social comparison theory
the proposition that people evaluate their abilities and attitudes in relation to those of others in a process that plays a significant role in self-image and subjective well-being. Three types of social comparison are proposed in the theory: (a) upward social comparison, or comparing oneself with someone judged to be better than oneself (e.g., by having more wealth or material goods, higher social standing, greater physical attractiveness); (b) downward social comparison, or comparing oneself with someone judged to be not as good as oneself; and (c) lateral social comparison, or comparing oneself with another who is considered to be more or less equal. Traditionally, social comparison theory has held that upward comparisons promote a sense of inferiority and thus are associated with negative changes in self-concept (the contrast effect), but recent research suggests that, depending on the circumstances, upward comparisons instead may
promote inspiration and be associated with positive changes in self-concept (the assimilation effect). For example, people tend to rate their abilities higher when they maintain a close relationship with a target of upward comparison but lower when the target is distant or disliked. The way people compare themselves with others (their comparison group or reference group) was originally described by Leon Festinger in 1954.