and suicidal thoughts. Grief may also take the form of regret for something lost, remorse for something done, or sorrow for a mishap to oneself.

grief counseling

grief counseling the provision of advice, information, and psychological support to help individuals whose ability to function has been impaired by someone’s death, particularly that of a loved one or friend. It includes counseling for the grieving process and practical advice concerning arrangements for the funeral and burial of the loved one. Grief counseling is sometimes offered by staff in specialized agencies (e.g., hospices), or it may be carried out in the context of other counseling. See also bereavement therapy.

grief cycle model

grief cycle model see stages of grief.

grief work (griefwork)

Sorry, "grief-work-griefwork" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

grievance

grievance n. 1. a feeling of resentment arising from a sense of having been unjustly treated. 2. in industrial and organizational psychology, a complaint filed by an employee according to rules and procedures set forth by the management of the organization or in a contract negotiated with the union representing that employee.

Griggs v. Duke Power Co.

Griggs v. Duke Power Co. a case resulting in an influential 1971 ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court regarding discrimination in hiring practices. The ruling established that proof of discrimination does not require the plaintiff to show that the defendant had intention or motives to discriminate if the selection practices had an adverse impact on a particular group (e.g., those defined by ethnicity, age, or sex).

Grip Strength Test

Grip Strength Test a test in which the strength of hand grip is assessed with a dynamometer. It is part of the Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Battery. Also called Hand Dynamometer Test.

grisi siknis

grisi siknis a culture-bound syndrome found in Nicaragua and characterized by headache, anxiety, anger, and the sudden onset of an episode of hyperactivity and potentially dangerous behavior in the form of running or fleeing. There is ensuing exhaustion, sleep, and amnesia for the episode. The syndrome, which has some similarities to piblokto, is usually classified as a dissociative trance disorder.

grit

grit n. a personality trait characterized by perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals. Grit entails working strenuously to overcome challenges and maintaining effort and interest over time despite failures, adversities, and plateaus in progress. Recent studies suggest this trait may be more relevant than intelligence in determining a person’s high achievement. For example, grit may be particularly important to accomplishing an especially complex task when there is a strong temptation to give up altogether. GRIT acronym for graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction.

GRIT

Grit Scale

Grit Scale a 17-item self-report measure used to assess perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals. Participants use a 5-point scale, ranging from not like me at all (1) to very much like me (5), to rate how much they agree with statements such as “I finish whatever I begin,” “I have overcome setbacks to conquer an important challenge,” and “My interests change from year to year.” The instrument yields an overall grit score as well as subscale scores for consistency of interest and perseverance of effort. There is also an eight-item version of the measure called the Short Grit Scale (Grit–S). [developed in 2007 by U.S. psychologists Angela Lee Duckworth, Christopher Peterson, Michael D. Matthews (1953– ), and Dennis R. Kelly]

grooming

grooming n. 1. a basic function of self-care that includes maintaining one’s body, hair, clothes, and general appearance. This includes such activities as bathing, shaving, toothbrushing and flossing, hair brushing and styling, nail trimming, and applying cosmetics. Reacquiring grooming skills that have been lost or compromised due to mental or physical impairment is a central aspect of many rehabilitation programs. 2. behavior in which a nonhuman animal picks through its own or another animal’s hair, fur, or feathers. Whereas the main function of self-grooming is hygienic (i.e., to remove dirt and parasites), grooming of other members of an animal’s group may serve both hygienic and social functions. See allogrooming.

Grooved Pegboard Test (GPT)

Sorry, "grooved-pegboard-test-gpt" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gross motor

gross motor describing activities or skills that use large muscles to move the trunk or limbs and control posture to maintain balance. Examples of gross motor skills include waving an arm, walking, hopping, and running. Compare fine motor.

ground

ground n. the relatively homogeneous and indistinct background of figure–ground perceptions.

ground bundle

ground bundle a short tract within the spinal cord that connects different or neighboring levels of the cord. Also called intersegmental tract.

ground rules

ground rules in psychotherapy, the elements of the contract for therapy, including but not limited to the fee; the time, location, and frequency of the sessions; and therapist confidentiality.

grounded theory

grounded theory a set of procedures for the systematic analysis of unstructured qualitative data so as to derive by induction a supposition that explains the observed phenomena. A researcher typically observes the entity of interest in a natural setting before drawing conclusions about its nature and existence.

group

group n. any collection or assemblage, particularly of items or individuals. For example, in social psychology the term refers to two or more interdependent individuals who influence one another through social interactions that commonly include structures involving roles and norms, a degree of cohesiveness, and shared goals. Such social groups thus are contrasted with aggregations. Similarly, in animal behavior, a group refers to an organized collection of individuals that moves together or otherwise acts to achieve some common goal (e.g., protection against predators) that would be less effectively achieved by individual action, and in research, it denotes a collection of participants who all experience the same experimental conditions and whose responses are to be compared to the responses of one or more other collections of research participants.

group abilities

group abilities abilities, such as verbal-comprehension, spatial, and memory abilities, that are sources of individual differences in some groups of intelligence tests.

group acceptance

group acceptance the degree to which group members approve of a new, prospective, or potential member as reflected in his or her admission to the group and relative status and role within it.

group attribution error

group attribution error the tendency for perceivers to assume that a specific group member’s personal characteristics and preferences, including beliefs, attitudes, and decisions, are similar to those of the group to which he or she belongs. For example, observers may assume that an individual who is a member of a group that publicly announces its opposition to an issue also opposes the issue, even though the group’s decision to take the stated position may not have been unanimous. See also group fallacy; outgroup homogeneity bias. [originally described in 1985 by U.S. social psychologists Scott T. Allison and David M. Messick]

group behavior

group behavior actions performed by a group as a whole or by individuals when part of a group. In the latter case, it applies particularly to those actions that are influenced (either directly or indirectly) by the group and are atypical of actions performed by the same individuals when alone.

group boundary

group boundary the implicit and explicit standards that set limits on aspects of the group, including who can be members, the expected duties of members, and the types of actions that the group will permit members to perform.

group climate

group climate the relative degree of acceptance, tolerance, and freedom of expression that characterizes the relationships within a counseling or therapy group. Interpersonal behavioral boundaries are generally freer and broader than in nontherapeutic social contexts, and the meaning of interpersonal behavior is often the specific focus of group discussion.

group cohesion

group cohesion the unity or solidarity of a group, including the integration of the group for both social and task-related purposes. Group cohesion is indicated by the strength of the bonds that link members to the group as a whole, the sense of belongingness and community within the group, the feelings of attraction for specific group members and the group itself as experienced by individuals, and the degree to which members coordinate their efforts to achieve goals, although these factors are neither necessary nor sufficient conditions for cohesion. In many cases, the higher the cohesion, the stronger the members’ motivation to adhere to the group’s standards and the more stable the group’s membership. Group cohesion frequently is considered essential to effective group therapy. Also called group cohesiveness. See also esprit de corps; group solidarity.

group consciousness

group consciousness 1. the awareness exhibited by individual group members about the group, its members, and their commonalities. Just as self-consciousness pertains to awareness of the self, so group consciousness pertains to awareness of the collective. 2. see group mind.

group contagion

group contagion see social contagion.

group counseling

group counseling a method of providing guidance and support for clients organized as a group, as opposed to individual counseling. Group counseling can be used, for example, to assist high school students in choosing a college or to assist employees of an organization in stating dissatisfactions and proposing solutions to managers and employers.

group decision support systems (GDSS)

Sorry, "group-decision-support-systems-gdss" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

group development

group development 1. naturally occurring patterns of growth and change that unfold across the lifespan of a group. The term usually implies a progressive movement toward a more complete or advanced state, with different theorists characterizing this movement (a) as either discontinuous and occurring in distinct stages or continuous and incremental and (b) as either irreversible or cyclical and repetitious. See also equilibrium model of group development. 2. a strategic intervention designed to alter the processing and functioning of a group; this usually involves assessing the group’s current level of development, helping to clarify its mission and goals, and reviewing its operating procedures. See also team building.

group difference

group difference any observed variation between groups of participants in an experiment when considering each group as a single entity. See group-comparison design.

group dynamics

group dynamics 1. the processes, operations, and changes that occur within social groups, which affect patterns of affiliation, communication, conflict, conformity, decision making, influence, leadership, norm formation, and power. The term, as used by Kurt Lewin, emphasizes the power of the fluid, ever-changing forces that characterize interpersonal groups. See also intergroup dynamics. 2. the field of psychology devoted to the study of groups and group processes. 3. a conceptual and clinical orientation in group psychotherapy that explicitly recognizes and explores group-level processes in the treatment group.

group effect

group effect a research finding specific to the group of individuals to which a participant belongs. A group effect could appear in an assigned subset, such as a treatment or intervention, or in a naturally occurring subset, such as age level or classroom. For example, a researcher might be interested in a group effect of a specific reading intervention, or in a group effect of book reading for students in the current decade who may be reading less than previous sets of students owing to more common use of the computer and television.

group experience

group experience in group psychotherapy and counseling, the interactions that give each client in the group an opportunity to gain insight into his or her problems by sharing with and learning from other members. The group experience is particularly valuable in helping clients understand how they are perceived by other people. When group therapy or counseling is given in addition to individual intervention, it allows the therapist or counselor to observe the client’s emotional difficulties as revealed in group interactions.

group experiment

group experiment an experiment in which subsets of individuals serve as the unit of analysis. For example, a researcher could compare the performance of different classrooms rather than of specific students.

group factors

group factors the psychometric entities underlying group abilities.

group fallacy

group fallacy 1. the assumption, regarded as erroneous, that the actions and experiences of people in groups cannot be understood completely through analysis of the qualities of the individual members. 2. the mistaken assumption that a group is totally uniform, whereas in fact members differ from one another in many respects. See also outgroup homogeneity bias.

group health plan

group health plan an insurance plan that offers health care coverage to a group of individuals under a single insurance contract. In the United States, group health plans are often offered by employers to their employees as a fringe benefit. Membership organizations, such as unions, alumni associations, and professional associations, may also offer group health plans as a benefit of membership.

group home

group home a residential facility that offers housing and personal care services, such as meals, supervision, and transportation. Also called group residence.

group hypnosis

group hypnosis the simultaneous hypnosis of several people by the same practitioner. It is sometimes used for therapeutic purposes, as in the treatment of drug addiction. Also called collective hypnosis.

group hysteria

group hysteria see collective hysteria.

group identification

group identification 1. the act or process of associating oneself with a group and its members, such that one imitates and internalizes the group’s actions, beliefs, standards, objectives, and so forth. This process can lead to an enhanced sense of group belonging, group pride, and group commitment as well as to autostereotyping. 2. more rarely, the act of considering another group’s perspective or outlook even though one is not a member of that group.

group identity

group identity 1. the image of a group (e.g., reputation, appraisal, expectations about) held by its members or by those external to the group. 2. an individual’s sense of self as defined by group membership. See social identity.

group intelligence test

group intelligence test an intelligence test administered simultaneously to all the individuals in a group.

group interview

group interview an interview in which one or more questioners elicit information from two or more respondents in an experimental or real-life situation. The participation and interaction of a number of people, particularly if they are acquainted with each other as members of a club or similar group, is believed to yield more informative responses than are typically obtained by interviewing individuals separately.

group marriage

group marriage a family pattern found in some indigenous cultures and certain minority religious groups in which several men and women live together, sharing the burdens of the household, the tasks of child rearing, and a common sexual life. See also commune; polygamy.

group medical practice

group medical practice the practice of medicine by a group of physicians, typically various specialists, associated not only for administrative reasons but also for such clinical purposes as cooperative diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Also called group practice.

group mind

group mind a hypothetical explanation for the apparent uniformity of individuals’ emotional, cognitive, and behavioral reactions when in large crowds and collectives; it supposes that a crowd of people can, in certain instances, become a unified entity that acts as if guided by a single consciousness created by the fusion of the individual minds in a collective. This controversial idea, often seen as a prime example of the group fallacy, assumes that the group mind is greater than the sum of the psychological experiences of the individuals and that it can become so powerful that it can overwhelm the will of the individual. Also called collective consciousness; collective mind; group consciousness. See also folk soul.

group morale

group morale group members’ overall level of enthusiasm (confidence, dedication, zeal) for the group, its tasks, and its goals.

group network

group network 1. the relatively organized system of connections linking members of a group, unit, or collective, including social or interpersonal evaluations (e.g., friendship, acquaintanceship, dislike), communication, transfer of resources, and formal role relationships (e.g., supervisor–subordinate). 2. in social network analysis, the entire set of connections linking all individuals or nodes in the specific group or collective being studied. Also called sociocentric network. Compare ego-centered network.

group norm

group norm see social norm.

group personal space

group personal space see group space.

group polarization

group polarization the tendency for members of a group discussing an issue to move toward a more extreme version of the positions they held before the discussion began. As a result, the group as a whole tends to respond in more extreme ways than one would expect given the sentiments of the individual members prior to deliberation. Polarization is sustained by social comparison (see social comparison theory), by exposure to other members’ relatively extreme responses (see persuasive arguments theory), and by groups’ implicit social decision schemes. See choice shift; risky shift.

group potency

group potency the expectations held in common by group members about the group’s collective efficacy; that is, the group’s overall confidence or “can do” attitude.

group practice

group practice see group medical practice.

group pressure

group pressure direct or indirect social pressure exerted by a group on its individual members to influence their choices. Such pressure may take the form of rational argument and persuasion (informational influence), calls for conformity to group norms (normative influence), or more direct forms of influence, such as demands, threats, personal attacks, and promises of rewards or social approval (interpersonal influence).

group problem solving

group problem solving the use of a social group to resolve matters that involve doubt, uncertainty, or unknown difficulties. The typical stages involved in group problem solving include (a) identification of the problem and the process to use in solving it, (b) gathering of information and evaluation of alternatives through discussion, (c) selection of the solution, and (d) implementation of the solution.

group process

group process the interpersonal component of a group session, in contrast to the content (such as decisions or information) generated during the session.

group relations theory

group relations theory the view that behavior is influenced not only by one’s unique pattern of traits but also by one’s need to conform to social demands and expectations. Social determinants become particularly evident in group therapy, which tends to challenge attitudes, such as prejudices, that are based on conformity and restricted thinking. [proposed by Gordon W. Allport]

group residence

group residence see group home.

group risk taking

group risk taking embarking on a hazardous, dangerous, or uncertain course of action as a social group. Studies of group polarization and choice shift indicate that group decisions tend toward greater extremity or risk than individual decisions. See risky shift.

group role

group role a coherent set of behaviors expected of a person in a specific position within a group. In addition to the basic roles of leader and follower, groups usually allocate task roles pertaining to the group’s tasks and goals and relationship roles that focus on the group members’ interpersonal and emotional needs.

group selection

group selection the concept that social groups can act as adaptive units in natural selection. See kin selection. Compare individual selection.

group sequential design

group sequential design a research design in which a treatment is randomly assigned to different groups at varying times, such that every group receives the treatment eventually. A group sequential design is useful when it is important for each participant to have an opportunity to benefit from the treatment, but a comparison group nonetheless is required: The portion of the sample that receives the treatment later acts as a control group initially.

group sex

group sex sexual activity among a group of people who obtain sexual stimulation through such means as observing each other, experimenting with different techniques, and having multiple partners either simultaneously or in succession.

group socialization

group socialization 1. the process of interaction between an individual and a group that begins when he or she first considers joining the group and ends when he or she leaves it. The individual learns to adjust to various group norms and behave in a manner acceptable to group members. 2. the process by which an individual, from infancy onward, acquires social skills, beliefs, values, and behaviors through interaction with and observation of others in a group context.

group socialization theory

group socialization theory a theory of personality development proposing that children are primarily socialized by their peers and that the influences of parents and teachers are filtered through children’s peer groups. According to this theory, children seek to be like their peers rather than like their parents. [proposed by U.S. developmental psychologist Judith Rich Harris (1938– )]

group solidarity

group solidarity a sense of fellowship and community displayed by members of a collective who are united by shared purposes, responsibilities, and interests. See also group cohesion; esprit de corps.

group space

group space territory defined by the temporary boundary that forms around interacting groups and serves as a barrier to unwanted intrusion by nonmembers. Also called group personal space; interactional territory.

group structure

group structure the arrangement of individuals and their relationships, both implicit and formalized, in a group, including positions, roles, and patterns of authority, attraction, and communication. See also social structure.

group superego

group superego in psychoanalytic theory, the portion of the superego acquired from peer groups as opposed to the part derived from parental identifications. In a group, the collective superego or lack thereof is seen as superordinate to the superegos of the individuals that comprise the group.

group synergy

group synergy 1. a social process that occurs when a group, by acting in concert, achieves an outcome that is superior to what would be achieved by the most capable member or by any simple pooling of individual member efforts, often summarized by the phrases “the whole is greater than the sum of the parts” or “2 + 2 = 5.” See also assembly bonus effect. 2. in Raymond B. Cattell’s group psychology, the sum of all individual members’ energy going into the group: that is, the total available group energy or investment in itself.

group territorial behavior

group territorial behavior the tendency for ethnic and other groups to establish and defend areas as separate or shared territories. Such behavior can be observed, for instance, in the neighborhoods of large cities and in the activities of city street gangs. A form of intragroup territorial behavior is often seen in family settings and workplaces, where individuals may regard certain rooms or areas or even certain chairs as their personal territory.

group therapy

group therapy treatment of psychological problems in which two or more participants interact with each other on both an emotional and a cognitive level in the presence of one or more psychotherapists who serve as catalysts, facilitators, or interpreters. The approaches vary, but in general they aim to provide an environment in which problems and concerns can be shared in an atmosphere of mutual respect and understanding. Group therapy seeks to enhance self-respect, deepen self-understanding, and improve interpersonal relationships. Also called group psychotherapy. Compare individual therapy.

group-analytic psychotherapy

group-analytic psychotherapy a type of group psychotherapy that focuses on the communication and interaction processes taking place in the group as a whole. Interventions make use of group rather than individual forces as the principal therapeutic agent. Also called therapeutic group analysis. [originated in the 1940s by German-born psychoanalyst Sigmund Heinrich Foulkes (1898–1976)]

group-centered leader

group-centered leader see democratic leader.

group-comparison design

group-comparison design a type of research approach that investigates potential differences across sets of individuals who are often randomly assigned to a control condition or to one or more specific experimental conditions. Data from a group-comparison design are often analyzed with statistical methods such as a t test or analysis of variance. Also called group-difference design.

group-randomized trial

group-randomized trial a research design in which groups of individuals are randomly assigned to treatment conditions or control conditions. In educational or organizational settings, for example, a group-randomized trial could be used to study classrooms or departments, evaluating the data by means of hierarchical linear modeling and similar analyses that take the larger group membership (e.g., classroom, department) into account. It is similar to a randomized clinical trial but distinct in assigning intact clusters of participants, rather than individual participants, to the specific conditions. Also called cluster-randomized trial.

group-serving bias

group-serving bias any one of a number of cognitive tendencies that contribute to an overvaluing of one’s group, particularly the tendency to credit the group for its successes but to blame external factors for its failures. Also called sociocentric bias. Compare self-serving bias. See also ultimate attribution error; ingroup bias.

grouped data

grouped data information that is grouped into one or more sets in order to analyze, describe, or compare outcomes at a combined level rather than at an individual level. For example, data from a frequency distribution may be arranged into class intervals. See also group-comparison design.

grouped frequency distribution

grouped frequency distribution a description of how often a set of specific responses, organized into equal-sized subsets of possible responses, occur in a sample. It is a type of frequency distribution that is particularly useful when there are a large number of response choices (e.g., 10–20 or more) and researchers wish to present the information more concisely. For example, suppose that a researcher wants to summarize the individuals in a sample in which age ranges from 16 to 85 years. Instead of listing all 69 different ages, the researcher could combine the data into 5-year intervals, which would produce 14 subsets of ages (e.g., 16–20, 21–25, 26–30, … 81–85), thus reducing a large number of scores into smaller, more manageable groups.

grouping

grouping n. 1. in education, the process of assigning pupils to grades, classes, or subgroups. 2. in statistics, the process of arranging scores in categories, intervals, classes, or ranks.

groupthink

groupthink n. a strong concurrence-seeking tendency that interferes with effective group decision making. Symptoms include apparent unanimity, illusions of invulnerability and moral correctness, biased perceptions of the outgroup, interpersonal pressure, self-censorship, and defective decision-making strategies. Causes are thought to include group cohesion and isolation, poor leadership, and the stress involved in making decisions. [identified by Irving L. Janis]

groupware

groupware n. computer software associated with collaborative work (i.e., among several people on the same project) and group decision support systems.

GROW

GROW n. a mutual-help organization originated in Australia in 1957 to provide help for individuals with depression, anxiety, and other mental health problems. Using a twelve-step program, it offers a “caring and sharing” community to help members attain emotional maturity, personal responsibility, and recovery from mental illness.

growth

growth n. 1. the series of physical changes that occur from conception through maturity. 2. the development of any entity toward its mature state.

growth cone

growth cone the growing tip of an axon or a dendrite.

growth curve

growth curve 1. a graphic representation of the growth rate of an organism. 2. a graphic representation of the progressive increase in learning of an individual or group. See learning curve.

growth function

growth function the relationship between a dependent variable and several levels of an independent variable defined in units of time (e.g., days, weeks, months, years).

growth group

growth group a group that focuses on the development of its individual members. See also encounter group; T-group.

growth hormone (GH)

Sorry, "growth-hormone-gh" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

growth motivation

growth motivation see metamotivation.

growth needs

growth needs see existence, relatedness, and growth theory.

growth principle

growth principle the concept that in an atmosphere free of coercion and distortion an individual’s creative and integrative forces will lead to fuller adaptation, insight, self-esteem, and realization of potential. [formulated by Carl Rogers]

growth spurt

growth spurt any period of accelerated physical development, especially the pubescent growth spurt.

GSP nerve

GSP nerve abbreviation for greater superficial petrosal nerve.

GSR

GSR abbreviation for galvanic skin response.

guanfacine

guanfacine n. a drug used for the treatment of hypertension. It acts as an agonist at alpha-adrenergic receptors, directly stimulating α2-adrenoreceptors to restrict the flow of impulses in peripheral sympathetic nerves supplying the arteries, thus causing them to relax (widen); most of the other commonly prescribed antihypertensive drugs act as beta blockers or as diuretics. Guanfacine is also a sedating agent used in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; it may, however, cause excess sedation and hypotension (low blood pressure). The drug has also been investigated for the management of posttraumatic stress disorder, Tourette’s disorder, and Alzheimer’s disease. U.S. trade names: Intuniv; Tenex.

guanine

guanine (symbol: G) n. a purine compound in the nucleotides of living organisms. It is one of the four bases in DNA and RNA constituting the genetic code, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil.

guarana

guarana n. a shrub (Paullinia cupana) indigenous to the Brazilian Amazon, the seeds of which were originally thought to contain guaranine, a methylxanthine compound that is essentially indistinguishable from caffeine. It is now known that guarana in fact contains a significant amount of caffeine, which is its primary active ingredient, as well as lesser amounts of the methylxanthines theophylline (the active ingredient in tea) and theobromine. Used as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, guarana is available in many over-the-counter preparations in the United States and other Western nations. At recommended doses, it appears to have the same mild adverse effects known to be associated with other sympathomimetic stimulants (e.g., restlessness, increased urination, gastrointestinal distress) but may interact with medications, particularly monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Additionally, additive effects and potential toxicity may occur when guarana is combined with other caffeine-containing products, and there is growing concern that use of guarana-containing products may cause such serious adverse events as chest pain, irregular heartbeat, seizures, coma, and possibly death.

guardian ad litem

guardian ad litem an individual appointed by the court to represent in a lawsuit someone who is incapacitated either by age or by mental or physical disability. The individual’s status as guardian ad litem is temporary and is dissolved upon resolution of that lawsuit.

guardianship

guardianship n. a legal arrangement that places the care of a person and his or her property in the hands of another. When people are minors or are deemed incompetent by the court and therefore unable to make decisions about their own care or to manage their own affairs, a guardian is appointed by the court to manage their property, make personal decisions on their behalf, and provide for their care and well-being. See also conservatorship; limited guardianship.

Guérin–Stern syndrome

Guérin–Stern syndrome see arthrogryposis multiplex congenita. [Jules René Guérin (1801–1886), French orthopedist, and Walter G. Stern, U.S. physician]

guess-who technique

guess-who technique a type of personality rating device used chiefly in schools. Students are given short word pictures depicting a variety of personality types and are directed to identify the classmates whose personalities seem to correspond most closely to those descriptions.

GUI

GUI abbreviation for graphical user interface.

guidance

guidance n. direction, advice, and counseling provided in cooperation with the recipient, often using personal data and interviews as important auxiliary tests.

guidance program

guidance program the cumulative resources of staff and techniques used by a school to assist students in resolving scholastic or social problems. A specialized approach will include professionally trained counselors, social workers, and test administrators who each have specified functions within the overall program. In some programs, the use of specialists may be minimized, with teachers and administrators filling guidance functions.

guidance specialist

guidance specialist an individual who has been trained in a counselor education program or whose credentials and experience are adequate to provide guidance.

guided affective imagery (GAI)

Sorry, "guided-affective-imagery-gai" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

guided imagery

guided imagery a mind–body technique involving the deliberate prompting of mental images to induce a relaxed, focused state with the goal of achieving such varied purposes as managing stress or pain, promoting healing, or enhancing performance. See also visualization.

guided participation

guided participation a process in which the influences of social partners and sociocultural practices combine in various ways to provide children and other learners with direction and support, while the learners themselves also shape their learning engagements. It occurs not only during explicit instruction but also during routine activities and communication in everyday life. See sociocultural perspective. [proposed in the early 1980s by U.S. developmental psychologist Barbara Rogoff (1950– )]

guided performance

guided performance the process in which a learner is assisted with information or guidance to minimize errors, as when a teacher guides the learner’s movements or steps in solving a problem.

guided-search theory

guided-search theory a two-stage model of visual processing in which initial parallel search mechanisms direct subsequent serial search mechanisms. In the first stage, basic stimuli features are processed simultaneously at all locations across the visual field; then, in the second, limited-capacity serial stage, processing is more complex and restricted to a particular item or location based on information obtained in the previous stage. For example, during a visual search for a red circle among green circles and red squares, the model suggests that a color processor scans for all red items while a shape processor simultaneously scans for all circles, and the combination of these two sources of information then narrows subsequent attentional focus to that item most likely to be the target; if that item proves not to be the target, attention proceeds to the next most promising item. Guided search departs from feature-integration theory and other models that consider second-stage serial resources to be deployed from item to item relatively randomly. [proposed in 1989 by British-born U.S. cognitive psychologist Jeremy M. Wolfe (1955– ), Kyle R. Cave, and Susan L. Franzel]

guiding fiction

guiding fiction a personal principle that serves as a guideline by which individuals can understand and evaluate their experiences and determine their lifestyle. In individuals considered to be in good or reasonable mental health, the guiding fiction is assumed to be realistic and adaptive. In those who are not, it is assumed to be unrealistic and nonadaptive. [term originally used by Alfred Adler]

Guilford dimensions of intelligence

Guilford dimensions of intelligence three dimensions of intelligence postulated by Joy Paul Guilford to underlie individual differences in scores on intelligence tests, namely, contents, operations, and products. Each mental ability represents a combination of these three facets. For example, performance on a verbal-analogies test would represent a combination of cognition (operation) of verbal (content) relations (product). The number of mental abilities initially proposed by Guilford was 120; this was later increased to 150. The validity of this theory was subsequently called into question by the work of U.S. psychologist John L. Horn (1928–2006), which suggested that the existence of the proposed factors is not supported by research results. See also structure of intellect model.

Guilford–Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS)

Sorry, "guilford-zimmerman-temperament-survey-gzts" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

Guillain–Barré syndrome

Guillain–Barré syndrome an acute, progressive, demyelinating type of peripheral neuropathy that starts with muscular weakness and loss of normal sensation in the extremities, spreading inward as the disease progresses. The condition often begins in the feet and ascends toward the head. These symptoms can increase in intensity until the muscles cannot be used at all and the individual is almost totally paralyzed, in which case the disorder is life threatening. Because the syndrome often develops after an infection, it may result from an immune reaction. [Georges Guillain (1876–1961) and Jean Barré (1880–1967), French neurologists]

guilt

guilt n. a self-conscious emotion characterized by a painful appraisal of having done (or thought) something that is wrong and often by a readiness to take action designed to undo or mitigate this wrong. It is distinct from shame, in which there is the additional strong fear of one’s deeds being publicly exposed to judgment or ridicule. —guilty adj.

guilt by association

guilt by association responsibility for a misdeed ascribed to an innocent person solely because he or she has some connection with the perpetrator (or perpetrators) of the wrong. The observer’s negative attitude toward the wrongdoer generalizes to the associated person.

guilt culture

guilt culture a trend or organizing principle in a society characterized by the use of guilt to promote socially acceptable behavior. Guilt cultures emphasize both self-control in the face of temptation and self-initiated responsibility for one’s actions if transgressions should occur. Compare shame culture.

guilty but mentally ill (GBMI)

Sorry, "guilty-but-mentally-ill-gbmi" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

guilty knowledge test

guilty knowledge test a form of lie detection in which knowledge about the details of a crime is tested. A polygraph examiner presents examinees with multiple-choice questions concerning the crime, to which only the guilty party should know the correct answers; it is assumed that innocent examinees will see all options as equally plausible. The polygraph examiner measures the examinees’ physiological arousal as each option is presented and identifies which option produces the highest physiological response. Over a series of questions, if an individual consistently shows the greatest response to the correct option, the examiner may identify that person as untruthful in his or her denial of knowledge of the details of the crime. See also control question test; relevant–irrelevant test.

Gulf War syndrome

Gulf War syndrome a collection of unexplained symptoms experienced by some veterans of the 1991 Gulf War. Symptoms may include headaches, fatigue, joint pain, skin rashes, and memory loss.

Günther’s disease

Günther’s disease a congenital form of porphyria in which excess porphyrin is formed in the bone marrow. Psychological and neurological changes often accompany pain, nausea, and other symptoms. [Hans Günther (1884–1929), German physician]

guru

guru n. 1. in Hinduism and Sikhism, a spiritual teacher or leader, specifically one charged with keeping alive the oral teachings. 2. in general usage, any teacher, counselor, or intellectual leader, particularly one regarded as having special knowledge. [Sanskrit, literally: “teacher”]

gustation

gustation n. the sense of taste. Taste is at the threshold between the external (chemical) and internal (biochemical) worlds; it serves an organism’s nutritional needs and protects it from poisons. —gustatory adj.

gustatory agnosia

gustatory agnosia the inability to identify or categorize gustatory (taste) stimuli, despite the capacity to experience them.

gustatory encoding

gustatory encoding see visual encoding.

gustatory hallucination

gustatory hallucination a false and enduring taste sensation, usually of bitterness or sourness. It is often attributable to tonic stimulation of taste cells or of the peripheral taste nerves.

gustatory nerve

gustatory nerve see lingual nerve.

gustatory neuron types

gustatory neuron types categories into which taste neurons of the peripheral and central nervous system can be grouped according to their sensitivities to primary taste qualities. About 40% of the taste neurons in primates are most responsive to sweet stimuli, 35% to those that are salty, 20% to bitter chemicals, and 5% to acids. Therefore, some 75% of neurons are devoted to detecting nutrients and 25% to avoiding toxins.

gustatory qualities

gustatory qualities the range of taste sensations to which humans are sensitive. These are often categorized into basic, or primary, tastes—thought to be sweet, salty, umami, sour, and bitter—although the full range of taste perceptions may exceed these categories.

gustatory stimulus

gustatory stimulus a chemical capable of activating taste cells. Gustatory stimuli include sugars (sweet), salts of sodium (salty) and heavier elements (bitter or rarely sweet), acids (sour), alkaloids (bitter), and monosodium glutamate (umami), among others. Also called sapid stimulus; taste stimulus.

gustatory system

gustatory system the primary structures and processes involved in an organism’s detection of and responses to gustatory stimuli. The gustatory system includes lingual papillae, taste buds and taste cells, taste transduction, neural impulses and pathways (see greater superficial petrosal nerve), and associated brain areas and their functions (see taste cortex; solitary nucleus; thalamic taste area). The responses of this system can be modified to an extent by an organism’s physiology, its immediate needs, and its experiences. Also called taste system.

gustatory transduction

gustatory transduction see taste transduction.

gustometer

gustometer n. an instrument used to deliver a predetermined volume and concentration of a taste (gustatory) stimulus to the tongue over a specified period of time.

gut hormone

gut hormone any hormone that is released by the stomach or intestines, sometimes in response to food.

Guttman scale

Guttman scale a type of attitude measure that consists of multiple verbal statements ordered to reflect increasing levels of positive evaluation. Endorsement of a particular statement implies endorsement of all statements less extreme than that statement. For example, Item 1 could state “I believe that education is valuable,” Item 2 could state “I believe that people who are educated are more productive,” and Item 3 could state “I believe that I would be more productive if I had more education.” A person who agreed with the third statement thus would also agree with the first and second statements. Although generally used to measure attitudes, Guttman scales can also be used to assess other properties of a target of judgment. Also called cumulative scale; scalogram. [first described in 1944 by Louis Guttman (1916–1987), U.S. experimental psychologist]

gutturophonia

gutturophonia n. a form of dysphonia characterized by a throaty or low-pitched voice.

gymnemic acid

gymnemic acid an extract of the Indian plant Gymnema sylvestris, noted for its capacity to block sweet taste. It is one of a family of triterpene saponins (plant glucosides producing a soapy lather) that also includes ziziphin, gurmarin, and hodulcin.

gynandromorph

gynandromorph n. an organism, especially an insect, with both male and female physical characteristics. —gynandromorphism n.

gynecology

gynecology n. the branch of medicine concerned with diseases and disorders of the reproductive organs of women. —gynecological adj. —gynecologist n.

gynecomastia

gynecomastia n. abnormal development of breast tissue in males. In young men, the condition usually occurs on both sides, whereas in men over age 50, gynecomastia tends to be unilateral. It may occur as a result of a hormonal imbalance related to a tumor or as a side effect of therapy with antiandrogens or with dopamine-receptor antagonists, which include many antipsychotic drugs. Dopamine inhibits the release from the anterior pituitary of the hormone prolactin; therefore, inhibition of dopaminergic activity may result in excess secretion of prolactin, leading to engorgement of breast tissue and possibly expression of breast milk (see galactorrhea). Gynecomastia may also be observed (though rarely) with administration of SSRIs.

gynemimesis

gynemimesis n. a boy or man displaying or taking on the bodily appearance, dress, or behavior typical of a female, including passing as a woman. Also called gynecomimesis.

gynemimetophilia

gynemimetophilia n. sexual interest in and arousal by men who are cross-dressing and playing the role of women.

gynetresia

gynetresia n. the condition of having imperforate female genitalia (i.e., the vagina lacks an opening).

gyno- (gyn-)

Sorry, "gyno-gyn" is not in the Dictionary of Psychology. Please report to APA if you believe this is an error.

gyrus

gyrus n. (pl. gyri) a ridged or raised portion of the cerebral cortex, bounded on either side by a sulcus.

gyrus cinguli

gyrus cinguli see cingulate cortex.

gyrus fasciolaris

gyrus fasciolaris see fasciolus gyrus.

GZTS

GZTS abbreviation for Guilford–Zimmerman Temperament Survey.

Psychology Terms Starting With 'G'