1. the theory that an individual’s behavior is influenced by the particular people with whom he or she associates, usually over a prolonged period. This concept was proposed to explain why people living in a neighborhood with a high crime rate were more likely to commit crimes themselves. Moreover, it was suggested that association with a particular type of criminal determined what kind of criminal one became. [proposed by U.S. criminologist Edwin H. Sutherland (1883–1950)]

2. the different effects that individual factors—such as medicines, genes, catalysts, traits, and the like—may contribute to a phenomenon, structure, or outcome.